THE GREAT COURSES” Professor Frederick Gregory is Professor of Hisor of Science atthe University of Flori, Universi nthe history ssvards include Be Joho Mi Avard and the Wilesky Grad Guidebook Contents art 1 of Lecture: Science inthe 18° and 19° Centues Lecture 2: Consolidating Newton's Achievement Lecture 3: Theories ofthe arth Lectute & Grappling with Rock Formations Lecture 5: Alchemy under Pressure Lecture 6 Lavoisier and the New French Chemistry Lecture 7: The Clasiiation of Uving Things Lecture 8: How the Embryo Develops Lecture 9: Medical Healers and Their Roles tec 10: esmerm stench enh Revlon The History of Science: Iecure 12; Tema eee of Goan! and Vota 1700-1900 Taught by: Professor Frederick Gregory, University of Florida Part 1 “ie Teac 451 Layne Ceter Dv, Site 100 Chany VA 20151-1232, Phone: {H00-TEACH.12(-8008522412) sWTEACHI.com av TEACHING COMPANYFroderick Gregory, Ph.D. Profesor of History of Seine, University of Florida Fredrick Gregory is Profesor of Mistry of since athe University of Floyds, where e has ight for25 years He Rods an underradate deseo from Wheaton College Min, whee esti mathematics. Ate raduatng witha seminary degre from Gordon-Conll ThoolgialSemieary Jn Wenhar Mossachusty he entered the University of Wisconsin at Maison 10 begin his study of the history of science. On completing mise’ degree from th University of Wisconsin, he went ono Harvard University Yor ns PhD. in ison of since Proessor Grepory's esearch terest ave focused ‘on Germtn stence inthe 18" and 19" centres, parca facts the Tanger ultra seting in which embeded. Hs past publications have ranged ‘wiely over dtilines fom bah the physica and bilosclsienes and Ince major staies of Garman siete materalism and ofthe interaction of ‘tral sjene and eligion in the 19 century. Dr. Gregory i past chain ofthe Department of History a lia ad serve a5 president ofthe istry’ of Science Soity of North Amica in 1996 fn 197. He hs esived numerous grants for research in his i nla “Alexandr von Humic grant from the German goveramet a a ellowship from the Ditmar Insite forthe Mistry of Science at MIT Dr. Gregory is veteran etre on the istry of ence, bat inthis country an abrod, serving a designated lecturer forthe Visiting Lecture Progam of the History of Scene Society. He provided commentary forthe American pron of he elevsion series Pe Day ae Unters Changed a bas been 2 nner of both undergraduate and sraduate teaching awards at the Universi ‘of Fords, At presen, Professor Gregory sone of four scholars engaged ina ‘cept cllabortion between Geran an Amica investiga. onthe subject *Mystisiam and Modernity,” a efor sponsored bythe Volkwapen Foundation in Geman. He so engaged in Wing tvo-velume nergradute textbook othe history of sinceTable of Contents The History of Science: 1700-1900 Part | “Science in the Enlightenment” Profesor Biography: Course Scope: Lecture One ‘Sconce inthe 18 and 19 Contr Lecture Two Consliing Newton's Achievement Lecture Three “Theories ofthe Earth Lecture Four Ggpling with Rock Formations. Lecture Five Alchemy under Pressure Lecture six Lavoisior and the Nev Fresh Chest Lecture Seven ‘The Clasifeation of Living Things. Lecture Fight How the Embryo Develops, Lecture Nine Medical Healers nd Ther Roles Lecture Ten Mesmerism, Selene nthe French Revolution. Lecture Eleven Explinng ler LectureTwelse The Amazing Achievements of Galvani and Vol. ‘Timeline Ghossary Biographical Notes Bibliography ‘ £2005 The Teshing Comper Lined Pansenaip 2° “3 eo 7 Pt “s ‘The History of Science: 1700-1900 Scope: Inthe wake of he sucess ofthe “ew scence” ofthe 17 emu, may inthe subsequent ra wise to extend the pit of discovery into new aes Experimental and theoretical investigations io alos of new subjects helped to ‘Ste the pro tht hs comet be known asthe Enlightenment, othe Age of Remon By deliberately eting across selene disciplines, his course tempts to provide glipse int the pir of excitement and exploration that enabled many to gestion accepted option ona sume of different issues. nthe pacts, wesall sce tht concepts o Tonge reared tenable inthe 21° entry, sich a ides of weightless matter and pefomed embryos, rove tobe Extremely wef to elie natal philosophers ightonth-centurysienee, ‘ten, sparc nsctive concerning the cones way in whch tural science develops. It alo ilustates hat he investigation of matures never Pusuod ina vactumy, We shall nsouner examples of how seience is embeded In and aed by ts eltural context and eva ts pola context, espcilly a8 tte appreach te French Revolution a the en ofthe cetry. The conclusions of 1° cemury tural philosopher also contbued tothe growth of ane atiude shout the relevance of satura kno ledget religion. Cominung the 17"-centory {ssurption thatthe fvesigation of nate proved exon to the wisdom ofthe reator, some prsimed to rear dv Hing ay sugesions of the natural means God bad employed in sole as ult ofthe osmoe. We hall ce ‘ever exampls of how fel some natal philosopher presumed to provide explanations for maton previously arubuted ode divine ation, ‘The mechanical view of mature tht hd been developed inthe wake of Newton's Achievement proved oe highly successful inthe Enlightenment, but inthe" entry ne sienceof ving things came into existence and, witha Tomantic version of mtr siece, The question immediatly rose wheter there as something reduce abou lie whether ofpaism was pio to mechanism To complicate martes fr, iscoveries of fos ean forced humankind to acknowledge the existence ofa entre prehistoric work, demaning complet eorination othe pasando the place of humans inthe ‘natural word. These wore no small ssus: the implied that he commonly cepted view ofthe pss esd tobe tered. Some supasted that he preset reso from natural proces of develapmen ver ong ime, asserting inthe manne of thee ferrumers, Sat they had uncovered the natural means Go had “ployed to poe the presen versity fling things. These sss were forced ono the public inthe ears before Darwin so thatthe appearance of The (Origin of Species contin a discussion hat was wel underay. Theones about the hstory of onpnismsfcinated those nthe lt 19° century. as did claims shout the relevance ofthese hers for pressing social polite, and medal Isses. Always inthe background hovered the question of what the ne claims of tural scence meant foe peuple of ihPhysic siene also presented the 19® century wit its storchouse of marvels [Noone realized, in 1796, tha ores were a work undermining the prfst machinery of te heaven eelsbrted by Pere Simon Laplace that ear. forces vere interconvertle a they seemed to bea the begining of he entry. ‘gns that things were moe mysterious than Newton bad anticipated appeared, ‘withthe curious properties of eetomagnetsm anda new undestaning ofthe Tole of etn the 1420s, Prom ther, the world oF scence Became more and ror ining By 1854, Herman Hell forecasted a ew vision of te future of the Word based on irteversibepysical processes. The universe was ‘umning down an doomed oa trai en When popular writes on the (Contiat hatched ono the latest sience to support a materialistic view of| reality noth British physicists employed the new sence of energy 1 oppose them, A concomitant clash abou the meaning of physical science occured when ‘unexpece climsabou the possiblity of extraterrestrial i erpted before a public lend fascinate withthe latest observations of new and extremely powerful tlscope. I elctromagactism had induced cross eae inthe tury, contin to mystify in James Manvel’ eaters mi centiry [Not only vas lightsomchow involved, bt experiments conducted in the wake of ‘Massel’ work just id ao make Sense. Nevortelss, the amazing secomplishmens of physical scents ding the centr permite some no ‘nly tobe undbuned ba to prot! conden that thee scence Was ner Developments atthe end ofthe coauy showed, however, that natural science is tan ongoing enterprise uch bigger than the outlook of any pei er. ’ Lecture One Science in the 18" and 19" Centuries “Tis int cette considers the time period ofthe couse ssa whole and ‘he place natural cence octet Alle reting oursees tothe century, th er in which he course commence, we consider the special chalenge facing anyone who wishes to understand and lear ‘tom the natal since of the past. We are then introduced to key institution of raul cence n Dri, France and Germany and end titan neocon othe majo sent sbjcts and themes tat wll become inthe cour Outline ‘The rie guestion forthe erln Monthly of 1783 was*Whatis Enlghearent”" |A. The question itself reveals something important about the agi sel ssnareness ofits ats a8 an enlightened age compared 1 previous es fr The Enlightenment tks te begining of longer period of este hisry ell the modern era 2. Themadem eas distinguished by a commitment to discover tah and by confidence in reason sth means of finding th ‘One ofthe entries inthe prize competition was by Inmanvel Kant 1. Kant, who caruterzed nlghtenment she awakcaing 194 realization ht we hana ve creat elms separate fom busalves on which we then ve Become dependent, sid hat Cnlightnment farber involves having the courage to discern his ‘nd act on ity geting df this selFimposed depeneney. 2. Kant epee the power and the istatons of natural cence to vous Knowledge abou ate, C. The thinkers ofthe age ere impessed withthe human api for ‘A reliminary question i: Dos an examin ofthe science ofthe pst ote any special challenges tothe stra? 'A. We must be caf to waz that it woul be a mistake to assume that ‘he tral piloophy ofthe past necessrily resembles he matual ‘sions of ola, 1B, This ess as been brought home byte historian of scence Thoms Kula CC. thisesremely easy to impose present stars ont the pas, whore ‘hey donot belong and ot help us understand the pas.IM, To begin oe consideration of thes entre, ‘nsitusonssaping the atu seence ofthe | 1. ase the word sent, for example, weal know what we mean by the ter. 2, But ean wo accurately call man from the 17 entry for ‘vample, sue Newton, a sie, when he word wasnt even ine nti the hid daca of th 19" century’? We wll do urbe to avi sich mistakes, although iti ery arin fact impossible to refrain completely fom king ou on perspective With ua we ivestigate the pas te thereof ‘eu AL In Bria, the Royal Society established nthe 17 century was a sxoing nt nen, By mid-century, the mor focus in naar! philosophy wa in France 1. "The Academie des Sciences enjoyed government spor. 2. There's Garden, fount inthe 17 century, povided acces to ‘tal science forthe pubic ough stream exhibits, '3. Disruptions in the majo organizations of atu sieee caused by the French Revolution le oa reestblisent of thei central lace by 1795. Inthe Gena sats general cultural upsurge was acompanie by an ineeasng role for the natural sienees. Th Inthe second half ofthe century, Geman writers essed defering to France and began oexablish an indigenous Herr) radon. 2 With the ise of an “ideology of scholarship.” the faculty of plilosopty inthe German universities and the tral seiences ‘hemelves achieved new importance apd new tts 1V, What wll we examin io his course? We wil follow individual natural philosophers ofthe 188 and 19" ‘ezntures who were inspired by their predecessors to push the limits of ones ina diversity of rss, In Part, which s concerned withthe 18 esury, we will consider issues fom Boh the physical nd blogic sciences Tr Becatne ofthe variety of subject mater we wl examine, we will foo ths tos conclusion rater than lavishly observing ronologcal development 2, Ourproedur wll to do several passes over the cetuy a8 We Took ito indi themes. Parts an I are devoted othe lie sienoes ad the phyial senses ofthe 19 century respeetively a x. What themes wll the couse investigate? [Ax Inquires about the istry ofthe cosmos challenge the limited ie seal of previous times, B._ The roalm of ving thing issinatd natural pilsophers over theo 1 Siilaros among various species of ving things suggested that they could be arangcd on a scale of being 2 The development of te embryo from a formless mass tof Foxmed adl iso abasic question: What decries the direction ‘he devslopment wil ke? 3 nthe 19" con, atl pilosophers uncovered the proisric old of restr tht roamed the Earth in dant pas. ‘We wil ses the lngly sees attempt break aay om ‘ctl explanation of ebemieal phenomena 1 The 18” ceaury sw atemps wo distinguish ational chemistry fom alchemy. 2 Thevdevelopment of nw experimental technique an the scovery of oxygen ater inthe century made posable ane (qutiaive approach in chemistry, A. Pat ofthis soy, we wil see, involved national rivals. 44 Disuncing chemistry Fom alchemy, however. ested inthe recognition that the fate of chemical explanation fy in pestis, DD. Notall endeavors to explain natural phenorcns avoided appealing to supematrl or mysterious powers and ores 1. The world of meting included a wide aay of healer, rom ‘uright quacks to thse who claimed te hase thei cures on theoretical Knowledge ‘The appearance of Mesmer’sexlaation of animal magnetism exposed how a “rational” explanation of nature's frescul be sete by he interaction of soil, toe, and especially politcal fet. “The number an kind of physical forces proliferate, especialy round theta fo the 18 to the 19" centuries, 1. Investigation in tat lectcity produced a quantitative account, of electrical phenomena. 2 Thedscovey of animal clcctcty ed othe invention ofthe Instery and inked the ysl an biological selene, 3. Flctromagntsm quickly found psc application, paialy visible to onscentss, 44. Considerations ofthe tre of eat eto swosping ‘evealiations bout al frces th contained die consequences forthe fre ofthe cosmos.