J knee an theory cn eon gy by en a coma a S pretation oft cath and to ncaa te ee that in geolay, ain ol Sen ch bt of knowles bt on and dependent on, oer knowl, TH se uh tne posetation in sequence, ofa core of Meas and the elated. seer experiences which encompaa the ewentialinowiedg: plot need toni ao rocks earth deformation and geologic History, and landform develop through the study of topographic maps. To show how pr Fae et yd oct ar od for, (0) ness he students iy to work wit i a ine dividual earth materials through practice and application, and (e) intr 055 they ive drawn fom hit work. These adliional statis are presente in ele eer nesuy elt fo, and further develops, eas in previous exer, ercees which follow none is necessary to exercises w ae aoa hnreed stors to give extensive introductions or directio svcen student and instructor. To ensure Sits not to proceed further uti an in the ative, students who may have : fing. It we have been rr work checked a ay misunertndings clan 1 Sutcessfa in writin frequently to have essary to this new study, we have included a ew voesbula a To facilitate leaming the new voes ao thru. Afemein he oar ae noid bd mente text, Cro the glonary wil we hope, also function ‘pein Tore swell as posse to intuctors and we hope, a intresting tthe student ae fd het tno atnt teachers woud ik to ake which cold help in any way fo improve this presentation. Introduction to Geologic Time and Earth Materials PURPOSE This exercise introduces yo time-specifcally, the enormous divide this time, the age to two fundamental ideas in mounts of time involved n geology. First isthe idea of seologic ‘of man in relation HOW geologists try to work withrand i h to the age of te earthy and how ne can sepia th ime, The second das to have you copa gat HOW Me Ca een {iversal, profound, ‘and pat. But they aren't, and never have been. i sari prt rh ang See ity oe cORBtion of hi exer you shoul (1) hae develo gee $8 common to geology, (2) be able to deseee nore the earth and the ae of man, and (3} Riss bac ta ogi and ends andi major divions,"°™ * Ensth oF the Ceolog iffculty and frustra- nd clsily the rocks and for these ideas fo sem In fact, maior disagreements lopment of new technolo 1, but for today you have only the cid es, and time. d tools-your dan awareness of the enor lationship between the age of ie Time Seale, when it begin INTRODUCTION TO A LONG TIME do danke S721 other science, geology is concemed witht fo deal with time, as dots geology, but it ntee an Geologists, however, are interested inthe seyuene {alk in terms of millions or billions of years of cath thee oun sounds tron mn any 284 ilion of dolar. But how longisa noes probably tre that tapers around, keep in mind that we're also human. * Seat When ting to comprehend rg nak nes a0 ina by tao is srologc moa or ee ear in cons or mutes coe history, and they das que hous, ‘and commonly alibi, tossing must do so vicariously or pu them in iditeet experience makes real. This reason frequently used to help our unde1, Think about each ofthe questions which follows. 2, Make an educated iis 'which you believe to bea close estimate ofthe answer and write itn the space promded CCaleuate the answer to check your comprehension of such lage numbers A. Ifyou had «million dollars ($1,000,000) al in one dotlar bills, and you could spend a dollar every second, how long would your million dollars last, expressed [Acruacty years B, If worm could squiem 1 inch every minute, how many miles could he squiem in 1 milion (1,000,000) minutes, and how many days would that be? hore als niles | [actuatLy> ays | If the earth is 5 billion years eld (5,000,000,000), which geologists accept as fact, i ‘what percent ix 1 millon (1,000,000) years of 5 billion yoars(Bivide 5 billion into T million)? ‘This is about how long ian has lived on the earth [cuess_ > percent ‘As we have seen above, tho length of geologic time is enormous, and perhaps the greatest eor~ tshton arly at made fo knowledge in ener s proof hatte erth very ancient thst | scientific fact that our planet is nearly 5 billion years old. This knowledge has profoundly infli- ‘nod man's thinking in terms of his postion relative tothe planet earth. ‘Over the years, people interested in the earth's history have divided It into segments generally -knoyin a the Geologie Time Seale (reproduced on page 7), We know most about the past 600, million years, In actuality, this is not along period of ime relative tothe total age of the earth Reason by analogy by looking out the window (or eross the landscape). The closer an object i tayou, the more detail you can detect. Thus sit with geologic time; the closer past events are to vs the better we can know them, ‘Natural phenomena which are too large, too small, or too complex to be readily visualized, ACTUALLY, percent | SCALING DOWN TIME | ‘38 geolopic time, are o Ite niente. We will be del en sealed. We buitg © model the geotog oven ic time sea scale model els. oF the very mn derstand the enh ine D1. 12 centimet "17(1,000,000,000), draw a tine whose k 1 whose length rep ie lie You hve ust dayne te See Smite Plot Period of ime since the Patna beginning w of earth and Cenozoic (rete t We know far mon history, the pr 0 resent, and fo the Geologie Tine {at more about the reatvely short sive period of time f Prior to that Obviously, not many Zoic can be done years (100,000,0 urther accurate sub on this sce, Theta 00), draw fine rep divisions ofthe Paleozoic, Me ing sth Paleozoic, Mosozci, and Ceno D4. Ont tine you drew for3 (Periods) ofthe Paleozate Meese sleozoi, Mesnzoie, und conjera at ene eat the bo Jor subvistons charaek ii What is interes ae listed betow Gvhicheve XE UP f20loic time sting the equa withthe ime of ef Perspective of where neo their first appearance. On one rn! ‘wa ine above ould a Some ‘maior event in earth history Fist rossis-3.5 ois“600 milion vertebrates—400, year Emergence of the a Extinction o Discover of A val of lion year gg = dinosaurs 230 mie stinosaurs—71 mie lem specie) 1 mi of Ameria by Count umbus-1492 AD 1969'4.D. ROCKS AND Fossis topic MD? lst 90 activites, you nae inthe rocks of the earth, “O"P ut th You will be THROUGH TIME lealing wit 8 With time Wand the w te record Beolosic time Way man has divided geo ‘ests not inthe mind ter Provided with 4 number of specimens es Of Foss and other earth materials Eachspecimen has been identified, and its approximate age in number of years ha been given. For eae wee, plot its geologic age on the Geologie Time Seale (page 7). These plots wil of necessity eee Prete but i your specimen i labeled, for example, Brachioped~age 495,000,000 years Peaneed be plolted onthe chart near the base of the Ordovician Period INTRODUCTION TO EARTH MATERIALS One of the most basic, yot dificult, tasks which early geologists had to accomplish before they couk ae meaningful studies ofthe earth's history vas to decipher the origin, history, and ree oan ips between the rocks and minerals found on the earth. Now you will be provided with an fiona section of these materials and asked to formulate your own method of classifying them ‘Obtain a tray of materials from your lb instructor Carefully examine these materials and bein to group them together into piles of similar fr related specimens. Formulate your own exteria for this clasfication and write down in a ist your reasons for puting each sroup together. 4. Hlae your instructor cheek your groupines WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE Forth scientist in general and geologists in particular are people who find the earth ise in- trgulna, ‘hey ate mountains and wonder why they ae there at all, and rocks of many diferent tele der where they eame from, and the remains of ancient fie hidden inthe rocks and Kinds an we tiey mean, Perhaps not too strangely, they do not knov all the answers. Infact Hoane ria onGhnow the answer to some of tear questions, for aside from being very complex, a revert isnot avaiable to be seen, In fact, the people who study the earth arive at sone rin oroat profound conclusions {rom what sooms at times the limsist evidence, But its ally aoe puous, If noting else, the rocks and other materials onthe earth, and the way in whch aoe ytated, do ot Fis full grown oUt of cloud. They exist today because of events which they fe fore (processes if you wash); and the rocks which you have picked up and examined are Faeesreroce the earth to these procescs. This then is what the ims)” evidence consists of; this teung to figure out what happened (the process) from the record—rock or whatever (he response). Se ane earth’s rocks could not have arisen atthe same time, for we can observe some rocks Formiatit today (witness the volcano) and certainly when the earth was fonmed rocks were corm hen, too, Presumably, rocks have been Formed and destroyed throughout the earth's history 7 our introduction to “Grologic Time” and “Earth Materials” today represnts the essenc ofeath histor) and a5 we understand more and more about each, we understand more about th of arth stor aote may seer confusing C0 ou nov, but as we examine each in turn they wil cre reese mycterious, Inthe end, the many different kinds of evidence can be interpreted WS heuee out portion of the earth's history, although sometimes with ereater certainty than at tehee mess any.asa reall the earth may be somewhat more interesting to you than before cane oiasssrouread the Preliminary to Minerals before entering the next laboratory, Iisa ees prerequisite to what follows a | eons | —— 4 = Lo = | 3 [SF (Orrin Wb we) (Cav, Rona nae oe W Cet |e > | Arproninat]Preliminary to Minerals The materials which for inabie conditions, m the solid earth come in Despite this, they al have © minerals. We cannot tak about the earth Withee Both as smart aboratory we want you to become nian sn in a uit both as» concept and asa pr ence This Preliminary to Minerals provides the conceptual ba understand the laboratory to follow. By the tine wear what a mineral is, (2) know why it forms, and @) bonnes reat variety and ae formed under all imag ‘few exceptions): they out mineral; they are the unde one thing in common (with the next laboratory you a heuld (1) know hy it exhibits uniform physical propection, INTRODUCTION materials which make up the earth an ally arranged into higher ond definitions for any oft ‘certain ler a ly with the elemental i the moon, and quite likely other planets as wel FY, per the chart below (if you do not athe glossary). This hierarchies! arrange study of the earth, We willnot work ratory Dt wilh of min ezin by examining minerals. The study The minerals ghmportnce (an understanding af the ear Ie ag te od | io varios wens orm the lei ofan alphabet othe eee eae oin together ‘ovations words Leth rocks, by which earth history swe ae ee ORGANIZATION OF MATTER | Proton 7] settee png a ph ——— tc DEFINING THE MINERAL Minerals are about us every where; som: there are many material ate obvious, but others are much less so. In fue, Is which you would have reat difficulty identiying at minors, Noneiheless, 1what makes a mineral a mineral has litle to clo with what it looks like. In the paragraphs below, We discuss the natural processes and seientifi conventions which lie hehind the mineral defini presented at the end of ths Preliminary. Thete is a fundamental property about the material which makes up our universe, If we Oby sone large mixture of many different kinds of atoms which are moving rapidly with high enetayy, And are chaotic and unorganized, as ina gis or Hiqui, and allow them to cool slowly (4e, lose fenecgy) to soli, the atoms wil arrange themselves into a number of orderly geometric patterns taystals. Those orderly goomettie pattems develop because they have the lowest energy and grate Stability and they ean fake many form, some simple and some of incredible complexity. Exactly What kinds of