M ‘the limit we shall n We ACTOSS A composed of many discrete particles hen an arbitrarily selected volume element is shrun! end up in a void. But in our analysis, we assume that the nuously distributed. Such a body is called a continuov mechanics.of such a body or bodies is called continuum mechanics, 1.2 Body Force, Surfaca Forca and Stress Voctor Consider a body B occupying a region of space referred to a rectangyj coordinate system Oxyz, as shown in Fig. 1.1. In general, the body willy” subjected to two types of forces—body forces and surface forces. The by ‘Force acts_on each volume element of the body. Examples of this kind, force are the gravitation nd_the magnetic for The surface forces act on the surface or Fig. 1.1 Body subjected to forcesThe support reactions.2,, Ry.and Ry are also surface forces. It is explici Iv, assumed that under the action of both body forces and surface forces, the body is in equilibrium. Let P be a point inside the body with coordinates (x, y, z). Let the body be cut into two parts C and D by a plane 1-1 passing through point P, as shown in Fig. 1.2. If we consider the free-body diagrams of C and D, then each part is in equilibrium under the action of the externally applied forces and the internally distributed forces across the inter- face. In part D, let 44 bea small area surrounding point P. In part C, the correspondir a at Pi is AA’ These two areas are distinguished by their outward drawn normals n and . The action of part on 4A at point P can be represented by force Fig. 1.2 Freo body diagrams of a body 1 . etimanwvol caries vector AT, and the action of part ‘D | on 4A’ at P’ can be represented by force vector AT’. We assume that as . ratio AT/AA tends to a definite limit, and further, the bout any point within the area AA tends to zer moment of the forces acting on area 44 in the limit. The limiting vector is written as vanish | a Toh (1) psn. «0A | Similarly, at point P’, the action of part D on C as 44’ tends to zero, can be represented by a vector | (1.2) I Vectors Zand 7” are called the stress vectors and they represent forces per P and P’ on planes with outward drawn unit area acting respectively a normals a and 1’, We further assume that stress vector f representing the direction to stress vector r nding point P’. This assump- applicable to particles. We action of C ee D at P is equal in magnitude and opposite in representing the action of D on C at correspor tion is similar to Newton's third law which is have this (1.3) Analysis of Stross 3 ci; Roe In general, stress vector T point P on a plane with” fa point depends not only on location of the point (identified coordinates x, ¥, 2) but also on 3 plane passing through the point (iden} tified by direction cosines Mx My Ned] Fig. 1.3 Body cut by another plano the outward drawn normal). 4.3 Tho State of Stross at a Point ber of planes can be drawn through a point, wo an infinite number ‘of stress vectors acting ata given point, cach strey) vector characterized by the corresponding plane on which it is actin The totality of all stress vectors acting on every possible’ plane pass through the point is defined to be the state of stress at the point, Itis knowledge of this state of stress which is of importance to a designer: determining the critical planes and the respective critical stresses. Tt will & shown in Sec. 1.6, that if the stress vectors acting on three mutually p pendicular planes are known, we can determine the stress yector actin any other arbitrary plane. Since an infinite num! 4.4 Normal and Shear Stress Components ress vector at point P acting on a pla 1.4). This can be resol7 . Se ee is called the normal stress and is generally denoted by on. The compo- nent perpendicular to m is known as m the tangential stress or shear stress component and is denoted by t». We 0 a : y a have, therefore, the relation: : n : ne Hs 5 n T| = o,2-+ tm (4) Ix | n ris whet a fh ae herel Tis the magnitude of the resultant stress, Stress vector T can also be resolved into three compo- “ients parallel to the x, y, z axes. If these components are denoted by Fig, 1.4 Resultant stress vector, normal Ts, Ty, 1, we have and shear stress components ane Wy oe 1.5 Rectangular Stress Components Let the body B, shown in Fig. 1.1, be cut by a plane parallel to the yz plane. The normal to this plane is parallel to the x axis and, hence, the plane is called the x plane, The resultant stress vector at P acting on this will be 7. This vector can be resolved into three components