‘SAS nur siene same more and more assed with ‘materials, tral sien oo sides F._Acommon theme hat wil appear throughout the course concerns the ‘elton of God to mature, Essential Reading: (cam, The Enlightenment "The Enlightenment Our Contemporary” Supplementary Reading: Hankins, Science and the Ealightenmont, chapter | Kuhn, The Sructire of Scientific Revoltions. Questions to Consider: 1 Esaty what arm to history is done by using the erm sles Forsch Figues as Galileo Galil, Gtted Leibniz, and Isane Newton? 22 fhe ow centuries that define this cours, the 18" and 19 centres, make ‘lea wh is meat bythe modern ea, which defining Fetes have led Some to lain that we are euroatl ving ina post-modern period?” Lecture Two Consolidating Newton's Achievement The conclusions Newton presented wer ot acepiabl to many in Hs day. Although he had many defenders amang the Bish, his system ‘contained entra asumpins that Mew inthe fae of some ofthe best thinking onthe Continent. Ths lecture explins how Newton's hous ‘wns eeived hy leading thikers in France and Germany and describes the evens that to the event cretion ofa orviw that limed [Newton sits hero, Byte end of his Hen 1727, Newton had begun to tvimadherents outside iti, in Halland ad in France. A Newton purty began to grow espcily among youne Frencinen, who found hs ‘mathematical approach o explaining natal phenomeasinaung. Several occ problems th arse in the decodes afr 1730 presented ‘onpomntis for these French Newtonian to demansat the power of ‘Newon's approach, These included aampsto salve the socalled three-body problem, the retumof Hale's comet athe soled sul actclraton ofthe moon. The eablishment of Newton's "stem af by the en ofthe century made possible anew conception of the cosmos place differen fram Newton's own idea oft Outline Isaac Nevion’s book Mathematica Principe of Natural Philosophy appeared in 1687 to great acclaim in Britain ‘Why was Newion's books impressive? [AL The book was posted inthe imposing format the ancient Greek ‘mathmtician Ea a wedi is famous book on geomet 1.) Many ofthe problons and thor proofs were complicated, requiring fonsidrable materia kl. 2. Neston had invented now mathematic tchigue th ealeuls, tote im sole the dificult problems he aes B.Neto claimed he vas presen a stem ofthe word 1. Toattemptto explain why the heavens moved as they did was bo underaking 2. Newtons explanation ofthe mation ofthe heavenly bodies was ‘ast asthe application of general lw tat eed oll mater ‘Newton ard tht all ter was atractedt al aber mater by special fore. 1. Toavon! materia, Newton held that the force was not intrinsic 22. Newton lume to kno that he force depended on he size of rater and tht weakened asthe ners square ofthe distanceHe had become convinced abou this tative Force while working ‘on the prob ofthe moon's motion 44. His orginal solution aa youth had been proiminary. Now, in is book, twas complete How was Newton's bok received? A. In Britain, he won immediate fame One Cootnat, there were crs among the followers of Rend Descente, rer inthe 17 century, Descartes had explained te motions of the heavens by righ separating eat nto two reals, mater, ‘nd mind. 2 Fer Cartesian, such she Dutchman Cristian Huygens, Newton inappropily mixed mind and mater when he allowed the force ofatration ro be imposed onto mati. ‘3. For Cartesian, the estat mater cou “atract™ otber matter over space was saying hat matter possessed kind of hen, cc, orc. +The German atl philosopher Goatied Leib also ercized Newton's da of aactive oes 1. Lelie noted Newton’ fluc to eer to an intervening material ‘mo asthe vehicle to transit the ateactive fore 2 Let entcized Newtons bli hat Go's iterverton was. necessary to guaratethe systems stabil 1. What eens, ver the cours ofthe 18 century, tthe establishment of [Newton's view among leading natural phlosopees ofthe Enlightenment in Franee? |A. Sooner Newton do in 1727, his views began to be encountered by ‘he educated pai in France more freuen. 1. Vole published favorable desripion of Newtons pilosophy anim. 22. He and Madame da Chieetwzoe an expand popularization of [Newon’s stem some yeas ater. B.A challenge to Newton's inverse square law inthe 1740s fet its inition G. The eum of alleys comet in 1758 as cen asatesimony tothe power of Newton's stem, /. By the end of the entry Newton's system hd acquired almost golike power. |A. Pio Simon Laplace's “Newtonian” explanation of an imepulaniy in ‘he moors maton appeared o rescue the stability of he slr system. B. The same autor’ Sistem of th World of 1796 dispensed with the eed {can vin supervision to acount er he heavens. Gt 5 natural philosophers subjected the heavens tote rule of tur law over the couse ofthe 18 cary, soo di they sertnize the Enh nts past with the save nen Essential Read Dear, Revolutionizing the Sciences chapter 8 Hankins, Science andthe Enlightenment, chapter? Supplementary Reading: ‘Westfall, Never at Ret, chapters 10,14 “Teal, "Emile du Chitele andthe Gendring of Scien,” and The Man Who Flatened the arth: Maupertis and he Siences i he Enlighemnent ‘Questions to Consider: 1 Given that Newton didnot lim o explain what gravity was othe ‘mechs by which t worked, how ni that he Became so anous? ‘mature was garded asa deterministic mache ia the Newtonian \wrldvew ha emergedin the 18° century, how "Newtonian" was Newton himslr?Lecture Three Theories of the Earth Scope: Jats natural pitsophes subjected the heaven to the rae of mata law over the corse ofthe 18 century, Soo did they srutnize the Earth ants post withthe sume int. Although the majority of people simply accepted th Genesis secount ofthe Eats iin, mtual Dlilosopbers in France and Scotland specu inthis era onthe Physic means God might ave employed in creating the wire. "These speculations became Known ts hories ofthe Earth-conjectites about the exsal meas God ight have used 0 create the Ea apd to shape it over the course of tine. By nreucng ausal agencies ht required lng periods of tne ool the Eat into itspreseatcondon, these writes alleged the commonly acopted fags ofthe Eat an wth the dation of history ise. This development illustrates hat some natural philosophers had cone 1 bie tit God exetises contol over nature though the ation ‘tial avs rege. Nowhere was the clash elves "century ‘auf pilesopy and recived wisdom more Focused than onthe ‘question ofthe Ears past, Outline 1k The atitdeof diss was likely to cause problems whee the history ofthe ath was concerned AL Although not atheists deists were intrested in ntwalistic explanations. B, Naturist explanations of how the Eat rigid bcame known as ‘theories of the Earth, 1M, The tration of speculating onthe means God might ave employed in eating the Earth emerge in oth the 17® and 18 centre. A nthe ode theories ofthe Earth ofthe 17® century, the intent was 10 ‘ppt he Genesis account 1B. Inthe 18 century, natural ilosophes were wing ofc heselves from the cones ofthe common understoed ipliatios of bibs! references IM, fetwsen1692:and 1718, France's amtassaoe Egypt, Benoit de Maile, erposed What he called" ne spstem onthe dimiation ofthe waters of thesea” [Ac Asa travclerinthe Mediteranean gion, de Maile posssted great ‘roy about the aa 1B, De Malt became onvinood tht his raniths's theory abou the ‘waters ofthe nea diminishing vas covet C. He dtemined vo site 3 book tht dou his. 1. De Mallet cast the work at a conversation between a Christian nissonary and an Indian plilesopher named Telinmed 2 Inthis"ndian” understanding of he Earth's pas the Earth was gral covered with water which raul decreased, exposing fst mountain, then more dy ld, ._Telliamed maintained hat vaius forms oF aut anima had ‘hanged during the ime the ea was gradually ceding in accordance it tral processes. 1. Fish found thatthe fins became fee and served them to walk 8 land 2 From sructres inancient Carthage, he estimated that ther the sea level had dropped from enter times tis yw thee Ft ery thosand yes The work appeared in 174 produced otags 1, In 1749, he Comte de Buffon published the is tre volumes of his ‘Narra Histor, amulivolume work th et out to organize all tht was [oir aboot the natural wor A. Inthe fist volume, Buffon included hisory ofthe Earth |e suggested thatthe Eah and eer plants had originated asthe result of comet hat fad struck the Sun an oblique ange 2 The Facalty of Theology ofthe Sorbome in Paris condemned 14 propositions fom Nutra History. ‘Bn 177, Buffon republished his thesis about the comet ina widely read Sook ene pach of Ca. ‘By this ime, the amosphor in France had change fom quater tury ear. 2. The unprecedcued developments that would eu ina decade, 0 the outbreak ofthe French Reolton meant tht Buffon could ‘aely publish is old radia ess Buffon depicted seven epacs of Formative activity that took along 44 Life appeared only afer 3,000 years. By the ine humans appeared inthe ina epoch, some 70,00 years a passed decade afte de Maile his de, and in 179, James Hutton published ides communicated eater to the Royal Society of Scotland aboot the Eats past |A. Hution invoked operations of tre that were not sudden and dramatic but “squab and stead.” He fund cata agency for these slow changes inthe interior heat ofthe Earth,vi He believed hatte development ofthe Earth he a dese as just a pat of ager eycical proces. All hese authors of theresa he Earth beled hat Gd ws stil responsible fr creation. But the had adopt the conviction at Gr acted tatre by establishing natural vst dicta tres cous, Bowler, Evolution, chapter2, 9p. 26-39. Laan, From Mineralogy to Geology, chapter 6 Supplementary Reading ake, Age ofthe World, chapter 3. (Questions Consider: 1 ‘What was that prompted maturalpilsophors task themslies what ‘meats God hd employe to ret the Earth? ‘Why was ithe extended ime scale, rae tha the implisiteolutin of ie that was offensive inthe 18 century? ! Scope: i Lectur Grappling with Rock Formations Four ‘Atte nd ofthe 18 cmury in Germany there emereed an approach tote ty ofthe Earth hat contrasted in a important expect ith he Formation of specultive theories of the Earth's development based on universal causal avs The Geman mineralogical ation emphasized ‘he atherngofenpiica information abou mineral, pray beets of ssf tothe mining indy. In th 18 cnt, the scope of German mineralogy expanded to nade mare than merely the ‘mineral content ofthe Earth's ct Tho primary German mincilogit ‘ft ate 18° century, Abraham Wem, continued to emphasize rel observation and crested goog yer bod om the ine Of formation af acs that proved enermounly nent, eel on ‘the Continent, Werner's work Ie an indelible imprint on thse who ‘sablishedacology ab elence nthe decades afer it. Outline Inthe fast ecu, we examined attempts by atl pilsophers inthe 18 «entry to explain how the Eanh and ts creatures cae to have the fears they do tvoughan appeal caus tral la, [Av Asinasronony, twas. eas of een by natural lath i in place of God asthe diet cause, they place the operation of tral laws God had imponed on nate 1. These explanations were not attic, because Go was ness the retro the avs. God operated on mate, nt direst y ia but ‘by remote contol through he laws. This conception has ben called eum Inti etre, we conser anther 18°.century approach to understanding th Eat adits history Its most distinguishing feature wa it reactance ‘arch Fr grandiose and universal hal laws explain the present ears ofthe Earths srice ‘A. This approach emerged in Germany with roo nthe German iinealgial tain, “The preseace of rich deposits of oe drew primary atnton to reals and accounted fo the long-established mining tradition in ‘Sich regions a the Exe Mountains of Saxon ‘Mining oficial warsed practical information abou the lacstion nd properties of valuable metal, ineluing lend, copper, and sven,3. Inthe 18 century, state oficial established tecnica schools, separate from the universes, forthe rp of rining he iia hey rogue Rater than searching for universal casa ls, German mieralogsts referred to zathr information abou the various forms of slid ‘ater ound on Eat, They were therfore, more enpinealy oneted 1 Their focus remained onthe Earth nits fetes, not as mich on the development of ie 2. They di, hosever, mk inferences fom the dats they gathered shout the Earths pas (C. This mineralogic train i itersting in its own right and sof tal importance for later deelopments Tr Many cay 19! century thinkers, expoillyon the Continent, idontfed wih she empiricism a this waditon, shunning the more speculative trations ofthe theorists ofthe Eat 2 ey notions inate polo, such asthe importance of rocks and the sof rock fasion, emerge tom this work 1M By fr these igure in this 18-soary sory Abeaams Werner (1749-1819) who sud and later taught a the i Frciber. [AL First we eet know what Werner ier fom his predecessor in the Genuan mineralogical tradition 'B. Thon, we will ecamine what Wemnercontsbued that eed him an interatonal reputation reacalem 0 1. There were many diferent ways of classifying what were known as ines 'A. One common casifcation seme inthe 18" century included four clases earths, meals, salts and sus 'B. Geman mineralgissputered infomation about these varies forms ‘of solid maton found op Earth Were ineestod here primal nears ._For carts other than rocks, mineralopsts prefered an analysis callod the et wa, which involved oth ess Tr solubility in wate and, ‘whee possible, pecptation fom Solutions, suchas at ht springs and hath as. 1. Chemists contributed their understnding of interactions feats with cds and bases. 