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    HIGHER ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS eee © © RAMANA 7 INA Tata McGraw-Hill Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. Sixth reprint 2008 RBZLCDRXXDDYDL_ Copyright © 2007, by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior writen permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN-13; 978-0-07-063419-0 ISBN-10: 6-07-063419-X Head—Higher Education: S. Raghothaman Executive Publisher: Vibha Mahajan Editorial Executive: Shukti Mukherjee Editorial Services Manager: Mini Narayanan Deputy General Manager—Marketing: Michael J. Cruz Asst. Product Manager: Biju Ganesan ‘Asst General Manager—Production: B.L. Dogra Manager-Production: P.L. Pandita Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. ‘This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at Script Makers,19, Al-B, DDA Market, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi 110 063, and printed at Ram Book Binding, C-114, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase 1, New Delhi 110020 Cover Printer: SDR Printers Contents Oa Acknowledgements xvii PARTI PRELIMINARIES 5 ot a 1, Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and ‘Complex Numbers LL LI Vector Algebra 1.7 12 Theory of Equations 1.13 3 Cordana’s Method Lf 14__Ferrari’s Method 1.17 15 ComplexNumbers 1.19 1.6 Roots of Complex Numbers 1.22 33 Variable Treated as Constant 3.9 34 Total Derivative 3.11 35__ Partial Differentiation of Composite Functions: Change of Variables 3.13 36 _ Differentiation of an Implicit Binction = 2.16 47 Filer’: Theomm 218 38 Jacobian 2.22 39 Functional Dependence 3.27 310__Errorsand Approximations 3.29 411 Differentiation Under Integral Sign: sibnitz’sRule 3.3 imnand Mini 1 41__ Taylor's Theorem for Fi Variables 41 PART—I1 2 Maxima and Minima of Functions of T aN rye a4 43. Lagrange’s Method of Undetermined 2 in" Derivative Multipliers 4.70 Elementary Functions 2.7 5._ Curve Tracing Eat 22. Leibnitz’s Theorem (Rule or ‘SA_ Curve Tracing: Curves in Cartesian mula) 2.7 Eom +. 23 Angle Between the Radius Vector and $2 Curve Tracing: Standard Curves in the Tangent 2.70 ‘Cartesian Form 5.8 ¢ 24 Rolle's Theorem 214 z Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem Curve Tracing: PolarCurves 5.15 Curve Tracing: Standard Polar Cauchy's 28 Taylor's Series and Maclaurin’s Series ves 5.20 $5 __ Curve Traving: Parametric Curves 5.24 ‘Expansions 2.26 29 eferminats Forms: 2.33 242 Evolute 2.6. 213 Envelopes 2.65 3. Partial Ditte ‘ Continuity 3.7 32__Partial Differentiation 25. 56 Curve Tracing: Standard Parametric Curves 5.26 6. Integral Calculus 61 62 AreaofaPlane Region: Quadrature 6,2 63 Length of Plane Curve: Rectification 6.20 64 Volume of Solid of Revolution 6.26 65 Area of the Surface of a Solid of Revolution 6.38 66 Improper integrals 6.45 7, Multiple Integrals 71 Double Integral 7.1 72. Application of Double Integral 7.4 73. Change of Order of Integration: Double Integral 7.12 74 General Change of Variables in Double Integral 7.14 75 Tripleintegrals 7.21 76 General Change of Variables in a Triple Integral 7.24 7:7__Dirichtet’s Imegral 7.31 PART—ID1 ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL \ATIONS 8. Ordinary Differential Equations: First Order and First Degree 81 8.1 _Introdnction to Mathematical Modeling _3./ a2. BnkcDetiione 42 83__ First Order First Degree Differential Equations 3.4 84__ Variables Sepuruble or Separable uation kt 85 __Hiomogeneous Equation-Reduction to Separable Form _ 8.6 86 __Non-homogeneous Equations Reducible teHomogencous Form 8.8 87 Exact Differential Equations 8/0 49. Reduction of Nos-exact Differentia ‘Equations: Using Integrating Factors _&12 89 _ Linear Differential Equation: First Order_8.19 810 BemoulliEquation 8.22 RIL Eirst Onder Ni Differenti Equations 8.25 8.12 Clairaut’s Equation 8.29 813 Lagrange's Equation 8.42 8.14 Formation of Ordinary Differential ‘Equations by Elimination of Arbitrary constants 8.3, 815 Geometrical Applications 8.36 816 Orthogonal. Trajectories of Curves 8.39 217 Law of Nanial Growth _& Contents vii 818 Law ofNawralDecay 845 819 Newton's Law of Cooling &46 820 Velocity of Escape from Earth 8.48 821 Simple Electric Circuits 8.5 9._Linear Differential Equations of Second Order and Higher Order 9.1 9.1 Linear Independence and Dependence 9.1 92 Linear Differential Equations of Second Onder with V: efficients 9.7 Second Order Ditferential Equations with arsdpeobani 9. 