Abbreviations aad Syaalvole ABBREVIATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS AIA American Insitute of Aeronautics and Astronautics "AISC American Institute of Steel Construction ‘API American Petroleum Institute ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers ‘ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials ‘AWS American Welding Society ‘SEM Society for Experimental Mechanics ‘ABBREVIATIONS OF UNITS OF MEASURE AND OTHER TERMS allow allowable av average ce critical FS. factor of safety foot, feet hp horsepower Hz hertz (cycles per second) ‘in inch, inches kip(s) eg kilograms) kip kilopound (1000 Ib) ksi kips per square inch 1b pound(s (rom Latin ibra, meaning weight) ‘m meter, metre, 1000 mm (millimeters) N newton NA neutral axis Pa pascal psi pounds per square inch fed radian pm revolutions per minute ult ultimate ¥p yield point, yield stress ROMAN LETTER SYMBOLS @ area bounded by centerline of the perimeter ofa thin tube ‘A area, area of eross section ‘Aco partial area of beam cross-sectional area breadth, width ¢ distance from neutral axis or from center of twist to extreme fiber 4 diameter, distance, depth E modulus of elasticity in tension or compression Se F force, flexibility, allowable stress (AISC notation) ‘f frequency, computed stress (AISC notation) ‘modulus of elasticity in shear acceleration of gravity height, depth of beam ‘moment of inertia of cross-sectional area polar moment of inertia of circular cross-sectional area Sess concentration factor, effective length factor for columns ‘pring constant, constant Tength ‘moment, bending moment, mass plastic moment ‘ass, moment eaused by virtual unit force number of revolutions per minute foree, concentrated load pressure intensity, axial force due to unit force first or statical moment of area Any around neutral axis 7 distributed load intensity, shear How reaction, radius elastic section-modulus (S = Ile) S-shape (standard) stel beam secont(s) radi, radius of gyration forque, temperature thicknesss, width, tangential deviation strain enerzy internal force caused by virtual unit load, axial or radial displacement shear force (often vertical), volume deflection of beam, velocity total weight, work Weshape (wide flange) steel beam weight or load per nit of length plastic section modulus, we zs Eom eae oO: NE See 2 GaN yee, ‘GREEK LETTER SYMBOLS ceaguernenbe (alpha) coefficient of thermal expansion, general angle (gamma) shear strain, weight per unit volume (delta) total deformation or deflection, change of any designated function (epsilon) normal strain (theta) slope angle for elastic curve, angle of inclination of line on body (appa) curvature (lambda) eigenvalue in column buckling problems (ou) Poisson's ratio (ho) radius, radius of curvature (sigma) tensile or compressive stress ({e., normal stress) (tau) shear stress (hi total angle of twist, general angle (omega) angular velocityEngineering Mecheales of SolidsPRENTICE-HALL INTERNATIONAL SERIES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING MECHANICS William J. Hall, Editor EGOR PPopov. EP (Egor Pau) goetring estes of sls Ea . Popo ct. (Peace Hall tereatonal sees a Gv ‘isan Inches des ISBN O1.275583 1, Strength of raters. 1 Tle. I, Sei, Taioser 190 eo eat sso cir raed spr: Soe Papen revisions and Symbol See Inside Front Cover ltr den: ues Psi OF Broadway Graphics Abbrev Sam rn be Kel etace x ‘Manufacturing buyer: Mary Noonan * ‘oe sino Arts Coen oes anon, See 16 4 stress—Aaxial Loads—Safety Concepis 4 11 Introduction Part A GENERAL CONCEPTS—STRESS 3 1.2 Method of Sections 3 bene 1.3 Definition of Stress 4 Englewood Cit, Neu eae 0762 14 Siress Tensor 7 **15 Differential Equations of Equilibrium " Part B STRESS ANALYSIS OF AXIALLY ‘Mi rect No pr of i ky be LOADED BARS 2 ‘thou persion awn or the puter 146 Stresses on Inclined Sections in Axially Loaded Bars 2 447 Maximum Normal Stress in Axislly Loaded Bars 16 18 Shear Stresses » Brite he Unie Sate of Ameria 119 Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses 2 | Part C DETERMINISTIC AND PROBABILISTIC. ISBN 0-13-279258-3 DESIGN BASES ” 10 Member Strength as a Design Criterion 3 restie Hl trations (UK) Le, London 1411 Deterministic Design of Members: Axially Loaded Prone Ha of Asal My. Lines, Shey Bars » eateelal Cnn Tooue 91412 Probabilistic Bass for Structural Design 38 Prete Mal ef nda Pre Lind, New Del {7113 Bolted and Riveted Connections a Presta Japa ne Tobe e114 Welded Joints 30 Simon & Schuster As Pr Lid Singapore Problems 3vi contents 2 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars 241 Introduction Part A STRAINS AND DEFORMATION! STRAINS AN IS IN AXIALLY 2.2 Normal Strain 2.3 Stress-srain Relationships 2-4 Hooke's Law 2-5 Further Remarks on Stress-strain Relationships 2.6 Other Idealizations of Constitutive Relations 2-7 Deformation of Axially Loaded Bars 28 Poisson's Ratio 2-9 Thermal Strain and Deformation 2-10 Saint-Venant’s Principle and Stress Concentrations {2-11 Elastic Strain Energy for Uniaxial Stress 22-12 Deflections by the Energy Method “213 Dynamic and Impact Loads Part 8 STATISTICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 2-14 General Consiternons 215 Force Method of Analysis 2-6 lotion tte Dice Method ©2217 Displacement Mthot wth Several Depees of Freedom = 2.18 Inrodton to Stata Indeterminate Nonlinear Problems 2-19 Alternative Diferental Equation Approach for Deltions Problems 3 Generalized Hooke's Law, Pi Vessels, and Thick-Walled Cylinders 341 Introduction Part A CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR SHEAR 3:2 Stress-srain Relationships for Shear 343 Elastic Strain Eneray for Shear Stresses 60 o “0 6 i 84 6 ot 99 99 100 106 108, 12 ns mm 139 ne 439 rer m1 contents Part B GENERALIZED CONCEPTS OF STRAIN AND HOOKE'S LAW “43 #34 Mathematical Definition of Strain 13 $35 Sirain Tensor 1s {6 Generalized Hooke's Law for Isotopic Materials 145, 37 E, Gand » Relaionshipss 150 34 Dilatation and Bull Modulos 151 Part © THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS 482 39 Cylindrial and Spherical Pressure Vessels 152 43:0 Remarks oa Thin-valed Pressure Vessels 157 Part D THICK-WALLED CYLINDERS 159 ‘e341 Introduction 159 43112 Solution ofthe General Problem 10 <213 Special Cases 16s e214 Behavior of Ideally Plastic Thick-valled Cylinders 167 Problems m 4 Torsion 475 441 Introduetion 15 42 Application ofthe Method of Sections m5 Part A TORSION OF CIRCULAR ELASTIC BARS 477 43 Basic Assumption for Cirular Members 7 44 The Torsion Formula v8 445 Remarks on the Torsion Formula 18 446 Design of Circular Members in Torsion 185 47 Stress Concentrations 1 48 Angle-of twist of Circular Members 19 “49 Staticaly Indeterminate Problems 154 ‘10 Aleratve Differential Equation Approach for Torsion Problems 7 ‘41 Energy and Impact Loads 9 ‘wsei2 Shaft Couplings 2 Part B TORSION OF INLASTIC CIRCULAR BARS 202 413 Shear Stresses and Deformations in Circular Shafts inthe Inelastic Range 202 vilvill Part © TORSION OF SOLID NONCIRCULAR MEMBERS ‘414 Solid Bars of any Cross Section ‘4-15 Warping of Thin-Walled Open Sections Part D TORSION OF THIN-WALLED TUBULA MEMBERS ® “416 Thin-walled Hollow Members Problems 5 Axial Force, Shear, and Moment , and Bending $11 Introduction Part A CALCULATION OF REACTIONS £5-2 Diagrammatic Conventions for Supports £533 Diagrammatie Conventions for Loading 54 Classification of Beams "55 Calculation of Beam Reactions Part B DIRECT APPROACH FOR AXIAL FORCE, ‘SHEAR, AND BENDING MOMENT " 5.6 Application of the Method of Sections 547 Axial Force in Beams 548 Shear in Beams 5.9 Bending Moment in Beams 5:10 Axial-Force, Shear, and Bending-Moment Diagrams Part © SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENTS BY INTEGRATION S11 Diferentia! Equations of Equorum fra Beam $12 Shear Diagrams by Integration of the Load $13 Moment Diagrams by Integration of the Shear 5:14 Effect of Concentrated Moment on Moment Diagrams 5.15 Moment Diagram and the Elastic Curve ©*5-16 Singularity Functions Problems 207 207 au 213 213 217 224 2s 25 28 230 234 234 2s 237 40 248 250 252 261 263 269) 6 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces 61 Introduction Part A BENDING OF BEAMS WITH SYMMETRIC ‘ROSS SECTIONS. 62 The Basic Kinematic Assumption 63 The Elastic Flexure Formula ‘6-4 Computation of the Moment of Inertia {65 Applications of the Flexure Formula #646 Stress Concentrations "6:7 Elastic Strain Energy in Pore Bending ‘68 Beams Composite Cross Section 69 Curved Bars 610 Inelastic Bending of Beams Part B UNSYMMETRIC BENDING AND BENDING WITH AXIAL LOADS: 11 Bending about both Principal Axes 6-12 Elastic Bending with Axial Loads 66:13 Inelastic Bending with Axial Loads ‘614 Bending of Beams with Unsymmetic (Arbitrary) Cross Section Part © AREA MOMENTS OF INERTIA 615 Area Moments and Products of Inertia. "6-16 Principal Axes of Inertia Problems 7 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems 74 Introduction Part A SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS 172 Preliminary Remarks 73 Shear Flow 74 The Shear-stress Formula for Beams 7-5 Warpage of Plane Sections Due to Shear "7-6 Some Limitations of the Shear-stress Formula 7-7 Shear Stresses in Beam Flanges 1-8 Shear Center 280 280 281 281 23 259 2 21 299 301 306 3 319 319 324 333 336 340 3a 343 357 357 387 30 361 367 3 38 380 382x contents Part B SUPERPOSITION OF SHEAR STRESSES 7-9 Combined Direct and Torsional Shear Stresses ‘e710 Stresses in Closely Coiled Helical Springs ‘AL Deflection of Closely Coiled Helical Springs Problems 8 transtormation of Stress and Strain and Yield and Fracture Criteria 841 Introduction Part A TRANSFORMATION OF STRESS | 8:2 The Basic Problem 8.3 Transformation of Stresses in Two-dimensional Problems 8.4 Principal Stresses in Two-dimensional Problems 8-5 Maximum Shear Stresses in Two-dimensional Problems 846 Mohr’s Circle of Stress for Two-dimensional Problems *8-7 Construction of Moe's Circles for Stress ‘Transformation *°8-8 Principal Stresses for a General State of Stress 8.9 Moe's Circle for a General State of Stress Part B TRANSFORMATION OF STRAIN 8.10 Strains in Two Dimensions 8:11 Transformation of Strain in Two Dimensions £812 Altermative Derivation for Strain Transformation 'wo Dimensions "8.13 Mote's Circle for Two-dimensional Strain oes Part © YIELD AND FRACTURE CRITERIA 8:15 Introductory Remarks $16 Maximum Shear-Stress Theory 8:17 Maximum Distortion-Energy Theory 8:18 Comparison of Maximum-Shear and Distortion- Energy Theories for Plane Stress 8.19 Maximum Normal Stress Theory 8.20 Comparison of Yield and Fracture Criteria Problems 386 386 389) 301 393 403 403 403 03 407 40 44 47 424 26 430 30 40 433 435 404 aa 492 44 48 49 450 453 i 9 Elastic Stress Analysis and Design 9.4 Introduction Part A ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS 9.2 State of Stress for Some Basic Cases 9.3 Comparative Accuracy of Beam Solutions ‘9-4 Experimental Methods of Stress Analysis Part B ELASTIC DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR STRENGTH 9-5 Design of Axially Loaded Members 956 Design of Torsion Members 9-7 Design Criteria for Prismatic Beams 948 Design of Prismatic Beams 9.9 Design of Nonprismatic Beams 9-10 Design of Complex Members Problems 40 Defiections of Beams 104 Introduction Part A DEFLECTIONS BY INTEGRATION 10-2 Moment-Curvature Relation 1053 Governing Differential Equation **104 Alternative Derivation of the Governing Equation 1055 Alternative Forms ofthe Governing Equation 10-6 Boundary Conditions 10-7 Direct-Integration Solutions #108 Singularity Functions for Beams 109 Deflection by Superposition 10-10 Deflection in Unsymmetrical Bending “10-11 Energy Method for Deflections and Impact ‘10412 Inelastic Defletion of Beams “Part B DEFLECTIONS BY THE MOMENT-AREA METHOD **40-13 Introduction to the Momeat-Area Method “10-14 Moment-Area Theorems **10415 Sttically Indeterminate Beams Problems 459 459 464 461 466 ) 470 470 a7 an 475 480 482 498 “98 499 499 S01 506 505 505 507 323 59 Sar 335 837 sa 538 351 559xi contents 44 stability of Equilibrium: Columns 114 Introduction Examples of Instability Criteria for Stability of Equitibrium Part A BUCKLING THEORY FOR COLUMNS 11-4 Euler Load for Columns with Pinned Ends 1165 Euler Loads for Columas with Differeat End Restraints 1146 Limitations ofthe Euler Formulas 11-7 Generalized Euler Buckling-Load Formulas S118 Eccentric Loads and the Secant Formula “119 Beam-Columns ‘11-10 Alternative Differential Equations for Beam Columns Part B DESIGN OF COLUMNS "11-11 General Considerations “11-12 Concentrcaly Loaded Columns s11-13 Ecceatrcally Loaded Columns “11-14 Lateral Stability of Beams Problems 42 Energy and Viriual-Work Methods 124 Introduction Part A ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY AND EXTERNAL woRK 12-2 Blastic Strain Energy 1253 Displacements by Conservation of Energy Part B VIRTUAL WORK METHODS “12-4 Virtual Work Principle ZS Virtual Forces for Dellections 126 Virtual Force Equations for Elastic Systems 12-7 Virtual Forces for Indeterminate Problems 12-8 Virtual Displacements for Equilibrium "12-9 Virtual Work for Discrete Systems 574 sm 316 S78 583 so 385 588 300 392 536 oo 616, a3 623 634 os 638 as 628 638 4s 650 6s 67 Part © ELASTIC ENERGY METHODS ‘120 General Remarks TIDAL Strain Energy and Complementary Strain-Energy ‘Theorems 12-12 Castialiano’s Theorems ‘SI2.13 Statically Indeterminate Systems e114 Blastic Energy for Buckling Loads Problems 43 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS #134 Introduction Part A ELASTIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS "113-2 Two Basie Methods for Elastic Analysis “13.3 Force Method “B-4 Flexibilty Coefficients Reciprocity “135 Introduction to the Displacement Method 136 Further Remarks on the Displacement Method 8137 Stifiess Coefficients Reciprocity Part B PLASTIC LIMIT ANALYSIS "1368 Plastic Limit Analysis of Beams “13-9 Continuous Beams and Frames Problems APPENDICES: TABLES ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS INDEX Conversion Factors between U.S. Customary and. SI Units: See Inside Back Cover, Contents 664 661 661 665 670 om 676 703 708 mi m AA Pa Nt xi aic This book is an update of two ofthe author's earlier texts, Mechanics of Materials (Prentice-Hall, Inc, 2ad Eé., 1976) and Iniroduction to Me- ‘hanies of Solids (Prentice-Hall, Ic., 1968). It was felt important to sup- ‘Gloment the traditional topics with some exposure to newly emerging isciplines, Among these, some treatment of the probabilistic basis for Structural analysis, modest exposure tothe matrix methods, and illustra tions using the method of finite elements are discussed. Further, to con- form with the more mathematical trend in teaching this subject, more Figorous treatment is selectively provided. A few more advanced topics have also been introduced. As result, the book is lager than its pred- fcessors. This has an advantage in thatthe user of this text has a larger Choice for study, according to needs. Moreover, experience shows that the serious student retains the text for use asa reference in professional Iie “This book is lager than what can easly be covered in a one quarter or one-semester course. Therefore, it should prove useful for a follow- lp course on the subject at an intermediate level. As an aid in selecting text material for a basie course that is consecutive, with no gaps in the Togical development of the subject, numerous sections, examples, and problems marked with a can be omitted, To a lesser extent, this also Epplis to material marked with a *. These guides to possibilities for dele tion are proved throughout the text. In few instances, suggestions for fan alternative sequence in studying the subject are also given. The text is carefully integrated by means of cross-referencing Its the belief of the author thatthe serious student, because of the wealth of available material in the text, even in an abbreviated course, Should become more knowledgeable. Several illustrations ean be men- tioned in this regard. For example, while the student is studying the al Towable stress design of axially loaded members in Chapter 1, a mere lance at Fig. 1-26, showing histograms for two materials, should reveal the limitations of sucha design. The same is true for the student studying thin-walled pressure vessels; even a superficial examination of Fig. 3-24 suggests why limitations are place by the ASME on the use of elementaryxvi {ormulas for thin-walled pressure vessels. Modest exposure to some ma- tix solutions and illustrations obtained using finite-clement methods should arouse interest. Some exposure tothe plasticlimit-state methods ziven in the las section ofthe last chapter warrants attention, Inthe hands of an instructor, these side issues can be discussed in a minimum of time ‘and brought in wherever desired. Next, some remarks on the philosophy ‘of the subject and issues of possible controversy are raise. Chapter 2 forms the cornerstone of the subject and has to be studied carefully. The introduced concepts are repeatedly used in the remainder ‘of the text Further, the sequence of study fortis chapter can be varied, ‘depending on preference. For example, by studying Section 2-19 imme diately following Section 2-7, the distinction between statically deter ‘inate and indeterminate systems becomes less important, This approach can be useful in introducing the displacement method of analysis, The text as written, however, follows the traditional approach. The sugwested variation in the sequence would probably require assistance from an in- ‘The more controversial issue encountered in developing this text deals ‘withthe adopted shear sig convention for beams. The one used is thor. ‘oughly entrenched in U.S. practice; however, it i in conflict with the ‘ight-hand sign convention for axes. If needed, it can easily be modified for use with a.computer. The engineering sign convention for shear sed, in addition to its virtually universal use in design, requires no sign changes in consecutive integrations. Experience has shown that fewer mistakes are made in using it in hand calculations, ‘The introduction of Mohr's circles of stress and strain presented a prob: lem. Whereas the basi algebra and comprehensive meaning of the con- struction of the citees isthe same, two alternative methods ae in general luse, and there are strong advocates for each method, Therefore, both approaches are developed; the choice of procedure is left to the reader, With the alternative one remaining as a reference. In the preparation of this book, over 30 people at more than a dozen ‘universities contributed to its development. Among these, W. Bickford (ASU)t, ME, Criswell (CSU), J. Dempsey (CU), H. D. Eberhart (UCB and UCSB), J.J. Tuma (ASU), and G. A. Wempner (GIT), reviewed the entire manuscript and offered numerous valuable suggestions; F. Filippou (UCB), 5. L, Lubliner (UCB), and A. C, Seordelis (UCB) provided much encouragement and made useful suggestions for clarifying the text; A. + Letersin parentheses ideatiy the following universes: ASU, Arizone State University: CSU, Colorado State University: CU, Clemson University: OT, Georgi Institute of Technology; LSU, Louisiana State Univesity; NTU, Ne. tional Taivan Universiy; UCB, University of Cafome. Berkley: UCD, Unt vetsityof California at Davis: UCLA, University of California at on Angeles UCSB, University of California a Santa Barbara: USC, University of Southern California; UTA, University of Texas, Austin; UQ, University of Queensland, and UW, Unversity of Washinton. Protace ‘Piofmann (UCD), and J. M.Rices (UCSD) gave useful suggestions for Herr a en mt ar’ ck sea tre xviiEagiacecing Medhenles of SolidsSoca, Axial loads, a) tt Ealing Comse(pi7 1-1. Introduction In all engineering construction, the component parts of a structure or & machine must be assigned definite physial sizes. Such parts must be properly proportioned fo resist the actual or probable forees that may be Imposed upon them. Thus, the walls ofa pressure vessel must be of ad ‘equate strength to withstand the internal pressure; the ors ofa building ‘must be sufficiently strong for their intended purpose; the shaft of a ma- | Chine must be of adequate size to carry the required torque; a wing of an airplane must safely withsiand the aerodynamic loads that may come upon, itin takeoft, ight, and landing. Likewise, the part of a composite struc ture must be rigid enough so as not to deflector sag” excessively when im operation under the imposed loads. floor ofa building may be strong, enough but yet may deflect excessively, which in some instances may case misalignment of manufacturing equipment, or in other cases result in the cracking ofa plaster ceiling attached underneath, Also 8 member ‘ay be so thin or slender that, upon being subjected to compressive load ing, it wil collapse through buckling, Le, the intial configuration of a member may become unstable, The ability to determine the maximum | Toad that slender column can earry before buckling occurs or the safe level of vacuum that can be maintained by a vessel is of great practical importance. Tn engineering practice, such requirements must be met withthe min imum expenditure of a given material. Aside from cost, at times—as in the design of satelites—the feasibility and success of the whole mission ‘may depend on the weight of @ package. The subject of mechanics of‘Sas, Alo Loads, ond Safety Concepts ‘materials, or the strength of materials, as it has been traditionally called in the past, involves analytical methods for determining the strength, stiffness (deformation characteristics), and stability of the various load carrying members, Alternately the subject may be called the mechanics (of solid deformable bodies, or simply mechanics of solids ‘Mechanics of solids is a fairly old subject, generally dated from the work of Galileo in the early part ofthe seventeenth century. Prior to his investigations into the behavior of solid bodies under loads, constructors followed precedents and empirical rules. Galileo was the first to attempt to explain the behavior of some of the members under load on a rational basis. He studied members in tension and compression, and notably bbeams used in the construction of hulls of ships forthe Taian navy, OF ‘course, much progress has been made since that time, but it must be noted in passing that much is owed in the development of this subject to the French investigators, among whom a group of outstanding men such 8s Covlomb, Poisson, Navier, St. Venant, and Cauchy, who worked at the break of the nineteenth century, has left an indelible impression on this subject. The Subject of mechanics of solids cuts broadly across all branches of the engineering profession with remarkably many applications. Its meth ‘ods are needed by designers of offshore structures; by civil engineers in the design of bridges and buildings by mining engineers and architectural ‘engineers, each of whom is interested in structures; by nuclear engineers in the design of reactor components; by mechanical and chemical eng neers, who rely upon the methods of this subject forthe design of ma cchinery and pressure vessels; by metallurgists, who need the fundamental Concepts ofthis subject in order to understand how to improve existing ‘materials further: finally, by electrical engineers, who need the methods ofthis subject because ofthe importance af the mechanical engineering phases of many portions of electrical equipment. Engineering mechanics of solids, contrasted with the mathematical theory of continuum me- chanics, has charecteristic methods all its own, although the two ap- proaches overlap. It isa definite discipline and one of the most funda- mental subjects of an engineering curticulum, standing alongside such other basi subjects as fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, as well as elee- trical theory. "The behavior ofa member subjected to forees depends not only on the fundamental laws of Newtonian mechanics that govern the equilibrium ofthe forces, but also on the mechanical characteristics ofthe materials of which the member is fabricated. The necessary information regarding the latter comes from the laboratory, where materials are subjected 10 the action of accurately known forces and the behavior of test specimens is observed with particular regard to such phenomena as the occurrence of breaks, deformations, etc. Determination of such phenomena is vital $0e. 12, Metnos ot Sections art ofthe subject, but this branch islet ooter books Here the end re ‘sults of such investigations are of interest, and this book is concerned oi analytical or mathematical part of the subject in contradistinction wih entation. For these reason, i sen hat mechani of sls 1 eri ance of experiment and Nesronian postulates of analyte ieee tis presumed thatthe reader hs some faiianty in both of| reer Inthe development ofthis sibject. sais plays pavelariy dominant rl topes ofthe subject. I spite ‘fen wil be ited to the simpler topics ofthe of te senive simpy ofthe methods employed ere the esting ques are unusually sell they apply fo avast numberof eh tial importat problems. Si tpecmaercan be maseredbest by solving numerous robles -mreaamber of asic formulae ecesar forthe analjis and design of ‘rosturland mache members by he metods flennerig mechanics “Siu fs relatvely sia, however throughout this study, the reader of aidevelop an sity to sulze a problem andthe nature othe gish- ss ing competed Complete careful drain dagrammatic sketches Sperobems oe saved il po lage dividends i a qucker and more Bnplete mastery ofthis sublet "Tse are thce major pats in this chapter. The general concep of sic are edd fist Ths flowed wih a parteular case of tes Scthatonmsxally loaded members. Stegth design itera based on Stes are discussed nthe st part ofthe chapter Part A GENERAL CONCEPTS: STRESS 1-2, Method of Sections eign otal ensane of oly, thats he naire offer ea it oie gpa here Aco a eect Se TS Te lig Seche ocesctoFa. to 14 Sectioning of & iy Sess, Axl Loacs, and Safety Concepts supports and the weight ofthe body itself, are considered external forces. Moreover, since a stable body at rest is in equilibrium, the forces acting