2. From numerous investgutions, expeinentrs diferente a ‘whole range of earths, bared on hs soli Inthe 18" entry, Geoman scholars began to sbjet rocks, pevwsly regarded as mere conlomerains of nvidia minerals at werthy of ‘tidy in their ow right casfaton [They eateporizd rocks acconing othe effect heat hadon them, the socalled cry van. 2. They bepan pater more information than jus the miner content ofthe rocks 3. Wher the hintory ofthe Earth was concemed, her wae widespread acceptane among 18-contary minora athe nigral ccean refered in Genesis had been hick, gelatine, ‘aqueous Mid made upof minerals insolation 44. Racks and mos othr slid minerals formed ver ine by process ‘of consoldation, tha the ans from ty o sly “This was the major problem tbe tackled ui the end ofthe 18" cent, '¥. Abraham Worpar dew onthe collected wiser of his predecessors to ‘reatea geological system that made him famous ato Europe inthe te 18 century and afer. ‘Werner's most important contibtion was to maketh ime of formation of rocks, not thei mineralogy, thet most mptast anre 1 Ttwas Werner who gave to geology th historical nites eclled “Yoomatins fr rocks hatha been formed atte sae peri 2. Werner focsed onthe are of information gathered about ocks 1 Unlike bs predecotors his oa was to develop a systematic ‘owedge oF al te data puhored about nial eons ‘ktermine when ad how crock ad ben laid dow, He called hisnew approach geognas. based o he Greek word for “abstract kw” B._ Wemer usd hisappreach to draw conclusions abou the Earth's isto 1. The oldest rocks from he calm waters of the primeval oxen onslitdin sezesiveindidalFooations to orm = “primitive ease” 2. Next eame sl las of formations he aed transton” rocks, Some af whic had formed in turbulent water, 3, The thd chss of formations he called stati” rocks some of ‘which resahed from mechanical pressure, while thers consolidated by chemical meats 44 Tho inal cass of formations, the tecen” las, came from eroded material deposited by moving water and fom the extruded material voles (C. Comrary toa widespread inypession, Werner didnot appeal to siden sad dramatic event to exhn how the Earth a devshoped1, He ald that he primeval ocan a gradually seueted over tine ‘and tha here wa evidence int that he erst hi occasionally versed el 22 Were refered not to endorse speclations about where the retreating water had gone, believing wa suficirlyela hat the wes had rested, 3 Lite nisi, he invoked the new knowlege that water was ‘ompose of gases o suggest that primal Waters had doeomposed ‘wes forming the atmosphere Werner joined others who were willing o extend the history of the arth fr beyond the 6.00 years infeed rom a lio eading of the Od Testament. 1. Hispreterence wss not to speculate about mater that did not asl lend themslies o presse determination, bt he conceded ‘hac here was tame "bon the wars, eras amilon seas ‘ag0, completly covered te earth.” 2 Werner came rom devout petit background, but he appears sotto have allowed any traction religous views he may ave It dtemine his geologia consieratons [3 The elect of Werner's work was toad fo thos who argued hat, ‘he Enh was a coumi body whose past had oon shaped by natural procese, 4. Because of the nono infuse Werner exerted through his ‘celebrated teaching at Freer. helped shape the immediate ature nto the third decade ofthe 19™ cent Essential Reading: Bower, Evolution, copter 2 p. 39-49. ‘Lada, From Mineralogy to Glogs chapters 4-8 Sapplementary Reading Ponte, Maing of Geology, chapter 6 Questions Conse 1. Why wa itso obvious to tinkers inthe German radio that rocks had fom by a proces of comslidatin rom a prinitive Sud into sols? 2 Ahough Werner never publishes much, tents came fom al vee Europe tostudy with him, Exacly what was tao Werner's sytem that ateacted so many to Freiberg? ' Scope: Lecture Five Alchemy under Pressure ‘Tae alehemical understanding concerning the neracions among ‘aio material sobtances ms chllenged inthe I centr by the stem io defines rational approach chemist, Pat ofthe !naivaton wast dsocate the emerging investigative techniques of hemical experimentation fom the erat radon eso with alchemical practice Inthe analysis of combustion, Georg Stal Germany, ew on developmen the 17 entry to creat a coherent explaration of combustion based on plgiston, the weighs Substance offre. By the middle of the entry, ne develops in ‘he analyse of sas reste nan icreased emphasis on quanta mmeasarement that had ot Been emphasized ake Outline Inthe anyss of rocks, natural pilosophers concerned with mneraigy in ‘the 16 century stood closet thse intrested in chemist, [Av Byte end ofthe 18 century, chemistry had taken ona new sates ©. ‘hom wht thd ear. In this eee, we wil examine how this new status eng fn i der inks alchemy We wll se ho. inspite of eny’s continued presence the Erlgheament emphasis on reason lowed chemist to diferente ‘hemssves rm alchemist. “Tho 17 contr ncadeda mixture ofapprouches to understating how material substances combined A The meanings of te toms alchemy and chemi arent cleanly sings the 17" com. 1. Clie mor inlsive erm, involving an understanding ofthe elements and essetal pies thal combined to om tris Chemists sought to extract such principles and elmer fom bes tener oad them back to scott the bodes Such Knowledge could also be elf in prying substances of impurities orn atempesoarsmat one mater int aot 4. Chemical knowledge could be useful for example, equet goa was to Bd application of chemical know t ind mses or stronger mets.S. Buttothe extent chemistry wis associated wih the"meely practical at could ot ajo the higher tats rendered to Plosopty 1B The clas alchemical pursuit of ansmaton waxed tong daring the century. 1. This is see in he great numberof works published onthe sabject, 2 Numerous eading natura philosophers, incating Rober Boyle and late Newton, nventignted the possibility of alchemical 3. ncreasegly alchemical experimentation was pusued with view to avancing natural philosophy, albeit the preEalighenet form of mtr plosophy. From before the beginning ofthe 18 century, there were signs hat ‘hemisty was being to be diferente fom alchemy. [As Choris had begun ose sf asa soparatsinvsstigntine ener, 1. Experimentation nthe hems of ss ed oa replacement of ‘older coneptions of composition based on elerent apd prinples ‘withthe mote practical ntions of eis and alka. Chemisty ws incorporated jor atv ithe Franch ‘Academy of Sciences fom is founding in 1666. 3. In 718, Etieme Geotoy, prominent professor of chemistry atthe Jardin ds Ro, published tables ofthe ainiisabserved between dierent chanel substances. 44 Growth nthe chemistry of ats especialy in France, marked ‘hems as an invowigative scene, 1B. Some chemists began to expand he cat rations with whic hey had boom avocado include a aliona inlet focus 1. Those engaged in raft trations were ofen regarded as artisans ‘sho were primal concemed with making 4 hvlihood 2 Such nid genealy tod lowe on the socal scale han ‘hose who dealt with inllstual or spiita ah By incorporating it chemistry an elctaleoncom to make ta rao elerpese, chemi could be diferente fam ale. 1, tn Gemany daring the catty decades ofthe 18° century, Georg Stal profesor of medisine at Halle and liter cour physician in Prussia titempted acest "ratinal chemi.” a opposed to alchemy. [A Stansted thatthe meng ofthe words alchemy and chemi, long used interchangeably, had eceatly come to denote two completely sleet underakings He defied leemy the mostly confidant ag vin stenpt o make gold 2. Chemistry was diferent, because it ws devoted to ional ‘expetmetation asa means of expanding fundaenal knowledge ‘of ratural substances, {Stahl not define what he mean by rational, B_Athough he di not deny hat transrunation was posible, Stahl and his followers eicie slam severly forts neptive pact om society 1. Ttnouished swindling and promod Teaging for god and antic medicines, 2 Ilsractd ts ertusnts from their obligation to God, ‘3 There were ne teachers xpable of giving ftom instruction a lek. (C Stahl contin 6 identify with meine andthe era eadons while tempting to define "tae chemist 1 Tevs inspired by ational enbusiasm for research” 2 Ieeame fama deseo know the tue hnosedge of material composition forts own sake, not for ater weal, ested rom ational chemical process, the knowledge of which could be sed unersand hwo improve medicine, miner Processing, distin, brewing ss making and oer wel cadewvors a ‘Vs Sth also ied to construct chemical system th eval he intimate composition of substances, The best known fete ofthe system was Stats treatment of combustion |A. Stahl drew onthe wok of Joachim Becher, «predecessor inthe 17° cexntn 1L Becher rated a tem of elements and principles that dew on Paracelsus and Ars 2. AmEanh, era pings oily earthy” was rear asthe consttgat pres inal bodies hat could be Bume. 'B.1n 1702, Sl iaeodaced his interpretation of combustion, wich was based on that of Becher. 1. Stal adopted the name phigiton for Beshe’scombustive principle 2. Phogiston. fo Stahl, was an impoderabe substance that iit ‘vas substantial but i did nt weigh anything. By sel, could not ‘be detected bythe senses, 3 Phlogiston is found loosely preset in some substance. ‘Combustion, nat, occurs when thes bodies lose tir pilogiston 44. Sich substances as charcoal and oils are especially sich in plogiston: combustible dis ave eit lead lost or do aot nai plopiston, (©2003 Te Techn Cmpay Lined aetp »‘5. Piogiton is not the sae a ir, which s sensible, but itis the 1. Inexplaning the event sepution of chemistry frm alchemy inthe 18 motive power of fie parle evnuy, bow sufficient apeal othe emerging socal perceptions of (C. Suhl an especially his many followers, used this basic understanding there emereses? to explain why metal at Why did ita longer in chemistry than in sstronony for ata Stal expaned the sting of metas called cuinaton a thie ilosophrso insist tha observations be measured in precise quantitative Tos of phogiton tem? 2. Stal never dicussod theft hat metals pained weight on nsting, Anca conser to Su’ phogision theory, Johann Juncker, ‘misinterpreted Stas phlogiston as something materi 44. Helinrodued the idea hat phogiton buoy op the metal hat conan them 0 that whcn the metal loss it piston o become fale the aer weight emerges ._Phogistn could be use to supply a eherem account of more fom of ‘combustion than meray calcination, 1A buming candle placed unde a bel ar gest besa the ‘enclosed space i strated with phlogsion, preventing any further release of aditoalplogison. 2. digestion of food involves “burning,” then x mouse pled oder abel jar should di whontheaibocome saturated with Dhloistonsich exhaled air VI. Over the course ofthe 18° century the phlogision theory continued to gxin hore’ in Germany, France, Sweden, and Bean, who Tound use in ‘heir conned exploration of chemist [AL Before th mid ofthe 1° centr, Stas aprosch was most wl ‘own in Germany. Ineresing demands of indo, especially metallurgy, soused greater invest in Geran chemical ex, many of which were tasted between 1750-1760, C. By 1770, when an important new saga in the history of chemistry was bout o unfold, phogsion theory had enjoyed wide popular in France std Brian fr 20 yeas, Essential Reading: Smith, sins of Alchemy, chapter 4 Supplementary Reading: Holmes, Eighteenth Cenery Chemistry as an Investgnive Enterprise. Husbauer, Formation ofthe German Chemical Community chap 1 ‘Questions to ConsiderLecture Six Lavoisier and the New French Chemistry Scope: Inthe 178052 number of invesgnorsin Brin, Germany, nd France ‘were condacing experiments to ent the propery of new "ui" (gases) and o explore the diferent ways chemical substances iterated. Of special significance among tes experimenters was ‘oseph Priestly in England, ho develope the phim theory of combustion tis zh inte lat 18" centr. Pretly's dsovery of the se called oxygen et in proces a series of eves that led 10 the erentin ofa new explanation of conbuation by ArtoineLaveier ‘nas. The new French apposch chimed to bas itslf ona prisple ‘ofthe conservation of mater, thereby stressing the ole of weighing ‘reagents before andar a chemical reaction The ensuing debate oer ‘he new French chemistry eventually seed the miter in fisor of Lavoisie’squaatiative approach Outline Inthe Last etre, we looked aan ater in the irs af ofthe 18 century toidentfy chemistry ae rational scene, thereby diferentating fom alchemy, with which t hid ong been associated Two attr factors should be mentioned before ting othe sujet of this lecture, which sth new French system of chemistry hat arose the lst, tre ova ofthe cetry |A. Fist asthe woek of Stephen Hales ia England ding the 17205 Hales nas interested inthe Funes produced when various substances, suchas Plants, were het in sk 1. Bcause ani” reso it was asm tat air was ft” in ‘ne plat ad had been et fee by the Heating proces. Itbeane known as "fixed ain” 2 Hales was inerested in he amounts of aire could elas rm its Fixe sate in various abtances Heid not inquire about the opis of the aie osained B,_ Second was the realization that weighing the fixed air eleased in 2 reaction cold be pot, 1 Traionlly, experimenters were wnintrese in thes (gas) produced in chemical reactions. simply disapeared up the rine: 2. One inesigatr a mid-century who realized the importance of \neiphing was the Scot Joseph Black. He was investigating the Sale of magnesia as am anc [lack noticed that the exact same weight los scured in 00 ier experiments involving magnesia alba (alc eirbonat) none, be bated the magesa all, apd in the othe. e aed an acid it Magnesia alla + acid resid; + weight oss Magnesia alla eat reside: * weigh lose 44 Surctng the second line om the Fist because heat doesnot weigh anything) gives i reside, ~ reside Therefore, id resides = resi, 5. Bleck assumed tht the weight loss was the result ofthe Fed aie produced in Bosh eases, 6. The equality ofthe weight Iossinthe two diferent experiments ted im investigate the properies ofthe fixed ai 7.