parallel to the x, y, z axes. The component parallel to the x axis, being normal to the plane, will be denoted by ox. The components parallel to they and z axes are shear stress components and are denoted by txy and ty: respectively |. (Fig. 1.5.) Jn the above designation, the first subscript x indicates the plane on which the stresses are acting and the second subscript (y or 2) indicates the direction of the component. For example, tx, is the stress component on the x plane in y direction. Similarly, tx: is the stress, component on the x plane in z direction. To maintain consistency, one should have denot- ed the normal stress component as tax. This would be the stress component on the x plane in the x direction. However, to distinguish between a normal stress and a shear stress, the normal stress is denoted by ¢ and the shear stress by +. ‘At any point P, one can draw three mutually perpendicular planes, the x plane, the y plane and the z plane. Following the notation mentioned - above, the normal and shear stress components on these planes areFig. 1.5 Stross compononts on x plano These components are shown acting on a small rectangular element} Fig. 1.6. |ae should observe that the three visible faces of the rectangular element ave their outward drawn normals along the positive x, y and z axcs res- pectively. Consequently, the Positive stress components on these faces will also be directed along the Positive axes. The three hidden faces have their outward drawn normals in the negative x, y and z axes. The positive stress fea mee on thicte faces Will, therefore, be directed along the negative axes. For example, the bottom face has its outward drawn normal along the egative y axis. Hence, the positive stress components on this face, ise., oy, yx and ty, are directed Tespectively along the negative y, x and z axes 1.6 Stress Components on an Arbitrary Plano Ht was stated in Sec. 1.3 that a knowledge of stress components acting on three mutually perpendicular planes passing through a point, will determine the stress components acting on any plane passing through that point. Let the three mutually perpendicular planes be the x, y and z planes and let the arbitrary plane be identified by its outward drawn normal n whose direction Cosines are n,, ny, and n,. Consider a small tetrahedron at P with three of its faces normal to the coordinate ‘es, and the inclined face having its normal -parallel ton, Let h bi endicular distance from P to the Inclined face. If the tetrahedron is isolated from the body and a free-body Giagram is drawn, then it will be in equilibrium under the action of the surface forces and the body forces. The free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 1.7. the pi Fig. 1.7 Tetrahedron at point F ron consi is JI and in the limit i di nsidered is very small Since the size of the tetrahe ee eee as we are going to make tend to 2610, ae faces. Let Tbe the resultant stress vee!fe This can be resolved into components T, Rand three axes. and 2. On the three faces, the rectangular streyg Oxy Tayy Tesh Gyy Tyee Tox} Ory Tre 7 is a t a6 oo tan Tye Tai Oey Tex aNd Tey. IEA is the area of the ae rn area of BPC = projection of area ABC on the yz plane Any area of CPA = projection of area ABC on the xz plane = Aly, area of APB = projection of area ABCon the xy plane Let the body force components in x, y and z directions be ys, respectively, per unit volume. The volume of the tetrahedron is equ} 1/3 Ah where his the perpendicular distance from P to the inclined eect equilibrium of the tetrahedron, the sum of the forces in x, y and 2 diteq must individually vanish. Thus, for equilibrium in x direction — ty eAnty—trxAns + & Alte Cancelling A + syetty + teeth = Axle Similarly, for equilibrium in y and z directions Ty = Type + gylty ze By and Toe on enya ae In the limit as h tends to zero, the oblique plane ABC will pass throu point P, and the average stress components acting on the faces will es at point P. Consequently, one gets from By to their respective valu (1.6), (1.7) and (1.8) bo nyzye bmx yay fb Metey Equation (1,9) is known as Cauchy's stress formula, This equation she that the nine rectangular stress components at P will enable one to determi} the stress components on any arbitrary plane passing through point Pe will be shown in Sec. 1.8, that among these nine rectangular stress ponents only six are independent. This is duc to the fact that tay = 4 xy = tay and tre = tax. This is known as the equality of cross shears anticipation of this result, one can write Eq. (1.9) a8 Ty = nadia + ytiy +O = uaeshere fand j can stand for x or y or z,and os = tex Oy = tyy and If Tis the resultant stress vector on plane ABC, we have [Flamer If oy and +, are the normal and shear stre 3s components, we have Y ' (1) I stress oy is equal to the projection of Talong the normal, it is also to the sum of the projections of its components Tx, T>, 1: along, n, Hence j b my Ty + me (9) t (1.12) A rectangular steel bar having t 00 N (612.2. kgf). cre 5 subjected to a chosen as shown in ; ic whose normal Fig. rmiine the norm: P Ceesaaet . 