crystals develop depends on a numberof factors, Hecate of the orderly geometric arrangement, there is limit to the size andl number of atoms which ean form any one crystal. Try to pack together in a carton large numberof spheres of ‘any different sizes (representing atoms), and try todo it in an orderly pattem which is unifomm throughout, It dificult, and the more ses there are the more difficult it becomes since any One atom must be in contact with the atoms next to But if we can limit the number ofszes we will pack together and pick sizes which pack t0 ether most easily, then the packing is much easier and more likely to occur A choice of sizes isnot very difficult since all 92 naturally occurring elements on carth have different-sized atoms and large number of geometric arangements would be possible. The df culty i that not al these atoms have the same electrical charge, Iti necessary when packing atoms Together into a crystal that every negative electrical charge be balanced by a poslie electrical charge. An atom of siicon, for example, with four postive electrical charges reqites four negative petrical charges to balance it inthe developing crystal. These four positive clectreal charges can be balanced by four 1) atoms, two (2) atoms, of one (-4) atom (plus ather possible arrangements) ‘depending of course on whether these atoms have the proper size to pack into a stable crystal seems, therefor, that if we tako a hot gas or liquid containing a large number of different kinds oF atonis and allow it to cool slowly, the atoms will begin to slow down and pack together Because all the atoms have different sizes and/or electrical chats, the variety and Kinds of atoms ‘which ean form any one crystals limited. In 2 hot gas or liquid containing many different atoms itis thus possible for different kinds of crystals to form, all With an intemal onfered geometry and Hite composition, fe find this internal ordered geometry and lied composition much to our benefit however, for the internal geometry confers uniformity in physical properties (the hardness ofa diamond in ock-cutting saws) and concentrated composition (asthe high iron composition In hematite) and hot incidentally makes our study ofthe earth possible Tn Tact, some crystals have such salatory prope uty and industry that man tis to reproduce them artificially, but since these do not form from the normal operations of the earth's Physial and chemical processes the gealogist excludes them from consideration a+ minerals, The sum {otal ofall these factors leads tothe following definition: a minerals a naturally ing, nonganie substance with a definite intemal orden arrangement of atoms (Le. Ia ), 4 chemical composition which is uniform throughout (or varies within known limits), nd a specific set of physical properties by which it can be identified.PURPOSE This investigation is designed to provide an introduction tothe mineral work with sufficient depth to allow you to investsate igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary racks, Since minerals fare the fundamental unite which compose the solid earth, this s« most elticl investigation. We will need to use minerals throughout the noxt several investigations. So today we wat to give you the practical tools that you will noed to identify minerals By the time you finish this exerese you should (1) be falas with the more common physical properties of mineral, (2) be able to use these physical proper to identity Individual minerals fand (3) be thoroughly familiar withthe eight major igneous rock-forming minerals, MUCH OF WHAT FOLLOWS WILL NOT MAKE MUCH SENSE TO YOU UNLESS YOU: Know what mineral is Understand why a mineral must be uniform in physical properties (luster, hardness, etc) throughout, epaniless of where its found ‘Can explain why practically all naturally occuring, inorgane solids found on the carth ate uniform in composition and have a crystal structure (ke., are minerals). Ifyou do not know the answers to these, find out NOW, Read the Preliminary to Minerals, your notes, or yur book, of ask Your neighbor.PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS Mineral identification isan integral patt ofa geologist's work, and learning some of the meth ods une! fo dently minerals isa fundamental tisk for you. The methods we will use here depend Cael sble to determine the special physical properties exhibited by each mineral, These are Runten steak, hardness, cleavage, fe. There aro many mineral physical properties, al of which ae reser a gas Timportant, But we will concentrate on the five piven below since they wil be su Gent in most ets 0 identify the minerals important to us Laster “Metallic_Jooks lke a metal, sts ight like steel, gold, oF slver, ef or may be dull Tike Fisted ron Nonmetallic~may be shiny ike glass or dull ike clay but doesnot lok lke a metal Streak Color of the powder of « mineral, which may be observed by scratching the mineral on S poseslain plate (sicak plate). Mineral colorand streak color may be very different for fhe same mineral, and mineels harder than porcelain have no streak Hardness ’A minerals resistance to being seratched, oF ts ability to sera another substance of known hardness, Hardness tmearured on a scale [rom 1 to 10 (ihe Mohs Seals), with 1 being the softest and 10 the hardest. On this scale the intervals of hardness are nearly ental, but this does not mean that they are equivalent in range. Apatite, for txample, isnot times harder than tale, But many nore tines hander; dimond is 32 times, ot just TO times, harder than corundum ret con Cleavage and Fracture ‘Cleayage planes along which minerals break. May ‘or may not be present. Presence determined by SGheerving a broken surface and looking fr cleavage planes. Do not break any n Durack your instructor if you ae not sure. Easily confused with exystal faces faces). The number of clewvages is important (see the figure atthe top of page Fracture-any break thet isnot cleavage. The only kind we will distinguish is conchoidat Frcture-fragture with smooth, curved surfaces as when glass breaks. ‘two well developed exanpe of conchodal facture ax found a rocks. Let: obit (volcanic as). Right: ne one” Siniurconchol facture exhibited by many miners 14 o a a Color On of the most obyiows physical properties but very deceiving in most honmetallic minerals, Colors Colors to black. RHOMBO— HEDRAL Ohae AL MINERAL IDENTIFICATION You will have not artificial (remember tl Someone who began his study of min (Obtain set of minerals from your instructor Select a mineral from the set and write A B set of unknown minerals identify in the laboratory 1 eollected and identified by as in much the sane way you are betinning Your. Work together in groups of to oF three. fs number if available) on the chart on pages 17— +s forthe mineral and list them on the same chat. Lster-metallic oF nonmetallic. Hardiness-try to serutch «piece of las. See ifthe mineral is harder or softer than lass (HIS.5) If softer than glss then test hardness with your fingernail (1:2.5) land a copper coin (1:35). Determine the hardness more precisely, i by using the hardness test kits available in the kiboratoyStreak—rub the mineral on a porcelain plate and note the powders color D. Cleavage and Fracture-look for smooth uncurved plans slong which the mineral has broken, How many are there? ‘These are easly confused with crystal (growth) faces, bul do the best you can. Ask your instructor for asistance i You are unsure, IT eatved broken surfaces are present i's conchotdal fracture, B, Color-record the color of the mineral F.Other-fist whatever ele you se that looks interesting, suchas (1) Grystal shape—cubic, rhombohedral, dodeca (2). Specific eravity—is the mineral noticeably ral (12 sides), ee vier than the other minerals? ) Taste—any special taste, eg, saltiness. (4) Maenetim, () Ete D4, Use the Key to the Identification of Minerals on pages 19-22 to identify the mineral 115. After you have identified two or three minerals ask your instructor to check them before ding, 9 make sure everything stunning smoothly ‘THE IGNEOUS ROCK-FORMING MINERALS Fight of the minerals you identified today are the most abundant minerals on the earth’s sur foe, For this reason, they are of considerable importance in geologic studies, and itis important that you not only recognize them on sigh, but slso know some Facts about each, ‘The fats ean swat for awhile, Bt spend what time remains examining the eight minerals sted below: quiz your partner, examine those minerals from other seis to see how they vary. The more familiar you en become with these now, the easier the next laboratory will bo and the less frustration and anxiety you willencounter. (D1. MINERALS: You should be able to recognize these on sieht: A. Olivine BL Pyroxene C. Amphibole D. Biotite E) Plagiocase, both calcium and sodium F. Orthoclase G. Muscovite HL Quartz D2. Ask your instructor to check your work Be sure you read the Preliminary to Igneous Racks tis a necessary prerequisite to understanding that exe ntering the next laboratory SPECIMEN NUMBER: MINERAL. NAME, [Eaist> ete aE [EEE Ea aerate ae as aa [meme > PHYSICAL PROPERTIE:! To RR TREESPECIMEN — MINERAL NUMBER: NAME le = — Metallic Luster PROPERTIES FARE won eh ome [2 own itaNonmetallic, Light Color Nonmetallic, Dark Color : Scratches Glass 7 = isa | = ‘cnt = | one i aaoce — ‘owner own =| Ae arom ome oo acm cl, wave oon | ‘oot iNonmetallic, Light Color Softer Than Glass wets mc me sw ‘HOUNTE Preliminary to Igneous Rocks PURPOSE, The incon roc exorise builds onthe sil texture (ize, shape and relationships rock's environment of formation, and ta the composition oft This Preliminary to leneous Rocks pro to understand the laboratory whist isto follow. B should (I) know how igneous rocks form, (2) know why ign textures, (3) know the biss of iencous rock classification, ( terms phaneritic, aphanitic, porpyriti, phenocrys, gro and (3) know the environmental oriin ofthese textures, round which will be necessary the next laboratory you INTRODUCTION These rocks, however, once exposed atthe surface of the earth, can Where they formed. Trying to figure out why differen im in diffrent places onthe earth reveals tle which ss profound and angtent a5 the tale we will besa to unravIGNEOUS ROCK CLASSIFICATION Igneous racks canbe casified in two ways: 1, The fists the less precise and provides only a frst approximation; i involves visual inspection of the texture, overall color af the rock, and mineral eomposition hod of classification fs the more precise, and no igneous rock identification js complete without this step. It gonerally requires that rocks be cut into puper-thin pieces (Chin-sections) and examined witha specialized polarizing microscope, Only inthis way can ‘ineral be precisely identified and their perosntage abundance accurately determined ‘The second method of elassiigaion is impractical for our purposes now, but i is important to know that itis the only fable method. What follows i description of the principles used to identify igneous rock by the first method, Le, texture and estimation of mincral composition The second m MINERAL COMPOSITION AND IGNEOUS ROCKS Igneous rocks are composed of the eight rock-forming minerals: OLIVINE, PYROXENE, AMPHIBOLE, BIOTITE, MUSCOVITE, PLAGIOCLASE (Calcium and Sodium), ORTHOCLASE, and QUARTZ. These minerals predominate because they are formed by those elements which ane most abundantly found in the earth's crust. In practical tems the feldspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, And quartz are most important since igneous rock classification depends on the pre Of these particular minerals. Which igneous rock is formed from any particular magma or laa is ‘dependent on four controlling factors: 1." Composition ofthe Original Magma 2. Contamination of the Magma 3. Bowen's Reaction Princip 