on it satisfy the equations of static equilibrium, Thus, ithe forces acting fn a body such as shown in Fig. (l(a) satisly the equations of static equilibrium and are all shown acting on it, the sketch represents a free- body diagram. Next, sine a determination ofthe internal forces caused by the extemal ones is one of the principal concerns of this subject, an arbitrary section passed through the body. completely separating it into two parts. The result of such 2 process can be seen in Figs. I-1(0) and (c), where an arbitrary plane ABCD separates the orginal solid body of Fig. 1-1) into two distinct parts. Ths process will be referred to asthe ‘method of sections. Then, ifthe body a8 a whole isin equilibrium, any bar of t must also be in equilibrium. For such parts of a body, however, some of the forces necessary to maintain equilibrium must act at the cut section. These considerations lead tothe following fundamental concli- sion: the externally applied forces 19 one side of an arbitrary cut must be balanced by the internal forces develaped at the cut, or, briefly, the ‘external forces are balanced by the internal frces. Later it will be seen thatthe cutting planes willbe oriented in particular directions to ft special Fequirements. However, the method of sections will be relied upon as a first step in solving all problems where internal forces are being inves- tigated. In discussing the method of section, itis significant to note that some moving bodies, although notin static equilibrium, are in dynamic equi. librium. These problems canbe reduced to problems of static equilibrium, ist, the acceleration a of the part in question is computed; then itis ‘multiplied by the mass m ofthe body, giving a force F = ma, Ifthe force so computed is applied to the body at its mass centr in direction op- posite to the acceleration, the dynamic problem is reduced to one of statis. This sth so-called d’Alembert principe. With this point of view, all bodies can be thought of as being instantaneously in a state of static equilibrium. Hence, for any body. whether in static or dynamic equlib- ‘ium, a free-body diagram can be prepared on which the necessary forces ‘o maintain the body as a whole in equilibrium can be shown. From then on, the problem is the same as discussed before 1.3. Definition of Stress In general, the internal forces acting on infinitesimal areas ofa cut are of varying magnitudes and directions, as was shown earlier in Figs. 1-100) and (c), and as is again shown in Fig. 1-2(a). These forces are vectorial ® Stel speaking, the weight ofthe Body. of, more general, the inertial forces due to acceleration, ete, ae "boay forces," and et throughout the body n't ‘manner associated with ihe units of volume ofthe body. However, in mas stances, these body forces can be consideted 3s external lads tng through the body's enter of mass S06, 13, Detintion of sos. in nature and they maintain the externally applied forces in equilibrium, In mechanies of solids it i particularly significant to determine the in- tensity of these forces on the various portions of a section as resistance to deformation and to forces depends on these intensities. In general they ‘vary from point to point and are inclined with respect tothe plane of the section, Its advantageous to resolve these intensities perpendicular and parallel to the section investigated. As an example, the components of a foree vector AP acting on an area AA are shown in Fig. 1-20). In this particular diagram, the section through the body is perpendicular to the trax, andthe directions of AP, and ofthe normal to AA coincide. The ‘Component parallel to the section is further resolved into components slong the y and z axes. Since the components of the intensity of force per unit srea—i.e., of stress—hold true only ata point, the mathematical definition of stress ‘where, in all three cases, the fist subscript of + (tau) indicates thatthe plane perpendicular tothe x axis is considered, and the second designates the direction ofthe stress component. In the next section, all possible combinations of subscripts for sess wil be considered. ‘The intensity of the force perpendicular to or normal tothe section is called the normal stress at a point. It is customary to refer to normal Stresses that cause traction or tension onthe surface ofa section as rensile siresses. On the other hand, those that are pushing against it are com- Dressive stresses. In this book, normal stresses will usually be designated by the letero (sigma) instead of by a double subscript on. A single As A + 0, some question rom the atomic point of view exits in defining stress in this manner. However, homogeaceus (uiform) model for nonbome feeneous mater appears to have Worked Wel Fig.t2 Secioned body: a) free body with some lateral forces, (0) enlarged view with component of 47.‘Sess, Adal Loads, ond Safely Concepts subscript then sulices to designate the direction of the axis. The other components of the intensity of force act parallel to the plane ofthe ele- ‘mentary area. These components are called shear or shearing stresses. Shear stresses will be always designated by +. ‘The reader should form a clear mental picture of the stresses called normal and those called shearing. To repeat, normal stresses result from force components perpendicular to the plane ofthe cut, and shear stresses ‘result from components tangential t0 the plane of the cut Its seen from the definitions that since they represent the intensity of| force on an area, stresses are measured in units of force divided by units of area. In the U.S, customary system, units for stress are pounds per ‘square inch, abbreviated psi. In many cases, it will be found convenient to.use as a unit of force the coined word kip, meaning kilopound, or {000 Tb. The stress in kips per square inch is abbreviated Ai. It should be noted thatthe unit pound referred to here implies 2 pound force, not pound- ‘mass, Such ambiguities are avoided in the modernized version of the metre system referred tas the International System of Units or SLunits.* ‘SLunits are being increasingly adopted and will be used in this text along with the U.S, customary system of units in order to facilitate a smooth transition. The base units in Sl are meter*(m) for length, kilogram (ke) for mass, and second (s) for time. The derived unit for area is a square ‘meter (tn), and for acceleration, a meter per second squared (mis). The unit of force is defined as @ unit mass subjected to a unit acceleration, ie., kilogram-meter per second squared (kg-ms), and is designated a newton (N). The unit of stress is the newton per square meter (Nim), also designated a pascal (Pa). Multiple and sulbmltiple prefixes repre senting steps of 1000 are recommended. For example, foree can be shown inmillnewtons (I WN = 0.001 N), newtons, or Klonewtons (1 KN = 1000 1) length in millimeters (i mm = 0.001 m), meters, or kilometers (1 km = 1000 m), and stress in klopascals (1 kPa = 10? Pa), megapascals (I-MPa = 10" Pa), or gigapascals (1 GPa = 10° Pa), ete? The stress expressed numerically in units of Nim may appear 10 be ‘unusually smal to those familiar with the U.S. customary system of uit, This isbecause the fore of { newton is small in relation toa poune-foree, and I square meter is associated with a much larger area than I square inch, Therefore, itis often more convenieat in most applications to think in terms ofa force of ! newton acting on 1 square millimeter. The units for such a quantity are Nimm*, or, in preferred notation, megapascals cua) {From the French, Systéme International Units. 4 Also spelled mere 4 detaled discussion of SI units, including conversion factors, rules for SI syle and usage canbe found ina comprebensive guide publisec by ihe American ‘Society Yor Testing and Materials as ASTM Standard or Metric Pactice E380. 6. Forconvenene, shor able of enverson fists cd on the side S00. 4, hese Tentor ‘Some conversion factors from U.S. customary to SI units are given on the inside ofthe back cover. It may be useful to note that approximately Tin = 25 mm, | poundforce ~ 4.4 newtons, and | psi = 7000 Pa, Tt should be emphasized that siresses multiplied by the respective areas ‘on which they act give forces. Alan imaginary section, a vector som of these forees, called sires resultants, keeps a body in equilibrium. In engineering mechanics of solid, the stress resultants ata selected section fre generally determined first, and then, using established formulas, ‘Srestes are determined, 1-4, Stress Tensor fin addition tothe section implied in the fre body of Fig. 12, another plane an infinitesimal distance avay and parallel tothe first were passed through the body, an elementary slice would be isolated. Then, if an ‘additional two pais of planes were passed normal tothe frst pair, acube ‘of infinitesimal dimensions would be isolated from the body. Such e cube is shown in Fig. 1-(a). All stresses acting on this cube are Wdeniied on the diagram. As noted earlier, the frst subscripts on the +s associate the stress with a plane perpendicular to 2 given axis; the second subscripts ‘esignate the direction of the stress. On the near faces of the cube, ie fn the faces away from the origin, the directions of stress are positive if they coincide with the positive directions ofthe axes. On the faces ofthe ceube toward the origin, from the action-reaction equilibrium concept, positive stresses actin the direction opposite to the positive directions fof the axes. (Note that for normal stresses, by changing the symbol for stress from toc, a single subscript on e suffices to define tis quantity ‘without ambiguity) The designations for stresses shown in Fig. 1-3a) are ‘widely used in the mathematical theories of elasticity and plasticity, at a point in question a diferent set of axes are chosen, the corre Fig. 13 (a) General state (titres acting on a8, infinitesimal element in the al coordinate system. (0) ‘General state of stress acting ‘onan ifiritesimal element, ‘Sfined ia roated system ‘of eoordinate axes. All ftresaes have postive‘Shats, Al Loads, and Safely Concepts sponding stresses are as shown in Fig. -3(0). These stresses are related, but are not generally equal, to those shown in Fig. L3(a). The process ‘of changing stresses from one set of coordinate axes to another i termed swess transformation. The state of sess a a point which can be defined by three components on each of the three mutually perpendicular (or thogonal) axes in mathematical terminology is called & tensor. Precise mathematical processes apply for transforming. tensors, including Stresses, from one set of axes (0 another. A simple case of stress trans formation wll be encountered in the next section, and a more complete sliscussion is given in Chapter 8 ‘An examination of the stress symbols in Fig. 1-¥(a) shows that there are three normal stresses: t= Oty = Oy. Tua = Ges and six shearing Stres888: ta, yrs Tes Tn Tens Tes BY contrast a force vector P has only three components: P., Py, and P.. These can be written in an orderly ‘manner as a column vector P. a (te) z ‘Analogously, the stress components can be assembled as follows: Geg-G: ‘This is a matrix representation of the stress tensor. It is @ second-rank tensor requiring two indices to identify its elements or components. A vectoris a fist-rank tensor, anda scala isa zero-rank tensor. Sometimes, for brevity, a stress tensor is written in indicial notation as ry, where it is understood that and ean assume designations x,y, and z as noted in Eq, (I-1b). ‘Next, it will be shown that the stress tensor is symmetric, Le, ‘This follows directly from the equilibrium requirements for an element. For this purpose, let the dimensions ofthe infinitesimal clement be di. dy, and de, and sum the moments of forces about an axis such as the 2 axis in Fig, 1-4, Only the stresses entering the problem are shown inthe Figure, By neglecting the infinitesimals of higher order,’ this process is ‘equivalent to taking the moment about the: axis in Fig. 1-4) or, about Point C in is two-dimensional representation in Fig. 1-46). Thus, cb) * The possibility ofan ifntesimal change in stress from one face ofthe cube to anater andthe possibilty ofthe presence of body (nr forces ens. BY frst considering an element xy and proceeding the itt an be sho, rigorously that these quantities ae of higher order and therefore elite S00. 4, Shes Tensor Fig. 4 Elements in pure shes. Mc = OG + + (rlldr dedldy) ~ Goldy deN(ds) = 0 where the expressions in parentheses correspond respectively to stress, area, and moment arm. Simplifying, a2) Similarly, it can be shown that tz = ter and tye © tey. Hence, the sub- sripts for the shear stresses are commutative, ie., their order may be interchanged, and the stress tensor i symmetric. The implication of Ea. 1-2 is very important. The fact that subscripts are commutative signifies that shear stresses on mutually perpendicular planes ofan infinitesimal element are numerically equal, and 5) M. = 0 isnot satisfied by a single pair of shear stresses. On diagrams, asin Fig [-4Q), the arrowheads of the shear stresses must meet at diametrically ‘opposite corners of an element to satisty equilibrium conditions, Tn most subsequent situations considered inthis text, more than two pairs of shear stresses will seldom act on an element simultaneously, Hence, the subscripts used before to identify the planes and the directions ofthe Shear stresses become superfluous, In such cases, shear stresses will be designated by + without any subscripts. However, one must re ‘member that shear stresses always occur in two pairs. This notation simplification ean be used to advantage for the state of stress shown in Fig, 1-5. The two-dimensional stress shown in the figure is referred to as plane stress. In matrix representation such a stress can be writen as |10 Stross, Al Loees, and Safely Concepts Soe. 15. pilleretial Equations of Eoulioum " +*#91.5, Differential Equations of Equilibrium ‘An infinitesimal element of a body must be in equilibrium. For the two: dimensional case, the system of stresses acting onan infinitesimal element (diN(@y)() is shown in Fig. 1-6. In this derivation, te element is of unit thickness in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Note that the possibility of an increment ia stresses from one face othe element to another is accounted for. For example, since the rate of change of inthe x direction is ,/0x and step of dis made, the increment is (i! 4x) dx. The partial derivative notation has to be used to differentiate between the directions. “The inertial or body forces, such as those caused by the weight or the nagneti effect, are designated X and Y and are associated with the unit ‘volume of the material. With these notations, no. mast pons a (1+ Meas) cx 9 046) 0 ba c+ (28a) tax n= atdr 9 4 ata 0 = 0 0 9, » yield the most significant information about the stress at a point. There- analogous one for the y direction, reads Tore, by using the procedures of stress transformation, the stresses are ‘examined on other planes. Using such procedures it will be shown later os) I should 6 noted thatthe intl elected system of nee may not slbtum equation fre + doce. Thi equton, peer vil an | | | that @ particular set of coordinates exists which diagonalize the stress tensor to read for 0 0 » Sections identified with ** can be omitted without loss of cotinity in the om 0 1) ten. 0 0 oy) "1 Note the absence of shear stresses. For the three-dimensional cae, the stresses are said to be triavial, since three stresses are necessary to de seribe the state of stress completly For plane stress ay = (and the state of stress is biaxial, Such stresses occur, for example, in thin sheets stressed in two mutually perpendicular directions. For axially loaded members, discussed in the next section, only one element ofthe stress tensor survives; such a state of stress is referred to as uniaval. In Chapter 8, an inverse problem? will be dis- cussed: how this one term can be resolved to yield four or more elements of a stress tensor ig. 44 Infntesinal element " Some readers may prefer at this time to study the fist several sections in ith stresses snd body Chapter 8 7 forces. SSS ee42 sts, Aaal Loads, and Sotety Concepts ‘The moment equilibrium of the element requiring S) M, = 0 is assured by having ty = ty 1 ean be shown that forthe three-dimensional ease, atypical equation from a set of thre is a a Note that in deriving the previous equations, mechanical properties of the material have not been used, This means that these equations are applicable whether a material is elastic, plastic, or viscoelastic, Also itis very important to note that there are not enough equations of equilibrium to solve for the unknown stresses. In the two-dimensional cae, given by Bq. 1-5, there are three unknown stresses, 0,0, ani tay. and oaly 70 ‘equations. For the three-dimensional case, there are six stresses, but only three equations. Thus, all problems in stress analysis are internally stat- ically intractable or indeterminate. A simple exarnple as to hov a static ‘equilibria equation is supplemented by kinematic requirements and me: chanical properties of a material for the solution of a problem is given in Section 3-14. Inengineering mechanics of solid, such as that presented in this tex, this indeterminacy is eliminated by introducing appropriate assumptions, which is equivalent to having adltional equations. ‘A numerical procedure that involves diseretizing a body into a large numberof smallfnite elements, instead ofthe infinitesimal ones as above, is now often used in complex problems. Such finite element analyses rely 00 high-speed electronic computers for solving large systems of simul- taneous equations. In the finite element method, just as in the mathe ‘matical approach, the equations of statics are supplemented by the kin- matic relations and mechanical properties ofa material. A few examples siven later in this book show comparisons among the “exact” solutions ofthe mathematical theory of elasticity, and those found using the finite element technique and/or conventional solutions based on the methods of engineering mechanics of solids Part B erase ANALYSIS OF AXIALLY LOADED 1.6. Stresses on Inclined Sections in Axially Loaded Bars The traditional approsch of engineering mechanics of solids will be used for determining the jternal stresses on arbitrarily inclined sections in axially loaded bars. The first steps in this procedure are illustrated in Fi 1-7. Here, since an axial foree P is applied on the right end of a prismatic 00.146, eos on ncn Sactons in Axlely Loaded Bars Fig. 7 Sectioning o prismatic bar on arbitrary panes bar, for equilibrium, an equal but opposite force P must act on the left tend, To distinguish between the applied force and the reaction, a slash is dravm across the reaction force vector P. This form of identification ‘of reactions wil be used frequently inthis text. Finding the reactions is usually the first essential step in solving a probiem. Inthe problem at hand, after the reactive force P is determined, free- body diagrams for the bar segments, isolated by sections such as ¢a oF ‘bb, are prepared. In both cases, the force P required for equilibrium is shown at the sections, However, in order to obtain the conventional Stresses, which are the most convenient ones in stress analysis, the force is replaced by its components along the selected axes. A wavy line through the veetors P indicates their replacement by components. For istrative purposes, litle i gained by considering the case shown in Fig 1-70) requiring three force components, The analysis simply becomes ‘ore cumbersome. Instead, the case shown in Fig. 1-7(e), having only {wo components of Pin the plane of symmetry ofthe bar cross section, is considered in detail. One of these components is normal to the section: the other is inthe plane ofthe section. ‘As an example of a detailed analysis of stresses in a bar on inclined planes, consider two sections 90 degrees apart perpendicular to the bar sides, as shown in Fig. 1-(a). The section ava is at an angle 6 with the 314 Stross Axlal Loads, and Safety Concer 06.146, sesses on ncined Sectons in Axely Loaded Bots 5 a -The negative sign in Ea, 1-7 i used to conform to the sign convention |-Sme The Petr uesses intoiced earlier. Sec, for example, Fig 1-5. The need for shemeative sign fs evident by noting that the shear force P sin @ acts fer he direction opposite to that of the y axis. crane tisimportant to note that the basic procedure of engineering mechanics of elids used here gives the average of mean sess at a section. These ogee are determined from the axial forces necessary for equilibrium resign, Therefore they alvay satisfy stares. However based on the aS onal requirements of Kinematics (geometric deformations) and me: ssatleal properties of a material, large local stresses are known to arise caer oninty of concentrated forces. This also occursat abrupt changes ines sectional areas. The average stresses at a section are accurate 7 in erterance about equal othe depth ofthe member from the concentrated aaa orabrpt changes in cross-sectional area. The use ofthis simplified cedure wil be rationalized in Section 2-10 as Saint Venant's principle eauations 1-6 and 1-7 show that the normal and shear stresses vary swtnthe angle 8. The sense of these stresses is shown in Figs. 8(¢) and Toe The normal stress cs reaches its maximum value for 0 = 0" ic. eon the section is perpendicolar to the axis ofthe rod. The shear stress Late len correspondingly would be zero. This leads tothe conclusion that the rein normal sifess Tau. in an axially loaded bar ean be simply de- met {ermined from the following equation: Lx a ‘ Goan = On = as) where P isthe applied fore, and Ais the cross-sectional area of the bar. a © o Equations 1-6 and 1-7 also show that for ® = ::90*, both the normal Fig. 8 Sectioning of « prismatic bar on mutually perpendicular planes and the shear stresses vanish. This is as it should be, since no stresses tc along the top and bottom free boundaries (surfaces) ofthe ber. vertical. An isolated part of the bar to the lft ofthis section is shown in “To ind the maximum shear stress acting abar, one must differentiate Fis. 1-80). Note that the normal to the section coinciding with the x axis Eq, 1-Twith respect to 0, and set the derivative equal to zero, On carrying also forms an angle 0 with the x axis. The applied force, the reaction, as ‘it this operation and simplifying the results, one obtains ivell as the equilbrating force P at the section all act through the centroid Df the bar section. As shovn in Fig. -8(b), the equiibrating force P is tno +1 as) fesolve ato two components: the normal force component, P cos @, and the shear component, P sin 6. The area of the inclined cross section is leading to the conclusion that sax occurs on planes of either +45° oF {Alcos 8. Therefore, the normal stress c and the shear stress rare piven MAS with the axis of the bar. Since the sense in which a shear stress by the following two equations: ‘acts is usually immaterial, on substituting either one of the above valtes fowe Peas _Pooay ‘of 0 ito Eg. 1-7, one finds ‘area ~ Alcos ~ 4° aa and Sn = £-% (10) Pe =F sin cos 9 “ ‘Therefore, the maximum shear stress in an axially loaded bar is only half16 ‘Shas, Alo Loads, ond Safety Concepts as large as the maximum normal stress. The variation of y with ® can be ‘studied using Eg. 17. Following the same procedure, the normal and shear stresses can be found on the section bb. On noting that the angle locating this plane from the vertical is best measured clockwise, instead of counterclockwise asin the former case, this angle should be treated as a negative quantity in Eq. 1-7. Hence, the subscript ~(60" ~ 0)=0 ~ 90° will be used in designating the stresses. From Fig. F8(¢), one obtains Psind Poa onan = SEE =F sin’ 8 can Post _P and tenn = FOSS — 2 sin 0cos 8 ny [Note that in this ease, since the direction of the shear force and the y axis have the same sense, the expression in Eq. 1-12 is positive. Equation T-12 can be obtained from Eq. 1-7 by substituting the angle 8 ~ 90°. The sense of eer and 19 is showin in Fig. 1-80. The combined results ofthe analysis for sections a~a and b~bare shown ‘on an infinitesimal element in Fig. 1-(). Note thatthe normal stresses ‘on the adjoining element faces are not equal, whereas the shear stresses are. The latter finding is in complete agreement with the earlier general conclusion reached in Section I-4, showing that shear stresses on mutually perpendicular planes must be equal 1-7, Maximum Normal stress In Axially Loaded Bars Jn most practial situations with axially loaded bars, itis expedient to directly determine the maximum normal stress. Ashas been demonstrated in the previous section, these stresses develop on sections perpendicular ‘othe bar axis. For such sections, the cross-sectional area of a bar is a ‘minimum and the foree component isa maximum, resulting in a maximum ‘normal stess, The procedure for determining this stress directly is shown in Fig. 19. Similar to the steps discussed earlier forthe general case, a free-body diagram is prepared either forthe left or the right part of the bar, as illustrated in Fig. -9(0). Allforce vectors P passthrough the bar's centroid. As shown in Fig. 1-9(0), the reaction on the left end is equil- brated at section ana by a uniformly distributed normal stress. The sum of these stresses multiplied by their respective areas generate a stress resultant that is statically equivalent to the force P. A thin slice of the ‘bar with equal uniformly distributed normal stresses of opposite sense on the two parallel sections is shown in Fig. 1-9(). This uniaxial state of stress may be represented on an infinitesimal cube, as shown in Fig, ‘$00.17. Maximum Normal sess n Asoly Loaded Bars 7 oh] oats shoe =f = Fig. 9 Successive steps in determining the largest normal stress in an axially loaded ba. 1.9(e). However, a simplified diagram such as shown in Fig. 1-5) is ‘commonly used, "For future reference, the relevant Eq, [-8 for determining directly the maximum normal stress in an axially