‘ ae able to show thatthe ae was differen rom ordinary ai. By denying rw invdunlaiwth is ow proper, Black opened up chemistry to the posit tha here may Be many new 9. Chemis quickly bgan devising means For prong and investigating the properties of twas ‘One panculrly successful as chemist waste Englishman Joseph ste, ho denied ramos new ar during he later prof the 18" contr. A. Pristey was conned ofthe plogiston theory of combustion and so Fel explain theresa of is experiments, 1. Heexphained the heating of metal to prodce x cas (usted etal) asthe loss of phlgisn rom he metal 2 Heating the cae frher"redced” tho eas back tothe met. This was th el of the recombination ofthe cle with phlngiston, For that he would need a sure of ew phogison, 3. Priestley assumed the new phlgision was supplied by the charcoal sed to proce the ea. 4 Tas smal + heat» cae + phlogiton c+ moreheat > metal 'B_Inthe summer of 177, Prisey acquired a 12-inch burning lens he coud se to heat sbstances 1 He seditto beat mezcury cat and notcd, ois suis, th ‘ale tumed into the metal without a source f phlgison bing presen he 2003 Te Testing Comprised Pansenip Fa2, Inadtion, be noticed that nse was produced hat realy supported combustion. He assumed tha i as laughing gs, an ait Isha discovered eater supported combustion 3. Onarip to France that fl, Prete explained bis paling results to French maura philosophers 4 Aft: etm home, Pres conduct futher tests nl elized that his ewe was no ughing gs but anew ai 1. Among he French chemists who heard Pricey desert his puzling resis was Antoine Lavoisier, a ited experinenter, who two years eal, Td eon promoted oan associat in the French Academy of Ssences |A. Eater that same year (1774), Lavoisier had translated and become Familiar wih the work of Joseph Black, whos careful quantitative approach he appre ‘Two year ear, in 1772, Lavoisier had been avetigating why metals fin weight when they mast 1. Heexpresed disatsficton wth Sah’ phlogison theory, which tn claacteized as seously aod, because he spect atthe ‘metal was xing i int itself a it gned weigh, ye phlogison ‘vas allegedly being lost athe ame time 2. Lavoisier resolved conduct extensive addtional experiments on both the Hing fair by and he release far rm vous satsteces, 13. One ofthe experiments he ed in eary lo 174 was with ‘mercury cl, the sme substance Priestly ha experimented with ‘arir hat summer. But Laser di not noice anything unusual Shout the ai produced Priestly’ visit spared Lavoisier to red the experiment wth mercury cal 1. Thistime, edi the experiment using two dilerent meas of beating the eal: with burning len ad with charcoal 2. Achetk ofthe is produced in the two cases revealed tha they ‘ere ferent: Using a bring Fens gave an that supported combustion: sing charcoal gave Black's fed ai, which id not ‘uppot combustion, Lavoisier repated othe Academy in the pig of 177 that when reals rs forma cals thei gan in weights the esl the ‘ition othe metal fhe pares prt ofthe very si hich Surrounds us which we breath” Headed hat when fined air was produce, it was because ofthe presence of eharctal The aftermath ofthe story contains several ioe, 1." Teas Presley who realized th th produced sing ales was ‘ot pre common ait but now gas. Yet wa Lavoser who » 200 The eng Company Lite Pane ‘mame the new gas oxygen cd-maker’), because he thought it ‘vas presenti al aid Lavoisier account of combustion asthe aon of oxygen lspemed withthe weiglens called phlogiston, He insted hat master may change forms during chemical ‘eatin, butt anno be rested or destroyed. He know for having announced this principle as the conservation of mater Although Lavoisier baum known a the father of radern ‘hemisty, Lavoisier himself eieved tht heat was a weighess ‘lmoe that was combined th he a. Daring combustion, is released as teat becomes fed it the real, The release of heat id not distur the conservation of mater because hea does not ‘weigh anything The presence of weiss substance in bah the old and new hems ofthe ate 18° century meant that it woul tke some time Tar the new oxygebasod understanding of combustion 0 become the consens This episode shows that major change incur views of ature often do no ocur suddenly asthe res ofa single persons insight in which alls dew Essential Reading: Donovan, Antoine Lavoisier, Part Supplementary Reading: Hutbuer Formation of he German Chemical Community, chaps 7-9 Questions tw Consider: 1. Who discovered oxygen, Piste or Lavoisier? 2 Lasoo ale the father of moder chemistry, bocause be rejected ‘he megs clement phogiston and insisted that materi conserve. Yet he btieved that heat was Weitsess elemental subwance tht efered into cmc reactions. Why, therefor, ish see sso mode?Lecture Seven ‘The Classification of Living Things Scope: Inthe view fiving hings inherited inthe 18® entry, species existed 1 1 God had eriginly cette them. The umber and Kind of specs tre fxed~ therefore, not subject to chango—and each organism took is place nan ordenyarangement that ascended fom the lowes form tothe most complex. Daring the cemiry, Cat Linaevsdevlaped 3 system of botanical casfetion ta, because i dd ot aon. ‘appeal all he characterises of species, was easier fo use and led to ‘standardization of nomenclature. Through long sud of thousands of pnts, Linnaeus ame to doubt te able fy of species ovr the ‘course of his carer. His conclusions, at well as those that Georges Buffon dew about animal species, aldo those rom geology tat were ctallenging he accepted view ofthe pt. Outline Inan ealercoure on history of science priory 1700, Professor Principe fom Jos Hopkiss University dosrbod the explosion inthe umber of Plans ad animals recognized during the 16° and 17" cereus, |A. He noted that he ven ofthe mizoseope made possible new knowledge ofthe intemal suture of plants and annals "He emptasze that natura history emerged during this period a part ‘of patra philosophy in which pants and animals represen allio ofinvidal abject of iret in heron ight, as epposed to being regarded as emblem of sme religions oe moral th "they ha boomer nthe Mid Agen. (C Inthis etre, we will investigate wit became of all his knowledge in the 1 entry. ‘other aspects of th heritage om the pat ls shape the context in ich 18-ceury ature alee to organize he wealth of aw knowledge tout he ving word |A. From the Greck coneepton ofthe cosmos a articulated in the Platonic ‘ration it as undestod thar the costs hada divine origin. AS such, twas complet, which could only be if Plato sid the mae, it contained all sot of Bving restres™ 1. "Te the Latin West this understanding came to mean that everthing that ould exist did exist tat God's reton,araned in starease of being (alae nea), was complet 2001 Te Taig Conpny Lat Parahip 2. To say tha this was not the case would imply that God had ee, ‘ht God had neglected to create Some bin that cold have taken thee place among living tings 3. Sometime ago, the historian Arthur Loejoy characterized the view ofthe word of organisms that resulted fom tis perspective 4282 reat chain of ei.” proceeding fom the simplest fn of Ife upward unl eached the godhead ill 4. Jon Lock, in the 17 entry. located human beings the idle ofthis ascending chain Accompanying this assumption was another: tht the preston ofthe ‘onzina eration had nat changed sine the cretion 1 To suggest for example, that some species come into bing subsoqent othe orignal eeton implied that Ged ad orgoten ‘oinelde them, that there ha Been pin the vigil chain iat ony ter vas led 2. This notion has een called the dct of the iyo species. 3. Asiteame down to the 19 conury, ths doctrine meant hat species, ting tein place, dl ot go ou of existence did not coms existence, nd did nt change om wha they originally (C. Naturalists shod thomsalves whater twas poset specify 8 taxonomy that flected accurately ow organisms related 0 eich ther, pethaps ven the pla God ad flowed. Among those who took up this question of mtr ondrin the 18 entry wat Swede narod Cat Linnseis A. Cas parents hope tat be woud go nto the Swedish Lather ‘minis, but be disappointed the. B. Afra yearat Lund Universty, Linnaeus moved Uppsala, where there was a erbriu of 300 species 1. Even this early in his waining Linnaeus detained hat the ‘otal work he had Been reading wa inadequate. 2. ‘He would ae onthe ak of desenbing all owes accurtly and “ving them into new clases, refonm name and genera na completly new way” C. The occasion fr his decision to ret anew system was is reading bout the French botanist Sasi Vlas work on pant ental 1. Inthe carly 173s, the young student wet out bis fst thought on sual system of pla clavseation, He ago tht ate sl? proclaims sexuality shouldbe he basis for clasfeation, beens rutin occurs so consistently. 1 Tnhis system, hewsed the numberof stamens ad thee ston to ‘ach oher asthe basis ofthe major divisions of plans it eases2. By 135, he had writen the ist eton of his Systm af Name a slim book tht grew tr eins, moa mulivolume clase that made Linnaeus famous 3. Linmacus conceded, hosever, hat his system was not the natural order ean ober ideal sought ._Invarius writings frm soured the idle of the century, Linnaeus imroduced a refinement his system that eventually would standarize botniealnomeneltie 1 Atta tne, ieiyng pls fom te names they were given Was evsremely ict, because it required consing one of the Several books conning enone st of eanes 2 Linacus insisted hate species nam should do more han merely describe the plan should direst fom other species inte sme genus 3. Linacus's succes in accomplishing hs inaia lassifction scheme became evident rom its widespres accepance, 1. At Uppssa, Linnaeus saw himself as an agent of change, a one wo woul improve understanding forthe bone of is fathead [As He undertook much fis esearch as an expression of is ommiment to improving the Swish eoonomy by making itmere self sufficient Among his mare fous endeavors were th atenges to aelinatize lana elsewhere, even fom topical eon, othe Swedish ‘limite 1. "He sent students allover the world a his misses o gather information ano bring back prodets for acclimatization experiment His assumption was that pnt species exposed ta colder climate ‘would develop into stronger vane. Linnaeus an otermatraliss also began think that pees were no 36 Fixed as mow people bie AL ln Linnaeus’ ase, his exhaustive study of new plants over two decades brought him oa ferent understanding of Go's work at the creation 1" Having observed plans wih sal Satres, Linens fet consderd the possiblity thatthe emergence of vances Was the ‘esl of mtu hybridization, no of dferences in sol By the 1s ead ome to the coelision at Ge a ‘xg created only small umber of species, wich though bridization, gradwly produced primordial genera B. Georges Buon, who wa critical of Linacis's “rifle of| classicaton, aso conluded hat species were ot as xed a most aramonly assumed, (62003 The Teaching Company Lined Pareiy 1. Working on animals as opposed to plants, Buffon concluded that ‘wha Linnacans woul eal dire species were relly arants of ‘original ancestal fom, 2. Theancestal fom had “Jegenented” when nlividals changed locations because of differences in extemal condos, ach 36 climate 3. Praia wasons make itinpossble for these degeneration ‘nterbreod presen bt fe extra conditions tha cased the Aagenoation o occu wre removed, the ancestral form would reemerge as quickly ast had degenerated VIL Asinthe eas ofthe novel ides abou the Earth nd its history, considerations ofthe Woda of living things bousht witht certain challenges to widely accepted ides. [AL The easy understanding of living things a he esl of God's direct creative decree was complicated by conclusions hat God may have employed mtr processes accomplish is ends. B. “The nature ofthese marl processes, especially in Butfon's understanding of depeneation, required much tre tine han was convetionalyconeived Essen Reading: Koerner Linaews chaps 1, 2, and 6 (las, Forename of Darvin, chapter Sappemen Readings Fringsmyy, cd, Linnaeus: The Man and His Wor. essay by Loh Questions to Consider 2 11 your min, sa natural onder of sification theoretical possibility? Given tht Buffon ered with Linssus that species were ot xed, why ashe weil ofLimses's sytem?Lecture Eight How the Embryo Develops Scope: During the second half ofthe cry famous debate occured concerning the katy problem of embryonic development. How do tebyos of dere orpanisns, which cem ia sheeuiststages to resemble cach othe, kno how and when o flow diferent paths Produc ferent adult fos? After reviewing the wisdom banded tiown to thos inthe 18" century on ths question we wl follow the ‘velopment ofthe evo major arwers eonsiered, eoelding the treatment with an investigation of the extended debate between ‘Allwecht von Halle nl Caspar Freich Wo, begining i 175 "Ning ht each of ter espective positions depended on clase ‘empirical observation, we conelode by asking bow best explain ther ‘fret eaings of nat they 8 Outline Inthe last etre, we looked atthe emergence inthe 18° century, fnew system of elasicaton fr the diverse Ande of living things tt were Known at th me. ln this etre, the focus nt on groups fling things, but on ivi and thsi development, [As Inparicular, we're going to ask questions especially about reproduction in aia, which requ the presence of males and Females. How di natwralists explain wat gos on davig growth? B. How doesone embryo know to develop intoa rabbit and antler ino a hone? What was the ier widom on these mater that cme to tus of ‘he 18" century fom thet predocessas? [A. According to Descartes, inthe 17" century, male an female semen was nixed in procreation. 