4, Magmatic Fractionatior For the moment, only the fist controling factor will be of concer tous. All magmas ate not alike. Infact, they differ widely, but in general can be divided into three kinds, The first key to classifying igneous rocks i to realize that each of these magmas wil solidity lander normal circumstances. only into certain specific minerals, and that these spesifie mineral ‘compositions determine the identity ofthe corresponding laneous rocks. Represrtative Ipnous Rosle a ose Fine ue Grime Gisiod Basie Dark colored: pyroxene, 20 BASALT ‘impale, actu lagi INTERMEDIATE — | Both ight snd dark colo pions ANDESITE AciDic Light colored: quartz, onthodase, | GRANITE RHYOLITE | sodium plasecse ‘COLOR, COMPOSITION, AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS, Tanoring texture Nature is often fortuitous, Thies the case with igneous rock classification Mineral com of fneous ro forthe moment, mineral composition is most erica in the position is nat always eagy to determine in hand specimen, however, and another quick identifies tion method is needed, Fortunately, there isa direct relationship between mineral composition and the color of igneous rocks. OF the three rock categories, base rocks contain al the dark ‘olored minerals (pyroxene, amphibole and calcium plagioclase) and are thus dark. Acidic rocks, Il te light-colored minerals (quarts, orthocase, and sodium plagioclase) on the other hand, contain and are thus ight, Intermediate rocks, asthe name implies, have both tight minerals and dark min als and are intermediate in color. Thus, diferent kinds of igneous rocks are necessarily made up fof different kinds of minerals. The minerals which make up granite are rarely found in basalts, a vice versa. So the imeous rocks basalt and gabbro (see chart on page 24) are made up ofthe dark Colored minerals, and the igneous rocks granite and rhyolite are ade ofthe light-colored minerals Diorites and andesites naturally share some of both, Tgncous rock colo, thus, provides a quick and easy approximation of mineral composition in ‘igneous rocks, ereatlysimplifVing the dentiicaion of both minerals and rocks, Because of this Teliionship, we wil begin clasying igneous rocks by using color (in proxy for mineral compos This does not mean we will jnore mineral composition, for both re necessary NEOUS ROCKS IGNEOUS ROCK TEXTURES AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF Igncous rock classification isnot only based on color and mineral composition, but also on textute, The term texture refers manly tothe sizeof grains composing the rock: ee Phanerti (coarse grained) individual mineral crystals can be seen by eye Aphaniti (fie rained)—no mineral erystals an be seen by eye, Porphyriti (both fine and course grained) the basic definition of this texture i “a larger set of mineral grains surrounded by smaller grains.” DA ‘We will ake this to mean an aphanitic groundmass (dense-looking, fine 45" 9 falped put of the oc) containing phenocrysts the ae, ial £® Glassy-—incous rocks witha glassy texture do not have their atoms Pa arranged ina crystalline manner and, thus, do not contain mineral as such oR, Cetislar-may be aphanitic, porphyriic, or lasy, but in ny ease rocks Fragmental-may be any cofor, Composed of fragments ejected from voleanoes and cemented together. Very difficult to identify if fragments re small. What is critical about texture is that itis directly related to the cooling history of the magma from which the rock was derived. This cooling history is essential to understanding and interpreting the environmental origin of igneous rocks. The principles are simple, Minerals erystallizing from a Imelt need time to grow. Thus [Large crystals (phaneitc rocks) have formed by slow cooling (hundreds oF thousands or millions of years), by implication deep in the earth 2. Small crystals (aphanitie rocks) have formed by rapid cool atthe earth's surface. 8. Porphyriic rocks requite two stages of cooling: one slow stage, deep inthe earth to form the Dhenoerysts, and a second rapid stage a the surface to form the groundmass. 4. Giassy-extremely rapid cooling; minerals do not have time to form. (Cours or days), by ImplicationColtular racks form when gs, trapped in the magia by the pressure of being buried, escapee fat or near the surface either forming bubbles or “frothing” the ly 6. Fragmental-solid particles explosively ejected from a volcano, and fused together before com: plete cooling, IN CONCLUSION Igneous rock classification is based 0 {ell the mineral (and chemical) Composition, ‘The name given to any particular lencous rock mat be based on both texture and color-composition ... and that name, thus, cartes a Tot of information Therefore, without ever seeing the rock, a geologist would know that a granite is (1) phanetiticy (2) formed by slow cooling deep In the earth, (3) light colored, and (4) composed principally of Guartz, ortheclase, and/or sodium plagioclase, while basalt is (1) aphaniie, (2) formed By rapid tooling at or near the eats surace, (3) dark colored, and (4) composed principally of pyroxene, Amphibole, and ealcium plagioclase (even though the individual erystals could not ordinarily be Seen). The laboratory to follow is concemed with your learning and utilizing these practical rel tionships, texture, which tells the cooling history, and color wich Igneous Rocks PURPOSE During this period you should develop the practical skills needed to recognize, identify, and interpret the origins of individual igneous rocks, Since jeneous rocks ate composed ofthe eight laneous rock-forming minerals, you will be building directly on the knowledge of these minerals you gained in the previous laboratory. Later we will uilize these skills to help devipher the aeologic history ofa portion of the earth's nist. By the time you finish this exercise you should be able to (1) recognize on sight all the impor tant igneous racks, (2) identify the mineral found in each igneous rocks und (3) interpret che vig and history of each ofthese igneous rocks, MUCH OF WHAT FOLLOWS WILL NOT MAKE MUCH SENSE To You UNLESS YOU: 1, Can woognize the eight rock forming minerals, 2, Know how igneous rocks form, 3. Know the relationship between igneous rock color and composition, 4. Know the different formation neous rock textures and how they relate to environ Know the bass of igneous rock classification, I you do not know the answers to or understand the reasons for these, find out NOW. Read the Preliminary to Igneous Rocks, your notes, or your book, of ask your neighbor.IGNEOUS ROCK IDENTIFICATION BY HAND SPECIMEN Rocks may be identified ether by “eyeballing”(a frst approximation used by geologists in the field) or through the use ofa polarizing microscope (a mere precise technique). You will use the eyeball approach. This is based on the visual inspection of the (1) texture, (2) overall colo find (3) composition of the rock. A handlens or microscope is often used to ideatify the visible minerals present. Since individual mineral identification is important, you should review the eight rock-forming minerals now if you are unsure of them, The chart below will provide a guide to their identification in hand specimens MINERAL IDENTIFICATION IN HAND SPECIMEN Quartz; Clear to cloudy, easy irogular grains. No cleava Muscovite: Very light colored to brassy long thin flakes with quartz and orthoctase May see excellent cleavage in one direction. Orthoclase: Pink, gray, white. May see two clavage planes which make an angle of 0 1 or white in granites to datk bluish in gabbros. Look for distinct, striations (tiny parallel grooves) on cleavage surfaces Phaioclase Biotite: Black. May soe excelent cleavage in one direction; reflects light wel angles of 60" and 120°. = : Pyroxene: Short, thick, dull black minerals n darker rocks, May see 90° cleavage Olivine: Glassy, pale ereen eran | THE IMPORTANCE OF MINERAL COMPOSITION IN IGNEOUS ROCKS We are going to begin lasing igneous rock by texture and color. Although ths method works well in most cases, a clasiieaion based solely on texture and colori sometimes inadequate For example, examine the Igneous Rock Texture and Color Chart on pape 32. Obsidian, a black, tHassy igneous rock, on the bass of eolor belongs on the right side of this chart, but its composition 'S most closely like that ofthe light-colored rocks granite and shyolite, on the left side. In this case {and all other cases) composition overrides color in importance, and obsidian must be placed with the acidic rocks rhyolite granite. Similarly the rock perdotite, because it contains olivine and/o pyroxene but no felspar, must be classified by itself as an ULTRABASIC regardless of color. These are the only tw distinctive exoeptions fo classification by color and texture The composition diagram below the Igneous Rock Texture and Color Chart shows the minerals characterstically found in each classification group. ‘The Granite-Rhyolite Group, for instance, may Contain quartz, orthoclase, sodium plagioclase, mica, and amphibole but no pyroxene o olivine ind quartz and orthoclse are not found in the Gabbro-Basalt Group, The rocks in between may {hare some characteristics of both, although normally not orthocase, quartz, or olivine 2 Because the dark-colored minerals predominate in the Gabbro-Basalt Group, these rocks tend to be dark, while the light-colored minetals quartz and orthoclase, in the Granite Felsite Gros, ‘make these rock light colored, but a classification based on these relationships must always be tempered with caution until a mineral analysis has been made, 1. Obiain a tiay of neous rocks, and open out the folded Fencous Rock Texture and Color ‘Chart, pages 33 and 34 (in tho back of the manual. 1 2 Arrange your rocks on the chart according to texture (phaneriti, porphyritc, aphanitc, ‘assy, cellular, or fragmental) and color (ight, intermediate, dark). Hint: besin by Trt Separating the rocks by texture; then separate each lexture category by color, (You may not have examples of every rock type; keep in mind the exceptions discsed above.) 3. Have tho instructor check your serangement 4. After your arrangoment has been checked, use the Key on page 30 to name the rocks on the basis of texture and color (and composition), 1D 5. The large Igneous Rock Texture and Color Chat is reproduced in smal sale on page 32; write the rock names on the small chart in the sime relative positions you have the rocks arranged on the large chart. This wll be your personal ude to igneous rock identification, WHAT IGNEOUS ROCKS ARE GOOD FOR Minoral composition has more sienificance than just determining the colar of igneous racks and serving asthe basis for clasification, All the igneous rocks ate not evenly ot randomly distributed ‘verte earth's surface, but are found on, or in, restricted portions ofthe ears crust separate rom each other, Their oourrence together usualy implies that they formed at diferent times and/or under unusual geologic etcumstances, The goal of data collection i not jst classification; tf to provide cues necessary for the inter: protaton of the oxgin of the rocks which ater wil be used to help in working out the complete ologic history of a region. From the information in the Preliminary to leneous Racks, you know that fexture relates tothe rte of cooling and that color ia reflection of the mineral content, which in tur relates to the chemieal compesition ofthe magma, With this knowledge, you ean interpret ‘much about earth history. You wil ned to acquire the skills necessary to make thee interpretations. ‘We would like you to begin gaining these skils by examining asain the ianeous rocks you have lentifed and reading an interpretation of the origin and significance of each. ‘They represent the complete range of ieneous racks found naturally. Study each one carefully by eyes examine hem With a