loaded bar is restated in customary form without any subscript on «. Subscripts, however, are frequently sxlded to indicate the direction of the bar axis. This equation gives the largest normal stress at a section taken perpendicular to the axis of a ‘member. Thus, 3) where, as before, P is the aplied axial force, and is the cross-sectional area of the member. In calculations, iis often convenient to use Nim? ‘MPa inthe SI system of units and ksi in the U.S. customary system. Its instructive to note thatthe normal stress given by Ea 1-13, and schematically represented in Fig. 1-9), isa complete description of the State of stress in an axially loaded bar. Therefore, only one diagonal term remains in the matrix representation of the stress tensor given by Eq. 1+ 1b. This remaining term is associated with the direction ofthe bar axis ferent axes are chosen for isolating an element, asin Fig. 1-8), the ‘ress tensor would resemble Eq. 1-3. A detailed study of this topic will be pursued in Chapter 8 ‘Equation 1-13 strictly applies only to prismatic bars, eto bars having ‘constant cross-sectional area, However, the equation is reasonably ac-Fig. 140 A member with ‘ onuniform stress Aistdbution at Section aa Fig. Bearing stresses ‘tar between the block snd pier ss well as between the ier and sl ‘Shes, Axio Loads, ana Satety Concepts curate for slightly tapered members. For adiscussion of situations where fan abrupt change inthe cross-sectional area occurs, causing severe per turbation in stress, see Section 2.10. ‘As noted before, the stress resultant for a uniformly distributed stress acts through the centroid of a cross-sectional area and assures the equi= librium of an axially loaded member. Ifthe loading is more complex, stich as that, for example, for the machine part shown in Fig. 1-10, the stress distribution is nonuniform. Here, at section aa, in addition fo the axial force P, a bending couple, or moment, M must also be developed. Such problems wil be treated in Chapter 6 Similar reasoning applies to axially loaded compression members and 1g, 1-13 can be used. However, one must exercise additional care when compression members are investigated. These may be so slender that they ‘may not behave in the fashion considered. For example, an ordinary fish ing rod under rather small axial compression force has a tendency to buckle sideways and could collapse. The consideration of such instability of compression members is deferred until Chapter {1. Equation I-13 is ‘applicable onty for axialy loaded compression members that are vazher chunky, i.e, © short blocks. As will be shown in Chapter 11, 2 block ‘whose east dimension is approximately one-tenth ofits length may usu ally be considered a short block. For example, a2 by 4 in wooden piece ‘may be 20 in long and sill be considered a short block. ‘Sometimes compressive stresses arse where one body is supported by another. Ifthe resultant ofthe applied forces coincides with the centroid ‘of the contact area between the two bodies, the intensity of force, or siress, between the two bodies ean again be determined from Bq, 1-13. Itis customary to refer to this normal stress as a bearing stress. Figure [-IL, where a short block bears on a concrete pier and the latter bears on the soil, illustrates such a stress. Numerous similar situations arse in mechanical problems under washers used for distributing concentrated Fores. These bearing stresses can be approximated by dividing the ap plied force P by the corresponding contact area giving a useful nominal bearing stress In accepting Eq. 1-13, it must be kept in mind thatthe material's be- havior is idealized. Each and every particle of a body is assumed to con tribute equally to the resistance ofthe force. A perfect homogeneity of the material is implied by such an assumption, Real materials, such as metals, consist of a great many grains, wheteas wood is fibrous. In real ‘materials, some particles will contribute more tothe resistance ofa force than others. deal stress distributions such as shown in Figs. [-9(@) and (¢) actually do not exist ifthe scale chosen is sulfcietly small. The true slress distribution varies in each particular case and isa highly iregula, Jagged affair somewhat, as showin in Fig, 1-12). However, on the av "For accurate solutions for tapered bars, se S. P. Timoshenko, and I. N. Goodie, Theor of Elasticity, ed ed (New York: MeGraw-Fil, 190) 103. 00.148, Shoat stossos 19 so. (Schon ilsration oss ieaslriy in eral dt ck of homogeneity.) variation of ‘Scie ses stow plate dng ing operation and (residual stress in role ps erage statistically speaking, computations based on Eq. I-13 are correct, find, hence, the computed average stress represents a highly significant quantity. it is also important to note that the basic equations for determining stresses, such as given by Eq. 1-13, assume inifaly stress-free material. However, in reality, as materials are being manufactured, they are often rolled, extrided, forged, welded, peened, and hammered. In castings, ‘materials cool unevenly. These processes can setup high internal stresses filled residual stresses. For example, hot steel plates during a roling ‘operation are pulled between rollers, as shown schematically in Fig. - 120). Tis process causes the development of larger normal stresses near the outer surfaces than in the middle ofa plate. These stresses are equiv- lent to an average normal stress ogy that may be considered to generate ‘force that propels a plate through the rolls. On leaving the rll, the plate shown in Fig. 1-126) is relieved ofthis force, and as per Eq. 1-13, the oye is subtracted from the stresses that existed during rolling. The stress pattern of the residual normal stresses is shown in Fig. 1-126) ‘These residual stresses are self-equilbratng, ic, they are in equilibrium without any externally applied forces. In real problems, such residual stresses may be large and should be carefully investigated and then added to the calculated stresses for the initially stress-free materia 1-8. Shear Stresses Some engineering materials, for example, low-carbon steel, are weaker in shear than in tension, and, at large loads, slp develops along the planes ‘of maximum shear stress, According to Es. 19 and I-10, these glide or slip planes in a tensile specimen form 45° angles withthe axis of a bar, Where the maximum shear stress taux = P/2A occurs, On the polishedres, Axial Loads, and Satety Concepts Fig.143 Loading conditions causing shear sess between interfaces ofgued blocks, surface of a specimen, these lines can be readily observed and are called Liders lines." This kind of material behavior exhibits ductile feilure In maay routine engineering applications, large shear stresses may de- velop at ertical locations. To determine such stresses precisely is often dificult, However, by assuming that in the plane ofa section, a uniformly distributed shear stress develops, 8 solution can readily be found. By using this approach, the average shear stress ta is determined by dividing the shear force V in the plane of the section by the corresponding area A. 14 Some examples as to where Eg. I-14 can be used to advantage are shown in Figs. 1-13 to 1-15. In Fg. 1-13(), a small block is shown glued to a larger one. By separating the upper block from the lower one by an imaginary section, the equilibrium diagram shown in Fig. 1-130) is ob tained, The small applied couple Pe, causing small normal stresses acting perpendicular tothe section a2, is commonly neglected. On this basis "Also known as Piber ies. Named in honor, spectively, of German and French nnetenthvcentury investigators 00.18, shear Shosses swe shown in Fig, 1-130) can be found using Eq. I-l4 by dividing P by Thlarea A ofthe section aa. A similar procedure is used for determining. infor the problem shown in Fig. 1-13@). However inthis case, two glued Tatuces ate available for transfering the applied force P. The same ap- proach, employing imaginary sections, is applicable to solid members. Examples of two bolted connections are shown in Figs. I-14(a) and () ‘These connections can be analyzed in two different ways. In one ap- proach, i is assumed that & tightened bolt develops a sufficiently large Elamping force, s0 thatthe frietion developed between the faying (con- acting) surfaces prevents a joint from slipping. For such design, high Strength bolts are commonly employed. This approach is discussed in Section I-13. An alternative widely used approach assumes enoush slip page occurs, such thatthe applied force is transferred first to & bolt and fhen ftom the bolt to the connecting plate, as ilustrated in Figs. 1-14(6) and (. To determine tin these bols, a similar procedure as discussed before is applicable. One simply uses the cross-sectional area A of a bolt instead of the area of the joint contact surface to compute the average shear stress, The bolt shown in Fig. 1-14(a) is said to bein single shear, ‘whereas the one in Fig. I-14(e) isin double shear. ‘In bolted connections, another aspect of the problem requires consid- craton, In cases such as those in Figs. 1-d(a) and (e), asthe force P is ‘applied, highly iregular pressure develops between a bolt and the plates. ‘The average nominal intensity ofthis pressure is obtained by dividing the force transmitted by the projected area ofthe bolt onto the plate. This is referred to as the bearing siress. The bearing stress in Fig. 1-14) is o> Pld, where tis the thickness of the plate, and is the diameter of the bolt. For the case in Fig. 1-14(c), the bearing stresses for the middle plate and the outer plates are oy = Pliyd and a2 = P?Biad, respectively The sime procedure is also applicable for riveted assemblies. Another manner of joining members together is welding. An example ‘of a connection with fillet welds is shown in Fig. 1-15. The maximum shear stress oceurs inthe planes ac and b-b, as shown in Fig. 1-15(b), 4 Le iP ooo f 3 : sal Fig. 44 Loading conditions causing shear snd bearing stress in bots. 2422 Fig. 148 Loading condition atsing crea! shear ia to lanes of filet welds stress, Atal Loees, and Safely Concep is ‘The capacity of such welds is usually given in units of force per unit length of weld. Adaitional discussion on welded connections is given in Section 14, 1.9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses Once the axial force P or the shear force V, as well asthe area A, are determined ina given problem, Eqs. 1-13 and 1-14 for normal and shear stresses can be readily applied. These equations giving, respectively, the ‘maximum magaitudes of normal and shear stress are particularly impor {ant as they appraise the greatest imposition onthe strength ofa materia ‘These greatest stresses occur at section of minimum cross-sectional area andor the greatest axil force, Such sections are called critical sections. ‘The critical section for the particular arrangement being analyzed can usually be found by inspection. However, to determine the force P or V that acts through a member is usually a more difficult task Inthe mgjorty of problems treated in this text, the latter information is obtained from For the equilibrium of a body in space, the equations of statis require the fulfillment ofthe following conditions: as) ‘The first column of Ea. 1-15 states thatthe sum ofall forces acting on a body in any (x, 9, 2) direction must be zero. The second column notes that the summation of moments of all forces around any axis parallel to Wy (x, yy 2) direction mst also be 2ero for equilibrium. In a planar problem, i. all members and forees lie in a single plane, such asthe x- plane, relations 3) F, = 0, 3) M, = 0,and >! M, = 0, while stil valid, trivial, 800,19. Analyse for Normal and Shea Sesses “These equations of staties are directly applicable to deformable solid hodies. The deformations (olerated in engineering structures are usually reglgile in comparison withthe overall dimensions of structures. There~ fore, for the purposes of obtaining the forces in members, the intial un Mlformed dimensions of members are used in computations. ifthe equations of statics suffice for determining the external reactions as well as the internal stress resultant, a structural system is staieally determinate. An example is shown in Fig. 1-t6(a). However, if for the Same beam and loading conditions, additional supports are provided, as in Figs. -16(b) and (c), the number of independent equations of statics js insufficient to solve forthe reactions. In Fig. 1-16(b), any one of the vetial reactions ean be removed and the structural system remains stable land tractable. Similarly, any two reactions can be dispensed with for the ‘beam in Fig, I-16). Both of these beams are statically indeterminate ‘The reactions that ean be removed leaving a stable system statically de~ terminate are superfluous or redundant. Such redundancies can also arse ‘within the internal system of frees. Depending on the number of the fedlundant internal forces or reactions, the system is said to be indeter fminate (0 the first degree, as in Fig, [-16(b), to the second degree, as in Fig, I-16(e), ete, Multiple degrees of statical indeterminacy frequently ans in practice, and one of the important objectives of this subject i to provide an introduction to the methods of solution for such problems. Procedures for solving such problems will be introduced gradually be- sinning with the next chapter. Problems with multiple degrees of inde- terminacy are considered in Chapters 10, 12, and 13, ‘Equations I-15 should already be familiar tothe reader. However, sev cra examples whete they are applied will now be given, emphasizing Solution techniques generally used in engineering mechanics of solids, ‘These statieally determinate examples will serve as an informal review ‘of some of the principles of statics and will show applications of Eqs. | Band I-14 ‘Additional examples for determining shear stresses in bolts and welds a given in Sections 1-13 and I-14 wiht te» 23 I. hehe Fig. 46 Identical beam with identical loading having diferent support condition: (a) statically ‘itxminat, (statically indeterminate to the rst degre, ()stataly indeterminate to the Sond ewer. SS SS22 Fig. 148 Loading condition fausngctical sharia to Planes of filet welds ‘Stes, Axa Leads, ana Salely Concepts ‘The capacity of such weldsis usually given in nits of force per unit length ‘of weld. Additional discussion on welded connections is given in Section b4 1-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses ‘Once the axial force P or the shear force V, as well asthe area A, are , F. = 0, 3) Mz = 0,and >: M, = 0, while stil vali, are tcivil $00.19, Anais for Nomel and shear Suesses ‘These equations of statics are directly applicable to deformable solid bodies. The deformations tolerated in engineering structures are usually ‘ealgible in comparison with the overall dimensions of structures. There fore, for the purposes of obtaining the forees in members, the initial un ligformed dimensions of members are used in computations Ifthe equations of stati suffice for determining the external reactions as well as the internal stress resultant, a structural system is statically determinate. An example is shown in Fig. I-16(a). However, if for the Same beam and loading conditions, additional supports are provided, as in Figs. I-16() and (), the number of independent equations of statics is insufficient to solve forthe reactions. In Fig. 1-16(6), any one of the ‘erical reactions can be removed and the structural system remains stable tnd tractable, Similarly, any Wo reactions can be dispensed with for the ‘beam in Fig. I-16(). Both of these beams ate statically indeterminate ‘The reactions that can be removed leaving a stable system statically de terminate are superfluous of redundant. Such redundancies can also aise within the internal system of forces, Depending on the number of the Fecundant internal forces or reactions, the system is said to be indeter- nina tothe first degree, as in Fig, 1-16(0), to the second degree, as in Fig. I-16), et. Multiple degrees of statcal indeterminacy frequently arse in practice, and one of the important objectives of this subject is to provide an introduction to the methods of solution for such problems Procedures for solving such problems will be introduced gradually be ‘inning with the next chapter. Problems with multiple degrees of inde terminacy are considered in Chapters 10,12, and 13. ‘Equations I-15 should already be familiar tothe reader. However, sev eral examples where they are applied will now be given, emphasizing Solution techniques generally used in engineering mechanics of solids, These statially determinate examples will serve as an informal review ‘of some of the principles of statics and will show applications of Eqs. | Band I-14 ‘Additional examples for determining shear stresses in bolts and welds are given in Sections 1-13 and I-14 o * Fiat epee. hohe he he he ential beam with identical loading having diferent support conditions: (a) statically ‘iterminat, () stacally indeterminate to the rt degre, ()staaly indeterminate to the Second 23 k. sr Ss24 ‘res, Axl Leads, and Safely Concepts EXAMPLE 14, “The beam BE in Fig. 1-17) is used for hoisting machinery. It is anchored by two bolts at, and at Ct ests on parapet wal. The essential details are given in the figure. Note tha the bolts ae threaded, as shown in Fig. 1170), with d Te mm atthe rot ofthe threads. If this hoist ean be subjected toa force of| TO KN, determine the stress in bolts BD and the bearing sires at C Assume that the weight of the beam i neglle in comparson with the loads Randle Solution “To solve this problem, the acs situation i idealized anda free body diagram isoae on which all Known and unknown forces are indicated. This s shown in Fig LI7(@), The vertical reactions of B and Care unknown. They ae indicated, Tespectively, as Ry, and Rey, wher the fst subscript dents the locaton, and the second te line of action ofthe unknown free. As the lo bots BD are not effective in reiting the horizoatal force, only an unknown horizontal reaction 0 is assumed and marked as Re, The applied kaowa force P is shown in its proper cation. Aer a fee-body siagram in prepared, the equation of satis te applied and solved for the unknown forces. Fio.147 20.49, Analysis fr Normal and Shea Stresses Zr e0 SMe=0C+ 025+ )-Rey x 1-0 Smc=0C + 10x 25 ~ Rey X1= 0 Check: DF, = Ot — 5435-100 “Tse steps complete and check the work of determining the fees. The various ret ofthe material tat resist these frees are determined nex, and Eq. 1-13 ‘sapolid Cross sectional area of one 2-men bolt: A= #10 = 314 mn? This sno the minima aret of bol; threads reduce it The cross-sectional aes of ope 20-nm bolt atthe root ofthe threads is Apa = 8 = 201 mm? ‘Maximum nor tensile strest in each of the two bolts BD: aan = Bie = BASE 62 Wi MPa 2a 2% 201 e Tene sires ia the shank ofthe bolts BD: x10 2x aM = 398 Nin Contact are a C: A= 200 x 200 = 40 x 10 mm? Bearing stress at C: = Bo B10 Am ad 108” 887 ram? = 0.875 MPa “The caleulte stress for the bolt shank canbe represented inthe manner of eq, bas 0 0 0 +398 0) MPa 0 0 6, enn the direction of the sppied load. In ordinary problems, edt is seldom wten down in such etl, where the y axis is the complete result im 1 Soe also discussion on stress concentrations, Section 2-10.26 Stress, Ail Loads, and Safely Concepls EXAMPLE4-2 “he concrete pe how i Fl. 18 sone at he tp with a unio bt od of UN. Invest the sito ses evel Lm ote the tae, Conte weighs appoint 25 EN soktion In this problem, th weight ofthe srr te is apreciable and mst be Included inthe aleulatins, ‘Weight of the whole pier W = [05 + 1.5)0] x 05 x 2x 25 = 25 KN Total applied force: P= 0x05 x05 = SKN rom 5 F, = 0, reaction atthe base: R=W+P=30kN ‘These forces are shown schematically in the diagrams as concentrated forces acting though ther respective centroids, Then, to determine the stress at the desired level, the body is cut into two separate parts. A free-body diagram for 6.49, Analy ft Normal and Shea Sesser citer partis sufficient to solve the problem. For comparison, the problem is Solved both ways. ‘Vine the upper part ofthe pier as free body, Fig. 1-18(b), the weight ofthe pier above the section W, = 5 +1 x05 x 1x 252 = 94 KN rom 3 Fy = 0, the force at the ection y= P+ Wi = MKN Hence, sing Eq, 1-13, the normal stress at the level aa is Fes Fe = AA = 288 kN This stress i compressive as Facts on the section ‘Using the lower part ofthe per asa fee body, Fig. 1-18() the weight ofthe pier below the sein Ws 1+ 1.5) x 05 x 1x 252 = 15.6 KN From & Fy = 0, the force at the section te = R- We = 4 KN ‘The remainder ofthe problem i the same as before. Te pier considered here tas vertical axis of syemetry, making the aplication of Eq. 1-13 possible.” EXAMPLE 1-3 ‘Abracket of netlgibe weight shen in Fig. 1-19) isoaded with verti force Pot 3 hips. For interconnection purposes, the bar ends are clevised (Forked) Pertinent dimensions are shown inthe igre. Find the axial stresses in members [AB and BC ed the bearing and shea tests foe pin C. AI! pins are 0.375 in in dames Solution First, anideaized free body diagram consisting of the two bars pinned a the ens is prepared, see Fig. F150), As there are no inlermedintefores acting on the tras and the applied free act through the joint at B, the forces inthe Bars ae titted slong the ines AB and BC, an the bars AB and BC are loade axially © Suicty speaking, the solution abned isnot exact, asthe sides ofthe per ae slang, the included angle between these sides is Large, this solution is ‘Mrogether inadequate, For further details, ee S. Timoshenko and. N. Goodier, Theory of Elsie, ied. (New York: MeGra-Hll 1970) 138. 27stress, atl Loo, ond Safety Concepts 60.19, Analy or Noel and Shear tess 29 “the magnitudes ofthe forces are unknown and are labeled F and Fe inthe sm These frees ean be determined graphiealy by completing a tangle aPfores Fa, Fey and P. These forces may also be found analyte fom two Sinutaneous uations SF, Oand 5 F, = 0, writtenin ermsof the unknowns Fan Fe # known force P, and to keown anles «and B. Both these peo Faas ane posible However inthis book, wil usualy be found advantageous | ‘Sipmceed ina diferent way” instead of weating forces Fy and Fr diet, their remponents arc used; and instead of 3 F = 0, M = Obecomes the mai 00 | ‘hy force can be resolved into components. For example, F canbe resalved into Fac and Fay ain Fg, F136). Conversely, if any one ofthe components fadivteted forces known, the force itelf an be determined. Ths follows from ‘lary of dimensions and fore tangles. In Fg. 1%), the tangles Ak and ‘BaDare sii triangles (Goth are shaded athe dagram), Hence, i Fs known, Fy = (ABIDB)Fax Simily, Fay = (ADIDB)Fa.. Note further that ABIDB or ADIDB are ratios; ence lative dimensions of members can be used. Such relative dimensions are ‘hv by alte rangle on member AB and again on BC. Inthe problem at hand, Sa = (V5ID)E ay and Fay = Fauld Adopin the procedure of resolving forces, revise free-body dsgram, Fig 19d is prepared, Two components of force are necessary a the pin joints [ter the forces are determined by slates, Eq. 1-13 is appli several times, thinking i terms of fee body ofan individual member: DMe= 0+ + FG 4 O~ 3 Fag = 42K | Fay = Fuld = 23 = 41k Fy = 20V50) = +223 k VM =0G+ +30) + Fel) = 0, Fe, = ~2k Foy" Fer = ~2k Fe = VU-2) = 2.83 k Check: SF= 0 Fast Fey= 2-20 SK HO Fy ~ Fey P= 1 (-D~ ‘Tensile stress in main bar AB = fa 23 wae = 4 OB x 050 = 178 ksi ° In frameworks i fs convenient to assume all unknown forces ar tense. A ‘egal answer inthe solution the indicates tat the bar sin compression,Ses, Adal Loads, and Safety Concepts ‘ease sees in clevis of bar AB, Fg 19: Fy 228 (asdoons = A= Tx OR X ORS — 0573) rere) Compressive stress in main bar BC: Fe_ 283 A ~ Onis x 025 ~ 29 KS! Inthe compression member, the net section atthe clevis need not be avestiateds se Fig. 119(9 forthe transfer of forces. The bearing sites at he pin Is more stitial: Bearing between pin C and the clevs Fe 283 Fewaing ” O38 % 0.20% 3 ~ 8 Ksi Rearing between the pia C and the mai plate: Fe 28s + ek ass x ams ~ 2S Double sharin pin C: Fe 283 =f = 12.9 bs A” 30.3757 For acompleteanalysisof this bracket, other pins should be investiated, How ‘ever it ean be sen by inspection that the ote pts inthis case ae sessed iter the same amount as computed or less. ‘The advantages ofthe method used inthe last example fr finding forces {in members should now be apparent. It can also be applied with success ina problem such as the one shown in Fig. 1-20. The force F transmitted by the curved member AB acts through points A and B, since the forces applied at A and B must be collinear. By resolving this force at’, the ‘ame procedure can be followed. Wavy lines through F and Fe indicate that these forees are replaced by the two components shown, Alterna- tively, the force Fs can be resolved at A, and since Fa, = (3Is)Fan, the application of Mc = 0 yields Fa. In frames, where the applied forces do not act through joint, proceed as before as far as possible. Then isolate an individual member, and using its free-body diagram, complete the determination of forces. If inclined forces are acting on the structure, resolve them into convenient com= ponents 00.140, Member Strength at « Design Citation DETERMINISTIC AND PROBABILISTIC DESIGN BASES Part C 1-10, Member Strength as a Design Criterion ‘Te purpose for cleulating stresses in members ofa structural system ‘Tiocomparethem vith he experimentally determined material stuengths in Geer to assure desired performance. Physical testing of materials n a ihoratory provides information regarding. « male's resistance 0 Sita Inafabortory, specimens of kos materia, manuactring pro Sane eat treatment are casfilly prepared to desired dimensions fron these specimens are subjected (0 successively increasing known fetes Inthe most widely sed tes, «round rd ssujected fo tension the speeimen Is loaded unl tially ruptures. The force necessary tocause rplue is ale the ulimate lad. By dividing this ultimate loud by he oral crosesetional aes ofthe specimen, the ultimate strength (Gres) of 4 mater is obisined, Figure I-21 shows testing machine ted fortis purpose. Figure 1-2 shows a tensionestspecen. The ig. 2t Universal testing machin (Courtesy of MS Systems Corperation. 