1. The pics of th mixed semen underwent a fermentation ha slowly formed the rar and othe ars of te animal bod. 2. Descre simply asserted that the fermaton occured without Indiating why oc how diferent ad forms cae abou, 1B, Nicolas Malcbrnche soon ecized Dessan's mechanical explanation, 1. In 1673, proposed hat ada forms were cncasd, reformed, in ‘he eggs of animals the sperms unleashed a grad expansion of ‘he form ait grew to aelthood 2 The ministre ad farms contained in sch ce. in tm, contained ‘ven more mini adi forms and sa on thereby accounting for all Fare als ht would come that i. 3. Because all ade that would over lve were lead fom in mitre, one dd ot have to explain how the embryo knew the Final orm into wich 95 0 develop C Atthohevining of th 18° contr, preformaion vas widely accepted mong natrl philosophers, who allowed that God hud encase adult fora tthe original crete, 1. Prefomationiss dd ot deny that mechanical laws wore alse, {st hat they coud ot by themseles exp how the ean ‘folded, 22. Although sme preformaionists argued hat twas he per hat onan the encased al frm, he peat majority bieved tht the eng played this ole, Inthe 1740s, preformiton vas supported by the discovery of pathenogenes's 1. Charles Bomet in France showed that anal aphid, ls known as te lice, coud reproduce themselves fr several generations without eriiaton bya male 2. Bonnet became convinced tht miniatre forms ad te stored a the females. 1V, Around this same time some opposition to peforation theory emerged [AL The discovery bythe Swiss Abraham Trembley of the freshwater polyp in TM ase questions bout preforation. 1. He intally thought tht he poyp was a plant bu observed tat it ‘vis capable of inependentmoton and coelided tit it was an ‘inal 2, He also discovered tha the polyp was capable of regsneraing @ complet opin after having bee etn 4. 3. Appuenly no complete miniture ada farm was necessary 0 reduce an natal fom, 1B. Georges Baton the elebrted natural pilospher we have met in ‘ter lectures, as riod pefermation, 1. Tone examines the developing embry, it shows no change at all for sme ine, then the formation ocr rad Given tat offpring resemble bor parents the iting of he seminal lids of bah parents must be necesary to forma compost ent ‘Buffon did concede hat nature must ave provided what he called ‘moter mod that ected the development ofthe myo,44 The cam o Buffon an eas hat the embryo was formless nis and tat its development proceeded fom mati Uat as previously unorganised hasbeen aed pigenesis, VA famous dete betwen preformatonsts and epigenetic took place in ‘he 1760 and 17708 [As Albrecht von Halle, a Swis physician, joumaleitor, an general polymath, woes book n 1758 on the formation ofthe eset in thickens, 1. Asa stent back inthe 1720s, Haller hd lead preformation ‘theory om his eacher Hermann Boshaave 2. When be heard about Tembley's polyp in the 1740s, he changed 1s mind an beame am epigenetic ‘3. When Buffon publish epizentcist dea about generation in 1749, aller econsieredgueston of generation. 44. Forde summers inthe mi 1750, Haller conducted a series of experiments on ncbated chicken eggs ‘Heber that the membranes ofthe yolk wee lik the membranes of he inestnes ofthe embryo, From his, he oucuded tha the yolk was but an expassion ofthe sal ‘ofthe chicken 6. Hiller anncanced hs resonversion bck o preformatin in eter 1 Boanet in September of 1757, publishing hs conclusions othe ‘wider world the next year. B. Therapy to Halle’ announcement cme quickly from young (German physician in Belin aamed Caspar Fredch Wall 1. Wolf stony supported epgcnes, which he had just defended ia fis doctor disstaton a copy of which he sen to Har 2, Wolf argued thatthe embryo developed as result ofthe soliton of fui that kee secrete ht then sliily |. After a parts formed, the flow of ow fad ino it produces ‘ess that defini rgization, 4, Wolfelsined that his numerous carcful observations of embryonic evelopment confirmed the kind of proces he described denying ‘th filly fomed pars emerged as expansions of preformed ‘Haller and Wolf both appealed to empires ebseratons 0 substi thirrespoctveeaims. ‘VE How do we explain the ilfrent ways in which aller and Wolfe he same empincl data? The diferent interpretations Haller and Wolff made of ‘he same empirical obserations stemmed from thi liffering pilosa postions ‘At Hale's postion is etiey consistent withthe Newtorianism be inherited om hs eacher Boeriave 1 Very much ike Newton, be employed mechanical laws to desere ature, bute did so wii its, 2. Again ke Newton, Haller believed it wa dangers to tribute retve forces ety to mater rather, mater ise passe, 3. mater possessed ative ores on te on then godless terials wasn fr behind 44 Hale llowed for mechanical expansion of embryos bt insisted that God was respomnible forthe oii organization that ‘expanded form adult individuals ._Inthis way. Haller reconciled his Belin mechanism with his religiously motivated opposition o materialism 1B, Wol sw his postions a natural outgrowth of the Leibisian brags ‘he embraced, even thoogh his epigentiit view was not eid by this erase. 1. Leibniz. 2 contemporary and val of Newton, allowed mater self to poses active agency in the couse of puting together an claborate metaphysis 2 Wolf determined tbe th fist person o apy the pininles of tionalism to embyolgy 3. Inhisdeense of pigentis, Caspar Fredric Wolff deni that “eryoic developmen is guided by the ou, esisting at ysl processes a scat nd soliton ar safc 0 explain embryonic development CInthe end the conception each hai of Go's role provides a lp meas of dsinguishing thei ews 1. For Haller, God had to e dcly volved this, he again resembled his predecessor eat Newton 2. Wolffobjecadto the pronation direct appes to Ged. Although the reformation thor, a enunciated inthe 18" «entry, assed from he tage the sue of God's elation to mare remaiod very much alive Essential Reading: Richards Meaning of Evolnion, chapter 2. Roe, Mater Life and Generation, hagrs 4 2 (6203 The Tehing Compary Lied Pawetip (C2003 The Teahing Compaty Linited Purser umSupplementary Reading Clarke a, eds, Sciences in Enlghened Ewope chap 6 esa by Hagne, pr. 186-199, Questions to Consider: | “Tothe modem eye, prefomation theory seems absurd. How wast that it vas so widely persuasive inthe ealy 18° century? 2 Does todays tur scence accept he idea of formative free desing the way she embryo develops from an unorganized sate? Lecture Nine Medical Healers and Their Roles ‘Scope: In this etre, we wil examine the general understanding of ealth and Ascse ofthe 18° century, swell asthe beldeing ray of medic healers hat graced the countyside. A distinguishing feature of both modal knowledge and practic is that it was ot confined bythe a, nor didit neces follow the contours a aca rank othe exe. ‘one might expt. Outline 1. Inthe ast ow lectres, we entered the wold of animate ater ‘We examine fst, how natural philesophors nthe 18% cemury'came toamangs the erst arty of al ving things ito a system of ‘lasifcation B._ Wethen bought our ancaion down to anna Iie optical an considered the perplesng question, wth its wo fascinating alerative answers, of ow ata lie develops fom is embryonic beimnngs mo is many dire ad forms. TL Inthis lecture, the fous arrows even more nto one specific organic bsing—homo sapiens. The gol changes from the 18*-cemtury understanding of how or bady develops to ho to main nd rea it ‘when it gets ut of wack, |A. We sk first, abot ow eat nd disease were uesoadin the 18” eonury the examine th intriguing ward of medical ees. 'B.rolminary to pursuing this agenda, we'l make an observation about how his subject fers rom many of the ter tops we have consdeed 1. Most ofthe othe subjects we hve considered gency volved ‘sotericknowedge, of intrest mid segment of oe) 2. Thisisot the eae wth knowledge abot healing. (CA inponant observation to makes that we cannot seul describe ‘alin practices ofthe 18 century if we impose on them an sumption common fo our own dy: that there is an accepted tad practice dominated by physicians, whose knowledge of health and Aiscase fers drastically from that ofa werd of atematve practitioners 1. The understanding of what health and disease are was basicly the same among physicians and oter kinds of healers inthe 18°2. When the sick sought out healers, they cul po buck an fot ffom ooe kind of hele to aot, ven when that nosed crossing social Pondaris ‘What was the common understanding of health and disease? [As Heath depended mainly onthe notion of balance, an ancient notion that ‘dared throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods in he cou 1. Health equi that there be equim, for example, among the four huror, or Mis, the body tat comespended othe our lems of at, air fire, nd water. The comesponding humors ‘ure black bil, ello bile blod, and phew 2. Diese, the, ame when a ialance occured in the normal Aistbution ofthe humors. A modified farm of humors ssi the I centry 1B, Inthe 18" entry, the at of living a healthy if, of actively pursuing balsceamuangfetrs we en cont fll nde th ide of ceteris, ‘which was understood in the sense of regimens 1. Factors we an conta were called the no natras oF hings not sven by ature: fesh at, fod, movement (eerie), sleep, excretion, passion 22, The watchword here was mederaion-—aot to permit exces in any 3. Healers paid pasiularateton to food an exertions. ampere cracuatons Sweat, rine, fees) nas the mos common diagnosis fori, . Tomsinain moderation paris. . Wits rca reize hei thers fal kinds ape about oe 1” Tis wasthe message enol inte increasing poplar ere thatopeaed on mie ding the 1 en wien by yn. 2, Kale mrkdte general views of mony le, of which there were nmny Kd 3. Wecan ding lyin fom nom phic lr bt not {csofing othe bse coment ofthe mea nol hy posed The dtncon mach more so ne ne mos common remotes were leeng and ‘Who wore the healers ofthe * ent? A. Thelifeof mos physicians was ote 1 New graduates from a medial aaly who hang out shingle foand things expecially tough 2. A physician might become a istict phi. This poston cried ‘sdminitatve dis of ovesouing medial practice, but because the pysicus answered both oa higher media board and foal poli athonies, was fen own station Bes ifone could become a cout physician or, even beter. tbe personal physician ofthe dake or king Oficial approved healers also included apothocais, midwives and surgeons, who had to complete an apresicesip before they could proctielerally. 1. Where psn had ight to intra medicine, oly apothecaries oul prepare and sll medicines Firtlas goons di major surgery, bt haber surgeons cut ait and performed cupping 3. Childbirth vaste preogaive of midwives, Unlicensed healers included an aray offs: bath masters, ous ents peddlers, exccutones, knachrs, corn doctors, wise Wome, cower and oon 1D, What about quackery? 1. Quicks were tose who poached on teitory where the dd ot belong, undercuting the ielhood of oes 2. Those wih offical sunton to practice resented the many healers she practic witht permission 3. One could he accused of quckery even fone ha an of sanction in ne area but poached onto antbe's tet . People who could pay tended to go wa physician, but most people vento whomever tty thought might sp. When id igs egn to ange i edie ad why? AT isc omens ith the tun rhe 18 othe 19 cetry ‘sa pol ine 1." The te ech hsorapilowpher Mic refs oth ine hea wt he nthe frm eb of our er experience was st inp. 21. Fotcalt nes modern mesic wih he artamo-hiia peretion in which pyiian’soal was replace pat we ody. B. estou ete wel tht ound he mf the 19 en the ‘ery umlrstanding of what teat o Bes iee" was emer ng. . Thetramitono win would bom kaon a “cet medicine” woul ake tine 1. wo be athe ery before yin Beano imp tbe verdes a enti 2. Then whe dvlopmont fhe gar her of dee, the eding of medsine with experimen cene ws sisi3. Itaho involves the complicit question ofthe emergenoe ofa practitioner ofscionce, of pofesionlizaton a subject we shal Fetumo when discussing the 1° cena. Essential Reading Lindemann, Heath ad eating in Eightenth-Century German, chapters 2-4 Supplementary Reading: Conrad, etal, The Western Medial Tradon, bape. ‘Questions to Consider: 1 Tw does our basi understanding of disease fodhy agree adder fom the base understanding of healers inthe I9® century? 