handlens or microscope. Look forthe minerals and strictures pointed out in the comments fom the next few pages. “Try to become familiar with the geologie citeumstances under which each rock is found, because the next step wil involve your making interpretations ofthe origin an hi tory of some unidentified igneous rocks Name: GRANITE (writethe name beside number 7 on the di Texture: Phaneritie Color Light white, t pink or red (depending on feldspar) Composition: Quartz, feldspar, biotite, muscovite, andor amphibole Interpretation: Large Crystals-siow cooling deep underground am, pase 38)nate Examine this specimen carefully. How many different kinds of minerals do you see, and what Lig calor os are they? You should see grains of quartz, grains of feldspar, and grains of biotite and/or amphibole p) meres oa Use a microscope orhandlens. Can you identity the fekdspat? Ts it plagioclase or orthoctase?. When you think you have it, check your determinations with your instructors Being able to see fify individual minerals is something you ned to do with confidence and facility! Granite is probably the most familiar ofall igneous rocks, partly Because ofits beauty and use as a building stone and partly because it forms the major bulk ofthe continents, In Fact, the con tinents ate nothing more than very lange blocks of relatively lightweight sranite “floating” on a mass ‘of relatively dense basaltic rock forming the earth's erust. The origin ofthese “floating gontinental 8” is one of the most intriguing questions of earth history. We know that large granite holes, tnd grow deep inside the earth where the temperatures are very high, and we have a fay pod Understanding ofthe mechanism, but determining where the granite tleif came from. that's easter problem! a | aia oy SS Name BASALT or BASALT PORPHYRY (write the name beside number the diagram, page 35) svoure Texture: Aphianiti of sphanitic porphyritic Color: Dark reanemy [— anoesre bam Composition: Pyroxene, amphibole, plagio Interpretation: § se, and oli nll crystals—rapid cooling at and/or near the earth's sur This rock ischaractritially always very dark and nondeseript in appearance (since all the constituent mineral ae usually 0 small ta wea by eye), ‘Can yout ee en coystale? Hy omar Scope or handiens, The dark color is due tothe high eoncenttation of dark pyrovene and amphibole ‘minerals (mixed with dark calcium plagioclase), ‘The smu grain sce isthe result of rapid coclng 1nd solidification ator near the earth’s surface. If phenocrysts ae present, they indicts two fooling stages, Often these rocks also have vesicles (air pockets) formed Wien the reat pressures of deep burial are released andthe volcanic gas rapidly expands into “bubbles” as it tres to escape Irom the molten lava. The specimen infront of you should have at lest a few vesicles (i nat, bortow your neighbor's). poerivale| ‘This rock type is extremely abundant and important (you will se and h over). It forms th nents (granite pr hear about it over and ‘ocean basins, including the islands of Hawt, Basalt isnot common on cont 7 Pe a = J ‘Dak Cal VESICULAR, ‘be solved. =e ee mors | uae Tey Gas waa | cae F ANDESITE or ANDESITE PORPHYRY (wt the name bese number ! ® Col eras Composition: Plagioclase, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, trace quartz Interpretation: Small erystals-rapid cooling ator near the earth's surfaceINTERMEDIATE COLOR DARK COLOR : @ imThese rocks are intresting and unususl-although you would not think soon first sight, For ne thing their composition is intermediate between basalt and riyolit, the (vo common jencous Tock compositional “end members,” Iti a though you took a supply ofeach and melted thes together, the resulting rock being the andesite-not quite a basalt, not quite a hyolite. Compare the color of yout andesite with a basalt and shyolite. You will see thatthe colo is intermediate, too. ‘There is some truth to this story, in Tact, for we now believe many andesies are formed through jist such a process (notice we sud believe we don't know for sue, but are extrapolating from other data what happens inside the earth is nat always easy to decipher and can probably never be tuly Another interesting thing about these rocks is that they, along ith basalt, form 95 percent of all voleanic material, For the total mass of the earth's crust, however, andesites ate not very common, fact, they occur consistent in only cartain kind of situations. They are most abundant today in ‘a natrow zone called the "Andesite Line” which surrounds the Pacific Ocean, and i believed to fo-m the present dividing line between the ocean basins and continents, cause andestes are associated with voleane activity, they tend tobe porphyritie. ‘The magma forms and begins cooling inside th {arth before erupting to the surface in avoleano, This initial cooling period allows lage crystals to form, but upon reaching th earth's surface the remaining magma cools rapidly, and the rock is fine trained, The results lange crystals ina fine-grained aroundiass~a porphyry. ‘Try to identify the eta engl eyes te i we The existence ofthese rocks has very important implications, and you will be hearing and reading more about andesites, | | Name: GABBRO (write the name beside number 6 on the diagram, page 35) Text Phanerti Color: Dark Chmparition: Pligiocle, olivine, pyroxene, amphi Interpretation: Large erystals-slow cooling deep underground CCharacteristially very dark, with large obvious crystals, some of which may be iridescent This rock isthe coarse arained compositional equivalent of basalt. Can you identity the plasiocas feldspar (look for trations) and distinguish the olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole crystals which usually Form the rock? Tt forms a a depth where cooling i low and erystals have tine to grow. Name DIORITE (write the name beside number 5 on the diagram, page 35) Texture: Phaneritic Color: Intermediate—lage dark and light erystals Composition: Plagioclase, amphiboles, and some pyroxene Interpretation: Large erystals-slow cooling deep underground This rock has the same composition as andesite, the only difference being thatthe magm «cooled slowly so al the crystals had time (o grow larger, If you vill compare sts color with granite and gabbro, you will se that its color is intermediate, just as the andesite's color is between rhyolite and basalt” Look atthe light-colored crystals; they are plagioclase feldspars, The dark mineral are resis crepes with som pyroxene. Qutitz and orthockac feldspar are fae, if present at al Diorites usually occur where magma has forced its way through prvexisting rocks forming large underground intrusive bods sch as sills, dikes, laccoiths, and batholiths (se page 35). Th surrounding rock (generally called “country rock”) acts ts insulation, promoting slow cooling and srowth of the large crystals. Name RHYOLITE or RHYOLITE PORPHYRY (write the name beside number 9'on the diagram, page 35) Texture: Aphanitic oF aphanitic porphyritic Color Lisht-white, gray, or pink Composition: Quarte, feldspar, mica, andor am Interpretation: Rapid cooling at the earth's surface “This rock would have been a granite—but it cooled too quickly. Most of the erystals never had time to grow very large. Look eareflly, though, and you will probably see a few crystals of quartz and feldspar (phenocrysts). Compare this specimen with basalt and andesite, and you will se that itis the lightst in color. Rhyoito usually forms lava flows, like basal, but because tie more viscous i often is “stringy,” lke tafly, and flow structure forms ait moves Name OBSIDIAN (write the name beside number & on the diagram, page 35) Texture: Glassy Color Black, green black, or rust red Composition: Glass (no minerals} Interpretation: Very rapid cooling Look at ths specimen carefully. Do you see any mineral rains? You should notthey never had time to form. While the masina was still molten t was suddenly ejected from t yoleano, cooling Was very rapid, and atoms did not have line to arrange themselves int crystal; the esult-voleanic Name: PUMICE (wie the name beside mmber3 onthe dag, page 38) Bees eyo air Color: Light | Composition: Gis (no miners) Interrelation: Voleanic-viry pi cooing with sudden gs release frothing lvalass. It breaks with a conchoidal fracture and is usually black, although yellow, brown, and red tolors may be present. Chemically itis much like granite and rhyolite This rock characteristically forms atthe surface of the earth in s8socation with yoleane ati, Is light weight, frothy structure, and gray-whie color are unmistakable. Magma (malten rock) always contains varying amounts of water (as steam) and other gases dissolved ini. As fn a the ‘magma stays hot and buried under pressure, these volatile materials stay dissolved, “Under certain Circumstances, however, magma is suddenly foreed tothe surface of the earth where these volatile ind try to escape from the lava (magma atthe earth’s surface), This rapid expansion prevents any mineral frmation, and the lava ‘aues the lava to foam; the resulting rapid coolin Froezes asa gla. Name: PERIDOTITE (write the name beside number I on the diseam, page 35) Texture: Phanerti Coler Light green to dark Olivine with varying amounts of pyroxene and amphibole; no feldspar Composition: Interpretation: Slow cooling deep inthe earth [eee ae ee This is «rather unusual and rare igneous rock on the surface ofthe earth because itis made iolivine and/or pyroxene giving i its green color. Examine the Specimen and you will se that itis made of numerous small sandike grains. This is often confusire for the unfamiliar since st looks superficially like a sedimentary sandstone, Although relatively rar ‘onthe surface ofthe eatth, peridotite is believed (we really don’t know -it must be infered by indict evidence) tobe the major constituent of the earth’ mantle (that area between the crast and core of the earth, Name: VOLCANIC TUFF and BRECCIA (write names beside numbers 2, 3, and Bon the diagram on page 35) Texture: Fragmental-fine- to coarse geuined angular fragments often showing bed ding or stratification Color: May be any color depending on mineral composition, impurities, and dogive of weathering Pumice, elas, broken crystals, voleanie ash common, plis other angular fragments Formed at the earth's surfae by explosive volcanic eruptions which un- lash loose pyroclastic materials which are subsequently cemented or welded together Composition These rocks are dificult to recognize, especially ifthe pyroclastic materials are fine grained, Volcanic tuff composed of Finerained pyroclastic material Voleane brecsia consists of coarse rained volcanic material, Both consist of angular fragments (cemented together) of volcanic origi ; INTERPRETING THE ORIGIN OF IGNEOUS ROCKS fcolgis ound al the oc in the Bet dutng ths cou of eee nee enone 1. Collect dats on texture, color, and composition (anneral content) that will enable you slassify them. Ask for help if'you have difiulty Kentifying the individual minerals Record this information on the dala charts, pages 40.43, 2 Classify and name the igneous rocks (use the chars on pages 30 and 32) D3. Ask nich questions as: AA. What was the composition of the magma! B, Whore were these rocks formed? (© What was the cooling history? 