94 Higher Ord Ditferential Equations 9.5 95___Non-homogeneous Equations 9.9 96 _ Differential Equations with Variable Coefficients: Reducible to Equations vith Constant Coefficie 25 912__Method of Variation ofParameiar: 0.28 98 The Method of Undetermine: cefficients 9.32 System of Simultaneous Linear D.E. . fil 38 910 Method of Reduction of Order 9.41 941_Higher Order Linear Equations with Variable Coofficients 2.43 912. Simple Harmonic Motion _ 9.48 9.13 Mass-spring Mechanical System 9.50 914 RLCCireuit 9.59 915 Simple Pendulum 9.63 04s th 10. Series Solutions 10.1 10.1 Classification of Singularities 10.1 102 PowerSeries Solution 10.2 103. Frobenius Method 10.7 104 Onhogonality of Functions 10.17 105 Sturm-Liouville Problems 10.21 106 Gram-Schmidt Onhogonalization Process 10.28 Legendre ‘WL Gamma Function 72.7 12 Beta Function 14.2 1L3_Bessel’s Functions a 1L4 Differential Equations Reducibleto Bessel’s Equation 11.19 iii_Co 115. Legendre Functions 11.21 13.10 Crout Reduction for ‘Tridiagonal Linear 116 Fourier-Legendre and Fourier Bessel Systems 13.25 Series 11.30 ee " 14. Ei Yah d Ei clors A41 1L7_Chebyshey Polynomials _11.35 ttn oe a 12, Laplace Transform 12.) 121 Laplace Transform 72.1 122 Applications, Advantages and Sufficient Conditions for Existence of Laplace Transfoom 123 123 General Properties of Laplace ‘Transform 12.3 124. Laplace Transform of Periodic Function 12.18 125 Inverse Laplace Transform 12.20 126 General Properties of Inverse Laplace Transform 12.21 127 Use of Partial Fractions to Find Inverse LT. 12.30 128 Convolution 12.33 129 Application of Laplace Transformto Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 12.35 1210 Application of Laplace Transform to System of Simultaneous Differential Equations 12.38 1211 Table of General Properties of Laplace Transform 12.4] 1212 Table of Some Laplace Transforms 12.41 146 147 148 149 15.7 16.1 33 NomalFom {3.8 134 _ System of Linear Non-homogencous ¥ Equations 73.10 135 System of Homogeneous 163 Equations /3./5 13.6 Gaussian Elimination Method 13.17 137 LU-decompositions 13.20 + 138 LU-decomposition from Gaussian Elimination 20 139 Solution to Tridiagonal Systems 13.25 Vector Integration: Integration of a Ve Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors 14.1 Hamilton Theorem 14.9 145 Diagonalization Powers of a Matcix_14.13 Real Matrices: Symmetric, Skew- symmetric, Orthogonal Quadratic Form 14.18 Canonical Form: Or Sum of the Squares Form 14.21 Transformation (Reduction) of Quadratic FormtoCanonical Form 14.23 ‘Complex Matrices: Hermitian, Skew- Hermitian, Unitary Matrices 14.27 14.10 Sylvester's Lawof Inertia 14.32 15. Vector Diffk 3 Divergence and Curl of Sums 15.14 Operator 15.16 Curvilinear Coordinates: Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 15.20 16. Vector Integral Calculus 16.2 Function of « Scalar Argument _/6.1 Line Integrals: Work Done, Potent Surface Integrals: Surface Area and Flux 16.11 164 Volume integrals 16.16 Transformation Between Line Integral and Double Integral Area in Cartesian and Polar Coordinates 16 166 Stokes’Theorem 16,24 167_GaussDivergence Theorem 16.20 PART—V FOURIER ANALYSIS AND PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 12, Fourier Series 17.1 17.1_Buler's (Fourier-Buler) Formulae 17.2 172_ Fourier Series for Even and Odd Functions 17.7 173 Fourier Series for Functions Having Period 2.17.10 174 Half Range