22. Whitaspoctsof 1° cemtury medical quackery, understood a i¢ was primarily in economic erm, reminds? Lecture Ten ‘Mosmerism, Science, and the French Revolution ‘Scope: In the years before the French Revoltion, rane Anton Mesmer solicit the approvl ofthe Paris Academy of Scenes fr his ‘theoretical las abot an mponderable id tht was presen in ving ‘hing. This cca ineduces Mesmer and his theory, deta his sensational sucess al failures, and analyzes the reactions Mesmer mong aademisins a they fered from thee ofthe general opuaton Mesme's err ilasates ha atl since not psued in a ola vacuum. Rather, in terms made paticlrly vivid bys charged politcal atrouphere itisplas the enduring tendency, song thse interested in explaining nature, to create alternative explanations to thse that enjoy acceptance among oficial established powers, Outline Inti lecture, we continue our nvestigiton of medicine inthe 18 cen. [AL In Lecture Nine, we looked atthe general understanding of hel as ‘mimining balance inthe body and disease as the upsetting of that Talance 'B. One mark ofthe new medicine was its possession of conifaly ‘alidated thoy fom which it claimed to derive concrete pacts In this etre, we examine a cary aterps—before the 19 cenuny—t0 associat medial practice with seince. I came withthe work ofan ‘Austrian physician named Franz Amon Mes. |A. Mose’ claims of sielifie status fr hs medical theory didn sacoed for wo main reasons, 1 There was not yet aconsenss about what scence” of meine right or ought tobe is asserions were made highly plitized comext he yeas leading pt the French Revolution, [BL Much about Meser’stheory of disease resemble ter theories of the time, especially elociea her CC. Wewill show Mesme’s tor ilsats who claimed to speak for science daring this period Who was Franz Mester? A. The sonof' forester, he went to Callie schol and ltr, oa Jesuit school in Konstan BB. Wesce two opposing tendencies inthe seseeding years (©2003 The Tesshing Comyny Limited Parmerip »Ww. From 16 120 years of ae, his study atthe Jesuit university at Dilingen Bought him int diet contac with yaa nd magical reaions. From 20 to about 25, be conic! studi in philosophy at the sniverity tIngolstac, wher he encountered opporion to Jessie ‘thought fom followers ofthe rational pilsophy of Christin Wott ‘Around age 2, Mesmer decided to goto Viena, where things began 0 come together 1 Evenly, he staid medicine therewith tens of Herma ‘Boerhaave whose defense of experiment and reference ‘mechanical operations 5 meas of understanding the body were sidely ko in Europe, 22 Hemaried a wealthy widow, Maria Anna von Posch, atthe being of 1768, which gave him etry ito Vienns soci Hishouse became a meeting point for thas need in rata science andthe at, expecially music What was Mesmer'sundestanding of heals and seas? |A. He lteay began o develo it ins diseration, defended sucessfilly bre the mic fcalty in Vion in 1766 1 asserted the influence of planctary Fores hat affected the innermost mater of ving tings. Mes called this influence srimel gravy, bocase titrated wil he ats fing things ‘fin that they no forget qualified as mater. 21. This univer Mid, wick sees as msi forthe animal rity, ows unimpeded though ving things hon they are healthy lnes rss if he Now is Bosked 3. rvdnee ofits ality ean be sen in he inloece on eth ofthe moon abd is phases By 1774, Mesmer had become convinced tha the bes analogue for wht eked ealled ei rity wat in ie! the btn of mogaeton. 1. He took ino his home a 29-year-old woman named Fanaska ‘stein, who suffered from various conitions,nclding convene 2 Mesmersucoesfll sed magnets to restore the low of what be ‘ow called animal magnetism ringing he convlsions to al ‘3. He found that he could elit telat responses from the woman without touching be and thar he dd ot equi diet, communication of magnetic orc. 44. Mesmer then worked outa stem in which various points on the body were ey lei for applying magnet force when removing blockage and restoring unimpede flow of imal magnetic fore. What was the response o Mesmne's ais? A. sna veces indo cin mt fa 1 Tewvcald sean e4per cet he neo Far than seb Gases wa ei thogh ori 2. Mean ged Gs itn Sob sop Contd sf deen 2 Thinner se tht Means hi ation = ‘oa unetading ofteechaonfesoeate B. Theunomeainl mtr of Mesner'poisch a lie tle recon song may nso soe ston 6. One caseinpucalr mds tinpoale or Meme in Vine TNT 77, Maser coment oes oun gi of 8 aed ‘Mar Tes uri wha had gone lin vei hon he ‘an yom olan sete boom eed 2. Meamex made proses those goto lp een oe ‘ik Baten ett iso doe he pia ‘sel er paying 3. Theis aor asus Mesner of eeton nd mise f ti der fo esr press: Tee woe am of emer posible ats th 1. Meso ont Prt 1778, hehe beds he of Anil gti weld eval by the eae of Sees iP ie wsined tine hath oh cadens, bt tener gored 2. Hess op snips which emap of ene ested treatment odie emt Cer an che sts fling among pope oll scl hse 3. Ashi fame gre. did thos of exis py in Frame and Cmny wt they send wn cata, 4. Comrise pesesonay dys ns pola ras sombre hte one cng sabe poner iTS, Royal Conmsion yas poi vlan Mesme's shine ‘Vi. What can we lear rom this episode? |A. Cleat, Mesme wat sesso be regard as based on sound mochunical principles Th He rested appeals to occult foros, claiming that he forse was ‘manipulating Wasik gravity and magni2. The ston of animal magetion resombled hat of lectin hat it Mowed could be bait upby blocking the flow, and its eease proce dramatic sul. 3. Mesmer was apparel uilizinghypooti effets, which he had Teamed owt manu Mesna’s betavor, however, violated some of te emerging practices among natural pilosophes 1 Alter his inal ess tothe Astdemy was ignored sisted on ecing the deta of his ares sere passing them on only ‘chosen nits 22 Likealhemits, Mesner’s concer to pof fiom his theory subjected his moive fo suspicion. C. Thecharged political mosphere of pre-evlaionary Pais ssceauated he lash betwoan te powers ofthe establishment and ‘outsiers inlading Mes, ho were tying joi it ‘Mesmer represents the enduring tendency in the istry of scence to ress the authority of thse who claim be offal spokesmen, 1. Mesmetism didnot ie with he Pais Commissions repo I comingd 6 fgrsh onthe Coninen and in Bean thoughout 1 ‘nuh ofthe 19" century 2. Asconsenus gral developed in Wester society about how A ‘Science was toe understood ad who the suave Spokespeople were, Meamr's claims tok ther place with thers ‘tong th 0-aled"atemative” approaches ofc since Scope: a Essential Reading: © rat, Mesmerlom andthe End ofthe Enlightenment ix France Supplementary Reading: 1 Crab, From Mesmer 10 Freud, chapter Questions to Consider 1. There were clos parallels betwen he behavior of Mes’ Mid an hat kn ofthe cect Maid understod inthe 18 century. Why was Mesmers| Tid ejected and elecica uid accepted? 2 How do you expan the aft that grew between some Mesmersts andthe Mn revolutionary movemeat in France? In the cay 18 century url philosophers to produc impressive letical effets mare Lecture Eleven Explaining Electricity During he ist al ofthe 18 century, tral pilosophers bepan to ‘uke eal bua in expuining the Bowildering phenomena asoited twit static electric, The cretion of new insrments nd techniques mide posible the move efetive production of fascinating results hat ‘tied the atenton even of ings. The dncoeryof hos to tre the ‘letra idle Benjamin Fania to devise a widely recognized ‘hoot explanation ofthe mature of lsc. As inthe cas of ‘hemical change, Franklin appealed tothe Kea of a special inponderable iid to account for he ffs produced. Here, the ‘erption of an equilibria ha existed between the electcl M's traction to material boos adits eplson of tse provided he tei for Fran's explanation Outline ‘Mesmersm appealed tothe lw ofan imponderable uid o explain ‘iscase Inti etre, we will meet another impondcable Mid whose Now purportedly explains eesti. A major ference ere is tat his mponderable Mui i accepted ‘iout question athe bass of electra phenomena. We will see bow and why this came about as we explore inbred ess about sloctricty and follow the sioces of sch thinkers Benjamin Franklin ding hs tine, Before the 18° century, str pilsopbers staid the tractive power smb exhibited whe nbd Materials tht exhibited the soled “amber fe” wre same ‘levies, Mapoati ation was exited ony ion Some bee the tration to be ocalt, but os natal pilosophos insisted on explaining its an traction among diferent Kind of the insertion of new cesta instruments Helped ‘Met. b Francis Hauksbe Became the che experimenter of th Royal Society hen Newton Became preside in December of 1703, | Haushes's mean of producing electrical atration using bed ss quickly became standard.2 Haulabee was abet proce stronger tractive forces than his redeem bad 1B Inthe thid decade ofthe cena, Stephen Gry discovered thatthe “level eff could be communicated oad cet bois. 1. Rubbing a gis ube witha cork stopper in ene end noticed that feather as atracted othe cork. 2, He inetd a ck ito the stopper and attached an ivory all tthe ‘ter end of the sick. He showed thatthe feather was atacted 0 the ory tall ‘Gray discovered that conumniaing lines hat he nslted om ‘onc wth the around, for example, y ik eos ‘Such discoveries revealed wo categories of substances: lets ‘one could uh sich a amber, lass abd sk apd conductor, sch ‘St nood, tread even the fan body, ht communist and exhibited he aracive effect In France, Cares Dufay discovered how to prose cletrcal, Alscharg inthe foro bah sparks and shocks. 1V.lnerestin ler spread to Germany in he ate 17303 and early 1740s [AL One example is Georg ose a the University of Leipzig, Te proce slectrical traction by rubbing » spinning glass lobe 2, He eaancod the efetprodoced by sarpending anon br fom the eving sing sk coeds ad commulicatod to the elec effet rom he spinning as globe. [Bose a thee usd the rm bro produce dana effet that cerned spectator, nlading ability and royalty. 4, Bose alu lated water nan insulated drinking as, from ‘which ie then de sparks ose’: experimen inspired others to make anew and important tiseovery the Lenden jar, of condenser. 1. Te Leyden in Holand, experimenter eed duplicating Bose water experiment in ex 1746 They replaced the drinking water with 8 "ls jar containing water The jar covk topper rom which a ‘al protruded. 2. Amexperimenter once we the expernent while alone, which forced hin tool the flask while electing Touching the mal he rccved a powerfl shock 3 Inaidton wo increasing the power of discharge, the Leyden ‘experimenters resized they could lo slore electri i thea Acemiing expmton ft Lees provi ean Franklin, [A Franklin assened that clstriciy was wigs subsiance dha suored he surfaces of material dis. (£2003 The Teaching Corpany Linked Parmentip 1. Theamount of “leticlSire" that adhered ws proportional tthe mss ofthe boy ‘But the weighs leticl fre replied tse Under normal conditions, a eguiibriam is setup between the stration of leslie tothe suices of the ar ad the letra fire's repulsion of sel 4. The jr therefore has a characteristic equibrum amount of lec re on is fies oe 'B. Franklin ued elec ir to explain properties fees, such a ls, and conductors, such s wie 1 lec, such asthe glass lobe, surrendered electrical Se fom ‘hei surfaces more easily than oes when rubbed 2. Conductors permed clectcal hid to lo through hem. 13. The Eat possesod an unlimited amount of electrical Mid in uli with ts enormous mass. 44. Eletcl fire eanot pence svough ls. CC. Inthe rangement ofthe Leyden jar, it asthe dssuption of equilibrium that accounted for its amazing ets 1. Electrical re wae stipe fom the evolving glass lobe by bing and conde through wire othe ion br, then to he nail te imo the elas jar. 2 Because the elec ire could not peatate hough he sie of ‘he ji piled up aside the ar onthe sre of the water and the inside surtices ofthe jo. Akush he exes lesa iasie the ar oul et penetrate ‘through the sides of the jt, the excess repulsive force teen ‘sould penetrate trough las. 44. Thisenoes repulsive force repelled the nema amount of electrical re om the outside surface ofthe jar, causing ito ow fn he ground ough the body of the erm olin the ‘5. Thejarnow had an excess fits mal amount of elec fie on it isd surface aaa deficiency ofits normal amount onthe use sure 6. Thejar could be carrie aay from the apparatus wth the excess lestial Mu sored sie 11. Ifthe person hong om te outside surface touched the ail leading to the inside of the jr, route was estbishod forthe ‘ences id inside ops trough te person's body bck he ‘use stTace ofthe a, giving a shock to the person en rut VE. For Franklin the explanation of lightning was simi |A. Ihe se, salt paces an electric) rab past those of water (a ‘ondctn, cating an excess ltl ire to gather on the surfice ofthe sea.'B Evapraton of the water artis the excess weighes eet eto the loads, When cloud comes close to» swestate loud, an ‘xchange occurs lighting, andthe loud depot sts water C. Any projecting objet, such as a church steeple o te, eices such an exchange Franklin became fous Because he promoted he us of ighting rods sn ondctd his te experiment E,Thenext msjrdovelpment, much ater in the century, involved fecal discharge a ving things we il tito tha th next Tecure Essential Reading: Cohen, Benjamin Frankin’s Scene, chapters $6. Hankins, Science ond she Ealighenment, chapter 3, pp. 50-1 Supplementary Reading: eilbon, Electricity inthe Seventoonth and Eighteenth Connie, chapters 13 15 Questions to Consider: 1. Elect ids the hind example of an impondrable substance the ther two being phlogiston nd Mesmer’s lid, which natural philosophers wed toexplain natal phenomena. What function diese imposeable sabes supply? 