9.122 A type tension {esi specimen of ml steel before and after atureFig. 1.23 Fatigue sirens of THE Sales steal various temperatures reciprocating beam tet ‘he, Adal Loads, and Sataty Concepts eecaienme | te ae tensile testis used most widely. However, compressioa, bending, torsion, and shearing tests are also employed." Tables LA and B ofthe Appendix ives ultimate strengths and other physical properties fr afew materials. For applications where a force comes on and of the structure a number of times, the materials cannot withstand the ultimate stress of a static test. In such cases, the “ultimate strength" depends on the number of times the free is applied asthe material works ata particular stress level Figure 1-23 shows the results of tests! on a number ofthe same kind of specimens at different stresses, Experimental points indicate the number of eyeles required to break the specimen at a particular stress under the application of a fluctuating load. Such tests are called “fatigue tests and the corresponding curves are termed S-N (stress-number) diagrams, {As can be seen from Fig. 1-23, at smaller stresses, the material ean with sland an ever-increasing number of eycles of load application. For some materials, notably steels, the S-N curve fo low stresses becomes essen lilly horizontal. This means that at alow stress, an infinitely large number of reversals of sess can take place before the material fractures, The limiting stress at which this occurs is called the endurance limit of the ‘material. This imit, being dependent on stress, i measured in ksi or MPa, ‘Some care must be exercised in interpreting 5-N diagrams, particularly with regard to the range of the applied stress. In some tests, complete reversal (tension to compression) of stress is made; in others, the applied load is varied in a different manner, such as tension to no load and back {o tension. The major part of fatigue testing dane on specimens is bending. Stress-dependent deformations may also play a ey role in selecting the permissible or allowable stress for a given material, since some mar terials deform an unpermissible amount prior to fracture, Some materials MAST (American Society foe Testing and Materials issues an Annual Book of ASTM Stondavds now consisting 66 volumes, divided into To sections, ving ‘lasifiestion of materials. ASTM standard speciistions, ant detaled te met ‘ods; ASTM material designation such st ASS tel is frequently wed in hs book, SL Zambrow, snd M, G: Fontana, "Mechanical Properties. lncluding Fc tiqu, of Aireraft Alloys at Very Low Temperatures," eons ASM $1 (1949) 298, see. 40. Momber Sangh as « Design Cieion cm pastcally under a sustsined oad, « phenomenon called creep feeCence with turbines, tightened oli in mechanial equipment Pees or reinforced conerete beams indicates some ofthe examples pete creep may bea problem. In some instances, the rae of load 3p wiction ms a mbjor eet, as some materi become consierably eager at very rapa applied oats. Likewise, the effect of temperate SEU has every important effect on te endurance ni. Some of hese foie re escssed further a Sections 23 and 2, A the desig evel ist of these problems can be contol by redicing design stesses Sc afbrementiond fc coupled wih the impos of determing scene ecuratly in Complicate rules and aches, necessitate $'Sosantal reduction of sess compare to the ulmate strength of duateal in a sai text. For example, ordinary ste! wil withstand an Sate ses in casio of 6 Kt and more, However, defoes ater Sbenly and severely atthe stress level of about 36 kas and itis us {amary tote Unie States to use an allowable sess of around 22 ka feratyctual ork: This allowable sess seven further redid to about [2kaor arts hat are subjected toalfemating loads beease a the fatigue harcterles ofthe matral. Fatigue properties of materials are of at ost Importance n mechanical equpment. Many flrs in machine gers canbe uced to dsregrd of this important consideration. (Sex also Sicion 210) Low-ycle fatigue 10" eyes o less) also canot be ex cluded om design considerations in selsmcally resistant suctre. ‘As poured oun Seton 1, some stuns, is ao appropriate tw consider residual stresses “The decision process in choosing an appropiate allowable sess is further complicated since theres grect uncertainty nthe magnludes of the pple loads. During the fe aa machine ra srctre,oceasioal Overonds ate aloe a serait, BU their magetodes an nly be es td at best. “These dificult problems are now resolved using two alternative a> proaches Inthe uadtonsl approach inthe ptt of asia mechani, Iniue magnitudes are assigned tothe applied forces 28 well a to the Glowabl sieses nthe anne, thse two principal parameters are freely known, Le determinate in he design process. This determin Tc approach is commonly used in esrrent practice snd wil be largely feted oi this ext However athe compen of enginerng bard ttre systems increases, less relance can be paced on ast experiance {nda med sumber of experiments Instend, afer denifestion ofthe tin parameters ns given srestaalyis robe, tht sail var ity is assessed lang tothe probable method of estimating ste tua salty This approach has found favor inthe desig of advanced Sire offiore structures, nd is emersng in srctral design of bul ings and ridges. A bie discussion ofthe probabilistic approach fo tue tl design i ven Ia Section 1-2, The tational deterministic ap- roach cussed nex. 3334 stress, Al Loads, and Safely Concepis L-LL. Deterministic Design of Members: Axially Loaded cars Inthe deterministic design of members, a stress resultant is determined atthe highest stressed section using conventional mechanics. For axially loaded bars, it means determining the largest internal axial force P at a minimum efoss section. Then, for the selected material, an allowable Stre38 Gaow must be chosen. Professional engineering groups, large companies, as well as city, state, and federal authorities, prescribe or recommend’ allowable strestes for slferent materials, depending on the application. Often such stresses are called the allowabie fiber” stresses Since according to Eq, 1-13, stress times area is equal to a force, the allowable and ultimate stresses may be converted into the allowable and ‘ultimate forces or “loads,” respectively, that a member e 4 significant ratio may be formed: resist, Also ultimate load for @ member Allowable load for a member ‘This isthe basic definition of the factor of safery, FS. This ratio must lays be greater than unity. Traditionally ths factor is recast in terms of stresses as, ‘maximum useful material strength (stress) BS allowable stress and is widely used not only for axially loaded members, but also for any type of member and loading conditions. As will become apparent from subsequent reading, whereas this definition of FS. in terms of elastic stresses is satisfactory for some cases, it can be misleading in others Inthe aireraft industry, the term factor of safety i replaced by another, defined as ultimate load ‘design load "For example, see the American Institute of Steel Construction Manta Building Construcion Code of any large city. ANC-S Strength of Aircraft Ee ‘ments sued by the Army-Navy Civil Committe on Aira Design Criteria "ithe adjective ber inthis sense is used fortwo reasons. Many oriial ex periments were made ‘on wood, which frais in character Alco. in several ‘ervaion that follow, the concept ofa continuous filament or ibe fo a member isa convenient device for visualiing its action, See, 44, Deterministic Desgn of Membre and is known as the margin of safety. In the pas, this ratio was usually recast to read imate stress “| ‘maximum sress caused by the design load The newer analytical methods, some of which will be pointed out in the text as they occur, can provide reasonable estimates of the ultimate Toads for complex systems and should be used in the basic definition of| JS. as well as of margin of safety. For example, for static loadings, instead of designing members at working loads using allowable stress, an alternative approach consisting of selecting member sizes for their ilt- inate or lint load is becoming widely adopted. In such cases, theultimate Toad is usually obtained by multiplying the working loads by a suitably chosen load factors. For bars in simple tension or compression, this leads tothe same results, Significantly different results may be obianed in many tuber cases where inelastic behavior is more complex. In this text, how. ver, the customary allowable stress design (ASD) approach will be largely followed. “The application of the ASD approach for axially loaded members is both simple and direct, From Bq. 1-13, it follows thatthe required net area A of a member is 16) where P is the applied axial force, and oatew isthe allowable stress. Equa tion 1-16 s generally applicable to tension members and short compres sion blocks. For slender compression members, the question of their sta bility arises and the methods diseussed in Chapter I] must be used. The simplicity of Ea, |-16is unrelated tits importance. A large number of problems requiring its use oceurs in practice. The following problems iiistrate some application of Ea 1-168 wel as provide additional review in statis. EXAMPLE 1-4 Reduce the size of bar AB in Example 1-3 by using & beter material such as chrome-vanadiim steel, The uate strength ofthis stel is approximately 120, Isl Use a factor of safety of 25. 35‘tress, Axil Loads, and Safety Concepts Solution tae = 1202.5 = 48 ksi, From Example 1-3, the force in the bar AB: Fa. = “$2.25 hips. Requied area: Aya = 22308 ~ 0.046 i, Adopt: On by 025. Inbar. This provides an area of0.20)0.25) = 0.050 in, which i sibty in excess ofthe required ares. Many other proportions ofthe bar ae posite ‘With he cross-sectional area selected, the actual or Working sites is somewhat below the allowable stress: dana = 2.230.050) = 48.6 ks The actual actor of safety is 2048.6) = 2.63, and the atu margin of safety is 1.63 Tha complete design, levis and pins shoul alo be reviewed and, if possible, secresed in dimensions EXAMPLE 1-5 Select members FC and CB in the truss of Fig. 1-24) vo cary an inclined free of 650 KN. Set the allowable tensile tess at [40 MPs, Solution {Fall members ofthe trurs were to be designed, forces in all members would have to be found. In practice this is now done by employing computer programs de ‘eloped oa the basis of mati srbtual analysis! or by diestly analyzing the truss by the method of joints. However, only afew members are o be designed or checked, the method of sections ilusrated here is quicker 11s gecrally understood that a planar trust, sch as shown inthe figure, is stable isthe direction perpendicular to the pane ofthe paper. Practically. this is accomplished by introducing braces at right anges tothe plane ofthe tras In this example, the design of compression members is avoiged, as this willbe treated inthe ehaper on columns. To determine the forces inthe members tobe designed, the reactions forthe whole structure are computed fist. Tiss done by competly disregarding the interior framing. Only reaction and force components defiitely located a thet points of aplication are incated on a ree-body dagram of the whole tract; See Fig /24()- Aller the reactions are determined, fee body digrame of «pat ofthe structure are used (o determine the fores inthe members considered see Figs. 1-24) and Using the fee-body diagram in Fig. 1-24: De=0 Rox ~ 20-0 Rox = S20kN TMe= 0S + — Roy X 3 ~ 380 x05 ~ 59x 15 =0 Roy = 325 KN VMy= 00+ 0 Check: SF, = 0 325 ~ 390+ 6 Rex 3+ 500% 15 ~ 390% 25 Re = 65kN ° See, for example, 0. C. Zienkiewiez, Dhe Finite Element Method, Sie London: MeGraw Hil, 17 See, Determine Detgn of Members 37 Fig. 424 Using the fee-body diagram in Fig. 124: TM OC + Fre X 0.75 + 325 x 1 ~ 50 075 = 0 Fre = $86.7 KN Are = Frel@stow = 86.1 % 10140 = 620 mm? (se 12.5 x S0-mm bar) Using the fee-bodyditeram in Fig. 124) DE = 0 ~CRealy +325 = 0 (Fenly = +325 KN Fea = Vi(Fen)/3 = +391 KN Aca = Feslstow = 391 x 10Y140 = 2790 mm? {use two bars 30 x 50 mm)38 sess, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts EXAMPLE1-6 Consider the idealized system shown n Fig 25, where aS-kg mass tobe spun ‘ona frtionles plane at 10 Hz” I ight rod CD is aached aC, and the Allowable stress 200 MPa, what is the required size ofthe rod? Neglect the ‘weight ofthe rod and assume that the rod is enlarged atthe ends to compensate Torte treads. Solution “The vod angular velocity is Mx ras. The aceleration a ofthe mass toward the center of rotation i wR, where R isthe distance CD. By multilying the mass by the aceleration, the force Facing onthe fd is obtained. AS shown in the figure, aeording to the d’Alemberts principle, this Tore ats inthe op poste direction to tht ofthe acceleration, Therefore, P= ma ma?R = 5X (20e}* x 0.500 = 9870 kg-m/s? = 9870 N Aaa = 7S = 49.3 mm? 200 ‘An 8mm round rod having an area A = 50:3 mn? would be salsfactory. “The addtional pll at C caused by the mass of the Yod, which was not consid- cred it B= [mae where he mass ofthe rod per unl length an on) is fntesimal mass a variable distance r fom the vertical od AB. The total pull tC eased by the vod andthe mass of Sg at the end is P+ Fy *°1.12, probabilistic Basis for Structural Design In the conventional (deterministic) design of members, the possibilty of flue fs reduced to accepably sal levels by factors of safety based on ‘dgment derived from past suceesfl and unsuccessful performances ‘By contest, in the probabilistic approach, variability in material prop- erties, fabrication size tolerances, as wells uncertalies in loading and even design approximations, can be appraised on a statistical basis. As far a possible, the proposed erteria are calbrated against wellestab- shed cases, as disregard of past successful application i out of the question. The probabilistic approach has the advantage of consistency in {he actors of safety, ot ony for indvidual members, but also forcommples "Hi abbreviation fr hertz, o eyes pe second is the ST unit frequency. © The remainder ofthis chaper can be omited S00, 142, Probable fos for Stuctural Design 39 siz Sip iH: ie ; i 5 Ele i E aly ANE J EI* 10 ian aE 3 oe erm ee ae fe circa o " ig. 26 () Histogram of maximum compression stregth for Western Hemlock (wood); (b) frequency ‘Sngam of compression ye strength of ASTM grades A7 and A¥6steels.*= structural assemblies. Important risk analyses of complete engineering systems are based on the same premises. Experimental Evidence ‘Asan example ofthe probabilistic approach based on statistics, consider the behavior f specimens for wo Sets of similar experiments, For one set, experimental resis of several compression tests for identical short ‘wooden blocks are plotted in Fig. 1-26). Similar results are shown for ‘Steel stub columns in Fig. 1-260)” The bar widths in these histograms correspond to a narrow range of compression stress for which a given ‘umber of specimens were either crushed (wood) or have yielded (ste). In these diagrams, the inner scales apply to direct experimental results. ‘The meaning ofthe outer scales willbe discussed later. * 1. M. Ilston, 1M. Dinwoodie, and A. A. Saith, Concrete, Timber. and Metals (ew York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 179), Fg. 43, p. 09, © Crown Copyriaht, Bung Research Fstablishment, U.K. 2F1.V.Galambos, and MK Ravina, Tentiive Load and Resistance Design rteria for Stet Buln, Research Report No, 18, Stuctral Division, Wash inglon Univesity, September 1973 Since yielding is accompanied by a large amount of deformation, this con ion can in many applications be coasidered fale, Por further discssion, see Section 23,40 stress, Ail Loeds, and Sately Conceps In statistical terminology, the test resultsare termed "population" sam- ples. In the analysis of such data, several quantities of major importance fre generally computed. One of these is sample mean (average), X; an ther is sample variance, S*. For n samples (tests), these quantities are defined as, peldn wan and s=!Sa (18) where Xs an ith sample. A square root of the variance, ie. 5 is called the standard deviation. Dividing $ by X. one obtains the coefficient af variation Vi. ves 19) ¥, 5 (or $*), and V play dominant roles in the theory of probability ‘The expected sample value is X. the mean; $i8 a measure af dispersion (scatter) ofthe data, and Visits dimensionless measure Theoretical Basis In Fig, 1-26, in addition to the histograms, theoretical eurves forthe two cases are also shown, These bell-shaped curves of probability density {functions (PDEs) are based on normal or Gaussian distribution. These ‘continuous PDFS for approximating the dispersion of observed data are the most widely used model in applied probability theory. In analytical form, the PDF of Z, ie, fe(2) is given as 11) = tcen[-1(ES8)] can were nex [eto ae wan and abe [7 ~ wal feo de em In rer oremove Hain, ned of ing by one se ~ 1. Fo large les be rnc a eal ol ‘Bn this section, the solaton differs from thal sed in the remsinder ofthe 5S so named in honor ofthe great German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gaust (17771855), who is introduced this funtion based on theoretical consider see. 142, Probabilistic Sess for Stuctua Design a” Ay noe of Lhe ater Noma tity Lena: alee density function (PDF) % ‘The constant LMVIr in Bq, 1-20 is selected so that the normalized fre- ‘quency diagram encloses a unit area, ie [Tptovte= ay ‘which means that the occurrence of within its entre range sa certainty In the previous equations yz is the mean and oz is the standard deviation. A typical PDF of Z with normal distribution is shown in Fig. 1-27, Ulustrations of normal PDFs of resistances & relating them to experimental reslts are shown in Fig. 1-26, In applications, the theoretical model is usually selected by setting we = X, and oz = S. Forthe theoretical model, the coeffcien of variation wil bedesignated by ‘Bz and is equal to the previously defined experimental V. ‘Some interesting properties of f2(2) are illustrated in Fig. 1-28. Thus, Soe “Size Fig. 1.26 Examples of robabiliies of outcomes at diferent amounts of standard deviation fom the42 sess, Axial Loads, and Satety Concepts from Fig. 1-28, it can be seen thatthe probability ofthe occurrence of aan outcome between one slandatd deviation on ether sie of the mean {i 68.27%. Whereas, as shown in Fig. 1-28(b), between two standard de- vations on ether side of the mean, this value becomes 95.4596. The areas ‘enclosed under the curve tails that are three standard deviations from the ‘mean are only 0.1358 of the total outcomes. As will become apparent Tater, the small number of outcomes likely to take place under f2(2) sev- eral standard deviations away from the mean is ofthe utmost importance in appraising structural safety Practical Formulations For a probabilistic appraisal of the structural safety of « member or a structure, one must have a statistically determined resistance PDF fi), such as discussed before, and a corresponding load effect PDF. Again Statistical studies show that since the loads are susceptible to variations, {heir effect on a member ora structure can be expressed in probabilistic form. Such load effects, resembling fa(1), will be designated as fo(q). For a given member or a structure, these functions define the behavior of the same ettcal parameter such as a force, stress, or deflection. TWO Such functions probabilistically defining the load effect f(a) and the resistance fa(7) for a force acting on a member are shown in Fig. For purposes of illustration, itis assumed thatthe load effect Fo(@) bas a larger standard deviation, i.e. larger dispersion of the load, than tht for the member resistance. In conventional (deterministic) design, the foad magnitudes are usually set above the observed mean, This condition is represented by Qy in Fi. 1-29. On the other hand, in order to avoid possible rejections, a supplier ‘vil typically provide a material with an average strength slightly areater than specified. For this reason, calculated nominal member resistance Ry ‘would be below the mean. On tis basis, the conventional factor of safety is simply defined as Rui. In reality, both Q and Rare uncertain quantities and there is no unique answer to the safety problem. To illustrate the interaction between the two main variables in Fig. 1-31, fq() is shown along the horizontal axis and f(a) is plotied along the vertical axis. For the ensemble ofan infinite ‘numberof possible outcomes, aline at 45° corresponding to R = O divides the graph into two regions. For > Q, no failure can occur. For example, for the range of small and large outcomes Qs, Q2, Qs, the resistance outcomes, respectively, Ry, Rs, Ry suffice to preserve the integrity of a member. However, for outcomes Qs and R, with a common point at D and falling inthe region where R= Q, 8 filure would take place ‘While enlightening, the above process is difficult to apply in practice. Fortunately, however, it can be mathematically demonstrated that for normal distribution of R and Q their diffrence, ie., R ~ Q, is also a ‘normal distribution. In this manner, the information implied in Fig. 1-30 Soe. 12. Pobabiiic Bas for Stuctul Design i ‘aio i se : cama i 9.129 Probability density fetions forthe two ain random valle (ad un resistance) can be compressed into a single normal PDF such as that shown in Fig, {F31(a). In this diagram the probability of fallure, py, is given by the area Under the til ofthe curve to the lft of the origin. A possible magnitude ‘ol py may be surmised from Fig. 1-28(b). A member would survive in all instances to the right ofthe origin. ‘Asean be seen fom Fig. I31(8), B oxo = jue-g. where Bis a constant and oo standard deviation, For applications, this relation can be put intoa more convenient form by noting thatthe variance of linear function of two independent normal variables, 03g, isthe sum of the variances ‘ama Love ‘ Lan Fig. 130 Probabilistic {eiition of ste and unsafe Structural esons ig. (a) Normal and (6) lognormal probability density functions.‘tress, dl Loacs, and Safely Concepts ofits parts.” Moreover, since variance isa square of standard deviation, fone has the following expression forthe safety index B. te aS 29 cr ‘An alternative appoach for establishing the formulation forthe safety index ® can be based on the more widely used concept ofthe factor of Safety defined as the ratio R/Q. This approach is particularly useful when the distributions of R and Q are skewed and the lognormal distribution” sather than the normal is appropriate. In this formulation, for reasons of mathematial convenience, iis preferable to work withthe logarithm of the ratio R/Q, Fig. 1-31(b). By carrying out this approach and making use of first order, mean-value approximations, the expression for the safety index, 8, reads sono _ 18 a = I s- He = Ino Vin = 8h Vans 8b where, as before, jx and py are the mean values forthe respective func: tions, and By and By are, respectively, the coefficients of variation for R and 2. Ttcan be noted that Fas. |-24and 1-26 resemble each other. A graphical interpretation for a solution based on the use of In(R/Q) is shown in Fg 1-310), Analogous to the fist approach, the probability of failure pis aiven by the area under the tail ofthe curve tothe left of the origin. For routine applications, a ® on the order of 3 is considered appropriate. must be recognized thatthe safety index, 8, is only a relative measure of reliability and cannot be considered exact. Nevertheless, uncertainties (126 A. HES, Ang. and W. H. Tang, Probobilty Coneeps ix Engineering Planning| ‘and Design, Val (New York: fohn Wiley and Sons, 1975) °* Lognormal distribution for a random varable Ris defced as fale) = where hy ~ In yx VI Bf and = lat 8h) are. respectively, the mean and Standard deviation of in Siar expressions aply for fog). However. for lognormal and 0. ean be show that 2 = i( QI) as the formal stration SecA. HS. Angand W. H. Tang. Probably Coneepe in Engineering Planing tnd Design, Vol.2~Decsin, Risk, and Rei (New Yorks Wiley, 198). vee [3("E*)] ven) j S26, 142, Pobablitie Bou for Stuctua Design in design variables can be explicitly included by using the coefficients of in dation in the design parameters, resulting in more consistent reliability ‘of structures and machines. Th addition to the failure limit states emphasized before, the probabi liste approach is suitable for other situations. Important among these are the serviceability limit states. Among these, control of maximum deftec- tions or limitations on undesirable vibrations can also be treated in prob- abilistic terms. EXAMPLE 1-7 consider two kinds of loading to be suspended by steel tension ros. In both ‘Glues, ¢ nomial permanent, or deod load, Dy, i 3 hips. In one case, however, ‘Tomi interment, of live foad, Ly, 5 | ip, wheres in the other Ly i 1S tipm Assume that forthe desig of these rods, American Insitute of Sicel Con struction (AISC) provisions forthe design of bling using ASTM Grade A36 el apy (e) Determine the cross-sectional areas for the rods using the conventional allowable stress design (ASD) approach, for which unos = 22 Ks.” (b) Find the cross-sectional areas fr the same rods using a approach deduced from the base of probabilistic concepts. According to AISC/LRFD.” this ears the use ofthe following elation: aR = D1 an ‘where Reis the nominal strength ofthe structure, and < 1 sthe resistance Factor such that isthe design resstanceof te member; the load factors ‘y> | account for posible overloads over the nomial lad effect Q. Since inthis case only two types of lading are considered, Eq. 127 reduces to Ry = 12D, + L6Ly (28) here, according to the cade fr this ease, @ is 0.90, y's are 2 and 1.6, Sd the yield siength ofthe steel, 836k (6) For the four solations found before, calculate the coresponding safety indices, sing Eq, 1-26, This equation is based on lognormal istibution forthe variables associated withthe load and resistance per AISCILRED. Solution (e) Since the total axil force P is caused by the dead and live leads, P = Dy +a, snd, on apolying Eq, 1-16, the required areas are ® AISC, Manual of Steel Consrucion, th ed. (Chicago, 198) ‘AISC, Mana of Stel Construction, Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRA), ited (Chicago: 1985, 45stress, Aid! Loads, and Sately Concepts SS t= 0273 in? for L, = 1 kip 0.909 in? for Ly = 15 kips (8) Sice Ry ~ Ao, agin from Bq. 116 Da + L6ba 0; and a 12S 4 6X a Ay = SENET Soasi® tor Ly = 1 kip Similarly, AF = 0926 infor Ly = 15 Rips “The coefficients 1.2 for Dy, 16 for Le, and 090 for have been state cally determined to approximate probabilistic solutions to various prob lens, Such studies show that dead load is more predictable than ive Toad, and, for that reason has a salle enltiple, 1-2, for obaiing the most probable maximum loed. The ceficient «varies from 0.60 to 1.00, de pending on the tatstcally determined strength ofthe type of member. I Im addition to dead and live loads, other loading conditions such a those caused by wind, snow, or earthquakes shouldbe considered, addtional “70, terms appear in Ba. 121. {) Inordero solve this pat of the problem, addins oformaton i needed ‘The nominal values Of R, and Q, should be wansformed ino the mean Vales jy at forthe probabilistic formlation. Fortis reason, based ‘on Saisie! information,” is multiplied by a fcto of 1.05 to obtain tee and po i et arbitrarily equal to Qy. The coefficient of variation, bx. for wr die tothe variation in oye andthe eros-sectonal area is taken a5 Or le theres the coeficent of Variation for is taken as 025, and 3p for D, is 0.10. To combine and bp ito ceticient of variation Bg for bot loads requires the use ofthe following relation employing the notation of this problem” Bq = @BDi + 8112) "Dy + Ea) 29) ‘On substitution, forthe ight H-kip ive load, By ~ 0.093, and, for he 1S. kip live loa, Bye = 0.188 Based onthe formation forthe part (a) an recalling that oy 36k, oer = LOS 0.273 6 36-= 10.3 Rips: Be = 0.1; wor = 6 Kips And Bo, 2° B, R.Elingwood et a., Development of Probably Based Load Criterion {for American National Standard ASH, National Boren of Standards, Special Pub teaion Now 37, he 150 aR, Benjamin, and CA. Corll, Probable Stvistice and Decisions for (Cul Engineers (New York: MeGraw-Hi, 1970) T see. 2 folteg ond Rvoled Connections = 0.093 Alteratively ign = 20kips ad Bs Indices, respectively, ae 5 % 0.909 x 36 = 34-4 Kips: Be = 0.11 “0:88, On substituting ito Eq. 126, the safety (0.36) B= ore ome = 87% _ messy, wo P= ours oe” 8 Set, for prt (wks = 108 % 0235 36 = 88 is og = 0. dr ek: br = 0 an, aeaaely. yds = 108 % 0926 = 36 = 35.0 Tice = 20s: and ge = O18 Heme, tats. 880) Bi = pir + ose = 2? +, _lngsr0 on BRS one + ora? ~ 256 By comparing the safety indies for the two solutions, ican be seen that they are far apart ting the conventional approach. On the other hand the B's are ‘ey neat one another, Consterng that many approximations are made to de tice ys and @ factors for code use, itis encouraging tht solution based on the probabilistic approach ead to such a good result ¥*1.13. Bolted and Riveted Connections In Section 1-8, some basic aspects in analyzing the behavior of bolted connections were given. Further details of such analyses ae discussed here. The same procedures are applicable in the design of riveted con nections, The usually assumed behavior of a bolted or riveted joint is summarized in Fig. -32.