Expansions: Fourier Cosine and Sine Series 17.14 175 Practical Harmonic Analysis _17.20 181 Partial Differential Equations 18.1 182 Partial Differential Equations of First Order 18.7 18. Partial Differential Equations 18.1 183 Linear Partial Differential Equations of First Order 87 184 of First Order J8.1 185 Charpit's Method 18.16 186 Equations with Constant Coefficients 18.18 Non-homogeneous Linear Partial Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 18.22 Cauchy Type Differential Equation 18.29 187 188 189 of Second Order: Monge’s: Method 18.31 18.10 Solution of Second Order PD.E.; Miscellaneous 18.36 19. Applications of Partial Differential Equations 19.1 Method of Separation of Variables 19.1 3 Ciasaif cation of Eucla Ditterendia Equations of Second Order _19.2 193 Derivation of One-dimensional Heat Equation 19.3 Non-linear Partial Differential Equations Homogeneous Linear Partial Differential Non-linear Partial Differential Equations 19.1 194 195 196 197 198 Contents ix Solution of One-dimensional Heat Equation 19.3 Derivation of One-dimensional Wave Equation 19.12 Solution of One-dimensional Wave Equation by Separation of Variables 19.13 Laplace’ Equation or Potential Equation or Two-dimensional Steady-state Heat Flow 19.17 Laplace Equation in Polar Coordinates 19.25 199 Derivation and Solution of Two- dimensional Heat Equation 19.30 19.10 Derivation and Solution of Two- dimensional Wave Equation 19.37 19.11 Vibrations of Circular Membrane 19.42 19.12 Transmission Line Equations 19.45 20. Fourier Integral, Fourier Transforms and Integral Transforms 20.1 20.2 20.1 Fourier Integral Theorem 20.1 Fourier Transform 20.3 203 Convolution 20.4 Transforms 20.12 20.5 _Purseval’s Identity for Fourier ‘Transforms 20.17 21. Linear Difference Equations and Z-Transforms 2u1 212 213 21 Linear Difference Equations 2/./ Z-transforms 21.42 Standard Z-transforms 21.20 22. Complex Function Theory 22.1 22.1 ComplexFunction 22.1 222 23 224 2s 226 22.7 Continuity 22.2 Differentiability 22.2 Analyticity 22.3 Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) Equations: In Cartesian Coordinates 22.3 Harmonic and Conjugate Harmonic Functions 22.4 Cauchy-Riemann Equations: In Polar x Contents 28 Elementary Functions 22.14 23._Complex Integration 23.1 23.1 Line Integral in Complex Plane 23.7 232 Cauchy's Integral Theorem 23.6 233 Cauchy's Integral Formula 23.12 234 Derivative of Analytic Functions 23.14 2BS Complex Sequence, Series and Power Seties 23.16 Taylor's Series (Theorem) 23.17 Laurent Series 23.21 Zeros and Poles 23,27 26 741 Residue 2 242 Residue Theorem 24.2 243 Evaluation of Real Integrals 24.7 Argument Principle 24.17 Rouche’s Theorem 24.19 24.6 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 24.2] 247 Liouville Theorem 24.21 2S,_Conformal Mapping 25.1 Mapping (or Transformation or Operator) 25.1 252 Conformal Mapping 25. 253 Conformal Mapping by Elementary Functions 25.2 254 Transformation: w=2" 25.5 255 Mzpping 25.6 256 Transformation w=e* 25.9 25.7 Transformation w= sin z 25.11 258 Joukvowski's (Zhukovsky’s) ‘Transformation 25.15 280 Rilinear Transformation 25.15 25.10 Schwarz-Christoffel Transformation 25.20 25.1 —V1) 26. Probability 26.1 Review ofSetTheory 26.1 262. Review ofCounting 26.4 263. Introduction to Probability 26.6 264. Theorem of Total Probability (or the Rule of Elimination) 26.18 Bayes’ Theorem (or Bayes’ Rule) 26.1 265 26.20 27, Probability Distributions 271 Probability Distributions 27.1 272 Chebyshev’s Theorem 27.3 273 Discrete Uniform Distribution 27.9 274 Binomial Distribution 27.17 275 Hypergeometric Distribution 27.15 276 Poisson Distribution 27.19 217 Poisson Process 27.24 278 Continuous Uniform Distribution 27.26 219 Normal Distribution 27.28 27.10 Normal Approximation to Binomial Distribution 27.39 271 Error Function 27.41 27.12 The Exponential Distribution 27.44 2213 The Gamma Distribution 27.48 2714 The Weibull Distribution 27.50 