4, Make an interpretation ofthe history ofthe rock. Ifyou have not te slightest idea wiht is going on, or are having difiulty getting started, ask for help. “This s the time tobe unsure, and make mistakes, and leam from them, Inthe future you may be wer ing under circumstances where help will not be availabe CS. Ask your instructor which laboratory follows the next session (Igneous Rock Interpreta- tion or Sedimentary Rocks) aid be sure to read th Tena necessary prerequisite to understanding Wet exerceSPECIMEN NUMBER 0 IGNEOUS ROCK NAME = — D> CHARACTER! aR ao [anaes ——] ts IGNEOUS SPECIMEN ROCK NUMBER NAME - — ae 41IGNEOUS. SPECIMEN ¢ SPECIMEN ROCK NUMBER NAME CHARACTERISTICS NUMBER, NAME CHARACTERISTICS no zPreliminary to Igneous Rock Interpretation{o eam mote, So we hypothesize, observe, and test aguin, understanding thi Ienow existed THE EVOLUTION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS. In 1922,N, L. Bowen develop (oy oersty Mineo) the ifforentiensov racks. If that bypothess i corec, we should beable Co predict What events vil occ in particular situations or geologists ae wont to do-explain events which have a uM AsatT ‘oveurred in the past. PYRDXENE nse ack" GABBRO The essence of Bowen's Hypothesis ths: BASIC rocks are the parent of all igneous rock i 7 ann poe eers ROCKS RHYOLITE ———) GRANITE uscoviTe ROCKS: ~ audetz ~_uereanasic BOWEN’S REACTION SERIES The evidence for tis evolutionaty sequence was derived both from laboratory experiments and from studies of igneous rocks found around the world, And although the sequence illustrated shove and described below f greatly simplified (a thore of you who 40 on in geoloxy will discove?) the hypothesis proposed by Bowen is an excellent generalization which summarizes many geologic proceses and helps us to interpret the earth's history, But liow dues this evolution ocourt ‘There are two me ple and (2) fractionation | nisms: (1) Bowen's Reaction Prin BOWEN'S REACTION PRINCIPLE The bass of the reaction principle i this: magmas (molten rosks doop within the earth) do not erystallize like ordinary solutions. Most solutions of given composition always crystallize into {solid ofthe same composition. Ifthe were trve for magmas, then any particular magma would alvays crystallize into arock ofthe same composition, But they do not! In fact, any one maga Is quite capable of crystallizing into any one (or more) ofa number of igneous rocks. The reaction The principle of reaction states, simply, that if cooling is slow, the first-formed minerals do not remain separate from the magma but reat with it; that is they become partially o totally dissolved by the magma and chemically incorporated in new minerals further down the eaction series, THs principle on beilusted by reference to Bowen's Reaction Seis This ction secs shows thatthe eight igneow rock forming nines do otal form atone rx wih whe ace wh hme mt but at ferent temperature as te tock satay cools. Above {400°C no mineral fin the foe [EE Conraore maa magma, but ss the temperature drops below L400°C erystls of the two minerals atthe top of the redelion series (olivine and elem plagioclase) besin to form simultancously. Progressive cooling fof the magma results inthe formation of minerals lower down on the reaction serie: pyroxene, imphibole, and biotite on the left side; calciumsodium plagioclase and sodium plagioclase on th Fight, and finaly arthoclase, muscovite, and quart (the lst mineral to crystallize, at 570°C) ‘Note also the following about the minerals in the reaction series: (1) highest density minerals reat the top, and individual mineral density diminishes proeressively toward the bottom: the irae and magnesiumrich miferals, olivine and pyroxene, have the greatest density; and (2) basic rocks form from mincrals that crysalize a the top of the reaction series, intermediate rocks from min eal in the middle, and aedie rock from minerals atthe bottom of the reaction seis, == | PLAGIOCLASE [GaiciuarSocium [PLAGIOCLASE Calcio 1OCLASE Thus, 2 magma of one composition ean produce two or more different rocks, each mad Aiferent minerals, ll controled by the rate of eooling and seation af l! 46 alimit to how fara cooling magna ‘THE FRACTIONATION PROCESS. The Reatlon Principle works adi good 1s fa a I oes, but Bowen found that thee e ould react. The controlling factor was composition, A BASIC ‘magia, for instance, would only form the darker minerals which Form BASIC igneous rocks. To solve this problem, Bowen proposed that the first-formed minerals could be removed from the magma aller they formed. Thus, these minerals would not reat withthe remaining magina to ‘comporition, ‘The proposed method of separation was simplicity itself; eeause the fist formed the reaction series have the greatest density they would settle, under gravity fo the bottom of the magina chamber, This process of ravity reting i called fractionation. Fractionation changes the original composition of the magma (it is essentially divided into fractiors) ‘64 result, changes the igneovs rocks which can form from each friction, The process i not random, however, bit is related {o Bowen's Reaction Series in a predictable way ‘THE IDEAL, SIMPLIFIED MODEL FOR THE EVOLUTION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS Te diagram below illustrates the idea, simplified model and ean be used for quick eferencoin 48 TA ——a Ace un I ome ur, sag | BASIC MAGNA | i s[ eae sions} In the idea! case the process begins with a BASIC magma forming deep inside the earth. This ‘magma has a composition at the top of Bowen's Reaction Series, high in iton,snagnesutn éalcium. 1 this magma crystallizes, twill form a BASIC rock, basalt or eabbro, It may, how- ever, fit cools very slowly, fractionate, The high-density istformed minerals, aivine anion pyroxene, wil settle to the bottom ofthe magma chamber, ‘This olivine and/or pyroxene can no fonger react with the remaining magma and will form the rock peridolite. ‘The remaining magine, on fhe other hand, isnow deficient in iron and magnesium and INTERMEDIATE in composition, I this fractionated magma crystallizes, it will form an INTERMEDIATE tock, fe, andeate of dort. This magna may also fractionate, however, removing some of the remaining high-density (ron, mag nesium, and calelum-sich) miners, erystalizing into a rock of either INTERMEDIATE or BASIC composition (depending on the degree of fractionation) ‘The remaining magma (again) is now very deficient in iron, magnesium, and calcium, but what is eft behind is high in silica, sodium, and potassium, ‘This final magma isnow ACIDIC and will ‘aystallize into a rhyolite or eranite DEVIATIONS FROM THE IDEAL, SIMPLIFIED MODEL There is a truism in geology that says beginning geologists leam all about how the earth works in introductory geology courses and then spend the rst of their carers leaning all the exceptions ‘and complications. The reason for this is that geology is tying understand a very complex system-the earth. In doing so, we make great generalizations that help us fo understand more com plex processes, and these generalizations are extremely useful, but they are generalizations, Bowen's hypothesis is such a generalization, and what has been discussed above vives tremendous insitht Nonetheless, there are afew complications we would like to present, in order to answer some ques tions which may arise and to give you a litle more ins it into the processes producing igneous rocks. 1. There isno one ideal BASIC magia, and the results of reaction and fractionation will dtfer ‘depending on the compositon of the beginning mami, Although the mechanisms of reaction and fractionation have been studied and verified inthe laboratory, and although studies of numerous igneous rock bodics ofall compositions show that these processes have occurred inthe real world, no experiment hs yet been able to take 8 BASIC magma and react and factionate it all the way to an ACIDIC rock,_ Why this i ruc When al the intermediate steps have been verified is not known, Two posible easons are (@) the enormous difference in time scals (natural maginas may take thousands or millions of years to cool and (b) other, unexplored processes which may be operating besides reaction and fractionation (ee 4 below, for example), 3. Gravity settling isnot the ony fractionation process. At least one other met, called filter pressing, involves partial erystalization ofthe magma, the ealy-formed minerals growing logether and forming a seivecike network. Liquid magma fills the open spaces inthis network If the magma chamber is now crushed by earth movement, the magina may be squeezed out, but the crystals, Because they are grown together info the sive-ike network, are lft behind ‘The original magma las now been divided into two fractions: (1) a crystallized mass left be hind and (2) a squeezed -out liquid portion which is more acc than the onginal magma Magma bodies often grow in siz by a process called stoping. As the magma works ils way t© the surface, blocks of country rock (the surrounding rock invaded by the magma) are broken ‘off and incorporated. Sometimes these blocks remain unmelted and ave then called xenol (foreign rock”), ‘The blocks may melt, however, and this melting can change the origina magma composition. For instance, an inital BASIC magma invading an ACIDIC country rock may end up an INTERMEDIATE or even an acide rock And finally, it should be apparent by now that igneous tock composition can vary widely, de- Pending on original melt composition and degree of reaction and fractionation. And, since fencous rock classification is based, ultimately, an composition, the classification we have been sing arbitrary and simplified. Arbitrary in the sense that no natural breaks exist in igneous 1oek composition; the difference between a BASIC and an INTERMEDIATE tock, for example, ossimi conp to th Frac and rand ee TEWPERATURE oe TERESI THE FRACTIONATION PROCESS The Reaction Principle works and is good as far 28 goes, but Bowen found that there is & tohow fara cooling magma would react. The controlling factor was composition. A BASIC ma, for instance, woud only form the darker minerals which form BASIC igncous rocks To solve this problem, Rowen proposed that the first-formed minerals cou be removed from magia after they formed. Thus, these minerals would not react with the remaining inagina f0 new minerals~and, concurrently, they also removed elements from the magma, changing its position, ‘The propdsed method of separation was snipliiy itself; because the firstFormed ral at the top ofthe reaction series have the greatest density they would settle, under gravity, © bottom of the magma chamber. This process of gravity settling i called fractionation.