* A connection design approach based on pre- venting slippage between the faying surfaces is discussed later in this section. ‘The total force acting concentrically ona join is assumed tobe equally distributed between connectors (bolts or rivets) of equal size. In many ‘eases, this cannot be justified by elastic analysis, however, ductile de {ormations andlor sip between the faying surfaces permits an equal re Aistbution of the applied force before the ultimate capacity of a con > H.Madeen,S. Krenk, and N. Lind, Methods of Sirtural Safty (New York: McGrail, 1986. * rom G: Dreyer, Festgkislre und Blastitslelve (Leipz: Yanecke, 1938) 3 a748 Stress, Aa Loads, and Satety Concepts See. 448.Soted and Rveled Connections 49 Fig. 432 Assumed action fora baked or a iveted <> Fig. 138 Bending of plates commonly aepested in lap Joint sexing nection is reached. This assumption has been justified on the basis of tests. In contrast tothe illustration shown in Fig. 1-32, in simple lap joints, the connectors are in single shear, and the plates near the connector tend to bend to maintain the axial force concentric. However, beading in the connected plates is commonly neglected (sce Fig. 1-33). Numerous bolted ‘connections ofthis type ate used in stel construction, and riveted ones are used for joining aluminum alloy sheets in aircraft ‘When connectors are arranged as shown in Fig. I-34), determining the net section in tension poses no difficulty. However, if the rows for bolt holes are closely spaced and staggered, as shown in Fig. 1-34(), a ip-aag tear may be more likely to occur than a tear across the normal Section b-b. Methods for treating such eases are available.” It is also necessary 0 have a sufficient edge distance e to prevent a shear failure across the e-e planes shown in Fig. 1-346). ‘An illustration of a failure in bearing is given in Fig. 135. Although the actual stress distribution is very complex, as noted in Section 1-8, in practice, i it approximated on the basis of an average bearing stress acting over the projected area of the connector's shank onto a plate, ie, > A conclusive experimental verification ofthis sssumption may be found ia the paper by R. E. Davis, G. B, Woodruff, and HE. Davis, "Teasion Test of [Egge Rivets oun." Tra, ASCE 108 (940): 1198, “for deta, for example, see AISC, Manual of Stel Construction, th (Chicago, 1989) Fig. 34 Possible modes of fulure in bolted joints (connections) (by vig-ag tear. and (0 tear out dae to niin edge (end) distance slong lines 4 on area td. Its dificult justify this procedure theoretically. However, the allowable bearing stress is determined from experiments and is in- terpreted on the basis of this average stress acting on the projected area lof a rivet, Therefore, the inverse process used in design is satisfactory In the previous design approach, the fictional resistance between the faying surfaces at the connectors has been neglected. However, if the clamping foree developed by a connector is both sufficiently large and reliable, the capacity of a joint can be determined on the basis of the fiction force between the faying surfaces. This condition is ilustrated in Fig. 136. With the use of high-strength bolts with yield strength on the ‘order of 100 ksi (700 MPa), this is an acceptable method in structural stee! ‘design. The required tightening of such bolts is usually specified to be ‘about 70 percent oftheir tensile strength. For the purposes of simplified ‘analysis, an allowable shear stress based on the nominal area ofa bolt is specified. These stresses are based on experiments. Ths enables the de sign of connections usin high-strength bots to be carried out inthe same ‘manner as that fer ordinary bolts or rivets “The procedure for analyzing bearing-type bolted and riveted joints by the AISCILRED probabilstially based approach remains essentially the peepee TTT ve “es Fig. 136 Fg. 135 a.) Iustraton of bearing fire, and (eyascumed sess sbstsbaton,Fig. 197 Complete peseeaion butt Wels.) Single V-groove weld.) ouble V-groove wei Fig. 148 An example of a fie weld ‘tress, Axil Loads, and Safety Concepts same. However, the applied forces are increased using load factors (see Section I-12 and Eq. 1-27), and stresses are multiplied by appropriate resistance factors. For slip-rtical investigation of bolted joints at working Toads, either the net section nor bearing are checked. These details are ‘beyond the scope ofthis text.”” 1-14, Welded Joints Steel and aluminum alloy connections by means of welding are very Widely used. Butt welds, such as shown in Fig. 137, and fillet welds, illustrated in Fig, 1-38, are particularly common, The strength of butt ‘welds is simply found by multiplying the cross-sectional area ofthe thinner plate being connected by the allowable stress for welds. The allowable Stresses are usually expressed asa certain percentage of the strength of the original solid plate ofthe parent material. This percentage factor varies ‘greatly, depending on the workmanship. For ordinary work, a20-percent eduction in the allowable sess forthe weld compared tothe solid plate ‘may be used. For this factor, the efficiency of the joint is said to be 80 percent. On high-grade work, some ofthe specifications alow 100-percent ‘ficiency for the welded joint. Most pressure vessels are manufactured using such welds. Similar joins are used in some structural frames. In such work, the AISC specifications, based on the recommendations of the American Welding Society (AWS), allow the same tensile stress in the weld as inthe base metal in the case of butt welds subjected to static loads. Fillet welds are designed on a semiempirical basis. These welds are designated by the size ofthe logs, Fig. -38(0), which are usually made ‘of equal width w, The smallest dimension acrossa weld i called its throat. For example, a standard bin weld has both legs 4 in wide and a throat cequal (00.5 sin 0 = 0.5 sin 45" = 0.707 x 0.5, The strength of filet, Weld, regardless of the direction of the applied force.® is based on the cross-sectional area. at the throat multiplied by the allowable shear stress for the weld metal, The AWS allowable shear sires is 0.3 times the elec trode tensile strength, For example, E70 electrodes (Le., tensile strength of 70 ksi) used as weld metal has an allowable shear stress of 0.3 x 70, 21 ksi The allowable force q per inch of the weld is then given as q=2 x 0.1000 14.850 tein) 30) where w is the width of the legs. For a Lin filet weld, this reduces to 3.71 kips pet in: for a in filet weld, 5.56 kips per in, ete. 2 AISCILRED Manuol of Stel Consrution, Is ef, (Chicago, 1986) Theis considerable simpiication ofthe real problem. aa see. 44, Welded Joins EXAMPLE-8 Determine the required lengths of welds forthe connection of 83 in by 2m by extstel angle toa steel plate, as shown n Fig 39. The conection it develop ‘Aisai‘sengih inthe angle uniformly stressed to 20 ksi. Use {in flet welds, Uthow allowable strength per AWS specification is 5.6 kips pe near inch soliton Many arangements of welds are possible. IF to welds of length Ly and Ls ae ASS used, ther strength must be such as tO malian the applied force Pin ‘Sutvium without any tendency to vist the connection. This requires the re- {titan ofthe forces Ry and Rz developed by the wel to be eats and opposite to P For the optimam performance ofthe angle, force P must act through the ‘Sniroid ofthe erort-feetonal area (see Table T of the Append) For the pur ones of computation, the welds are assumed to have oa liner dimensions Aggie = 2.00 in® Gaon = 20 ksi P= Aeatow = 2. 20 = 40k VMs 0+ Rx I =A x 1.06 = 0 Ry= Ak SM=0G+ — x3-4MxG— 109-0 R= 259k Check: Ri + Rr = Mt +259 = 40k = P Hence, by using the specified value for the strength ofthe in wel note that b, = leis 56 2.54inand Ly ~ 25915 56 = 4.6619. The actual length of welds is ws increased a small amount over the lengths computed to account for rater athe beginning and end of the welds. The eccentricity of the force P with fespet tothe pane of the Wels is neglected "To reduce the length ofthe connection, end filet welds are sometimes used ‘Tus, in this example, « weld slong the line ad could be added. The centroid of| the resistance for this Weld is midway between «and d. For this arrangement Tents Ly and ae so reduced that the resltant force for ll thee welds co ineses withthe resltant of Ry and Re of the former ease. To accomplish the ‘me parpose, slots and notches inthe attached member are also occasionally ted Fig. 139 5452 sess, Axil Loads, and Satety Concepts Problems Section 1.5 14, Verity equilibrium Bq, 1a forthe «direction with the ai of sketch, similar to Fig. 1-3), where the stress ieremens for thee-dmensonal sresses are shown 442, Show thatthe difeential equations of equi ium fe a two-dimensional plane sress problem in polar coordiates are ‘The symbols are defined inthe igure. Body Fores are neglected in this fortlation Section 1-6 1-3. On the same graph, plot the normal sires y nd {he shear sess ya felons ofthe ange defined in Fig. 1-8. Angle 8 should range from U" to 360° on the abscissa, [demiy the maxima and minima for hese functions. ‘+4, In Fig. |S), determine the anges 8 where the magnitudes of 9 and eae equal 45. Using polar coordinate aes, on the same aap, lot and ras funetions of ane 8 eefined in Fig. TLS Ider the maxima and minima for these fane- 46, A \osmm square bars subjected to tensile free P-~ 20KN. as shown in Fig. 8a. a) Using sais, determine the normal and shear stress ating on sec tions amo and bb for 8 ~ 30 (0) Verily the resus using Eqs. 146 and 17. (c) Show the results 38 Fig rs. 117, Repeat Problem 1-6 for @ Lin square barf P = Skips and © = 20" 48. A glued lap splice ito be made in 10 % 20mm rectangular member a = 20, a how inthe figure “Assuming that the shear sirength ofthe glued joint con ‘eos the design, what axial force P can be applied to the member? Assume the shear strength ofthe glued joint to be 10 MPs. i Section 1-7 449, If an axial tensile force of 110 kips is applied to member made of W 8 > 31 section, what sil the tems sires be? What wil the stress be the member 554 C 12 x 207 section? For designation and eros- Sectional areas ofthese members, see Tables 4and 5 in the Appendix. ‘M40 ond 1. Short stes! members have the eros sectional dimensions shown inthe figures. I they are Subjected to axial compressive forces of 100 kN exc, Find te points of application for there forces to ese no bending, and determine the normal teses, All di Fig. P40 442, Abr of variable cross section, held om the lef Fe subjected fo two concentrated forces, P, and Pa 35 ‘Showin he fiat. () Find the maximum axial sress if = 10 ips, P= Skips, A, ~ 2in in. (8) Oo two separate diagrams, plot te axial force fd the axial stress along the length of the bar a * Fig. az “143. A bar of variable cross section, eld on the let [boubjeted to the forces, Py = 44N, Pa= —2KN, Surry SEN, as shown nthe igure. On two separate ‘Gagrams, lot the ail force andthe axial stess long thelength ofthe bar. Let Ay = 200 mm", Ay = 100 jeand Ay = 150 a np ‘44, Rework Problem 1-13 by reversing the dretion othe free, 45. A 2mm thick hollow circular tube of mm out te dimer i subjected onthe outside surface to ‘constant shear of 10Pa in thesia direction, 25 shown fin the figure. If the tube is 400 mum tong, what is the ‘maximum aa stress? Plot the variation of the axial sues along the tbe. Fig, 45 146. A shor compression member is made up of two Standard tet pipe, as shown nthe igre Ithe al lowabesress in compresion 13 ks, (a what isthe sllowable axial load Pf the axial lad Py = 30 kip Problems 53 (by what is the allowable lod Py ifload P= 15 kips? See"Table # in te Append for eros-sectional areas (of US. standard pipes. —-- Fig. P46 “UAT, Determine the bearing seesses caused bythe ap plied fore at A, 2, and forthe wooden structure ‘shown nthe figure. All member sizes shown are nom: Inal. See Table 10 inthe Appendix for US. standard sizes of lune. Section 1-8 448. A.40 x 80 mm wooden plank is plue to two 20, % 0mm planks, as shown in Pig. 1-150), I each of the two glued surfaces eA > 80 mm andthe applied force P= 20 KN, what i the average shear sess ia the ots? 149, Two lO-mm thick steel plates ate fastened to- ether, as shown inthe figure, by means of two 2: tm bolts that fit tightly fo the holes. IF the joint transmis tense force of 45 RN, determine (a) the 4 Fig. 4954 stress, Asal Loos, and Safety Conee average oem ste in the plates a section where to holes occur; (b) the avernge normal stress atthe itil section; () the average shearing stress ia the tals: and (d the average beating stress between the bos and he plates, 120. A gear transmitting a tongue of 400 i-th 10 a 2fvin shat Is Keyed to it, a shown fa he Fig. The ‘in square key i 2in long. Determine the shear stress inthe key. xe Fig. P20 121. A x 6 in soe pate i to be attached tothe ‘mala body of a machine, 38 shown in Fig. 1-15. the applied force P = 72 ips and the welds to be used fate god for 5.56 kipai, see Bg 1-0, how long should the welds be? Due to symmetry, each weld lin resists the same fore. Section 1-9 4-22. What isthe sear sees in bot A caused bythe ‘applied load shown inthe figure? The bot i 6 mm in dlameter and it ats in double shear. All dimensions 1o—-},20 | t (a ca Fig. p22 1.23. Calculate the shear stress in pin Af the bl dozer ifthe total forces acting onthe blade are at ‘shown othe figure. Not that there isa It-in-ameter l'on eich sie of the balldozer. Each pin in single Shear A | Fig. h.23 4-26. A contol pedal for actuating a sping mecha ism show in the igure. Calulate the shear stress Inpine 4 and Bde to force P when it causes a sess ‘910,000 st in rod AB. Both pins are in double shea, Fo. P28 425. A 6-fediameter cylidvcal tank is to be sup ported at each end ofa hanger arranged as shown io {he igure. The otal weight supported by the two hs crs if 15k. Determine the shear stresses in the [n-iameter pins at points A and due to the weight ofthe tank. Neglect the weight of the hangers and as ‘ume that contact between the tank and the hangers fs fotionles, a 1.26, For the planar frame loaded as shown nthe i le determine the axial stress in member BC. The {ows section of member BC is 400 min". The dimen Sion ae given in mum, ae fe eo] ono} {+ so-so Fig. 28 1.27, Two steel wires with well-designed atachments fn joint ae subjected to an external force of 700 [Ns sown in the figure, The dameter of wire AB is 268 mm and that of wie BC 2.52 um. (2) Determine thestresses inthe wires caused by the applied vertial fore. (0) Are the wire sizes well-chosen? |e 4428, Find testes inthe mat ofthe derrick shown inthe figure. All members are in the same vertical Probleme 55 plane and are joined by pins. The mast is made from fn fin standard ste! pipe weighing 28.55 Tb. (See ‘Table 8 inthe Appendix) Neglect the weight of the members 429. A signboard 15 by 20 in area is supported by two wooden frames, as shown in the gure. All ‘wooden members ar 3 by 8 in (See Table 10 inthe ‘Appendix for atl umber sizes) Calculate the ress ineach member die to » horizontal wind load of 20, Iie on the sgn. Assume all russ joints ae pinned And that two-site of the total wind force acts at B fin onesinth aC, Neplest the possibilty of buckling ofthe compression members. Neglect the weight of ig. 29 4-30, A braced srvtural frame is designed to resist the stra forees shown inthe figure. Neglecting the Fig.r-3056 ‘ss, All Loads, end Safely Concepis frame weight determin the axa stuesss in members ‘BD, FG, und DE; the respective areas fr thee mens bers ae 160,400, and 130 mm 434, A planar system consists of rectangular beam AC suported by stes! members AE and BE and 2 pia aC, a shows inthe figure. Member AB is made op ‘ot two | by Tin parle flat bars, and pin C, ating in Souble shear, isin in diameter Determine the ei stress in bars AE and the shea in pin © oo Fig. Pt "4-32. By means of numerous verical hangers. the ‘abl shot in the figures designed to suppor a com ously distributed ond, Thisoad, together th te ‘able and hangers, canbe approximated as uniformly isvibuted loud of? Nim. Determine the ross sec tion required fr the cable ifthe yield strength ofthe ‘material is 1000 MPa andthe required factor of safety 152. (Hint: The cable assumes the shape of a parabola and develops only a horizontal force Hat its lowest point The larger resultant ats suppor sequal othe largest force inthe cable) cBafim Fig. Pae Section 11 433. A 150 mm square wooden post delivers efrce (of 30 EN to concrete foting, a5 shown in Fg (a) Find the Bearing sess f the wood onthe concrete (6) I the allowable pressure on the sol 100 kNIn?, ‘etermie in plan view the reqired dimensions of @ Square footing. Neglect th weight f the footing 4-34. For he sructue shown inthe figure, caleulate the size ofthe bot and ara ofthe bearing plates re ‘red ifthe allowable stresses are 18000 pen tension Sind 500 ps in bearing. Neglect the weight of the beams ig. ae 435. What minimum distances a and b are required beyond the notches in the herzontal member af the truss shown? All members are sominally 8 by 8 iain cross section. (See Tale 10 in the Append forthe ‘actual size.) Assume the ultimate strength of wood in ‘hear parallel tthe gain 1 be 500 pi. Use faetor of safety of 5, (This details nt recommended) Fig. P38 436, A ste! bor of | in diameter is onde in double shear unt failure; the ultimate load is found to be 100,00 tb. IF the allowable sress io be based on 8 safety factor of 3, what must be the diameter ofa pin lesioned for a allowable ld of €O00 > in single shear? 437. What isthe eequited diameter of in B forthe tel eaak mechanism shown in the figure ian applied force of 0 KN at A i resisted by a force Pat C? The lowable sear stress 100 MP. Fig. P37 438, A joint for ransmiting a tensile fore isto be tmade by means ofa pin, ax shown in the figure. Ihe ‘Gameter of the rods being connected is D, what should bette ciameterd fhe pin? Assume tat he allowable Sheer srs in the pin sone hal the maximum tensile Stress inthe rods. lo Section 816, it wil be shown that histo forthe allowable stresses an excelent assumption for many materials) Fo. 08 499, Two high-strength steel rods of diferent dam: ties are atfached at A and C apd Support a mass Mf ft, as shown inthe gure, What mass Mf ean be robiems 57 supported? The ultimate strength of the rods is $00, MPa ad the factor of safety sto be 2 Rod AB has ‘A200 mm; rod BC has A= $00 ma. (The ends Gr the wires im such applications requte special at tachmeats) 4440. Find the required cros-ectional areas for all tension members in Example 3. The allowable sess 140 MP ‘+41. Atower se fora hghinei shown nthe igure. Tr itis subjected to 8 horizontal force of S40 kN and thesllowable stresses ae 100 MPa in compression and 10 MPa in tension, what isthe required cosssec tional aes ofeach member? All members are pincon- ected, [som] frat 442. For the frame shown for Problem 130, find the Fequired cross-sectional areas for members AB. AD, tnd BF. Tye slowable sre in tension is 120 MPA land thal in compression is 75 MP S443, A. planar truss system has the dimensions shonin the igre. Member AEs continuous and ean58 Stross, Axel Loeds, and Safely Concer fesist bending. Al joints are pinned. Determine the finmeter equied for tension member AB to cary the applied force at A. The allowable stress i 20 ks. 14. A planar fame has the dimensions shown in the figure: Members AC and DF are continous snd ‘ean fest bending. All joins are pinned. Determine the dameter required ofa high-strength stel rod for member CD. Assume ht the ulate strength forthe fod is 280 MPa and that the efficiency of the end a tachment i80%. The safety fcr Tor the ros 2 Fig. 4a ‘448. To suppor load P = 180 KN, determine the necessary dameter for rods AB and AC Tor the tripod Shown in he figure. Neglect the weight ofthe structure !nd assume thatthe joints ae pin-comnected. No a: lowance has to be made for threads. The allowable tensile stress 125 MPa, Allimensions are in meters, Fig. Pas “46. A pi-connected frame for supporting a force is shown in he figure, Stress both members AD and BC i tobe the same. Detcemine the angle nec {essary to achieve the minima weight of construction. Members AB and BC have a constant cross section. Fg. Pas 447. Three equal 05-kg masses ae tached to 810 ‘madameter wire, 5 shown inthe Hig, and ae 0 tated around a vertical axis, 2s shown in Fig. 1-25.00 4 frictionless plane at 4 Hz, Determine the aval Stresses inthe three segments of the wire ad pot the fess on a gram 8 futon ofr Canale the Fg. mar “1.48. A bar of constant cross-sectional ares A is 0 tated aroand one ofits ens n'a horizontal plane with 2 constant angular velocity The unit Weight ofthe material sy. Determine the variation of the sess & along the bar and plot the result on diagram as & function fr. Section 442 4449. Rework Example 1-7 for D, be = 10 eps Wit he help of ts addition! soliton, what conc - sions canbe drawn tegarding the ASD and LRED de sign approaches? section 1-43 1150, Find the capaiy of tension member AB ofthe pk truss shown inthe figure fies made from two Jy 2 by dein anles (see Table 7 in the Appendis) sched toa Lintick gosset plate by four Lin b= Strength bolts in Hn diameter holes. The allowable tresses ae 22 ks in tension, 15 ks in shes, and 87 istin bearing onthe anges sx well asthe gusset ef te fig. 50 151 Find the capacity of standard connection fora Wi2 536 beam shown in the figure. The connection Problems 59 consists of twa 4 3) % Tin anes, each 8 in lng in high-strength bolts spiced 3 in aprt are used in In hoes, Use the allowable stresses given in Prob- Tem 1-50, pet ey wrexae ye | — Fig. st 1-52. A structural multipleiveted lap joint, sich as is shown in the figure, i deianed fora 4-kp load "The plates ate in thick by 10 in Wide. The rivets in Tin oles are 2 in. (a) What the shear stress inthe nile sivet? (0) What are the tensile stresses inthe Upper plate in rows Ul and 227 TE i t t Fig. Pose Section 144 4683, Rework Example 14 for an 8 x 6 x Lin angle ‘sing bin let wel60 |. Introduction ‘This chapter is subdivided into two parts. In Part A, extensional strain for axially loaded members is defined and some typical experimental stress-strain relationships ae illustrated for selected materials. Analytical ‘dealizations for stress-strain behavior follow. These provide the bass for calculating deflections in axially loaded members. Statically determinate cases ae considered first. Statically indeterminate situations encountered in axially loaded members are discussed in Part B. STRAINS AND DEFORMATIONS IN AXIALLY LOADED BARS Part A 2-2, Normal Strain A solid body subjected to a change of temperature or to an external load deforms. For example, while a specimen is being subjected to an increas: ing force Pas shown in Fig. 2-1, a change in length ofthe specimen occurs between any two points, such as A and B. Initially, two such points can be selected an arbitrary distance apart. Thus, depending onthe test, ether Ir, 2s 4 or in lengths are commonly used. This intial distance between the two points is called gage lengrh. In an experiment, the change in the length of this distance is measured. Mechanical dial gages, such as shown in Fig. 2-1, have been largely replaced by electronic extensometers {for measuring these deformations. An example of a small clip-on exten someter is shown in Fig. 2-2 rc See. 2.2, Nowmal Stain During an experiment, the change in gage length is noted as a function ofthe applied force. With the same load and a longer gage length, a larger {eformation is observed, than when the gage length is small. Therefore, itis more fundamental to refer to the observed deformation per unit of Tenath ofthe gage i, {0 the intensity of deformation ‘Lo isthe initial gage length and L is the observed length under a given toad, the gage elongation AL = L — L,. The elongation e per unit of initial gage length is then given as en ‘This expression defines the extensional strain. Since this strain i ass0~ Gated with the normal sires, it usualy called the normal strain: Its & dimensionless quantity, but itis customary to refer to it as having the dimensions of infin, mim, or yam (microstrain). Sometimes itis given fs. percentage. The quantity & generally is very small In most engi neering applications of the type considered in this tex, its of the order of magnitude of 0.1 percent tis of interest to note that in sme engineering applications, 2s for example, in metal forming the srins may be large. For such purposes, ove defines the ‘Sealed natu ot ue sain. The sta increment defor tis tran i defined ‘8 aE, whore Ly the lstantancous lath of the Specimen, and dL Is the incremental change in length L. Analytical, [fait tet wa +0 on Fors strain, tis definition essen coincides wi funder the integral, the length Lis se calf the strain definon sven by Ba 2 obtained. ‘Naural strain are sell i theories of viscosity and viscoplastic for ex: pressing un intantanenos rte of deformation, Natral stains are not discussed ‘ewhere inthis text Since the strains generally encountered are very small, its possible to | employ a highly versatile means for measuring them, using expendable ‘lect strain gages. These are made of very fine wire or fol tat is glued to the member being investigated. As the forces are applied to the mem- ber, elongation or contraction ofthe wires or fel takes place concurrently With similar changes inthe material. These changes in length alter the electrical resistance of the gage, which ean be measured and calibrated * Natural strains were introduced by P. Ludwik in 1909 See A. Nada of Flow and Frocture of Solid, Val. 