28. Sampling Distribution 281 Population andSample 28.1 282 Sampling Distribution 282 283 Sampling Distribution of Means: (oKnown) 28.3 Sampling Distribution of Proportions 28.9 Sampling Distribution of Differences and Sums 28.9 Sampling Distribution of Mean (6 Unknown): t-distribution 28.12 Chi-squared Distribution 28.15 Sampling Distribution of Variance s* 28.16 F-Distribution 2816 29. Estimation and Test of Hypothesis 29.1 29.1 Point Estimation 29.1 292. Interval Estimation 29.3 293 Bayesian Estimation 29.5 294. Test of Hypothesis 29.7 295. Test of Hypothesis Conceming Single Population Mean p: (With Known Variance 6”: Large Sample) 29.9 Test of Hypothesis Conceming Two Means 29.13 Test for One Mean (Small Sample: T-distribution) 29.16 Small-sample Test Concerning Difference between Two Means Paired-sample t-test 29.21 27.1 28.1 284 5 286 287 288 289 296 297 298 29.18 299 29.10 Test of Hypothesis: One Proportion: ‘Small Samples 29.23 23.11 Test of Hypothesis: One Proportion: Large Sample 29.24 29.12 Test of Hypothesis: Proportions 29.26 29.13 Test of Hypothesis for Several Proportions 29.29 29.14 Analysis of rx c Tables (Contingency Tables) 29.31 29.15 Goodness of Fit Test 29.34 28.16 Estimation of Proportions 29.37 30._Curve Fitting, Regression and Correlation ‘Analysis 30.1 301_Curve Fitting 30.7 302_Regression Analysis 30.4 303 Inferences Based on the Least Squares Estimation 30.5 304 Curvilinear (or Nonlinear) Regression 30.8 305 Curve Fitting by a Sum of Exponentials 30,17 306 Linear Weighted Least Squares ‘Approximation 30.16 307_Non- sar Weighted Least Squares Approximation 30.19 308 Multiple Regression 30.22 309 Correlation Analysis 30.25 30.10 Rank Correlation or Spearman's Comelation 20.22 30.11 Correlation for Bivariate Frequency Distribution 30.34 31._Joint Probability Distribution and Markov Chains 31.1 Joint Probability Distribution 31.7 312_Markoy Chains 31.7 wo PART—VINI NUMERICAL ANALYSIS 32, Numerical Analysis 321 Roots of Transcendental Equations 32.7 322 _Finite Differences 32.7 323 Interpolation 32.12 324 33. Contents xi 324 Newton-Gregory Forward Interpolation Formula _ 32.12 326 Stirling and Bessel’s Interpolation Fonnulac 32.19 328 Inverse Interpolation Using Lagrange’s Interpolation Formula 32.23 329 DividedDifferences 32.26 32.10 Newton's Divided Differences Formula = 32.27 32.11 Errors in Polynomial Interpolation 32,29 32.12 Symbolic Relations and Separation of Symbols 32.32 32.13 Numerical Differentiation 32.36 32.14 Numerical Integration 32.39 3215 Spline Interpolation 32.47 32.16 Numerical Methods in Linear Algebra: Gauss-Seidel Method 32.53 32.17 Largest Eigen Value and the Corresponding Eigen Vector: By Power Method 32.55 Numerical Solutions of ODE and PDE 33.1 Numerical Solutions of First Order Ordinary Differential Equations 33.) Picard’s Method of Successive Approximation 33.7 Adams-Bashforth-Moulton Method (ABM Method) 33.9 ‘Numerical Solutions to Partial Differential Equations 33.11 Numerical Solution to One Dimensional Heat Equation 33.12 Numerical Solution to One Dimensional Wave Equation 33.15 ‘Numerical Solution to Two Dimensional Laplace Equation 33.17 33.1 332 333 334, 335 336 33.7 Appendix A: Statistical Tables A.1-A.28 Appendix B: Basic Results B.1-B.S Bibliography C.1-C.2 Index_L1-L18 Foreword Mm George Boole, an English mathematician, in 1854 has written a monumental work entitled “An inves- tigation of the Laws of Thought”, In 1938, Claude E, Shannon (MIT, USA), in his classical paper entitled" A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits" in the Truncations of AIEE, has devel- oped the algebra of switching functions and showed how its structure is related to the ideas established by Boole. This is a classical example of how an abstract mathematics in the 19th century became an applied mathematical discipline in the 20th century. Such is the power of mathematics , the queen of sciences. In my view the aim of Engineering