1 Gil) m= ty =e = Area of section = 2X3 = 6 cm? The average ponents are zero. @ Using Eqs. (1.9), (1-11) and (1.12) 1000 iy ay 1000 ay = 5 = 500 Njem? T= 0, T= 2 —on? = 250,000 N2/em* or tq = 500 N/em? (51 kef/em?) rea oa 1000 ais 087s T= Rs = 500 N/cm?, and =, = 500 N/em? (51 kgf/cm?) Gil) T, = 0, Ty= “==. = 0 en? 3 =, = 817 N/em? (83.4 kgf/cm?) Example 1.2 Ata point P in a body, o, = 10,000 N/cm? N/em? (—510 kgficm?), — 5000 N/cm?, + Njem?. Determine the normal and shearing stresses on a plane that + equally inclined to all the three axes, a A plane that is equally inclined to all the three axes will have my = my = WAS since n,? + 0)? + 1,2 = I oc, = {10,000 — 5000— sooo F 20,000 -+- 20,000 -- 20,000 | = 20,000 N/em? ~~ 1 * = FF (10,000 + 10,000 + 10,000) = 10,000 4-3 N 1 WF (10,000—5000 + 10,000) = 5000 VF N 1 Ya (10,000 + 10,000—5000) = 5000 4-3 N* 10° + 25 x 108) Nz = 450x108 N2 10°) N’ Tn? = 450% 10*—400 x 198 Tn = 7000 N/em? (approxi = 50 10" N2/emt imately) Example 1.3 ~ 5000 10,000 } hat is | Fig. 1.9 Examplo 1.3 | Atpoint A, let axes xand y be chosen along and perpendicular to the Ms | On the x plane, i.e., the plane perpendicular to edge EF, the resultant s is along the normal (i.e., x axis). There is no shear stress on this plane | since the top edge is a free surface (See Sec. 1.9), But on plane AB at point j A there can exist a shear stress. These are shown in Figs. 1.9 (c) and (d). | The normal to plane AB makes an angle @ with the x axis. Let the normal and shearing stresses on this plane be a, and +). We have oe és Oo, = 6, 0, = 6, = 0, try = Tye nz = cos 8, ny = sind, 7, Ty = 0, = Mg0y + Mytye + etre = 0 005 0 0 Dy etey + Mey to Uta18 Equality of We shall now show that of the nine rectangular stress components ox, ty, Fun On Tye Tye Gey Tax ANd tzy, only six are independent, This is beeause Tay = Tyas Tye = Ty and Tex = tye.These are known as cross-shears, Consie der an infinitesimal; rectangular parallelepiped surrounding point P, Let Fig. 1.10 Stress components on a rectangular element Since the element considered is small, we shall speak in terms of average stresses over the faces. The stress vectors ucting on the faces are shown in the figure. On the left x plane, the st On the right face, the stresses are = xx These changes are duc to the fact that the right face is at a distance Ax from the left face, To the first order of approximation we have tex Ss bx; ox Similarly, the stress vectors on the bottom fice are yy, tys and ty2, On the Je stresses are yy Atyystiy b Atys and Tye + A where ay a ay yn = EM bys Bryce oy On the front and rear faces the components of stress vectors are respectively 45 At, = ay where‘ments of the forces about the x about the z axis, one get xx Ay Az & — Cx Ok (tay + Beas) ByAebx—tyy Ox ar St & 4 (typ Ait») Bx Az SE — (Rye + Atyx) Ax Oz dy: ax dy & + try Ax Ay — Nes (ery + Ot) Ax Ay SE + (Gee + Atex) Ox Ay Substituting for Atxs, Atx», etc., and dividing by Ax Ay Az Orxx Ay OFsY Ay Pras Ft tay Fat ax + dey Ax In the limit as Ax, Ay, and Az tend to zero, the above equation gives x, yx. Similarly, taking moments about the other two axes, we get ty, 4 tec. Thus, the cross shears are equal, and of the nine rectangy and +... = The six independent rectangu components, only six are independent. stress components are 0, 2y, :y Txy tyr aNd tree 1.9 A More General Theorem The fact that cross shears are equal can be us theorem which states that if and a’ define two planes (not necess orthogonal) with corresponding stress vectors T and 7, then the projet ‘of along n’ is equal to the projection of Talong m i.e. (See Fig. 1.11).Dopis straibhtrorwatd! Inti wy and n'y are the | Pin! = Panty + Tyn'y + Tan's n Eq. (1.9), substituting for Ty, Ty and Ty Ten! = ogngn'x + oynyn'y + ann’, + taynay + tyanyn's + Syanyn's + taynan'y : se teattan's $e trate Using the result sx) = tye tye = try and tee = toe * Pen! = ogngn's +b aynyn'y + onal: sb tean’y bo nyn's) +b tycGiyn's + nn'y) sb taa(rien’s man's) Similarly, eng’ + aynyn'y + on, Ab Fxy(rign’y Eo nyn's) 1 ty:(nyn's onan’)