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw Hi Snd LE Malven fntroduction othe Mechanics of @ Continuous Medi ‘Bewood Clits, Ni: Prentice-Hall, 1963). Fig. 24 Diagram ofa tension Specimen in testing machine Fig. 22 Small clip-on extensometer (courtesy of MTS Syrtems Corporation,62 Fig. 23 Wie stain gage (protective top cover not shown) Fig, 24 Typical single flemen meta fl electrical: fesistance strain ge (courtesy af Micro Measurements Group, in., Raleigh, Noah Caroling, Usa ‘Axo Stone ond Deteatons in ore to indicate the strain taking place. Such gages, suitable for different environmental conditions, are available in a range of lengths, varying from 4 to 150 mm (0.15 1 6 in). A schematic diagram of a wire guge is shown in Fig. 23, and a photograph of atypical small fol gage is shown in Fig. 247 2.3. Stress-Strain Relationships In solid mechanics, the mechanical behavior of real materials under load is of primary importance. Experiments, mainly tension or compression tests, provide base information on this behavior. In these experiments, macroscopic (overall) response of specimens to the applied loads is ob served in order to determine empirical force-éeformation relationships, Researchers in material science? attempt to provide reasons for the ob- served behavior. It should be apparent from the previous discussion that for general purposes, it is more fundamental to report the strain of a member in tension or compression than to report the elongation ofits gage. Similarly, stress is a more significant parameter than force since the effect on material of an applied force P depends primarily on the cross-sectional area of the member. As a consequence, in the experimental study of the mechanical properties of material, itis customary to plot diagrams of the relationship between stress and strain in a particular test. Such dia «rams, for most practical purposes, are assumed tobe independent of the Size ofthe specimen and of its gage length. In these diagrams, itis cus- lomary to use the ordinate scale fr stress and the abscissa for stain Experimentally determined stress-strain diagrams differ widely for dit ferent materials. Even fo the same material they difer depending on the temperature at which the test was conducted, the speed of the test, and number of other variables, Conventional stress-strain diagrams for a {ew representative materials are illustrate in Figs. 25 and 2-6, These are shown to larger scale in Fig. 2-6, particularly for strain. Since for most » See Society for Experimental Mechanics (SEM), A. S. Kobayashi (ed, Handbook on Experimental Mechanics (Englewood Cis, NI: Prentice Tai, 1980), * See, for example, references given on pge 3. she <= a sat) Fig.2.8 Typical sresestain ‘inrams for deren tel Fig. 24 Typical stress-strain Gliagrams for diferent materials 6364 fig. 27 Ductile faces for | (GP Asta steel and () 60s! To aluminum alloy. Brite fracture fr (c) cst iro. (Numbers rete to ASTM ‘esigatons for ste! and ‘har of Aluminum “Assocation for aluminum alloy). ‘Axio Sone ond Defemetions in ors ‘engineering applications, deformations must be limited, the lower range of strains is particularly important, The large deformations of materials in the analysis of such operations as forging, forming, and drawing are not pursued ‘An illustration of fractured tension specimens after static tension test, i.e, where the loads were gradually applied, is shown in Fig, 2-7. Steel and aluminum alloy specimens exhibit ductile behavior, and a fracture ‘occurs only after a considerable amount of deformation, This behavior is clearly exemplified in thei respective stress-strain diagrams; see Fig. - 6. These failures oveur primarily due to slip in shear along the planes forming approximately 45° angles with the axis ofthe rod (see Fig. 1-8) ‘A.typical “cup and cone" fracture may be detected in the photographs ‘of steel and aluminum alloy specimens. By contrast, the failure ofa cast- iron specimen typically occurs very suddenly, exhibiting a square fracture across the cross section, Such cleavage or separation fractures are typical (of britle materials Several types of stress-strain diagrams may be identified from static tests at constant temperature. The curve shown in Fig. 2-8(a) is charac- teristic of mild steel, whereas the curves shown in Fig, 2-8() cover a ‘wide range of diverse materials. The upper curve is representative of some brite tool stels or concrete in tension, the middle one of aluminum alloys ‘or plastics, andthe lower curve of Fig. 2-8(b) is representative of rubber. However, the extreme values of strain that these materials can withstand o i see. 24, Hooke Low differ drastically. The “steepness” of these curves also varies greatly. ‘Numerically, each material has its own characteristic eurve. The terminal point on a stres-strain diagram represents the complete failure (rupture) ‘ta specimen. Materials capable of withstanding large strains without = Sianfeant increase in stress are referred to as ductile materials. The converse applies to britle materials ‘Stresses are usually computed on the basis of the original area of a specimen’; such stresses are often refered to 25 conventional or engi- rneening stresses. On the other hand, itis known that some transverse ‘contraction or expansion of a material always takes place, For mild steel fr aluminum, especially near the breaking pont, this effect, referred to ‘a necking, is particularly pronounced; see Fig. 2-9. Brittle materials do hot exhibit it at usual temperatures, although they t00 contract trans- versely alte ina tension test and expand ina compression test. Dividing the applied force, a a given point in the test by the corresponding actual area of a specimen atthe same instant gives the so-called true stress. A plot of true stress vs, strain i called a true stressstrain diagram; see Fig, 28). 2.4, Hooke’s Law For limited range from the origin, the experimental values of stress vs. slmin le essentially on a straight Tine. This holds true almost without reservations for the entire range for glass at room temperature. Its true * Thete are refered toot Cauchy stresses, nama in honor ofthe great rench mathematician (1785-1857), Definition of stress recognizing the change in ross Ssetoal area during staining is asoclated wih the names of Piola (183), the Talia lastician, and Kirchol (1832), the renowned German physics, 65 Fg. lagrams. (a) Mild sel. 6) ‘Typical materials. ra ig. 29 Typical conraction (ola specimen of mild ses! fn tension near the breaking point‘sl stoins one Deformations in Bart for mild steel up to some point, as 4 in Fig. 2-89). It holds nearly true ‘upto very close tothe failure point for many high-grade alloy steels. On the other hand, the straight part of the curve hardly exists in concrete, sol, annealed copper, aluminum, or cast iron. Nevertheless, forall prac. tical purposes, up to some such point as A, also in Fig. 2-8(b), the relo- tionship between stress and strain may be said to be linear forall ma terials. This sweeping idealization and generalization applicable to all materials is known as Hooke’s law.’ is Symbolicaly, this law can be expressed by the equation, oy “which simply means that stress is directly proportional to stain, where the constant of proportionality is E. This constant F is called the elastic ‘modulus, modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus. As e is dimen- sions, £ has the units of stress in this relation. In the U.S. customary system of units itis usually measured in pounds per square inch, and in the SI units, itis measured in newtons per square meter (or pascals). Graphically, E is interpreted as the slope of a straight line from the origin to the rather vague point A on a uniaxial stress-strain diagram. The ‘tress corresponding tothe later point is termed the proportional or elas~ tic limit ofthe material. Physically, the elastic modulus represents the sfifiess of the material to an imposed load. The value of the elastic mod- ulus is a definite property of a material. From experiments, it is known that is always a very small quantity; bence, E must be large. Its ap- proximate values are tabulated for afew materials in Tables 1A and B of the Appendix. For all steels, E at room temperature is between 29 and 30 x 10 psi, or 200 and 207 GPa. follows from the foregoing discussion that Hooke's law applies only ‘up 0 the proportional limit of the material. Ths is highly significant 2s in most of the subsequent treatment, the derived formulas are based on this law. Clearly, then, such formulas are limited to the material's be- havior inthe lower range of stresses, Some materials, notably single crystals and wood, possess different clastic moduli in ferent directions. Such materials, having different physical properties in different directions, are called anisotropic. A con sideration of such materials is exeluded from ths text. The vast majority of engineering materials consist of a large number of randomly oriented * Actually, Rober Hooke, an English scientist, worked with springs and not with rods, In 1676, he announced an anagram "eet inosss ety" which In Latin fs Ur Teno sie Vi he force varies a he sth). Youns's modus fs caled in banor af Thomas Young, the English cenit His Lectures on Natural Philosophy, published in 187, coatsin 8 defnion of the modus of laste, soe. 2, Frer Remetks on Stose Stain Reotionships crystals. Because ofthis random orientation, properties of materials be- Ge essentially alike in any direction.” Such materials are called is- ‘Gone. With some exceptions, such as wood, inthis text, complete fo een sameness from point to pint) and fo1opy af materials is generally assumed 2,5. Further Remarks on Stress-Strain Relationships Inaddition to the proportional limit defined in Section 2-4, several other fateresting points can be observed on the stress-strain diagrams. For in- Stance, the highest points (B in Fig. 2-8) correspond to the ultimate ‘uength of a material, Stress associated withthe long plateau ab in Fi. 38¢) is called the yield strength of a material. As will be brought out later, his remarkable property of mid steel, in common with other ductile materials, i significant in stess analysis. Por the present, note that at fan sentially constant slres, strains 15 t0 20 times those that take place tp tothe proportional limit occur during yielding. At the yield stress. large amount of deformation takes place ata constant stress. The yielding ‘Phenomenon is absent in most materials "Astudy of stress-strain diagrams shows tht the yield strength (stress) is so near the proportional limit that, for most purposes, the two may be taken to be the same. However, it i much easier to locate the former. For materials that do not possess a welllefined yield strength, one is sometimes “invented” by the use ofthe so-called “offset method.” This is illustrated in Fig. 2-10, where a line offset an arbitrary amount of 0.2 percent of strain is drawn parallel to the straight-line portion of the initial Stress-strain diagram. Point Cis then taken as the yield strength of the ‘material at 0.2-percent offset, “That a material i elastic usually implies that stress is directly propor- tional to strain, as in Hooke’s law. Such materials are linearly elastic or Hookean. A material responding in a nonlinear manner and yet, when unloaded, returning back along the loading path to its initial stressree slate of deformation is also an elastic material. Such materials are called nonlinearly elastic, The diference between the two types of elastic ma ‘eras is highlighted in Figs, 2-11(a) and (b). Lin stressing a material is clastic limit i exceeded, on unloading it usually tesponds approximately ina linearly elastic manner, as shown in Fig. 2-11), and @ permanent ‘deformation, or set, develops al no external load. As wll become apparent ater the study of Section 2-11, the area enclosed by the loop corresponds to dissipated energy released through heat. Ideal elastic materials are considered not to dissipate any energy under monotonic o eycic loading For ductile materials, stress-strain diagrams obtained for short com- pressions blocks are reasonably close to those found in tension. Brittle * Roling operations produce preferential orientation of crystaline gains in sone mattis. 67 \ | Fame fg. 240 Ofer method ot fstermiaing the yl streagih ofa materii [; ye See, 24, Other tdeaizatons of Constitutive Relations Fig. 241 Stress pls mater L-. Fig, 242 Linesr (Hookean) ind hoiner spring response 68 4 » ‘aan! Ee in diagrams: a) near elastic material, (6) nonlinear elastic material, and () inelastic oF ‘materials, such as cast iron and concrete are very weak in tension but rot in compression. For these materials, the diagrams difer considerably, ‘depending on the sense of the applied fore. Tt is well to note that in some of the subsequent analyses, it will be advantageous to refer to elastic bodies and systems as springs. Sketches Such as shown in Fig, 2-12 re frequently used in practice for interpreting the physical behavior of mechanical systems. 2.6, Other Idealizations of Constitutive Relations In an increasingly larger number of technical problems, stress analyses based on the assumption of linearly elastic behavior are Insufficient. For this reason, several addtional stress-strain relations are now in general tse, Such relations are frequently referred to as constitutive relations oF luvs, The three idealized stress-strain relations shown in Fig. 2-13 are encountered particularly often. The two shown in Figs. 2-13(a) and (6) will be used in this text; the one in Fig. -13(¢) is often more realistic, however, its use is considerably more complicated and generally will be ‘voided because ofthe introductory nature of this book. The idealized ac relationship shown in Fig. 213(a) is applicable to problems in which the elastic strains can be neglected in relation to the plastic ones. This occur if plastic (inelastic) strains are dominant. Per~ fectly (ideally) plastic behavior means that a large amount of unbounded deformation ean take place at a constant stress. The idealization shown in Fig. 2-13(0) is particularly usefl if both the elastic and paste strains have to be included. This situation frequently arises in analysis. Both of the previous idealizations are patterned after the behavior of low-carbon steel (Sce Figs. 2-6 and 2-8), where atthe yield stress oy, a substantial plateau in the stress-strain diagram is generally observed. In both i stances, i is assumed that the mechanical properties of the material are the same in tension and in compression, and op = | ~dyp |. It is also assumed that during unloading, the material behaves elastically. In such Fig. 243 Idealized stres-strsin dagrams: (a) ri perectly plastic material; (b) eastic-prteclyplstic ‘material; and (6 elastic linearly hardening materia. ‘a case, a stress can range and terminate anywhere beween +9 and yp. For moderate amounts of plastic straining, this assumption isin 00d agreement with experimental observations “The ac idealization shown in Fig. 2-13c) provides 2 reasonable ap- proximation for many materials and is more accurate than the previous fnodels over & wider range of strain, Beyond the elastic range, on an increase in strain, many materials resist addtional stress, a phenomenon feferred to as strain hardening. In some refined analyses, the stress-strain idealization shown in Fig 2-13 may not be sufficiently aceurate, Fortunately, with the use of com puters, mich better modeling of constitutive relations for real material is possible. For completeness, one such well-known algebraic formulation follows. In as much as implementation of such formulations requires @ considerable amount of computer programming, this approach is notin tended for general use in this text. ‘An equation capable of representing a wide range of stress-strain curves has been developed by Ramberg and Osgood.* This equation” is 3@ 0» here es, oe, and m are characteristic constants for @ material. The con- stants e, and ¢, correspond tothe yield point, which, forall eases other *W, Ramberg and W. R. Osgood, Deserition af Stress Stain Curves by Three Parameters, National Advisory Commitee o0 Aeronautics, TN 50, 194. “the cociicient 37 f chosen somewhat arbitrary diferent values have been sedi some investigation. In ths formulation, 4 dscontinuty inthe function ies when n=70 ‘Axio Sone ond Doteratons in Bars see. 27, Betemation of Axilly Loaded Bors nm Fig. 244 Rambers-Ospood ‘restrain diagrams, than that of ideal plasticity, is found by the offset method (see Fig. 2-10, ‘The exponent n determines the shape of the curve, Fig. 2-1. Note that, Bq, 2-4 is written in dimensionless orm, @ convenient scheme in general analysis. One of the important advantages of Eq. 2-4is that i is @ con tinuous mathematical function. For example, an instantaneous oF tangent ‘modulus E, defined as | Fig. 248 Menegote Pinto Computer model simulation oreyelie stress-strain ‘iagrams fr ste Fig, 246 Elect of strin rate fn femperatue on ses Strain etrves for 6061-76 slumioum alloy es) ‘ean be uniquely determined. In most applications, it is advantageous to work withthe inverse of Ea 2, ie, 0 express stress asa function of strain. With the ai of such a feauation, developed by Menegatio and Pinto," remarkably accurate simulations of eyelic stress-strain diagrams can be obtained. An example is shown in Fig. 2-15." In this diagram, «series of characteristic loops, referred to as hysteretic loops since they represent the dissipation of en- tetay (see Section 2-11), are clearly evident Regardless of the idealization used for a stress-strain diagram, it must bbe recognized that it is strongly dependent on ambient temperature. An example of such an effect i ilustrated in Fig. 2-16." Its also important tobe aware of the fact that no time-dependent phenomena inthe behavior ‘of materials is considered in this text. For example, with time-dependent "See M, Mancgtto, and P. E. Pinto, “Method of Analysis for Cyclical Loaded Reinforced Coverete Pane Frames Tcluding Changes in Geometry and Nonelastc Behavior of Elements under Combined Normal Force and Bending” INTABSE (ntematonsl Assocation for Belge and Stet Engineering) Sy posiumon Resistance and Ulimate Deformity of Structures Acted on by Wel- Benet Repested Loads, Lisbon, 1973 ifsc. Fippod, E. B. Popov, and V. V. Bertero, “Bets of Bond Deter ‘oration on Hysteric Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Joint.” Report No. UCB ERC S9/9, August 1983, . 19. "KG. Hopes “inlunce of Strain Rate on Mechanical Properties of 6061-T6 ‘Aluminum Under Uniaxial and Disxal States of Stress, Experimental Me- ‘hance, 6,00. 10 Ap 1965), p. 208 behavior and a member subjected toa constant stress, the elongations or deflections continue to increase with time; see Fig. 2-17. This phenom- ‘enon is referred to as creep. Creep is observed in reinforced concrete floors and in turbine dses, for example. Likewise, the prestress in bolts of mechanical assemblies operating at high temperatures, as well as pre- stress in steel tendons in reinforced concrete tend to decrease gradually With time. This phenomenon is referred to as relaxarion; see Fig. 2-18 2-7. Deformation of Axially Loaded Bars When the deflection of an axially loaded member is a design parameter, itis necessary to determine the deformations, Axial deformations are also required in the analysis of statically indeterminate bars, The deflection2 Fig, 249 An axaly loaded oor characteristics of bars also provide necessary information for determining the stfiness of systems in mechanical vibration analysis, Consider the axially loaded bar shown in Fig. 2-19(a) for deriving a relation for axial bar deformation. The applied forces P,P, and Ps are held in equilibrium by the force P., The cross-sectional area A of the bar i permitted to gradually change. The change in length that takes place in the bar between points B and D due to the applied forces is 10 be determined, Tn order to formulate the relation, Eq, 2-1 forthe normal strain is recast fora differential element x. Thus the normal strain e, in the x direction du a o8 where, due 1o the applied forces, is the absolute displacement ofa point ‘on 2 ber from an initial fixed lecation in space, and du is the axial de- formation of the infinitesimal element. This isthe governing differential equation for axially loaded bars, itis to be noted that the deformations considered in this text are gen erally very small (nfiitesimal). This should become apparent from nu ‘merical examples throughout this text, Therefore in calculations the ial (undeformed) dimensions of members ean be used for calculating defor- mations. In the following derivation this permits the use of the initial Tength £, between points such as B and D in Fig. 2-19, rather than is deformed length Rearranging Eq, 2-6 as du = e, dx, assuming the origin of x at B, and integrating, See, 2.7, Defometon of Axially Loaded! Bors fo te = nt) no = fsa where u(L) = so and u(0) = np are the absolut or global displacements (of points D and B, respectively. As can be seen from the figure, w(0) is ‘rigid body axial translation of the bar. The difference between these displacements isthe change in length A between points D and B. Hence fica on [Any appropriate constitutive relations can be used to define cy. Per linearly elastic materials, according to Hook's law, e, = oy, Bg. 23, where a. = P.lA., Eq. 1-13. By substituting these relations into Bg, 27 and simplifying co) where is the change in length of an elastic bar of length L, and the force P, = D(a), the cross-sectional area A, = AC), and the elastic modulus E, = (a) can vary along the length ofa bar. Procedure Summary It should be emphasized that the central theme in engineering me~ chanics of solids consists of repeatedly applying three basic concepts. In ‘developing the theory for axially loaded bars these basic concepts can be ‘summarized as follows: 1. Equilibrium conditions are used for determining the internal resisting forces ata section, first introduced in Chapter 1. As shown later in this chapter, this may require solution ofa statically indeterminate problem 2. Geometry of deformation is used in deriving the change in length of ‘bar due to axial forces by assuming that sections intially perpen: dicular to the axis ofa bar remain perpendicular after straining, see Fig. 2-190). 