® tionation changes the original composition of the magma (its essentially divided into fractions) asa real, changes the igneous rocks which can form from each fraction. The process is not jom, however, bat is related to Bowen's Reaction Series in a predictable way ‘THE IDEAL, SIMPLIFIED MODEL FOR THE EVOLUTION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS The diseram below illostrates the idea, simplified model and can he used for quik reference in following discussio a BASIC magma In the ideal case the process begins with 2 BASIC magna forming deep inside the earth, This magma has a composition atthe top of Bowen's Reaction Series, hgh in ion, magnesium and Galea, IF this magia crystallizes, it will form a BASIC rock, fe, bast or gabbro, It may, how fve if it cools very slowly, fracionate, The high-density, fist-formed minerals, olivine and/or pyroxene, will elle fo the bottom of the magma chamber. This olivine and/or pyroxene can no fonger react with the remaining magma and wl form the rock peridotite. ‘The remaining magma, on the other hand, is now deficient in iron and magnesium and INTERMEDIATE in composition this faetionated magia erystalizes it will form an INTERMEDIATE tock, i, andesite odiorite. ‘This magia may als frationate, however, removing some of the remaining highdensity (ion, mag resin, and caleun-sich) mineras crystallizing into a rock of either INTERMEDIATE ot BASIC Composition (depending on the degre of fractionation} The maining magna (aguin) Hs How very deficient in iron, magnesium, and calcium, but what isteft behind is high in silica, sodium, and potassium. This final magma is now ACIDIC an will tystalize into a rhyolite or granite DEVIATIONS FROM THE IDEAL, SIMPLIFIED MODEL, There is a trsm in geology that says beginning geologists lean all bout how the earth works in introduetory geology courses and then spend the rest of their carers learning all the exceptions tnd complications. ‘The reason For this is that goology is trying understand a very complex system-the earth In doing so, we make great generalizations that help ws to understand more com- Plex processes, and these gonerlizations are extremely useful, but they are generalizations. Bowen's fiypothess i such » generalization, and what has been discussed above gives tremendous inset Nonetheless, there are few complications we would like to preset, in order to answer some ques tions which may arise and to pve you alittle more insight into the processes producing igneous rocks “There is no one ideat BASIC magma, and the results of reaction and fractionation will differ depending on the compositon of the besinnin magma. Although the mechanisms of reaction and fractionation have been studied and verified in the Iaboratory, and although stdies of numerous igneous rock bodies ofall compositions show that these processes have occurred in the real work, no experiment has yet been able to take E BASIC magma and react and factionate it ll the way to an ACIDIC rock, Why this i tue When all the intermediate steps have been verified is not known, Two possible reasons are (@) the enormous difference in time scales (natural magmas may take thousands ot millions of years to cool) and (b) other, unexplored processes which may be operating, besides reaction and fractionation (ee 4 Below, for example) Gravity setting isnot the only fractionation process. At lest one other method called filter pressing. involves partial crystallization of the magia, the eary-formed minerals growing together and forming a seve like network, Liquid magma fills the open spaces inthis network the magma chamber ie now erushed by earth movement, the magma may be squeezed out, but the crystals, because they are grown togcther into the sive-ike network, are lft behind The original magma has now been divided into two fractions: (1) a erytallized mass left be hind and (2) & squeezed-out liquid portion which is more acidic than the orginal magma, Magma bodies often grow in siz by a process called stoping. As the magma works its ay t0 the surface, locks of country rock (the surrounding rock ineaded by the magna) are broken ‘off and incorporated. Sometimes these blocks remain unmelted and are then called xenoliths “foreign tock”). ‘The blocks may melt, however, and this melting can change the original magna composition, For instance, an initial BASIC magma invading an ACIDIC country rock ‘may end up an INTERMEDIATE or even an acid rock And finally, i should be apparent by now that ieneous rack composition can vary widely, pending on original melt composition and degre of reaction and fractionation. And, since igneous rock clasitiation is based, ultimately, on composition, the casiication we have been using is arbitrary and implied. Arbitrary inthe sense that no natural breaks exist in iancous rock composition; the difference between « BASIC and an INTERMEDIATE rock, fer example, “9has been established by definition for the convenience of geologists. Simplified in the sease that numerous other names exist for rocks that have compositions justin between or diferent from the rocks we have studied. There is no reason for us to dal with all these other rock hams, but knowing that rocks of other compositions exist ean explain some specimens which appear to fall between two known rock types, for indeed, they may be in between, Interpreting Igneous Rocks PURPOSE, Inthe Preliminary to Igneous Rack Interpretation, we explained that evidenos for Bowen's hypothesis forthe origin of igneous rocks consisted of Both laboratory experiments and studies of naturally occurtingjzneous rock bodies, No supporting evidence was presented in the Preliminary however, The purpose of this laboratory i to explore one ofthe casi fie examples of suppor ingevidence for Bowen’s hypothesis and 1 see how the hypothesls is applied to solving practical MUCH OF WHAT FOLLOWS WILL NOT MAKE MUCH SENSE To YOU UNLESS YOU: 1. Know how the processes of reaction and fractionation canbe used to explain the {evolution of ULTRABASIC. INTERMEDIATE, and ACIDIC igneous rocks from ‘BASIC magma 2, Know how the processes of filter pressing and stoping can alter the composition of a mae, If you do not know these, find out NOW. Read the Preliminary to Igneous Rock Interpretation, your notes, or your book, or ask your neighbor, FRACTIONATION IN THE P Pacing the city of New York, on the west bank of the Hudson River, i the Palisades, 2 massive «lifP some 50 miles long and in places more than 1000 fet high. ‘The Palisades sa sil of basalt that LISADES SILL 50 si BPPvas intruded almost horizontally as a magia into sedimentary rocks some 200 million years ago, The sill has now been exposed at the earth’s surface by erosion, but atthe time ofits intrusion fe ‘was deep in the earth, This deep burial insalated the cooling magia so that t probably took at least fens of thousands of years to completely crystallize. During this time, many of te process ‘operating in a cooling magma occurred, Thus, the Palisades Sill is a classic case ofthe hind OF fed evidence demonstrating the validity of Bowen's Hypothesis for the Origin af taneous Rocks. ‘One of the dificities encountered in the study of geology (or any other discipline for that matter) is making the conneetion between raw data (which may seem baffling or meaningles on first appearance) and its simificance. Applying knowledge to the analysis of problems is simple matter, however, once you know what to look for. We would like to take you through this ample so that you can see the connection between the processes of fractionation, and the rock and mineral relationships which result. The raw data from the Paliides Sil are the variations in mineral composition and average sxytal size from top to bottom. From a distance, these variations ate not apparent, bu on eset inspection they can be observed. ‘These variations ae iusrated in the diagrams onthe following ass To begin with, observe the followin: 1. Pyroxene, plagioclase, and olivine ae the major mineral constituents, adding up to nearly }O0% at every level. ‘The remaining minerals, such as magnetite, ate iinor constituents and have no bearing on the arguments below, In genera, fom bottom to top, lagiocase increases in concentration while pyroxene de Excopt for the very top and bottom, ovine i absent from most of the sil Grain size varies in a way complex enough to be difficult to describe clearly. But note the following: (a) the smallest grain sizes by fur are atthe very top and very bottom; (b) the 15-18 foot level has an unusually Inge average grain siz compared tothe levels just above and below it; (c) Beginning atthe 18-50 foot level, grain size increases steuly through the 250300 foot level, and then it suddenly decrease in the 300-320 and 320-340 foot levels INVESTIGATION OF THE COOLING MAGMA. The sill bepins a a very hot magma intruding into much cooler sedimentary county rock Cooling begins rapidly, then, at the contact with the sedimentary rocks above and below, and moves progressively inward toward the center. This rapid cooling accounts for the very small grain size 2 the top and botto ld require more time This ayer of very smal ystals on the outer surface ofan ig From this point, we would ike cooling rates and crystal size, and make some interpretations. ‘The questions below but they wil build progressively in complexity of interpretation, Understanding these proces Prepare you for the next investigation into specimen interpretation, Before beginning, howeve You will need to know the specific sraites of the minerals in 4 Min Plagiocas 2602, Slow Pyroxene 2 Intermediate Olivine 3 Rapid PYROXENE PLAGIOCLASE OLIVINE GRAIN SIZEPerhaps the most obvious variation in composition isthe unusually high concenteation of olivine just above the base ofthe sll (15-18 foot eve). Considering the relative specif fravitics of the mineral crystallizing from the magma, explain the layer of alivine at the 15-18 foot level 2, Notice that inthe sven levels above the zane of high olivine concentration (18-320 fea), pyroxene decreases steadily while plagiocise shows a corresponding increase. Interpret these mineralogie variations in terms ofthe same process operating Inthe answer to the previous question 3. Inlight of your answers to the preceding two questions, explain why olivine isnot found in the seven levels above the 15-18 foot zane of high olivine concentration 4, In addition to mineral variations in the sil, we algo find grain size variations which appe to be related to the mineralogy. Notice that Inthe 15-18 foot level large mineral grain are present, and that their presence correlates to the abundance of olivine. Explain this relationship in terms ofthe cooling history of the magma, relative sting rate of avon 5. Above the 15-18 foot level the average grain size decreases markedly, but then above that the average grain size increases steadily up to 300 Feet. What docs this mean in terms of the cooling history of the arains at each level 6. The average grain size increase through the 18-300 foot levels also correlates with creating pyroxene concentration from bottom to top. In terms ot 9a a 3p. In terms of yout answer to tion 5 and the fractionation process, explain this corelation,You have probably noticed by now that although plagioclase abundance inereases steadily up irereion through te 300-320 foot level (while pyroxene decreases in the same distance), the coresponding unin average prin size increas reverse itso suddenly atthe 300-320 foot level. This ude essa! can be explained by close proximity tothe chill zone; the mineral erysals forming here {GuTnot have as much time fo erow as rystals further away from the chill zone. A sinlar relation a Skip'would be expected next to the bottom chill zone, but does not occur, of course, because EE tar olivine has accumulated above the chill zone by fractionation a Before we eave this problem there is one additional question we want to ask you. Based on BI what you now know about the processes occurting in a cooling magma a (7. Ifyou had to pick one rock sample from thissill which would come closest to matching Bi the origina! overall competion of the magma as initially intruded, where would you lek the sample and why cl 8, Call your instructor over and deseribe to her or him the sequence of processes responsible for the formation of the Palisades Sill, beginning with the intrusion of the magma and ceding with its complete crystalization IGNEOUS ROCK HAND SPECIMENS AND THE INTERPRETATION OF THEIR ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION By now you have acquired an understanding ofthe processes responsible forthe origin and cevolutign of afferent igneous rocks. Much of this understanding i only theoretical, however. What we want fo do now is bring together this theoretical knowledge with the practical, Because i very unusalfor all the various igneous rocks, ultrabasic, basic, intermediate, and acide, to fore topetir in the same geologic circumstances, the country represented by the block Siastam below is hypothetical. Nonetheless, this problem wil allow vs to do a number of things {ipiteinforce the skills you learned in the lst laboratory on the recognition and identification of (Psst rocks, (2) inereise your avareness ofthe ways in which the environment of formation ‘cts igneous rock textures, and (3) make the practical connection between igneous rock hand Specimens and the processes by shih they evolve or change The geology iustrated in the block diagram represents a Tong history of igneous activity. varicty of intrusive (formed within the earth) and extrusive (Formed atthe earth’ surface) fgneo.s Tocks have invaded and largely covered much of the countzy rock, which i a series of sedimentary id metamorphie rocks, Erosion has exposed most of the rock types believed to occur in the etal aa, ana suite of represetative igneous rock specimens are available, The fied Location From wich each specimen camo is shown on the block diagram 1D 1. Work together in groups of three or four. +12, Ask your instructor for the suite of specimens corresponding to the block diagram below 1D 3. Identify each ofthe igneous rocks and waite its name beside the appropriate identification ‘umber. Also, indiate is envionment of formation, ke, lava flow, sil, voleano, stock, fete {arrange the specimens in order for quick reference). Rock entifiation Environment of Formation14, Investigations: BACKGROUND: One of the first detectable igneous events in this region was the formation af ‘Stock® A (lower left), from which specimen AT was obtained. ‘This stock gave rise to a dike which worked its way to the surface, producing the lowermost ava flow (number D). Th Jocation of specimens Al, A2, and A3 are indicated on the block diagram by the specimen QUESTION: A Examine specimens Al, A2, and A3, and note their environment of formation. 