2. Why dos Frank’ theory of electricity not explain why two negatively esti sutsncesaubstances with deiceny of electeal Mid ep cach othe? Lecture Twelve ‘The Amazing Achievements of Galvani and Volta Scope: in the waning decades of the 18° century, Ligh Galvani concled that animal are sours of ler separate fom bah the ati Podued eletity ofthe new eltical machines and the atrally ‘ceuring electri inthe atmosphere. His anounement in 1791 was Aeralded allover Eacope evel provoking a courtercaia fom hie allow countryman Alesandro Vo. Iwas arged Vols, contact ‘between tas ha produced the muscular conrations in Galvan’ experiments, Vols invention ofthe pe, or bate, n 1800, while an Jiporant developmeat in te history of scence, has fen been misrepresented in hisories ofthis debate twson the vo famous Taian natural pilesophor ofthe late Ealghaemen Outline 1. Inthis etre, we wil ook int question that arose inthe ae 18 cea Do animals possess lectcty? ‘A. Theissues important for several reasons. opened upa new te of research Teas the conten in whieh he Batley wat invented, which made ‘uretcleciity posible Ielinked elect tif ssf as Mary Shelly's Frankenstein oul confirm in 18, B._Thediscovresilustate an imporant lesson about hw science oa develops 1 The fir phise of th story centers on he work of Lui Galvani lecturer in anatomy atthe Universi of Bologna and profesor of obstetrics a the Separate Insite of Ants nd Sciences A. Galvani begin doing experiments onthe relationship between etic ands te e 70s, Tn 186, anassisat of Galvan, most ky his wif, Lucia Gales, ws amazed observe tht a frog's eg canal ‘olny when the ip of seape! accel oucbed he crural 2. gestion mmeistclyarse about wheter he work of anther sistant, who was prodacing spars with a leceal machine sos the room, played any olen bringing bout this suprising resi Teas son confirmed that his waste ak, that electricity lacharged fom sparking sachin could affect mses even ‘when no pied diet to the,1B, Galvani also exported with tallest in ihn, whieh led hi oa mysterious esl, 1 He showed that contraction ocumed in the fog eg when hing fom a thunders was edit 2. Galvani nice tht fog preparations hung by copper books from the ion alings soundings balony of his house comacted, nat ‘only during thunderstorms, bur occasionally evr infine weather |. He found that he could case the contractions outside by pesing the copper hook aint the rm wl. 4. He toa the fog side cut ofthe wether, where he reproduced the same contractions he had een outside 5. concided tht this esl coud ot Be da to atoosphric leciity,andit was clearly not defo a sparking machine. G Galvani explained bis resus by soggsing hat be had discovered a ‘hind kind of electricity, dierent in origin fiom aural amospheri ‘levity and fom te arificially produced cect of Leyden ja thick also were Known to produce contractions in muscles. 1. This new “animal ele.” he reasoned, vas stored inthe mle of aninalsin minitre Leyden 2 In Franklin's terms, the tera parts of muscles comtaned an aces of elec li, while en the ouside, there was 2 ‘onesponding deficiency |3.-Acconding to Galvani this balance was exeated inthe body by the brain, which regulated the retin of an imlance ands ddschargetopradee contractions when needed while the ainal was alive 4. tl so by pemitng the eres which ran from he inside othe cutie ofthe muscle to cry what hd Bon thought a serous Sud, '. Galvani no sided with those who claimed hat nervous id was ‘cally letrcl i, arging that he outer sheath he nerves nuit the Mid fromthe muscle it owed from inside to cutie 1. Without the bins presence as inthe ease ofthe g's ean anifcial means of producing dschrge was necessary Tr Ione cometed wml contact with th inside ofthe nerve (which rantotheinside ofthe mas), then stacked anther metal ead to the outside of the muscle, ane could, by joining the two meal Tea crete a route forthe exces fad inset fo othe cutie and restore spor alee 2. ‘Thiscontct between two metal ads, Galvan conclded, was what had ecured when he pressed the caper hook agains the iron plate o proce a contraction. wa . Galvan’s announcement ois discovery of animal electricity ina publication of 1791 was regarded by many as nothing short of path- reskin 1, Alessandro Vol, a professor of physics, tok Galvani ine of experimentation ina diferent direction, |A. He drew onthe work of others who had experimented with contact between metal, Th He know tat one cou produce a biter st on the longue by jing two diferent metals hat were both in contact with the tongue 2, Volta Began to thik ht Galvani was wrong regan the meta leads ete condsctors of lest dscharge, He pursed he ‘den that eliferen metals in comatsomchow were involved ia the generation of the ele [B, ttwas aot lng before heted controversy ensued between Volt and CGavani's nephew and defender, Giovanni Alin about galanin, a ‘efi used 8 synonyn fr Galvan’ animal lec. CC. Inaleterweten on March 2, 1800, to Sir Joseph Banks, president of ‘the Royal Society in Londo, Volts anounced anew invention ha ‘became known as Vota’ ple—vhat we cll the ater: 1. Vola compare hie dncoveyt the Leyden ur, because produced elecrcal discharge. although a Weak one Is advantage teas tht produced elecrcl discharge a continously wing 2 Vola initted the arrangement of meals in cootact on the tongue: He brought together snes sive, bth of which wer in ‘contac with binesoaked lath, 3 Tomagniy the eet he piled up ses of silver and zine dissin contact silver ontop and zine beweth, each set separate by a pape soaked ina bene olution 44. Vola shown that vo metals in contact oul, unde the ght condition, produce electri eure dorian have sometimes allowed thee wish to celebrate Sint heres toda the historical record [AL Voltas discovery has ben cast as conection of Galvani theory of imal electric 1 The invention ofthe tutery dd confi his view that conaet between metals can prodice lets cure. 2, This as been assumed to mean that Vola established tat contact betweon metals waste only source of electrical discharge in Galvan ear experiments. ‘Some hstorans have ace he outcome this wa, casting Voltas the" winne?" inthe debate over anal lc.But th station int neal as simple as tha. nee 1. Fiste invention of the tery was not regarded at htm, even ty Vliet asthe ii ftorin i secret with ves See cannes eats cone bse rt of Desares's ease of 2. Thepile was een as an ampli frm of vais, which rubles eta of ccein bth als an aia. 2. nvesgatos a thetime were dealing wth vo posite 02 Stal inreducesthe impondeabe substance sours the ety that reduced he eration muscle phlogston 0 explain cmbastion ta; ome th cont ten to dierent metals a an Renee ‘noe nth sore store in muses evelopment of since rent demands ht investigators make ins oli’ Philorphicl Lets rises al © [estan cfg ration ‘hag Eg lag Nevo 1. dnt he ces ces eas ow o oes on he riilesopy ‘Sol cls nde minor conto Fr wat hey a ins Fintehon of Lnnaca’ Sie of Nae, 2.‘ ct however. ts vitualy impose ty conning hs sebemeof lain bred ines Tne tht ny becomes lea over ee een cieiert eee the elim tat no new specs ve sential Reading: owt. Hslnan, Grea els a Medicine, cane 2. sat eee Paringon, Ph the Nineteenth Cony chat 3, 32-38, fresvatepoyp and tse tt crcize he dey accepted ide hat ad ors are ‘reformed inte embryo, Supplementary Reading Pan, Vole 6, Leyden jt for soring electrical charge Pera, The Ambiguous Frog. invented in Holland. 48, De Males Tllamed appcars DE ee ee ane ‘implications forthe age ofthe Earth; 9, fons intial spocuations onthe origi of the Ean appear. Pou years ate, they are retracted ares of prssare fom Panis theologians. 156, Blacks experimen with magnesia alba underscore the importance of weighing reagent 5. Haller anni conversion tthe ‘efermation theory, setting oF his debate ‘with he epigenetic Chistian Wolfim, i, ws 178. 78, v7, 186, 99, 1791 193, 19s, Priestley produsesdepogsticsted gas fiom merry el and communicates his resto he French during avs Lavoisier aus that combustion consis of the aditon of oxygen, tthe release of phlogiston, Buin esses his prolonged estintion of the age ofthe Eath and of ie Epoch of (Creation, Mesmer aries in Pars and tezin w campaign to have is theory of smal magetsm accepted First dition of Kans Critique of Pare Reason ets its on human knowledge of the word, Hercel discovers the plane Uranus Brin journal poses prize question on "What Enlightenment” electing public sswaenes of an enlighened en, Paris Commission rls apsinst Mesmer's theory. Werner publishes is casifcaton of ck ised on his theory of consolidation fom rial Tid, Beginning ofthe Frnch Revolution withthe convening ofthe Estates General Galvani snounces his theory of animal lec. Kichmeyer enorses the nation hat ws overingoraniams ifr fom the ocala ofthe ira: Paints’ "ge of Reason stacks Cistiaiy's “rceplance of exeaterestia ie utton communicate his ideas on prolonged ‘gradual geolopcl change othe Royal Soca Laplace's Sytem ofthe Worl dispenses ‘ith God's sperisionof the osm ‘Cover demonstnes the extinction ofthe mstodon rn. 1100, 1806 1907 150, vst 12. 1807 18, 1920, 22, Schllng’s eas fora Notre Philosophy ‘opens his program to move beyond Kantian Tits of knowledge, oka invens the ple, o baer; vor “ambold departs for four-year scesifc ‘xpaiton explo the new word Herschel escoversinfiedight" ovum Phir and Muay champion Vaan ‘and Neptnis, spectively Youngs fist Slt experiments eablihing the wave thsory flight Goce formulates his xt theory of ole 1 of Newton's Dalon's New Stem of Chemical ‘hilsophytevives intrest in atoms. Lamrek'sZoolgial Philosphy lays outa systematic theory of evlition, Avogair distinguishes atoms ofa element ‘fom molecules, which may have mor than ‘ne atom ofan elem, {Cuvier elaborates his theory ofentastophes tw explain he binory of fossils. Founding of is by Okan ne of he fist {ourals of natu scene imende ‘dct the pb Fresnel’ prediction of right spot based ‘nthe wave theory of ligh shown comes, Ocrteddicoves electromagnetism as “iru force sroundings cure carrying wire; Ampere interprets magnetism {select in mation, Founding of the first modern sientiic society, the German Society fr Natal Investigators and Physicians, Fourirs theory of ea in which eat ow imeversible silly published afer several ears of unccepance, £2008 The TeschingCompuy Lied Pump 2125, 28 1891 184, 180, 8, nas, 184, 18a, Buckland’ analysis eve fossil emains Tring the Earth's physi past int he study of word history. Caro’ theoretical analy ofthe steam engine opens anew sence of "hermedynamics. Darwin eaves fora five-year ep around the ‘orld on MS Beagie;Faratay ements ta cuting magnetic ies of| force produces electric founding ofthe Bish Associaton forthe Advancement of Science, modeled on he erie German society, Someries ranaaion of Taplce's Celestia Mechanis Fevcbach’sEsence of Cristiani argues tha lghus doctrines are projections of human eed. Joule begins experiment th wil shoe that heat has mechanical equivalent the Great Disapion ofthe Scotish Church divided ‘thse unbgppy with meas fom those apy with the latest scence, Anonymous pblication ofthe srsational ‘bok Feige of the Narra Haar of Creation, Darwin tail shares his eas ‘on ransuttion wth Lyell and Hooker. Work’ gest telescope resolves the nhl in Orton int tara blow othe shal hypathssis oats Plysiological Lees portays ‘thought a Sereton ofthe ran: Levee succesfully predicts the leeaton of anew lane, Nepte, wining the race with English sronomers Heimbot’s classic amnouncement ofthe ‘conservation offre, sas, 180, 1851 1853 sss 1850 1861 186 Revohtion breaks out in Pais, allowed late by revolution in ther European capitals Clnsis agrees hat beat basa mechanical auivalen ut argues tha its proportional tothe fli temperture—no al beat is ‘converted into work Molesehot's Theory of Nuartton: For the People continues © populares seine meio "Thomson fins hat “energy” canoe be los but ht can Become unable 1 amare Whewel’s Othe Para of Worlds books Britain with is rejection of exrateestriat tik, Helmbolte describes the hea death ofthe universe toa Kénigsburg audience Bahn’ Force and Matte, the Bible of scinti maerlion,appect Spencer articulates his aise are ppliation of genera evolutionary ideas to Sil and politcal questions; Clauss se of statistical means to messue speed of ‘molecules vanes std ofthe hint thoory of gases, Darwin, whose hand was forced by leer fom Wallace containing ies similar tis cen shes his Origin of Specie into pin, Maxwo's mechanical model rts lectal and magnetic phenomena. A ‘mathematical depiction ofthe md le to te incorporation flight as an ‘lesirmgntic phenomenon “Thomson begins is esque of evolution on thormodymasie grounds Pascur ertigues Pouche's defense of| spontancoan generation based on experts.1, 1s, 87 wT, 187, 18, 1897 189, 1908, Jenkins review of Origin raises major problems ith Darwin's thor. Mendeleev arranges elements according 10 omic weights ns periodic ble Bichner’s deus on evolution and sooty ‘trp o merge individ! edo and social responsiblity: German states unite int nation under Praia Teds. Hodge's What I Darwin? answers that it ‘sate, Sehiaparli's map of Mars identifies “anal” onthe sufi Hermann calls forthe rae separtion of. science fom eligi. arzine that either suppliss metaphysis ath Pasour dramatically demonstrates vaccine for ant n IR8S, be cares two pies sth vacsne for rabis. Michelson collaborates unsicossflly with ‘Morley to measure the eave velocity of ‘he Earth though the ete. Michlaon procs thao orginal ar reaching dcoveis in plyses wil e made ‘over the net hundred yeas _ lack introduces the den ha onergy is radiated and absorbed in discrete amounts he called guamt, intin formulate is theory of special relatviy Glossary biogenesis: The spomaneous appearance of living forms rom inorganic Animal electricity Electrical chage stored inthe muscles of animals ts discharges esponsible for mele contacton anit can be atiialy sischanpe i esl dsoeted pats Artificial classification: Clasifction of ving things based oman abitaiy {slot ona at Binomial nomenclature: Lsnifcation of ving