3. Material properties (constitutive relations) are used in relating axial ‘normal stresses (0 axial normal strain and permit calculation of axial ‘deformations between sections. Solutions based on this theory give correct average stresses ata section, see Section 1-6. However, at concentrated forces and abrupt changes in 73 all74 _ ‘Al stoine ana Deformations in Bo cross section irregular local stresses (and strains) arise. Only at distances bout equal to the depth of the member from such disturbances are the ‘esses and strains in agreement with the developed theory. Therefore Solutions based on the concepts of engineering mechanics of solids are ‘est suited for relatively slender members. The use ofthis simplified pro ‘cedure is rationalized in Section 2-10 as Sain-Venants principle Several examples showing application of Eq, 2-8 follow. EXAMPLE 24 Consider tar BC of constant cross sectional area A and of enath L shown in Fig, 220(a). Determine the defection of the free ead, caused by the aplication of ‘concentrated force P, The elastic modulus of the materials E. Solution “The deformed bar is shown ia Fig. 22000. Conceptually, i is often convenient to think of such elas systems as springs: see Fig. 220). A free-body dagram for an isolated part of the loaded bar to the left of an arbitrary section ava is shown in Fig. 220), From this diagram, ican be con- Cluded that the axa fore P isthe same everywhere ais equal oP. Itis given that A, = A, constant By applying Eq. 28, Fig.220 See, 27, Befeimation of Axo Looded Bars |, Ae” AE Jo fit Ba z| Hence, 9) A graphic interpretation ofthe solution is shown in Figs. 2-200){h). The con sant sual bar stun follows by dividing the constant axial force Pby AE. Since fhe axial strain is constant, the diplacements of the points onthe bar increase teal with the distance from te origin of rat coutant rae. No displacement inpostble at the left end Tis seen from fa, 29 thatthe deletion of the rod is diresty proportional to the applied force and the length and is inversely propoctional to and E. ‘Since Ea. 2.9 frequently occurs in practice, itis meaningfl fo recast it intothe folowing frm: P (ABIL) 10) “This equation i related tothe familiar definition forthe spring constant or nies reading k= PIA {Ibn} or (Nim) on “Ths constant represents the force requted to produce a unit deflection, Le 2. Therelor, for an axially Toaded th bar or bar segment of length Ly and ey andthe analogy betwen such a bar and spring shown in Fig, 220) is evident, ‘The esprocal off defines the flexibly f Le f= k= a) Lint} or (Ni en) ‘The constant f represents the deflection resulting From the application of unit For the particular ease of an axially loaded ih bar of constant crass section, ay 75 eee76 ‘Ala hans and Detematons in Bots “The concepts of structural stffeess and Nexbily are widely wed in uct nals, incting mechanical-ibration problems. For more comples structural Systems, the expressions for kan f become more involved EXAMPLE 2.2 Determine the relative displacement of pont D from 0 for the elastic steel bar of variable cross section shown in Fig. -21(a) caused bythe application of con entrated forces P= 100 EN and P, ~ 200 KN acting tothe let snd P= 250 UN and Py = 50 KN sting to the right. The eespective areas for bar segment, (0B, BC, and CD are 1000, 200, and 1000 mu. Let E ~ 200 GPa, ete fig. 221 S0¢. 27, Detonation of Axolly Loaded Bors solution By inspection it can be seen tha the bar isin equtvivm. Sue a check must taps be made before starting a problem. The variation in P, along the length rane boris determined by taking three sections, ana, B-b, and ce in Fig. 2 Sad and determining the necessary forces for equlibium inthe fee-body di jams in Figs. 221(0}-(8, This ead othe conclusion that within each bar see Son, the forces are constant, esling in the axial force diagram shown in Fi. {T51C2. Therefore, the solution of the deformation problem consists of ang ‘Secvaeally the individual deformation forthe thee segments. Equation 29 Scale for each segment. Hence, the total axial deformation for the bar can te writen as Peokeo S= DE” AoE 7 eck * AcoEK where the subscripts defy the segments ‘Using this relation, the relative displacement between O and D is . _ 150 x 10° 1500 = * Too x 200 x 10 ~ 2000 > 200 x 10° * 1000 x 200% 10° 41.000 ~ 0.375 + 0.375 = 1.000 mm sy = + 100% 107 x 2000 _ 150 > 10? 1000 Note that inspite of large stresses in the bar, the elongation is very small. ‘A grape interpretation ofthe solution is shown in Figs. 2210) and (g. By ving the axial ores inthe bar sepments by the corresponding AB, the axial Strains slong the bar are obtained. These stains are constant within each bar coment. The area of the stain diagram fr each seament of the bu gives the ‘hangs in length for that segment, There values eorespoad to those displayed ramrially before. EXAMPLE 2-3, Determine the deflection of ie end of elastic bar OW caused by its own weight vig see Fig. 222. The consant cross-sectional area is A. Assume that is ‘Solution ‘The fre-body diagrams ofthe bar and its truncated vegment ate shown, respec: tively in Figs 2-220) and (0). These (wo steps are essential in the solution of ‘Sich problems, The grap forthe axial force Py = w(L~ 2) isin Fig. 2220) By applying Eq. 2, the change in bar length ACx) at a generic point, Bf - ar 2 (10-2) ‘A plot of this funtion i shown in Fig. 2-22(d, with its maximum as 8 ae =78 Fig. 222 ‘Ala Stone ond Defematons in ots ‘The defection of Bie w (pp 2) wt we a= aw)= ie (¥ 4) = Sen dae where W = WL i the sora! weight ofthe bar Ii a concentrated fore Pin addon tothe bar's own weigh, were Acting on bar OB at end B, the total defection due 1 the ro eances would be obtained by superpostion as PL, WL _ (P+ (Way DAE AE In problems where the area of rod is variable, a proper futctlon frit mst be substituted into Ba. 24 to determine deflections. In practice, itis sometimes slfcientlysscurate to analyze such problems bY sproximating the shape of @ fed by 2 five number of elements, as shown in Fig. 223. The deflections for ach one of these elements ate aed to obtain the total deNection. Because of ‘heap variation nthe eros section shove, the sation Would be approximate, EXAMPLE 2-4 For the bracket analyzed for stresses in Example 1-3, determine the deflection of point # eaused by the applied vertical force P~ 3 kps. Alo determine the ‘ertcalstiffess of the bracket at B- Assume that the members are mde of 2024 “Tasuminam aly and tha they have constant cross-sectional res, ue neglect the enlargements atthe connections. See Weallation in Fig. 224. S2e.247. Betomaton of Axilly Loaded Bors soktlon {As found in Example 13, the sxial forces i the bars of the bracket are ast and age = 12.9 ks. The length of member AB is 6.71 in and that of BC {3849 i. Per Table 1A inthe Appendix or the specified material, E~ 10.6 * {0" ks. Therefore, according to\E4. 2-9, the individual member length changes r] sxe on = [og] a ise = 3 «0 (elongation) 129 x 8.29 25X82 = 103 x 10-%in (contraction) Bac = “These length changes, a #2 and 2, are shown to. greatly exaggerated scale ineltion tothe bar lengths in Fig. 224). The indicated locations of points B, ‘nd Bre incompatible with the pysial requirements ofthe problem. Therefore ‘onguted bar AB} and shortened bar CB must be rotated around thir espetive ‘upport points And C such that points Band By meet st common point 5, This i shown schematically in Fig. 2246). However, since in clasial sold mechanics, one deals with ssl (infatesinal) deformations, an approximation an be introduced In such analyses, ii customary to assume that sort ares of large circles can he approximated by normals to the members slong which the br ends move to achieve compatibility atthe joints. This construction” isin and Sy = By, oc = Scos and Any = A c0s 6 (n forming ental mts for both sides of these equations, substituting the a merical values for Bc and 4 ound carer, and simpliving, one obtains £258: _ Bac _ 103 x 107 cost)” Bay ~ TES x 19-9 = O97 Howeves 0 = 180" ~ 45° — 26.6" 6) = 1084" ~ 6 ie follows that £05 &) = cos 108.4" cos 8, + sin 108-4" sin 8, 05’, 05 0, and = cos 108.4° + sin 108.4" tan 6) = 0.912 ‘Therefore, fan6, = 1.29 and 8, = 52.2" Based on this result, = Busleos 0) = 184 x 10° in forming an angle of 11.2 with the vertical ‘Since Srey = A 0s 1.2 = 180 % 10", the vertical sifness ofthe bracket {is given bythe spring constant woos eee = 1 ksin This problem contains geometric nonlinearity in displacement, which ts been neglected; therefore, the solution is acura oly for smal deformations com ‘mon practice for many enginecting problems. $06.27, Deformation of Axially Loaded bore 81 Fig. 225, “EXAMPLE 2-5 “Two hinge-ended elstic bars of equal lengths and cross-sectional areas altached toimmovabe supports are joined inthe mle By apn, a show in Fig. 2-5), Inially, points A,B, and C areona straight line. Determine the vertieal defection ‘Sof poineC asa function of applied force P. Consider smal deletions oaly. Salion “The sven structural system i incapable of supporting ny vertical free in is init configuration, Therefore, equilibrium of the system ina slighty deflected onion must be examined, Fg. 2-250), where nial bar lengths L Become 1° Fortis poston ofthe bars, one can write an equation of eqilium for joint sad express clongations ofthe bars via (wo dilfret paths. One such relation for elongation of each bar follows from Eq. 29 and the ozher from purely geo metre considerations. On these base, from equilibrium, P= 20sind 1 sd TE pe pa th Lt cos Tey Hence, T= AE(I ~ c05 8) (On substiuing this expression for Tint the st equation, P = 2AB( ~ c0s 6) sinAla Stone ond Deformations n ars Further, by expanding cos @ and sn ato Taylor's series, panne (So) (1B os) (0m etsinng only one term in each series, P= ABW However, since the analysis is being made for small deflections, angle 8 ~ Me There, AE ws fe patEy oe an thE a ‘hisreslt, shown qualitatively in Fig, 225() clearly exhibits the highly nonlinear relationship between P and. By contrast, most ofthe problems that wil be ‘encountered inthis text wil lead to near Elationships between loads and dis Dlacomen's, The move sccutate sltions of this problem Show thatthe approx mate solution jst ebained gives good results for A/L, on the order 0.3. Tn this problem, the effect of geometry change on ellrium was considered whereas im Example 2-4, was neglected beenuse the displacement was Very Sal 2-8. Poisson's Ratio In addition to the deformation of materials inthe direction of the applied Torce, another remarkable property can be observed in all solid materials, namely, that at right angles tothe applied uniaxial foree, a certain amount of lateral (transverse) expansion or contraction takes place. This phe- fhomenon is illustrated in Fig. 2-26, where the deformations are greatly ‘exaggerated. For carty, tis physical fact may be restated thus: ifa solid body is subjected to an axial tension, it contracts laterally; on the other hand, ii 8 compressed, the material “squashes out” sideways, With this in mind, directions of lateral deformations are easily determined, depending on the sense of the applied fore. For a general theory, itis preferable to refer to these lateral defor- mations on the bass of deformations per unt of length ofthe transverse simension, Thus, the lateral deformations on arelarive basis can be ex- pressed ininvin or mim. These relative unit lateral deformations are termed lateral strains. Moreover, it is known from experiments that lateral strains beara constant relationship to the longitudinal or axial strains caused by fan axial force, provided a material remains elastic and is homogeneous and isotropic. This Constant isa definite property of @ material, just like 4 the elastic modulus E, and is called Poisson's ratio." It will be denoted by » (nu) and is defined as follows: lateral strain lateral strain ‘axial strain ‘axial strain oe where the axial strains are caused by uniaxial sess ony, ie, by simple {ension or compression. The second, alternative form of Eq, 2-16 is t1ue p ‘because the lateral and axial strains are always of opposite sign for uni- axial stress. “The value of » fluctuates for diferent materials over a relatively narrow range. Generally, tis on the order of 0.25 to 0.35. In extreme cases, ‘values as low as 01 (Some coneretes) and as high as 0.5 (rubber) occur, ‘The latter value isthe largest possible. Itis normally attained by materials durin plastic low and signifies constancy of volume." In this text, Pois- son's ratio wil be used only when materials behave elastically. Inconelusion, note that the Poisson effect exhibited by materials causes. © no additional stresses other than those considered earlier unless the trans~ § verse deformation i inhibited or prevented. EXAMPLE 2-6, Consider a carefully conducted experiment where an aluminum bar of $0: Samer is siresved in testing machine, as sbown in Fig. 227. Ata cerain instant the applied force P is 10) KN, while the measured elongation ofthe rod 160.219 mm ina 300-n gage length and the diameters dimension is decreased yy .0I2I5 mm. Calulate the two pliysiel constants v and ofthe materal Selutton Transverse or lateral stain Ay 001215 % °2S 0.000283 mminm Tn this case, the lateral strain erases bY by fs negative, since the diameter ofthe bar de Namotafter SD. Poisson the French sins who formulated this concept in A. Nadal, Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids, Vol. | (New York Mec Hil, 1950. ig. 226 (a) Lateral ‘contraction and (8) lateral xpansion of sli bois subjected to axial forces (Potssons etfes) L* fig.227‘Aol Soins one Deformations in Bort Aa stain a_ , 0219 ee = 8 = + 2229 5 6.00073 mmvimm Poieson’s rat: le Next, since the area ofthe rod A = = % 50? = 1960 mn’, fom Bq, 2, _ Pl _ 100 x 10° x 300 Aa” 1960 % 219 ~ 7 * 10 Nim 70 GPa In practice, when a study of physical quantities, such sand , is being made, itis Best to wrk with the corespondig stresssran diagram tobe assured that the quantities determined are serocised withthe clastic range ofthe material behavior, Also note tht it makes no difference whether the fia oF the fins lengths ae used in comping strains, sine the deformations are very sl. 2.9. Thermal Strain and Deformation With changes of temperature, solid bodies expand on increase of tem perature and contract on its decrease, The thermal strain e, caused by & ‘change in temperature from T, to T measured in degrees Celsius of Fah- renheit, can be expressed as em Where a is an experimentally determined coefficient of linear thermal ‘expansion. For moderately narrow ranges in temperature, temains Fea sonably constant, "Equal thermal strains develop in every direction for unconstrained ho- mogeneous isotropic materials. For a body of length L subjected to a uniform temperature, the extensional deformation Ay due to a change in temperature of 87 = T — Tis 19 ‘00.29. thermal Son ond Deformation Fora decrease in temperature, 87 assumes negative values. ‘An illustration of the thermal effect on deformation of bars due to an increase in temperature is shown in Fig. 2-28. EXAMPLE 2-7 Determine the displacement of point in Example 2-4 eased by an increase io Temperature of 100. See Fig. 2-291). soliton Determining the deletion at point # due to an increas in temperature is sila tothe slition of Example 2-4 for nding the defection af he same point eased tystress. Per Table LA inthe Append the coefficient of thermal expansion for noe 4 suminum alloy fe 12.9% 10" per". Hence, trom Eq. 218 8.656 x 10-7 in 10.95 x 10°? in Bag = 129 x 10 Bae = 129 x 10" X 100 x 6.71 % 100 x 8.49 ere the displacement &rof pont t0 pos change in temperature, i related to the bar elongtins inte following manner: Arcos: = Ang and Arcos 8 = Bac Forming equal ratios for both sides of these equations, substituting aumerical values fr pd Ago, and simplifying leds tothe flowing result 8.656 x 107 050; _ Baw - 109s 10 £05 8; ~ Ae ion Bs, Fig. 2290), caused by & 85 2.28 Thermal expansions of bars resting on fitonless Sure. Dashed ines epresent final shape for an fig.229‘Axl sons ana Dotormations in Bars Here, however, y = 43° + 26.6 ~ 6, = TL6"~ 0: therefore, £08 8, = cos 71.605 8) + sin 71.6" sin 8, and SES = cos 7.6 + sin 71.6 tan 0, = 0.7905 Hence, tan 8, = 0.500 and = 26.6 Based on this result, Ay = Agcleos 0) = 122 x 10-¥in forming an angle of 45° ~ 6, = 184 withthe horizontal 11s lteresting to note thatthe small placement A is of comparable order of magnitude otha found de the applied vertical force Pim Example 2-4 2-10. Saint-Venant’s Principle and Stress Concentrations ‘The analysis of axially loaded bars based on engineering mechanics of solids is very accurate for bars of constant eras setion when transmitting uniformly distributed end forces. For such ideal conditions stresses and strains are uniform everywhere. Ia reality, however, applied forees often approximate concentrated forces, andthe cross sections of members can ‘change abruptly. This causes stress and strain disturbances inthe prox imity of such forces and changes in cross sections. In the past these situations were studied analytically using the mathematical theory ofelas- fiety. In such an approach, the behavior of two oF three dimensional infinitesimal elements is formulated and the conditions of equilibrium, deformation and mechanical properties of material are satisfied subject to the prescribed boundary conditions. More recently & powerful mu merical procedure has been developed, where a body is subdivided into discrete number of finite elements, such as squares or cubes, and the analysis is carried out with a computer. This is called the finite element ‘method of analysis. The end results of analyses by either one of these ‘two methods ean be very elfetively used to supplement solutions in en- sincering mechanics of solids. An example showing the more accurate Solutions by these two advanced methods forthe nature of stress dist bution at concentrated force follows, These solutions provide comparison with those found by applying the method of engineering mechanics of solids, ‘A short blockis shown in Fig. 2-30) acted upon by concentrated forces tits ends, Analyzing this block for stresses as two dimensional problem "These are the same basic concepsas used Tn enginering mechanics of solids , ‘00.240, Soin.onents fincple and Shess Concentrations t ‘ 7 Fig, 230 Suess distribution near concanirated force i a rectangular elastic plate, sing the meiods ofthe theory of elasisty ges the els shown ia Figs 2300) (and (0, The overage srest ox as given by Eq. 113 Sal shown on these diagrams. From these it can be aoted tha ta ‘Sons Uistance i fom na end, Pi 2-900), the maximum normal Sess belly exceeds the average. For purely elas materi the max- Sum ses sneoretealytecomes inte rit ander the concentrated Troe since nts fre ats ons zor ara, In real situations, however. ty concentrated force snot possible and viral all material exhibit sone pte behavior thesis the stant of an init ses inpostte Ts impotn’ to ote so tsi pect fom tis slain. Fr, he average sues foal ese, being based on condos of equ, i tlvaye comet. Second, ie normal sieses at stance egal to ihe Width ofthe member are ese norm, “The eecondcbvrvaion lstbes the fumed Sint-Venan's principle Ic yas enciatd by the great French easician in 855 n common apnesring terms it sinply mea tat te manner of force application nates is mortan nly nthe visit of thereon where the force ape This alo olds rue forthe dvurinnce cased by changes in cos socion, Consciouy or onconciousy this pice i neal a ‘ays apple in ealig loa carrying systems Use te lement method the rerio soon forthe ame tro re shown in Fg. 231 The iil undeformed mesh nto which the pinar Vock is arbiraiy subdivided, andthe grea exaggerated dtjormed mesh cased bythe apie fore are shovn in Fig 231), By placing the mesh on rollers a shown, only the upper half ofthe Bock ° Timoshenko, and JN. Goodie, Theory af Blast, See, New York: McGraw, 1970; p60. Fig. 2-305 adapted from this sures. ' Por this subject see for example, O. C. Zenkieice, The Finite Element Method, ede. (Landon: MeGraw Hii Ld, 1977). K-1. Bathe and E.L. Wilson, ‘Numericl Methods in Fite Element Anais (Englewood Clif, NI: Prentce Hull, 1910, R. H. Gallagher, Finite Element Fundamentals (Englewood Cis, NJ. Pretice Hal, 1979. 87pe ‘Aol Stains ond Deformations in Boxe Fg, 2: (a) Undeformed and deformed mesh of an elastic plate (b) 6, contours, () Normal sess ‘Ssiebutions at i and 2 below top needed to be analyzed hecause of symmetry around the mid-section. The calculated stress contours in Fig. 2-31(0) clearly show the development of large stresses in the vicinity of the concentrated force. Unlike the solution based on mathematical elasticity, inthe finite element model the stresses al the applied force are very large, but finite, because of finite imesh size. As to be expected, the comers carry no stress. The stress sistribution at b/¢ and b/2 below the top, shown in Fig. 2-31(¢), are in reasonable agreement with the more accurate results given in Figs. 2-30(0) and (c). Better agreement can be achieved by using a finer mesh This versatile method can be applied to bodies of any shape and for any load distribution. ts use in accurate stress analysis problems is gaining fan ever wider use. However, because ofthe simplicity of the procedures sscussed in this text, atleast for preliminary desi, they remain indis- pensable. “The example cited above is extreme, since theoretically infinite stresses appear to be possible atthe concentrated force. There are numerous sit uations, however, such as at bolt holes or changes in ross section, where the maximum normal stresses are finite. These maximum stresses, in relation to the average stress as given by Eq. 1-13 for linearly elastic ‘materials, depend only on the geomerrical proportions of a member. The ratio of the maximum to the average stress is called the stresscconcem tration factor, designated in ths text as K. Many such factors are available in technieal literature” as functions of the geometrical parameters of RI. Roark and W.C. Young, Formulas for Stress and Stain, Sth ed. (New ‘York: MeGraw- Hil, 1975), members. For the example given before, at a depth below the top equal to one-quarter width, K = 2.575, Hence opus = 2-575 Guy. Generalizing this scheme, the maximum normal stress t 8 section is 19) where K is an appropriate stress-concentation factor, and PIA is the average stress per Eq. 1-13, “Two particularly significant stress-concentation factors for lar axially loaded bars are shown in Fig. 232. The KS that may be read from the raps give the ratio ofthe maximum normal stress tothe average stress ‘on the net section as shown in Fig. 2-33. A considerable stress concen- tration also occurs atthe root of threads. This depends toa large degree ‘upon the sharpness of the eut, For ordinary threads, the stress-concen- ‘Factor of Stress Concentration 2 This igure is adapted from M. M. Foc 1935, vol 57, pe AT Photolstially Determined." Trans, ASM Fig. 2.32 stress onentaton factors for at bar in tension Fig. 293 Measing ofthe Erese-concentmation actor krFig. 234 Loweycle tensile fetgue facture of 78 in [ASES steel bot ‘Axo Stains. and Deformations in Bore tration factor is on the order of o 3. The application of Fg. 2-19 presents no difficulties, provided proper graphs or tables of K are available. Inthe past many such factors have been determined using the methods of pho- toelastcity (see Sec. 9-4). ‘An example of low-eycle fatigue fracture in tension ofa high-strength bolt with a minimum specified sirength of 120 ksi ($30 MPa) is shown in Fig. 234, Note thatthe fracture occurred at the root of the threads. EXAMPLE 2-8, Find the maximum stress in member AB in the forked end A in Example Solution Geomerieal proportions radius ofthe hole _ 3/16 = M6 os net width 12” ® From Fig, 2522" K ~ 213 for vid = 0.5. “Average tress om Example F-3 oxy = PlAmy = 1124s Mazin sre, Ea. 2-10 gus ~ KOmy = 218 % 12 = 2441 ‘This answer indicates that actualy large local neresef stress occurs at this hol, fact that may be highly sigan In considering stress-concentration factors in desiga, it must be re- ‘membered that thei theoretical or photoelastic determination is based on the use of Hooke’s lav. If members are gradually stressed beyond the proportional limit of @ ductile material, these factors lose their signii- ‘cance. For example, considera flat har of mild stecl, ofthe proportions shown in Fig. 235, tht is subjected to a gradually increasing force P. ‘The stress distribution wil be geometrically similar to that shown in Fi 2-33 unll ax reaches the yield point of the material. Ths is ilustrated in the top diagram in Fig. 35: However, with a further increase in the applied force, mu remains the same, as & great deal of deformation can take place while the material yields. Therefore, the stress at A remains virtually frozen atthe same value. Nevertheless, for equilibrium, stresses acting over the net area must be high enough fo resist the increased P. ‘This condition is shown in the middle diagram of Fig. 2-35. Finally, for ideally plastic material, stess becomes uniform across the entire net sec- tion. Hence, for ductile materials prior to rupture, the local stress con Actually. the stress concentration depends on the condition of the hole whether ii empty oiled wth & bal oF pin i Soc. 24, flat Sin Energy for Union Stross centration is practically eliminated, and a nearly uniform distribution of {Gress across the net section occurs prior to necking. "The previous argument is not quite as true for materials less ductile than mild steel, Nevertheless, the tendency is in that direction unless the naterial is unusually brite, like glass. The argument presented applies {Doituations where the force is gradually aplied or is static in character Ihisnot applicable fr fluctuating loads, as found in some machine parts. For fatigue loadings, the working stress level that is actually reached Iocally determines the fatigue behavior of the member. The maximum, permissible siress is set from an S-N diagram (Section 19). Failure of ‘roa! machine parts can be traced to progressive cracking tha originates 1 points of high stress. In machine design, then, sitess concentrations fre of paramount importance, although some machine designers feel that the theoretial stress concentration factors are somewhat high. Appar ently, some tendency is present 10 smooth out the stress peaks, even in members subjected to cyclic loads. ‘From the previous discussion and accompanying charts, it should be apparent why & competent machine designer tres to streamline” the junctures and transitions of elements that make up structure. ¥222.11, Elastic Strain Energy for Uniaxial Stress Inmechanies, energy is defined as the capacity to do work, and work is the product of a force times the distance in the direction that the force ‘moves. In solid deformable bodies, stresses multiplied by their respective freas are forces, and deformations are distances. The product of these ‘wo quantities is the internal work done in a body by externally applied Forces, This