Mathematics is to make the student think mathematically and develop “mathematical maturity”. The need for a good text book on “Engineering Mathematics” for students of engineering and technology in India can be easily understood. Although several books are available, almost none of them have the right combination , simplicity , rig our, pedagogy and syllabus compatibility , dealing with all aspects of the course. I am confident that this present book will be able fill this void. It gives me great pleasure to introduce “HIGHER ENEINGEERING MATHEAMTICS" by B.V.RAMANA the publication of which heralds the completion of book that eaters completely and effectively from a modern point view of the students of Engineering mathematics and physics and computer science. This book has been organized and executed with lot of care, dedication and passion for lucidity. ‘The author has been an outstanding teacher and has vast and varied experience in India and abroad in the ficld of mathematics. A conscious attempt has been made to simplify the concepts to facilitate better understanding of the subject. This book is self -contained, presentation is detailed, examples are simple, notations are modern and standard and finally the chapters are largely independent. The contents of the book are exhaustive containing Differential & integral calculus, Ordinary differential equations, Linear algebra, vector calculus, Fourier analysis, partial differential equations, complex function theory, probability & statis- tics, Numerical analysis and finally special topics Linear programming and calculus of variations. Dr. Ramana, a senior most professor of Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad deserves our praise and thanks for accomplishing this trying task, Tata Mcgraw-Hill, a prestigious publishing house, also deserves a pat for doing an excellent job. I wish Dr. Ramana all success in his future endeavors. Dr. K. RAJAGoraL Preface ee Mathematics is a necessary avenue to scientific knowledge which opens new vistas of mental activity. A sound knowledge of Engineering Mathematics is a ‘sine qua non’ for the modern engineer to attain new heights in all aspects of engineering practice. This book is a self-contained, comprehensive volume covering the entire gamut of the course of Engineering Mathematics for 4 years’ B.Tech program of LL.Ts, N.L-Ts, and all other universities in India. The contents of this book are divided into 8 parts as follows: Part I: Preliminaries: Ch. I: Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and Complex Numbers, Matrices and Determinants, Sequences and Series, Analytical Solid Geometry, Calculus of Variations, Linear Programming, on website. Part Il: Differential and Integral Calculus Ch, 2: Differential Calculus Ch. 3: Partial Differentiation Ch. 4: Maxima and Minima Ch. 5: Curve Tracing Ch. 6: Integral Calculus Ch.7: Multiple Integrals Part III: Ordinary Differential Equations Ch. 8: Ordinary Differential Equations: First Order and First Degree Ch. 9: Linear Differential Equations of Second Order and Higher Order Ch. 10: Series Solutions Ch. 11: Special Functions—Gamma, Beta, Bessel and Legendre Ch. 12: Laplace Transform Part IV: Linear Algebra and Vector Calculus Ch. 13: Matrices Ch. 14: Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors Ch. 15: Vector Differential Calculus: Gradient, Divergence and Curl Ch. 16: Vector Integral Calculus xiv Preface Part V: Fourier Analysis and Partial Differential Equations Ch. 17: Fourier Series Ch. 18: Partial Differential Equations Ch. 19: Applications of Partial Differential Equations Ch. 20: Fourier Integral, Fourier Transforms and Integral Transforms Ch. 21: Linear Difference Equations and Z-Transforms Part VI: Complex Analysis Ch. 22: Complex Function Theory Ch. 23: Complex Integration Ch. 24: Theory of Residues Ch. 25: Conformal Mapping. Part VII: Probability and Statistics Ch. 26: Probability Ch. 27: Probability Distributions Ch. 28: Sampling Distribution Ch. 29: Estimation and Tests of Hypothesis Ch. 30: Curve Fitting, Regression and Correlation Analysis Ch. 31: Joint Probability Distribution and Markov Chains Part VIII: Numerical Analysis Ch, 32: Numerical Analysis Ch. 33. Numerical Solutions of ODE and PDE ‘Web Supplement Besides the above, the following additional chapters are available at hutp:/fwww.mhhe.com/ramanahem Matrices and Determinants ‘Sequence and Series Analytical Solid Geometry Calculus of Variations ee es Linear Programming The site also contains chapter-wise summary of all the chapters in the book This book is written in a lucid, easy to understand language. Each topic has been thoroughly cov- ered in scope, content and also from the examination point of view. For each topic, several worked out examples, carefully selected to cover all aspects of the topic, are presented. This is followed by practice exercise with answers to all the problems and hints to the difficult ones. There are more than 1500 worked examples and 3500 exercise problems. This textbook is the outcome of my more than 30 years of teaching experience of engineering mathematics at Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay (1970-74), National Institute of Technology, Preface xv Warangal (1975-81), J.N. Technological University, Hyderabad (since 1981), Federal University of Technology, Nigeria (1983-85), Eritrea Institute of Technology, Eritrea (since 2005). am hopeful that this ‘new’ exhaustive book will be useful to both students as well as teachers. If you have any queries, please feel free to write to me at: ramanabv48 @rediffimail.com. In spite of our best efforts, some errors might have crept in to the book. Report of any such error and all suggestions for improving the future editions of the book are welcome and will be gratefully acknowledged. BV Ramana Acknowledgements ve ‘Thanks giving is a sacred Indian culture. Although I owe a lot to many, due to space constraint, I am explicitly expressing my thanks to only few. T express my thanks to . Professor K. Rajagopal, Vice-Chancellor, J.N. Technological University, Hyderabad . Professor B.C. Jinaga, Rector, JNTU Professor K. Lalkishore, Registrar, JNTU Professor K. Satya Prasad, Principal, JNTU College of Engineering, Kakinada . Professor M.P. Ranga Rao, IIT Bombay Professor Gebrebrhan Ogbazgh, Vice-president (academic), Eritrea Institute of Technology DrC. Siva Ram, Ph.D. AT&T, USA . Professor S. Satya Sri, Rangaraya Medical College, Kakinada . Ms. Vibha Mahajan, Ms. Shukti Mukherjee, Ms. Mini Narayanan, and Mr. Sohan Gaur of Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. My wife Smt B, Mahalakshmi deserves special thanks for her continued patience, care, support and encouragement all through this project. Finally my sincere thanks to my senior brother Sri Bandaru Ramachandra Rao of Mandapeta for his moral support. Per Avayn= BV Ramana Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd would like to join the author in acknowledging the useful comments and suggestions of the following reviewers during the preparation of the book: 1. Prof. K.P. Patil, Head, Department of Mathematics, Veermata Jijabai Technology Institute (VJTI), Mumbai. 2. Dr. Mcena Sankaranarayanan, Senior Research Fellow, Institute for Infocomm Research, Singapore. 3. Dr. V.K. Singh, Professor, Department of Mathematics, Indraprastha Engineering College, Ghaziabad. 4. Prof. A. Vincent Antony Kumar, Department of Mathematics, PSNA College of Engineering and Technology, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu 5. Dr. PS. Wain, Head, Department of Applied Sciences, Sinhgad Institute of Technology, Lonavala, Pune. xvili_ Acknowledgements 6. Dr. M.N. Mehta, Department of Mathematics, SVNIT, Surat. 7. Dr. RC. Agarwal, Head, Department of Mathematics, ISS Academy of Technical Education, Noida, UP. 8 Dr. S.P, Mchamty, Professor and Head, Department of Mathematics, College of Engineering and ‘Technology, Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Bhubaneshwar. 