things sing designation ‘onuning species and genus names, Used by Linnaeus in is stem of Nae Blending inerltance: Common understanding of heredity in Darwin's day in which he hereditary material rom ech pares averaged inthe offspring British Association forthe Advancement of Selene: Fist profesional {scion of atl sence in Britain, founded in 1431 and modeled on the aie Society of German Natural Investigators and Physicians, Caleination Process in which metal ses its plopston and becomes a cal, ss happens when amet sts, (Calorie: Weighess material element of heat tha, when combined wih rss renter odes, makes them warms density determined the boss semper, Catatrophism: Appeal 9 singular large-scale evens o explain tural henomena, inthe ease of Cuvier’ explanation of changes inthe history of ‘he Ean though loos and and elevation Classical mechanics: Name fo the maturation ofthe Newtonian mechanical ‘rdtion inthe 19° century. Commonly understood to etal a view of ature as 4 machine, determined in every reset bythe echnical ls governing its as, ltge and smal In his view, enor is adated and absorbed oni that st al owl requncis Coherence theory of ruth: Bele tat th th oa propaston consis main liscomespondnce with a ely independent of what may be belived abou it bt ints eeerence wih an existing set of bis Conservation af energy (force): Law aconing to which energy (Frc) am ther be rete nor destroyed but may be tatsfoeed fom one form into ‘other Also known 2th Fist Law of Thermodyamies Conservation of het: Understanding in which hoa, when used produce ‘mechanical fre, sot consumed bua asserted by Sa Caro, fmerely moved Tom higher temperatre ta tower oe.Conservation of matter: Matercan neither be crested nor destroyed bt an be ‘hanged fom one Form ito another, Consolidation: Process in which rocks have congealed overlong tine fom a primal glatinnts ido slid objets Correspondence theory of truth: Bel that the tr of proposition consis ints omespondence between out dex of ality andrea ie Degeneration: Process by which Buffon believed n species had been ere overtime by exeral condoms aay rom ts orginal or ito deiative fos. For example, contemporary ons and tigers were degerrations of 3 Primitive ea ‘Dein: Beli tht God is necessary to establish morality and to crete the world an its raul laws, bat that once this hs been done, God witha ad m0 Tenge interferes with reton Dephlogisteated alr estat has no phlogison nt. Piesey’s ame for the ‘gs Ine called oxygen by Lavoisier. Displacement curren: The electical crentproduced by changesin magnetic field in regions of space whee no conducting wie spose. Fist posulated by Janes Maxwell fom his model of elect and magnet ‘henomen Disspated energy: Kelvin’ ter for energy tht ad become unable for se By humans, he gradual accumulation of which lead to heat death, Electrical fie: Franklin's mame forthe imponderable id whose presence, ahsene, and movement he used to expan electra phenomena. etre: The name given to substances that display the capacity to trac igh objets suchas feathers, when rubbed. Lletrodymamics: Fores tat arise fom the motion of els sed by ‘Arps expand erestion of matin om cy. Electromagnetism: Magnetism crested inthe vicinity ofa curensarying wire, first observed by Oesed, tho depicted actions cla oees sounding the wi. Enlightenment: Philosophical movement smphasrng the human rational capaiy a4 4 means of comprehending ature and the hum conion, pigenesis The unfeing of th mbryo, viewed as an unorsunized muss, ato ‘ad form ther: Weighs medium of et elasticity and subty, aves in which wore responsible forte transmission a li belived to pemate the whleof| Planetary ad slr space, First Law of Thermodynamies Ses conservation of eneray ised ale Aros in sbstance tht is leased when the substance i ured, Late, Boks mame fr carton diode Falty of species: The aio tht he specs originally crested by God eannot ended to sre fom, or alrd overtime Force of mation: The fre an objet exens by vee of beng in motion, alana: Name first given othe “animal esti lar ned refer ewan lcci, a well discovered by Galvani, CGeognosy: Abraham Werner's name fr his systematic stay of minerals is {cus on close empirical observation and cara easoning coasted wit speculative heros ofeatsal agencies of teresa change Great Disruption: The split inthe Chrchof Scotland in 1843 in which ‘Setmcat of those dsstisied wih compromises with moderns ft fom the Free Kirk ‘eat death; Projected en ofthe physical universe dc tothe gradual climiration of temperate differences nessa for heat be used to produce tnechnicl mation, When no move tempertie difference exit no more mecca motion can be proce, ctergeness: The spontaneous appearance of living fos em organi kris that orgie material that has boon rendered eles. Hureralin: Assertion that lance among the body's fur hanaus (ood, tile, lack ile, and phim) acount fr bel, whl imbalance podces disease eal heat engine: Heat ng in which pars ae considered wigs and 90 beats lost to fietion by condacion. Induced current: Production oa curent by mgt, accomplished by Faraday in 1831 when he discovered hat clanging Lins of magetic free produces eleewcal eure, Inheritance of acquired characteris: The passing on offspring of characteristics aa organi caus daring ts time (x opposed 0 thoxe ‘sith which is bor, werse square law: Law derived by Newton based a the assumption hat the noon isallected by the same force hat sakes apes fll. The stent of the force between wo masses drops of asthe sare ofthe distance betwee he ‘sis Fit journal devoted o natural science adits implications for society, founded by Lorenz Oken in 1817Jardin da Rot (“Garden ofthe King”): Botanical institute uray, and laboratory over which Bufo presided from 17390 his death in 1788 Contin popularpark accesible tthe pic and was the sit of pubic Ietues on nitual cence, Renamed daring the revolution (se National Museum Karsschale: The institution of higher earing setup by Grand Duke Kat Engen of Wirtemberg nthe 1770 aya aerate to the Magaing niversiy at “Tings, which the rand dake had boen wnaleoreitlize. Training ground forkielmsyerand Cuvee Kinetic theory of gases: Explanation of properties of ese based onthe ssumption that atoms and mcs ave ely hough pace and are not Confined to mations fibration around fixed positions ‘Lamarchianevolaton: The understanding of changes in pees overtime trout on by a natural edeny to complexity ia their rgarizaton, Complement bythe inheritance of characterises axed dig the Hitine ‘foganss through over oF uner use of organ Lav of definite proportions: Law of chemical combination stating shat when ‘toms cabin fo frm a compound th umber of embining atoms of the Aitfernt lements fom singe, definite rats. Leyden jar: Devie invented inthe 18 comury tht can sore let chargs, Lines of force: Fraday'svsuaizaton of the circular pater according to which ‘the magnetic forex surrounding a cuent-carying wie at. “Materialism: Belt everything hat ecu in mature can be expand 8 the result of mater n oton, Because appeared to usurp God's ole, was Hisoialy associated with ahcsm, “Mechanical equivalent of heat The arnt of mechanical force hat my be ‘sind flo a certain amount of het, measured experimentally by Joule in 180, “Mechanical workview: The assrpton tat ature behaves as ge machine ans tht an understanding of ature cosiss in Knowledge ofthe machine’ pats and ow they go loser. Miracle of Canaan: The miracle worked by Jesus when he ume water ito win at a weingecebation, [National Convention: Name ofthe rvoitionary assembly tht ran fom te fill (of 1792 oth summer of 1795 ding the Fotch Revlon, Mos radial phase ofthe revolution responsible fr delaring France a epubic and for executing the king National nstitete: French replacement forthe French Academy of Seen, hich ad been closed in Augst of 1793, The Institue was rated in 1798 and id, a8 inthe od Academy, retin a iineton based on lass. Ht contin’ ‘wore terra scienesinluing Sections et moral and politcal cence, {hela rater ar the ine as, National Museum: New name fo the old Jin du Ro ("Garden of the Kg”), ‘ver which Buffon a presided rom 1739 to is death in 1788, St of pubic Teetres by Cuvier on fos bores inthe ate 17908 [Natural casieation: Clasfcaton scheme tht would revel the divin order ‘tration by lloing an organism's characteris o determine ts place in the Targrseheme [Natural steton: The principle sete by Darwin according to which Individual organism's sursival is dternined by hw well the characteristics ith ‘hich tis bom respon to the demands ofthe environment in which it ids Isl, "Naturalism: The worldview that ects appeals to supernatural ageney as part ‘fatempts to understand history ad the worl! and emphasis atu eases ‘operting acorn tl Nature philosophy (Naturphilosophe): Movistic Geman philosophical sytem inwhiithe one reality shows ise in poate of ming and ature, aking it posible to rcognize in ate the atibtes of He at mind ‘Nebula: Fuzzy objctsin the heavens itlogued by the astronomer since nity As art the nbulr hypothesis, they represented de prinal bat teu ute fom whch the slr system was formed [Nebula hypothe: The conjecture thatthe solr system originated fom bot nebulous ater tht contracted it individ mass that began to eva ‘ound contr and cool ‘Neptunlsm: Geological view aconting to which the Earth hs been shaped primarily by forest esoiated with moving water, which acted bash oer the Teg tem a croe and oer the short tem in Noo ‘Newtonlanism: View of mur andthe cosmos as machinery governed by avaible tral laws that determine is mations Nomletries:Sobtances ths o ot trac light ebjecs when rubbed but hat cam conduct the electri eflet fom one elect another. ‘Noumenal realm: Kaas name for tht par of eal whose existence we infer ffom encountering th iit of reson bet shos content are naceansble to reason. The sour, according o Kat ofthe sonsations hat eome tus fom the world in sl Organle worldview: The asumprion that nature behaves an organism and that an anderstanding of rate consists in drawing on the spn of experience that aman organisms share in common with nature.Pantheism: Belin deity whois dented as coexitut wth nature Paradigm: The famework. including conscious and unconscious assumptions within which thinking ose Paris Commission: Special commission apposed by the Frech Academy invetgnte the cams of rane Mex. Int report of 174, the cormision ruled that Mesme's uid did not exis Periodic table: Table of chemical elements grouped according to iis in hemiclpropece. Phenomenal realm: Kans name for tat part of experience we encounter by rca ofthe ses, The lw of aural eience pertain this eam logit: npondrabe substance whose release fom substance constutes comiotion Phenology; Stulyof he avs thought o govern human character and mental ‘apactee as reveled in the appearance of extra features, sich asthe shape of| the bead A poplar cence Briain inthe 1830s and 1840s Physius: The dsr physician in charg of making sue that odimnces overing the paces fling are bided by. Plural: olin he existence of other words Power of life: Lamarck’ phrase forthe natural tendeny of the physical ‘orgnizaton of living things to become mote complex reformation: The dotnet an eyo exists as anal form in miniature that expands in growth, able sphere: The emergence of public opinion sa faorSuping publi it ‘The assumption that atonal public dscurse replaces aocacy athe legitimicing source of power Although it emerges at iret ints in dierent couric, # waa reat in European ie bythe early 19" century ‘Quackery: The presumption onthe lelhood of ethers by performing thie Altes without appropiate peeission ‘Quant of nergy: Packets of ery called quama by Max Planck, whos: size ‘sdeermined b he fequeey of te radiation, ‘Quantum mechanics: Name forthe view of mechanics that replaced classical ‘mechanics. In quantom mechanics, eneay is ota and absorbed ominously bat only in discrete amouns. Rational chemistry: Chemica investigation in which explanations lyon remons and are no content with mre description of wht o£. ‘Recapitlation: 1a, endorsed by Kielmeyer, that th developmen: ofthe ‘pecs follows the sume order a development ofthe vidal organim. A theme preset in German biology down dough the tine of Darin. Reign of Terror: The period ofthe French Revolution om the summer of 1793, {ote surmer of 179 marked by wave of executions of al enemies ofthe revolaion By the Commitee of Publ Suey ‘Scala natrae The addr of reton orth arrangement of ving thins from ‘te mos simple tothe most complex Toms ‘Scientific materialism: The defense of mephysical materialism based on the ‘ims of ata seience. Endorsed nthe popular writings of Kal Vogt, Jakob Molescho and Ludwig Biche dog the Second hal ofthe 19 cena ia Germany. ‘Second Law of Thermodynamis; Physi ly secon o which the amount of valle energy inthe universe (he enerzy Hat canbe used todo werk) ‘scenes energy transformations ocr Social Darwinism: Namo given th alleged extension of Darwin's theory to the social and political elm by Herbert Spence and others. Characterized by Spence’ phase “survival he ites.” which promises to inprove Ihimanknd, A misnomer insofar ass itened to aly to Darwin's notion of rural selection which doesnot guarantee survival o progres. Society of German Investigators and Physicians (GeselichaftDeutcher ‘Natrforscher und dre: Fst mode assocation of mutual scence, ‘sublshd in 1822 witha meeting epi. Held aul metings ta ‘convene in different ces and included bth mowtingso individual seeatic

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