internal work is stored in an elastic body asthe internal elastic cnerzy of deformation, ot the elastic srain energy. A procedure for com puting the internal energy in axially loaded bars is discussed next. ‘Consider an infinitesimal element, such as shown in Fig. 236(a), sub jected toa normal stesso. The force acting on the right or the left face ofthis element is dy dz, where dy dz is an infinitesimal area of the clement. Because ofthis force, the element elongates an amount ex dr, Where eis normal strain in the x direction. Ifthe element is made of & linearly elastic material, stress is proportional to strain; Fig. 236(b), ‘Therefore, ifthe element is initially free of stess, the Force that finally telson the element increases linearly from zero until it attains its full value, The average foree acting onthe element while deformation i taking place is fo, dy de. This average force multiplied by the distance through Which it acts is the work done on the element. For a perfectly elastic body, no energy is dissipated and the work done on the element is stored asrecoverable internal strain energy. Thus, th internal elastic strain en- ‘ergy U for an infinitesimal element subjected to uniaxial stress is This section can be postponed wnt study of Chapter 12 Fig, 238 Stress dstbuton Att hole in an elasteiealy asi iat ba with Drogressivelyinreaing Spplied force P9 ig. 236 (a) An element in “lata tension and (0) 8 Hookesn steee-stain diagram. {Axio Stone and Deformations n Bare dU = foxy de X gy de = loves dr dy de = hort. dV 2-20) where dV isthe volume of the element. By recasting Eq. 2-20, one obtains the strain energy stored in an elastic body per unit volume of the material, or is sirain-eneray density Us Thus, dU _ outs u=G- e2n ‘This expression may be graphically interpreted as an area under the in- clined line on the stress-strain diagram; Fig. 2-36(0). The corresponding area enclosed by the inclined line and the vertical axis is called the cont plementary energy, aconcept to be used in Chapter 12. For linearly elastic Is, the two areas are equal. Expressions analogous to Eq. 221 apply to the normal stresses and g. and to the corresponding normal Slrainse, and Since in the elastic range, Hooke's law applies, ¢, = may be written as «Eq, 221 dU Bed ot wae 2) | | Sec. 24, otic Sa Energy for Uniaiol Sess ‘These forms of the equation forthe clastic strain energy are convenient in applications, although they mask the dependence of the energy expres fon on force and distance "Fora particular material, substitution into Bq, 2-22 of the value of the stress atthe proportional limit gives an index of the material's ability to Sore or absorb energy without permanent deformation. ‘The quantity so found is called the modulus of resilience and is used to differentiate ma- terials for applications where energy must be absorbed by members. For example, astel with a proportional limit of 30,000 psi and an £ of 30 x 10? psi has a modulus of resilience of /2E = (30,000)"2G0)10* = 15 in lin’, swhereas a good grade of Douglas fir, having a proportional limit ‘of 450 psi and an £ of 1,920,000 psi has a modulus of resilience of 6,450)" (4,920,000) = 10.8 in-tbi’ ‘By reasoning analogous to that before, the area under a complete stress- strain diagram, Fig. 237, gives a measure of a material's ability to absorb ‘nergy upto fracture and is called its roughness. The larger the total area under the stress-strain diagram, the tougher the material. In the inetastic range, only a small part ofthe energy absorbed by a material is recover: able. Most of the energy is dssipared in permanently deforming the ma- terial and is los in heat. The energy that may be recovered when a spec- imen has been stressed to some such point as A in Fig. 23700) is represented by the triangle ABC. Line AB of this triangle is parallel to line OD, since all materials essentially behave elastically upon the release of sess e239) Fig. 237 Some typical properties of materials 9394 1 Fig. 238 ‘Axia Sana ond Detemations in ars EXAMPLE 2.9 ‘Two elastic bars, whose proportions are shown in Fig. 28, are to absorb the same amount of eneray delivered by ail forces. Neglecting sess concstr Hons, compare the stresses inthe two bars. The cross-sectional area of the lef bur ie A and that ofthe right bar is A and 24 a shown Solution ‘The bar shown in Fig. 238) is of uniform cross-sectional area, therefore, the noma irest os constant throughout. Using Eq. 2-23 and integrating Ove the ‘volume Vof the bor, one can write the Total energy forthe bar as here A is the cross-sectional area of the ba nd L sits length ‘The bar shown in Fig. 2380) is of variable cross section. Therefore, if the stress os act in the lower part of the bar, the stress inthe upper par slo ‘Aguin, by using Eq. 2-23 and integrating over the volume ofthe bar, is found ‘atthe total eneray tha this bar Wil absorb in ers of the stesso bo [eset Fe Iowa * FE Lops oF (AL) , (osit¥ (4, 3L) _ 93 (5 oi) * SP 2) G4) Ir both bars are to absorb the same amount of energy, = Us sod Han = 5 (gt) or Hence, forthe sume energy load, the stress in te “reinforced” ba is 265 pecent higher than io the pan bar. The enlargement ofthe cross-sectional area over a pat of the bar is actualy detrimental, This situation is not found in the desig of members for static lads 1.2650, "2-12. Deflections by the Energy Method ‘The principle of conservation of energy may be very effectively used for finding deflections of elastic members due to applied forces. General methods for accomplishing this will be discussed in Chapter 12. Here a more limited objective, determining the deflection caused by the appl cation of a single axial force, is considered. For such a purpose, the internal strain energy U for a member is simply equated to the external work We due (0 the applied force, i. sec. 242, Deflection by the Enetey Matnod am In this treatment, it is assumed that the external force is gradually applied. This means that, a itis being applied, its fll effect on a member i reached in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 236(0) for stress, ‘Therefore the external work We is equal to one-half ofthe total force inulipied by the defection in the direction of the force action. In the next section, this approach will be generalize for dynamic loads. EXAMPLE 240 Find the deflection ofthe free end ofan elastic rod of constant cross-sectional yen And length Ld o axial foree P applied atthe fee end Soluiion It tore Pi gradualy applied to the rd, external work, W, = 1PA. where is the deflection ofthe end ofthe rod. The expression forte internal sirsin energy (ofthe rod was found in Example 29, and sine oy = PIA, is vu Thea, trom W, = Pa _ PL 2 "AE hich i the same as Eq, 29. ‘The use of Fa, 2-24 can be extended to bar systems consisting of several members. Since internal strain energy is @ positive scalar quantity, the ‘energies forthe several members can be simply added arthmetially. This total strain energy U can then be equated tothe external work W, caused by one force for finding the deflection in the direction of that force. To ilustrate, forthe bracket shown in Fig. 2-24 for Example 2-4, [Phalar , 1Phclsc _ 1 py Oo Ane 2 Agee ~ 2 Where the subscripts refer to members. A solution of this equation gives deflection & of Force P. 95‘Axio Soins and Detomation in Bom | 0c. 249, Dynamic ond inpact Loot 7 This method is extended in Chapter 12 to solution of problems with | yer elastic system may be treated as an equivalent spring. Using the | any number of applied forces for Finding the deflections at any poiat in Spring constant the sate deflection A. ofthe spring due to the weight | any direction Wis dv ~ Wik. Similarly, the maximum dynamic deflection Sou = | Poy hee Pay i he maximum dyna force experienced by the +#8232,13, pynamic and Impact Loads ‘ion, rte ie ame re i te of te wet W dhe ‘A freely fling weight, or a moving body, that strikes a structure delivers, ‘what scaled a dynamic or impact load or fore. Problems involving sich 25 Forces may be analyzed rater simply onthe basis of the following Ideal. izing assumptions: | |. Materials behave elastically, and no dissipation of energy takes place Ta ee cea tbe Cntea dees te aru amount, al energy of deorntion of mates UPPONS owing sal inclstc |? ating weights transformed int the strain energy ofthe spin. There 2. The inertia ofa system resisting an impact may be neglected, |_fe,48 uton representing the equality of external work to internal 5. The deflection ofa systems directly proportional tothe magnitude | ofthe applied force whether afore is dynamically or statically ape | 1 pt | Wb + Ba) =! Poy Sa a2 ‘Thon, using the principle of conservation of energy, it may be further | assumed that atthe instant moving body is stopped, is kinetic energy [A graphical interpretation ofthis equation is shown in Fig. 2-39). Note is completely transformed into the internal strain energy ofthe resisting thata factor of one-half appears i font of the strain-eneray expression, system. AC this instant, the maximum defection ofa resisting system since the spring takes on the load gradually. Then, from Ea. 225, occurs and vibrations begin. However, since only maximum seses and : defections are of primary interest, this subject will not be pursued. | 1 nus) ‘Asan example ofa dynamic force applied to an elastic system, consider WE med a faling weight striking spring. This situation is illustrated in Fi. 2 439(a) where a weight W falls from a height I above the free length of > » spring. This system represents a very general case, since conceptually, “ (Arun)? ~ 280 Aman = 2 das = This isan optional seton, hence nae = Sn + VERT TB “th ple — atone th Son de (+ ye) ez & 7" “| T and again using Eq. 2-25, _ neo owt 228) « ° © | Bauation 2.27 gives the maximum deflection occurring ina spring struck Fig. 239 Behavior ofan elastic system under an pact force. by a weight W falling from a height, and Eq, 228 gives the maximum98 ‘sil stone onc Datrmations in Bare fore experience by the sping forthe same condition. To apply these qution, the state deflection By calsedby the gradually ppted known ‘eight Wis computed bythe formulas derived eater "Afr the effective dynam free Paa it ound it may be wed in com- putations asa stati force The magnification effect of sai force when Samia apts terme he pact arr ne ven bythe expres Sion n parentheses appearing in Ea 277 and 228, The imp acon Surprisingly lage nowt eae Fer cnampl, ia fre is aplied to oh laste system sudden Le. h ~ 0, ts equivalent to twee the soe fore gradly applied tis age compared to, the inp ator is approximately equal to V2H/A ms Similar equations may be derived forthe case where a weight W is moving horionaly wih veloctyvand i suddenly stopped by an lasts body. For this purpose, ts necessary to replace the external work done 1) the fling weight in the preceding derivation by the Knee energy of 4 moving body, sing a constent stem of unl. Therefore, sine the Kinetic energy ofa moving body i WSs, where gis the acceleration of eraviy, fan be shown tht Pon = WAGE ad Mme = Bu VER) Where isthe static deflection caused by W acting in the horizontal direction. In Eq. 229, Wis in U.S. customary units EXAMPLE 2-11 Determine the maximum stress inthe ste rod shown in Fig. 2-40 caused by a mass of kg fling freely trough a distance of {im Consider two cases one shown in the figure, and another when the rubber wathe is removed. For the ‘tee od, assume E'= 200 GPa, and forthe washer, tke = 4.5 Ninm Solution “The kg mass applies a state force P = ma ~ 4X 9.81 = 3922N. The rod area Arm nx 15H ~ 177 cnn". Note thatthe rod length is 1500 mn, Solution fr rod with washer: mee aT 39.2 x 1500 38. 77 x 200 x 10 166 x 10-8 + 8.71 = 871 mm = 82(06 fe gees) 90 4 "17 Tx Pe Solution for rod without washer E PartB STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS See, 244, General Consiserations ~ 82 2x1) oe Mea omnis = BE (te V+ eT) = 20 “The tare ference inthe sresses forthe two solutions suggests the need for exile systems for resisting dynamic loads A further study ofthis problem, end {akin nto account the results ebtized in Example 29, lads to the conclusion that for obtaining the smallest dynamic stresses forthe same system, one should 1, select material with a small elastic modulus 2 make the total volume ofthe member large; 3, sress the mateial uniformly, and avoid stess concentrations. ‘Several cases can be cited as illustrations of practical situations where these principles are used. Wood is used in railroad ties since is Eis low, and the cost per unit volume of the material is smal. In pneumatic eyl- inders and jackhammets, Fig. 2-41, very long bolts are used to attach the tends 10 the tube. Long bolts provide a large volume of material, which, in operation, is uniformly stessed in tension. Inthe early stages of the development ofthis equipment, short bolts were used, and frequent fll tres occurred 2-14. General Considerations {As pointed out in Section 1-9, for some structural systems, the equations fr static equilibrium are insufficient for determining reactions. In such cases, some of the reactions are superfluous or redundant for maintaining equilrium. In some other situations, redundancy may also result if some af the internal forees cannot be determined using the equations of statics slone. Both cases of such statcal indeterminacy can arise in axially loaded systems. Two simple idealized examples are shown in Fig. 2-42. For the system shown in Fig. 242(a), reactions Ry and Rs cannot be determined using equations of statics alone. However, forthe system shown in Fig. 22(b), whereas the reaction can be readily found, the Aistribution of forces between the two springs requires additonal con- sideration, In both instances, the deformation characteristics of the sys- {em components must be considered. ‘There are various procedures for resolving structural indeterminacy inorder to reduce a problem to satical determinacy such thatthe internal Fg, 244 (2) Good éesign and (oad uesion ofa pneumatic eylinder.100 VANE i fig, 242 Examples of (e) Indeterminancy, and () ‘ternal tical indeterminany. Axio Sone ond Deterations in os forces can readily be found. Common tal of these procedures, the same three basic concepts encountered before are applied, and must be satis- fie: 1. Equilibrium conditions for the system must be assured both in the local and global sense. 2. Geometric compatibility among the deformed parts of a body and at the boundaries must be satisfied. 3. Constitutive relations (stress-strain relations) forthe materials ofthe system must be complied with. ‘Two general methods for solving simpler problems will be presented. ‘The approach in one ofthese methods consists of frst removing and then restoring a redundant reaction such thatthe compatibility condition atthe ‘boundaries is stistied. This isthe force method of analysis, since solution jis obtained directly for the unknown reaction forees, Alternatively, the ‘compatibility of displacements of adjoining members and at the bound- fares is maintained throughout the loading process, and solution for dis- placements are oblained from equilibrium equations. Thisis the dsplace- ment method of analysis is important to reiterate that in any one of these methods, the fun- damental problem consists of ulilling the three basic requirements: equi Uru, compatibility, and conformity with constitutive relations. The sequence in which they are applied is immaterial 2-15. Force Method of Analysis ‘Asan example ofthe force method of analysis, consider the linearly elastic axially loaded bar system shown in Fig. 2-43. The initially undeformed bars are shown in Fig. 2-43(a) with 2ig-29g lines as a reminder that they ‘can be treated as springs. On applying force P at B, reactions Ry and Re develop at the ends and the system deforms, as shown in Fig. 2-43(). Since only one nontrivial equation of statics is available for determining the two reactions, this system is statically indeterminate to the first de- agree, Here the upward direction of the applied force P, as well as that fssumed for R, and Ra, coincides with the positive direction ofthe x axis. For this reason, these quantities willbe treated as positive. With this sign ‘convention, if an applied force ats downward, it would be taken as neg. ‘ative. A calculated reaction with a negative sign signifies that it ats in the opposite direction from the assumed. Adherence to this sign conver- tion is desirable, although inaxilly loaded bar problems, is nt essential since the directions of deflections and reactions can be usualy seen by inspection. However, for computer solutions, as well as for the more ‘complex problems discussed in Chapter 13, a stret adherence toa selected sign convention becomes necessary. Ta applying the force method to axially loaded bars, one of the reactions See. 248, Foe Method of Analysts . r is temporarily removed, making the system statically determinate, Here fan arbitrary choice is made to remove the upper reaction Ry, permitting the system of two bar segments to deform, as shown in Fig. 2-43). Such ‘simplified structural system is referred to asthe primary system, since, from the point of view of statics, it ean, by itself, cary the applied load, (However, from the point of view of strength, the redundant reaction may be necessiry and, thus, in the actual field situation, cannot be removed.) Note that only the bottom bar segment is stressed here. Therefore, the same axial deformation Ay, occurs at A, atthe top of bar, as at pitt B. ‘Then ifthe flexibility of the lower elastic bar is fa, the deflection do = iP 230) ‘Tis result, shown in Fig, 243(c), violates the geometric boundary eon- ‘tion at 4. In order to comply, the deflection 4 caused by 2, acting on the unloaded bar ABC is found next; see Fig. 2-43). This deflection is caused by the stretching of both bars. Therefore ifthe Mexiilties of these bars are fy and f2, Fig. 2-43(a), the deflection Ay = i + IR 31) ‘The compatibility of deformations at Ais then achieved by requiring that @32) 401 Fig. 243 Force (exit) method of elastic analyse for 2 statically indeterminate ‘xilly loaded bar Deformations are aresty exaggerate,402 Fg. 24 Comparison of force displacement felatioships between ear find nonlinear systems, Axa Stone ond Deformations in Bors By substituting Eqs. 230 and 231 into Bg. 2-32 and solving for Ry, one has fe P Reh Ro ey “The negative sign ofthe result indicates that Ry acts inthe opposite di- rection from the assumed. As to be expected, according to Eq. 2-31, this also old true for A “The complete solution ofthis statically indeterminate problem is the algebraic sum ofthe solutions shown in Figs. 2-A3(c) and (d). After the reactions become known, the previously discussed procedures for deter. mining the internal forces and deflections apply Thasmuch as member flexibilities are particularly useful in formulating solutions by the force method, this approach is also known asthe flex bility method of enalysis The algebraic sum of the two solutions, as before, isan application of the principle of superposition, and will be frequently encountered in this text, This principle is based upon the premise that the resultant stressor strain in a system due to several forces isthe algebraic sum of ther effects ‘when separately applied. This assumption is ue only if each effect is linearly related fo the force causing it. Wis only approximately true when the deflections or deformations due to one force cause an abnormal change in the effect of another force. Fortunately, the magnitudes of deflections ate relatively small in most engineering structures, In that regard, itis important to note thatthe deformation shown in Figs. 243(b) to (@) are greatly exaggerated. Moreover, since the deformations are very smal, the undeformed, ic., the inital, bar lengths are used in calculating throughout. ‘A llustration of force-deformation relationships for linear and nonlin car systems is shown in Fig, 2-4, For the linear systems considered, here wt , | IV $26. 248. Force Method of Analysis ashi Bet i = i + 1 = 0 1a5F oO ve doubling a displacement, say from A, to As, also doubles the load. This is not s0 for a nonlinear system. Therefore, for linear systems exper: ‘encing small deformations, the sequence or numberof foadsis immaterial The procedure just described is very general for linear systems and any number of axial loads, bar cross sections, diferent material properties, a8 well a thermal effects on the length of a bar system ean be included inthe analysis. However, the force method is not favored in practice because a systemic selection ofthe redundants for large problems is dif Sul. Three examples follow illustrating applications ofthe force method to axially loaded elastic bar systems EXAMPLE 242 ‘An elastic barat both ends is laded as shown in Fig. 245. The known flexibility Ceeficients J and 2f for each ofthe thee bar segments are shown inthe figut. Determine te reactions and plot the axial force andthe axial displacement dia ‘ans forthe ba. Solution Remove the lower support o obtain the fee-body diagram shove in Fig. 2-450) and eaeulte Bg. Since the eplid forces ect downward, because of the sign ‘convention adopied in Fig. 243), they carry negative signs. The deflection ‘ised by Ron sn unloaded system is calculated next. Then, on solving Eq 2. 52, the reaction Ri determined The remainder ofthe Solution fllows the same Drocedure a that described in Example 22 Bo = DAP = -26P = fOP +P) = ~s5P104 Fig. 248 ‘All shins and Detoetons in Bars and Ay = Of +f + R= 4fR Since Ay td Ry = 125P [Note hat the apis forces ae supported by a compressive reaction atthe bottom Sha email rection at the top In problems where the bar lengths and the cross- ‘tional ateas, together withthe elate moduli for the materials, are given, the leit are determined using Ea. 214 The axial fore diagram slated in Fig. 2484). The compressive free inthe otom thd o he bar causes downward deletion of 128 x 2f = 2.SPF The tonsil forces sretch the remainder ofthe bar O75PF + 1.7SPF such that dlaplscement athe opi zero. In this manner the kinematic boundary conditions fre sls at both ends ofthe bar EXAMPLE 2.43 ‘An elastic bar ished at both ends, as shown in Fig, 2-46. I the bar temperature increases by 67 wht axial fore develops in the bar? AE Tor the bar is constant Solution Fest, the upper support is emaved snd Ay is determined using Eq, 2-18. The raising ofthe temperature causes no axa fore in the Bar. Thus, by using Eq 13, sealed. By epplying Eq. 2-32. the axial force in the bat caused by the ee in temperature i ound. do = a@NL ‘4 vod meds oe Pe 0c. 248, Force Method of Anatsis Ru ao y= Ry = BE Apt Ar=0, | R= ana ERAMPLE 244 For the planar system ofthe thre elas bars show in Fi. 2-1), determine the flores inthe bars caused by applied force P. The cross-sectional area A of ach bar isthe same, and tei elastic modulus i E solution A free-body diagram ofthe assumed primary system with the suppor from the ride ar removed by uting tat pont 2 is shown in Fig. 2-47). Then, by Thing satis, the forces i the bas are determined, andthe defection of point Dis aleulated using the procedure iustated ia Example 2-4. Since bar BD Caries nofree deflection oat point isthe same as itis at pont D. Recognizing Symmetry. \7 y 105 Fig. 247106 ‘iol shcne and Detometons in Bars Hence, per Eq, 29, the stretch of bar AD inthe primary system is PL. (Saoh = aaB cota : However, since Ay equals DD, in Fig. 2-40). PL cosa (Byole and be = — a (eon fo= - Pe where the negative sign signifies thatthe deflection is downward ‘Te same kind of relatonshipspplis to the upward deflection of point D caused by the free Fz see Figs, 2-478) and (e). However, the defection of point Bis increased by the steel of the bar BD. The latter quantity i alulted using Eg 219 again. On this basis 5 BL FL a9 FE TE «sa By applying Ea. 2-32, i, My + Ay = 0, and noting from states that Fy + cosa = Pron simplification, 2-16. Introduction to the Displacement Method, Another well-organized procedure for analyzing statically indeterminate problems is based on determining the displacements at selected points {and providing information for finding the reactions and internal forces. ‘As an example of this displacement method of analysis, consider the elastic axially loaded bar system shown in Fig. 2-48. The stiffnesses,f = ALEiL,. Eq. 2-12, for the bar segments are indicated inthe figure as and fs. An applied force P at point B causes reactions Ry and Rs, These forces and the displacement & at B are considered positive when they act in the positive direction of the x axis. This problem is statically indetr minate tothe first degree. “The main objective in this method of analysis isto determine the dix placement 4, the principal parameter of the problem. In ths example, there is only one stich quantity and therefore the problem is said to ha ‘one degree of kinematic indeterminacy, ot one degree of freedom. This isthe only class of problems that is discussed inthis section, More com plex cases with several axial loads and changes in the cross sections of the bars, giving rise (o several degrees of freedom, are considered in the next section, S06. 246, Intouction fo the Diplacement Hethod In this illustrative problem, it can be seen that the displacement & at ‘causes compression in the upper bar AB and tension in the lower bar BC. Therelore, ify and ks are the respective stiffness forthe bars, the respective internal forces are ky & and k; A. These internal forces and reactions are shown on isolated free-bodies at points A, B, and C in Fig 248(e). These points ate referred to as the node points. The sense ofthe internal forees is known since the upper bar is in compression and the lower one is in tension, By waiting an equilibrium equation for the free body at node Bone has a9 and 236 ‘The equilibrium equations for the free-bodies at! nodes A and C are R= -hA and Rem ba e3n Hence, withthe aid of Eg. 2-36, y Ryn Br and R= pepe 3 ‘The negative signs in Eg, 2-38 indicate thatthe reactions actin the op- Posite direction from the assumed 107 Fig. 248 Displacement (stiess) method of analysis, fora stay indeterminate sly loaded ba.