1n Tight of the proceses whieh control the texture of igneous rocks (composition ofthe magma, cooling rates, and environment of formation), describe how each rock. Formed al BACKGROUND: Following the formation of lia flow number I, series of additonal fava flows Tovered the region, at the moment we do not know where they came from, but some time aiter their formation Stock B (lower front, right) intruded into the area. This magma sent tikes through the country rock and into the lava flows, forming, among other things, the aocolith. A series of igneous Toeks were collected from the laccolith: BI from the middle 12 from one of the upper edas, and B3 from near the bottom, QUESTIONS: "A. Compare rocks B2 and BI, and, in terms of the processes which control the texture oF intrusive igncous rocks (Le, iow rapidly they cool and how fast crystals grow), ‘describe how each rock formed. BI Examine rock B3 carefully, using «handlens or microscope iT you ienlfy the minerals init. List the minerals below. eure Ths compaston of ck Bune hat of char BI FB Ls below al he in rocks BI ani D2. (Rafer tothe chart on pape S2ityoued ta) Minerals in Minerals in BI ae Below ian outing sete of Bowen's Reaction Ses, Draw acre around all the minerals found in specimen B1, then B2, then BS, Label each etc, respectively (Refer to page 47 in the Preliminary to Igneous Rock Intemptetation if you need to.) 9, cp SS / \ i All three rocks—B1, B2, and B3—have been derived from the same magma. Yet they are markedly diferent. Besaning with te ineuston and Tncclth describe the processes by which these three rocks were derive ean eelBACKGROUND: Following the formation of the lccolth discussed above, the atea underwent a period of extensive erosion, exposing many ofthe lava flows in the walls ofthe eanyon and hove the top ofthe laccoith, including the top ofthe laccoith itself. Sometime during this period of erosion, Stock C was intruded, The magina from ths stock ako worked its Way 10 the surface, forming the voleano on the back edge of the diagram, as well as some dikes radi. ing away from the voleano (thu, radiating dikes). QUESTIONS: ‘A. Examine rocks C2 and C3 and determine the mineral compositions of each, (Refer fo the chart on page 32 i you need (0) €2 Composition €3 Composition B. Below isan outline sketch of Bowen's Reaction Series, Draw a circle around all the tninerals found in rock C2 and then those found in C3. Label each circle, respect ty. (Refer to page 47 f'you need to.) Va CeNa M 1 Q ©, These two rocks C2 and C3-are different, They have both been formed from the sine volcano, but not at the same time. C2 came from one of the east volcanic ruptions; C3 from the most recent flow. ‘The implication is that something. must be happening in the magma chamber supplying the volcano.* Recall the processes by whieh igneous rocks evolve, and describe below an hypothesis or hypotheses (0 explain the origin of these (wo rocks (C2 and C3) from the sume voleano, D. Rock C5 was found down in the canyon, yet it does not seem to be part of the lava flows exposed in the canyon, of which rock DI ipa representative sample. It was interpreted us being derived from Stock C and was drawn in aa sil connected to that stock. Explain why’ rock C5 was not believed formed from the same magmes that produced rock DI, but eould bea part of Stock C BACKGROUND: Compare rocks C1 and C4, CI represents the composition of the magma as it was originally intruded inthe stock. ‘This magia then gave re to severl ther extrsve and intrusive igneous rocks (inchuding dikes volcano, and sil) of which intrusive rock C4 was the las. We examined in the previous several questions, and in the Preliminary, the evolution ary processes by which a rock of C4 composition could be derived from an orginal magma Producing a rock of C1 compositio ‘But if C4 is epresentative of the lst magma to be squeeze from the stock, and this mag ma evolved from an orignal C1 composition, thea the magia remaining in the stock must afer from the original Cl composition (since it has now been fractionated). ‘The question, of coure, is how dacs it differ? ‘QUESTIONS: ‘A. Describe the way in which the composition ofthe original magma remaining in the stock will change as it fractionates and gives rise to all the other rocks inthe dikes, sil, and yoleano. (Refer to the diagram and discussion on pages 46-49 in te Preliminary if you need to)e oe would predict as being most like the final rock, in composition and eats ince vlcan an ic inv feo tei which are BASIC in carpoation. He dna onal fragment from the lava flows ‘know whether XI came from the Yoleano or was an erosional (QUESTION which is most likely tobe the correct one ‘A. Namie the source (voleano or lava flow) which tone XL, and, in lems ofthe compesition and casification of fgneous rocks, explain your decision Call your instructor aver and explain to her or him the igneous processes which are feeurring in the area ofthe Block diagram, CHEMICAL FRACTIONATION OF MAGMAS irRopucrion ee eeria rears heer ie eae : Seat peste aes aka ena he h ‘ pecim oa ore sufficiently different to be individually recognized. a mee : be individually r, of lava flows I through X in the block diagrim Sea a fo aan) Alsi Norco of sl nn specimen would look very much alike. How then can we determine what was going on in the TMhe entre basis ofthe previous problem was that asa magma cools, its composition changes. The firs-formed minerals ae higher on Bowen's Reaction Series, and this more BASIC, tang we laterformed minerals. Fractionation ofthe magma, either by gravity selling or iter precane Prevents reaction, and thus produces two or more diferent rock of different mineralogy, Bat the Aiforent mineraleny is just the visible expression of wast is really happening in the mos par inet the relative abundances of the chemical elements (Ca, Na, Fe, Mg, K.and SH) wr chances Ser ‘order to study rocks which lok alike because oftheir vey similar hand specimen milerciony ve must look for changes in their chemistry In principe, asa magma crystallizes, the relative abundances of elements should change in a Systematic way. First-formed minerals wil be hgh in iron, magnesium, and calcium ond lew ie Soutium and potassium. With time (and fractionation) however, later formed minerals wil regres sively contain les iron, magnesium, and calcium and more sodium, potassium, and alicon A SIMPLE EXAMPLE (On the southem part ofthe island of Tahiti a series of lava flows derived from the same azn chamber but at different times, Rock samples were taken from cach flow, andthe acta chemical analysis of the rocks is presented in the table blow Lava Flow Weight Percent Abundanc (Rock Sa c so 2 6s 80 aa | 4 1s 2s a The object isto determine the order in which these lava flows came tothe surface (asa guide {o how the magia evolved) by study oftheir chemical composition. ‘The simplest method of sal Sto draw a graph Graphs plot two kinds of data against each other, one a constant and the other a variable. We wil plot the weight percent abundance of the elements in each rock. Since silcon is the omy ¢lement found in athe rock-orming minerals it wil be the constant (on the bolton ofthe eraph below); cach ofthe remaining metallic elements wil be, in thei tun, variables (on te tet ney the graph below) ‘We begin by plotting the abundance of silicon apsinst the abundance of iron for lava lows A through E. These points are then connected by a line, The same procedure i folowed for gato the remaining elements (Me, Ca, Na, and K) until five lines ane dren The graph on the following page tells us a number of things about the lava flows in Tahiti, and reaffirms what we know about igneous rock evolution 1. Most important, as pereent silicon increases (Le, from tote basic composition to more acidic jomposition, the abundance of iron, magnesium, and calcium diminishes seodiy, wake sodium and potassium increase. This, of course, is what Bowen's hypothesis predic about magma evolition But note also that the inereaes in iron, magnesium, and ealcium and decreases in sodium and Potassium occur in unison in all lows, beginning with lava Now E. then G. thea A ahen Dna Finally 8 ‘We can concinde from this data the following scenario. A BASIC magma was formed and intruded near the earth's surface, inthe process sending dikes tothe surface, cresting in foe The first lava ow was E because it has the highest irom, magnesium, and calcium and the leweatent Abunda i | v 480 60 © 60 oe FA fist lava flow, events on the surface are in a quiet period, but the iagina Below the surface continues to cool and crystallize. A network of erystls, with 9 com Mion atthe top of Bowen's Reaction Series, begins to grow in the masina chamber. Event {hc magma byeake through to the surface suai by filter pressing, creating another lava flow (C), Dwer in ton, magnesium, and calcium but slphtly richer in sodium and potassium. This p Of lava lows alternating with erystallcation and filter pressing ofthe magmna chambe ‘With each flow, the magma becomes progressively les and less basic throunh flows A, Da sodium and potassium. Following 1 | The proces nally cee when erystalization is completed. | What we want to do here is use those principles to solve other, slightly more complex problem | 1. All of the flows were derived from a single magmatic, chamber at depth which fractionated ec ie oa ved from one or more f otru) fen oscar o ori bl hm on 2 youngest on top) in the cross 5. Hing wasted nyo Tae roa thee nappa Le. sles on the bottom, © 4, Ask your instructor to check your interpretation per righthand comer, This lava flow has been eroded but presumably was much more extensive chemical analysis ofa rock taken from the lava flow in the upper right-hand a coro aph, page 65, corner of the block diagram. Plot these points on the Weight Percent Abundance c Na 3840 (120 oof the diagram, de flow was connected to one ofthe flows on the lt sie of the dig Beate Ut one: Tit came from a separate magma chamber, consely explain why you seribe which one belive 0, Preliminary to Sedimentary Rocks PURPOSE This investigation continues the patterns established with the investigation on igneous rocks that is, recognizing the characteristics of rocks and relating them to thels engin and history, Unlike lgneous rocks, however, sedimentary roeks do not appear to have a compact theorstical framework, like Bowen's Reaction Series and fractionation (discussed inthe excrelse Interpreting lancous Rocks), to which everything can be related. Despite ths, thee are some fundamental proveses and concepts which ae