Gahies oF of «. Hence, if one plots f(¢) for different values of as sho the curve must cut the @ axis at least once as shown by the dotted for this value of «, f(2) will be cqual to zero. Therefore, there is ‘one real root, f(T) Fig, 1.13 Plot of / (2) ¥ plane. Since the state of stress at the [Let 05 be this root and a the associated P point can be characterized by the six rectangular components referred to any orthogonal frame of reference, let us choose a particular one, xyz, her two axes, x’ and y", are arbitrary. where the 2’ axis is along 7 and the ot With reference to this system, the stress matrix has the form. (1.27) Figure 1.14 shows the stress vectors on it rectangular clement. The shear stress components 7" and zyx itre zero since the 2’ plane is chosen to be the lane. is system, Eq. rence to this syst (1.19) becomes:(;~e)fo? ‘This is a cubic in &. One are obtained by solving the quadratic inside are (er — oy Jo— ay OF the solutions is. ¢ = as, The tivo’ 3 otf he brackets, ‘The a 0 fe square root (power 2 al. This Means that the % and op are also re, area et, MeBative ang 2) on Fj 1 1 he next seca is Seog 9 Fig. 1.14 Rectangular element with faces normal to 4! y', 2 axeel 1.14 Particular Cases @) If @,, oz and o3 are distinct, i.c,, «1, o) and 63 have different values the three associated principal axes m, ny and 7 are unique and mutusl Perpendicular. This follows from Eq. (1.25) of Sec. 1.12, Since a, oa are distinct, we get three distinct axes m, mz and ny, from Eqs. (1.18), being mutually perpendicular, they are unique. ‘s Gi) Ifo, = 02 and o3 is distinct, the axis of m is unique and direction perpendicular to 1 is a principal direction associated, %, = 92, This is shown in Fig. 1.15. To prove this, let us choose a frame of reference Ox' ‘y'2" such th axis is along 7m and the x’ and y’ axes are arbitrary ~ @» then the quantity under the radshearless planes, i.e. principal p Therefore, every direction perpendi- cular to ny is a principal directign associated with , = a3 then every direction is a principal direction. This is otropic state of stress and was discussed in Sec. 1.7. Fig. 1.15 Caso with «, distinct Gili) Ifo; = = oy, the hydrostatic or the is For pee : Ao a We can repeat the argument given in (ii). Choose a coordinate y' a ‘x'y'z' with the 2' axis along n; corresponding to oy. Since «=, every direction perpendicular-to n; is a principal direction. Next, choose | the 2" axis parallel to m; corresponding to ¢z. Then every direction per- pendicular to nz is a principal direction since o = 93. Similarly, if we choose the z’ axis parallel tom, corresponding to a, every direction per- pendicular to , is also a principal direction. Consequently, every direction is a principal direction. | Another proof could be in the manner described in Sec. 1.7. Choosing | Oxyz coinciding with m, n and ny, the stress vector on any arbitrary plane has value . the direction of « coinciding with n. Hence, every plane is @ | principal plane. | 1.15 Recapitulation The material discussed in the last few sections is very important and it is | worthwhile to put it in the form of definitions and theorems. Definition vector T on For a given state of stress at point P, if the resultant str faving a magnitude o, then ¢ is a principal stress at any plane n is along 1 hi res fi the axis of c is a principal P, nis the principal direction associated with , axis and the plane is a principal plane at P. Thoorom In every | principal axes and af most three distinct p) I Ys @,, ¢3 and o3 are the roots of the cubic equation —G = 1,2,3) in the foll aleodne tien? Sr o F (oy — ody + tpt, = 0 ng + ny? + ata l then the axes of m, a, and jy ate%y 1 og % 6s then the ar giaeee art 1318-8" principal direriaaee ay Mx If op, #2 and 93 are distinct, mutually perpendicular. If, say and every direction perpendicul with «= 02. Ifo, gs then every direction is a principal direction, , = o7— Example 1.4 P, the rectangular stress components are —2, 6, = 4, tay = 2 Oe = —3and ty, = At point oz = 1, oy all in units of kPa. Find the principal stresses. ‘The given stress matrix is 1 e 1 ful =| 2 1 > =1-2+4=3 - poe Ce T, = 1(—8—9)-28 + 3) + (6 4 j= -43 flo) = o3-+30?—200 + 43 = 0 Standard Method of Solution: Consider the cubic equation »> + py? + ay +r =0 Substitute fa y =x-p/y This gives xitax +6 where eae er 7)s Determine ¢ and putting g = 20 —a/3, the solutions are