9. Dr. D.V. Singh, Professor & Chairman, Department of Mathematics, NIT, Kurukshetra. 10, Prof. G. Prema, Department of Mathematics, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore. 11. Dr. B.B. Mishra, Associate Professor and Head, Department of Mathematics, KIIT (DU), Bhubaneshwar. HIGHER ENGINEERING | MATHEMATICS PART! PRELIMINARIES > oe 1 Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and Complex Numbers Chapter 1 Preliminaries Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and Complex Numbers WRG INTRODUCTION The preliminary Chapter 1 contains an elementary treatment of Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and Complex Numbers. Vector Algebra and Ana- lytical Solid Geometry are prerequisites for Vector Differential Calculus of Chapter 15 and 16. The the- ory of equations deals with the analytical solutions of cubic and quartic equations while several numerical methods for solutions of algebraic and transcenden- tal equations are considered in the Chapter 32 on Numerical Analysis. Complex numbers is the intro- ductory part for the complex function theory dealt in Chapters 22, 23, 24 and 25. 1.1 VECTOR ALGEBRA ‘Vectors are very useful in engineering mathematics since many rules of vector calculation are as simple as that of real numbers and is a shorthand simplifying several calculations. Vector analysis was introduced by Gibbs.” Scalars are physical quantities which possess only magnitude and are completely defined by a single real number. Examples: Mass, temperature, volume, kinetic en- ergy, 8 length, voltage, time, work, electric charge. Vectors are physical quantities which possess both ‘magnitude and direction. Thus geometrically vectors are directed line segment (or an arrow) which are determined completely by their magnitude (length) and direction. Examples: Force, velocity, acceleration, momen- tum, displacement, weight. ‘Vectors are denoted by lower case bold face type letters a or by an arrow overhead the letter as @ or. “Tosiah Willard Gibbs (1830-1003), American mathematician ww oe A Fig. 11 A vector a depicted as an arrow (directed line seg- ment) has a tail A known as the initial point (or ori- gin) and a tip B known as the terminal point (or terminus). The magnitude (or absolute value) of a vector 7 (length of the directed line segment) is denoted by Ja] or a (non bold face). It is also known as norm (or Euclidean norm) of a. Unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude (i.e., of Jength 1). If @is any vector of non zero magnitude (a #0), then # is a unit vector in the direction of @ie., a unit vector is obtained by dividing it by its magnitude. Zero (or null) vector is a vector of zero magnitude and has no specified direction. Equality: Two vectors @ and b are said to be equal, denoted as a = b, if both @ and & have the same magnitude and same direction without regard to theit initial points (also known as free* vectors). Thus a vector can be moved parallel to itself without any change. Negative of a vector @, denoted by ~ having the same magnitude as Z but having opposite direction. Note: Length of —@is not negative. FAIA Y hes \ Baka aed o (b) () (@) Fig. 1.2 Scalar multiplication a is a vector of magnitude lala and having the same direction of @, if « > 0 and of opposite direction if a < 0. “In contrast, bound vectors are fixed vectors and are restricted to their inital points (such as application of force at a point) Here |ar| is the absolute value of the scalar a Unequal: @, B, are said to be unequal, written as @# b when magnitudes of @ and b are different or direction of @ and b or both magnitudes and direction of @ and B are different. In vector algebra, addition, subtraction and multi- plication of vectors are introduced. Addition To obtain the sum or resultant of two vectors @ and, move b so that initial point of b coincides with the ter- minal point of @. Then the sum of @ and b, written as @ +B, is defined by the vector (arrow) from theinitial point of @ to the terminal point b. Similarly placing the tail of 7 with the tip of B, the resultant b + 7 is obtained. Thus the vector addition follows the par- allelogram law of adcition, ic., the resultant of a parallelogram with] and & as adjacent sides is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram. Vector addi- tionis commutatived + 6 = b+ Gandis associative Difference a-b=a+(-b) Rectangular unit vectors: Fig. 14 Consider a right handed rectangular coordinate sys- tem Leti, j,k be unit vectors along the positive X, ¥ and Z axes, Let p(x, y,z) be any point and 0(0, 0,0) be the origin. Fig. 15 Positive vector F of a point P(x, y, z) is OP with origin O as the initial point and P as the terminal point. Now 7 can bination of the unit vee: tors 7, j, K. Here OA = xi, AB = yj and BP = zk since x, y, z are the lengths of 0.4, AB and BP re- spectively andi, j,k are unit vectors in the positive X,Y, Z axes, By vector addition Fig. 1.6 Generalizing this, if P(x1,y1.21) and Q(x2, 2.22) be any two points, then the vec- tor P Q can be represented as PO = - xi +(2- (2 -zvk| Here x2 — 11, 2 — y1,22 — 21 are known as compo- nents of PQ in the X,Y, Z directions. Now IPOI= Vee nF +02 - PF —aP which is the distance between the points P and Q (and thus the length or modulus of the vector PQ). With this the earlier definitions can be expressed in terms of the components. Suppose @ = ayi + a2 + ask and b= byi + bz] + b3k. Then B if a; = b for i = 1,2,3 ice., their corre- sponding (respective) components are equal 2@ =0 Oifa =a = 3. TAB = (ay + by)i + (az £b2)j + Gb dDK i.e., addition (subtraction) by adding (subtracting) the corresponding components. 4. at = aa + aay] + cask ice., scalar multipli- cation amounts to multiplication of each compo- nent. Multiplication (a) Inner product or scalar product or dot product of two vectors @ and &, is denoted by @- b, read as dot 5, is defined as [alibi cose a where @ is the angle between @ and 5 and lies in the interval 0 < @ < x. Note that dot product is a scalar ‘quantity. It is positive, zero or negative depending on whether @ is acute angle, right angle or obtuse angle. Thus for non-zero vectors. a implies that @ = § ie.,@ and B are perpendicular or orthogonal to each other. Now @-@ = [a|la|cos0 = lar or = Ve-G= fai tay tad For the unit vectors we have i-j=j-k=k-i=0| and ii=j-j=k-k=1} The dot product in the component form is @ (ai + aj + ask) (yi + baj + bak) 1b) + azba + asb3 ie., sum of the products of the corresponding com- ponents. Properties -b=5-a (Commutative) +G+0 = @-5)+ @- c) Distributive) - (ab + BO) =ad- b + Pa-T (Linearity) a20 0 iff =0 (Positive definiteness) Repe ara AI AI AL 4, Angle The angle 0 between two vectors Zand Dis defined as Note: Direction cosines of a vector @ are the cosine of the angles which@ makes with x, y,z axes and are given bya: Ee respectively. i far fai" 2. Projection Since |b| cos 4 is the projection of b on A,a- b = ((@l)({b| cos 8) is the product of |a] and {b| cos@, ie. product of length of @ and projection of on 7. Similarly - b can be interpreted as the product of length of b with the projection of a on b. ie. dot product is length of either multiplied by projection Of the other upon it. Thus the scalar projection of @ in the direction of b is acosé = and vector projection of @ in the direction of Bis z x acos0)? = (a ( 5 ( [| cose Fig. 1.7 3. Work done by a force The work done by acon- stant force F in moving an object through adistance = (magnitude of force in the direction of motion) (distance moved) a = (F cos Md) = (b) Vector product (or cross product) Vector product of two. vectors a and b, denoted by 7 x b, read as @ cross b, is defined as axb=|aliblsinow|, O

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