useful and which bring some measure of cohesion to th stud of salieen tury rocks. Some of these are presented here By the time you enter the laboratory next week you should (1) know the otiin of semen tary particles, (2) know wity quartz sand, clay, minerals in solution (especially calcite, and iron oxides are of fundamental importance, (3) know what forces and processes Work on sedi os they ae transported downstream, (4) know the importance of sedimentary structures and (3) know what is meant by sediment maturity and why It important INTRODUCTION The rock-forming minerals we have been working with so far in igneous rocks (plus many other minerals) appear tobe hard and durable. Itis dtfieult to imagine them breaking down (weathering and being washed away. Yet if these minerals ae left exposed atthe earths surface, this i enacts what happens. They are immediately attacked by the gases and water of the utmoerhioe, she, naturally occurring acids and other chemicals, 1tisin general truc that minerals are most stable only under those conditions at which they form, This seems obvious, forif we rise the tomperature above the melling point of «mineral (olivine, for example), it mets. But this proces of decomposition occurs with eyual certainty if the olivine is exposed to conditions found atthe surface ofthe earth. The process st taker lonser there. Many kinds of rocks, and the minerals which compose them, are continuously being exposed at the surface of the carth. ‘These may be igneous rocks brought to the surface by volcanic setty, ‘ot earlier formed igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks brought to the surface by the slow Procesois of mountain building originating deep in the earth, In any cate, as oon as rocks ee ‘exposed atthe surtace, ther minerals, formed under different conditions, begin to decompose and form new minerals which are sable atthe earth's surface, Al of these processes well we teane,portation and deposition, by water, wind, or fe (glaciers)-are involved in the sty of sediments tnd sedimentary rocks “THE FORMATION OF SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS When first encountered, sedimentary rocks may seem to come in great and confusing variety It is tne that sedimentary rocks come in grea variety, Dut they need not be confusing. The Key £0 Sedimentary rocks is to Know, first the processes which produce them and, seeond, fe allowed to work to completion. or the formation of sedimentary rocks ae (1) weathering and ‘understanding what happens if these process: The procesies responsi (2) transportation and deposition Tr those two procests ate allowed to work to completion, only a relatively few final produats Theos end members ae aways the same, regardless of the complexity and at theae end members are, and why they are what they are, ie eeat variety of sedimentary rocks, since neatly i members {ond members) ezain ety of starting rocks. Knowing w Jsessentil to understanding and intespretingt {S soon on the earth's surface ae in some stage of transformation to these any r0¢e Identification and interpretation, then, isto determine how close member stage and what thelr em all sedimes The essence of odin the sediments which formed the roce were fo attaining th vironment of deposition (ea, stream, river, sand dune, ef) may have bs To describe what the end members of the weathering and transportation-depositon process ae, and why, the following ideal, simplified model i presented ‘THE IDEAL, SIMPLIFIED MODEL ILLUSTRATING THE ORIGIN OF THE THREE MOST ABUNDANT KINDS OF SEDIMENT lgneous rock-forming minerals weather atthe earth's surface, but they do not all weather the satus thing. Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, feldspars (plagioclase and orthoclase), and. micas (hioute and mascovite) deeompose to form two end products: clay, « mineral made up of very wot eke stable at ths surth' surface, and eaeize(CaCO,) and other minerals i solution ‘The ramalning member of the Bowen Reaction Series, quartz, however, is very stable and ints unl parploucs does not decompose but remains in the environment as sand-sized grains Giitetod mmin diameter), Ifthe weathering proces goes to the end, then of al he rock-Forming iy these remain’ (1) quartz sand, (2) clay, and (3) eaeite (CaCOs) in solution. tering products will not stay mixed in place but are transported by streams Tn the proves of transportation, however, ‘other because they do not i minerals on! These three we and riers down to the ocean, thei final resting place the quartz sand, clay, and calcite in solution are separated from ech all avel equally well Cait in solution, of course, cannot be een an The clay and quartz sand travel more slowly Sand moves only by rolling bottom ofthe stream and therefor nich more slowly than clay. Cl (Ruattz sand and because itis in aspension travels about as fast as watel The cand and clay beginning s poorly sorted mixture, are separated more and more 25 they are transported downelzeam away {rom te source. Only in the ocean does the final separation ar however, athe clay is cated in suspension far offshore, where it settles out in quiet water ‘Tho guns sund is too large to be earied far offshore and so settles out onthe beach and neat Tron unre iis worked and reworked by the waves. Caleite precipitates out in warm, clear watt seecated from the others, These thce products compose 99% ofall sediments and eventually rm the following sedimentary rocks, In te typical environments shown. Seek . Rock Deposition Environment Quarta Sind Cy Shale — (Calum Carbonate ————>Lnestone — —— Senasione ————— Beach — oihore Waren char, how AN IDEAL, SIMPLIFIED FLOW CHART ILLUSTRATING THE 01 OF THE THREE MOST ABUNDANT KINDS OF SEDIMENT Rock Forming Minerals WEATHERING Quartz Sand, | Clay, Calcite in Solution fe E Fouarz] {Sand ‘) Clay Cacoz Stays In high Seffles out Deposited in shallow energy in environment quiet water warm waterDEVIATIONS FROM THE IDEAL, SIMPLIFIED MODEL Weathering and the Source Rock. Weathering is nota simple proces, and initial weathering products are not as simple a the quartz, clay, and calcite described above. Many particles may be found a the site of weathering ‘Mechanical Weathering- Size reduction; rocks are broken, shatered, and crushed, but the Original mineral content does not change. ‘The breakage initally produces angular rock frag ments, bt these may be rounded by later mechanical weathering. Eventually most ofthe broken faginents of mechanical weathering are subject to chemical weathering. Chemical Weathering-Mincral decomposition to new minerals, which ultimately produces sqartz grains lay, and cleite (plus other minerals in solution) but not suddenly oral at ‘nce. Minerals vary areatly in thei esstance to decompesition; some are extremely stable and may last nearly as Tong as quart In addition, anetable minerals such a the iron-beating blivine,pyzoxene, amphibole, and biotite may weather to produce stable iron oxide minerals, such as Himonite (yellow) and hematite (red). Although the iron oxide minerals are not neces sarily abundant, they are important because they give rocks their yellow, brown, red, and een colors fs ‘CONCLUSION: Near the ste of we Rounding and Size Reduction. Angular sedimentary particles have not been transported very far trom their source. Particles which ae transported for considerable distances by running water have their sharp edges knocked off by abrasion with other particles, They thus become progsesivly more rounded: In addition, the farther the particles are transported, the smaller they become, either bheeause of the abrasion o because they ae broken and shattered by knocking together. Sedimentary particle ierease in roundness and decrease In size downstream, | The Soin Process. Large, heavy particles require more effort (eater water velocity) to be transported than do small, int particles; particles in solution move freely with the water whereve: i goes. Ina stream: Particles in solution leave fist with the wate Clay and iton oxides, the smallest sedimentary particles move next; they are easily kept in sus pension by the turbulence ofthe stream and tyvel almost a rapidly as the water. Sand grains move next; they mostly roll aid Bounee long the Bottom of the steam, and mua not move at al Tor varying periods of time Larger rock fragments finally begin to move only when the water velocity i quite rapid. Inaildition, rock fragments or minerl grains with special shapes may be transported in special ways, ‘The play mica mineral, for example, may be kept in suspension by water turbulence and transported much farther than thee sie or dimensions would at fist indicate. Because of these special ways af transportation, unusual mixtures of minerals may occa CONCLUSION: ” . tary particles are separated by running water (and the wind) according (0 size er particles downstream, larger particles upstream. Sediments. Sediments are deposited in many different environments, such as streams, lakes, and swanips. ‘The length of dime the sediment remains in thse environments varies sreatly, [rom 3 few moments {0 millions of years. But, in actuality, all sediments are fn transition until they finally reach base level (the lowest point to which gravity can take them), the oeean Bina i ee Sediments which have been deposited indifferent by the energy conditions inthe environment anpl vironments are not alike. They are afected erry onion Swit flowing steams with great turbulence, forex. ransport a great vaity of particle sizes and shapes. Ifthe stream suddenly depose th uth” a vi! mixture results, By contrast, in an environment where ently, only the smaller particles ae moved and the resulting sudinent te much moe Manes A inal separation often css when a stream oF vr ener ake othe oeean, The selsly ote ater drops rapidly, and only the finest particles continue to be transported far out inte ne i The snd and largersized partic are deposited at the mouth of the scan et setts (0 the boom of the take or the osean viene ‘CONCLUSION: 7 ie he a) A sediment its texture and composition, is agely dependent on the enery ano svles ofthe environment of deposition. ae Sedimentary Structures. One of the most characteristic thing patterns formed by the particles as they are deposited r ular patterns ae found only i bout sedimentary rocks isthe These pattoms are important Because prt. specific environments (se figure below) i RIPPLE MARKS | RIPPLE MARKS | is | | SSS hy im a - fie Sin |S a reas, is ‘tee SOTURGATION | LAMINAR BEDDWG| GRADED BEDOWG 7] deposits ~ turbidites)|plete weathering, ony sort transportation, and _Submature ndstones conan expecily abundant quartz but also commony silt, clay, ft ‘mica, ere., with sand-sized particles beginning to round. Submaturity of sandstan: ple more thorough but sll incomplete weathering, intermedia dstaness of tamsporttion sed depostionst environments whew sorting poor o morte eer channey. dates contain quartz rans only of sand sie, with exelon rounding and sort CONCLUSION. Scamentary structures contain much information about the environment of deposi and in many eases are diagnostic of the conditions which caused them ‘THE STUDY OF CONTAMINATED END MEMBERS. ing, Maturity of sandstoncs implies extensive and complete westh ; From the previous discussion on deviations from the ied, simplified model, it should be portation (or numerous cycles of transportation, deposition, an erosen) ad Gennaio Can clear why sediments and sedimentary rocks ae found in sich great variety; there ae many compl trents of generally hgh Coen Ce Ponchos {Postion and erosion), and deposition in environ ating factors involed in ther formation. This fact emphasizes the very special nature of the three 3 nd members, quartz snd, clay, and calcite. For any one of these end members to form in pure anne form through natural processes, requites time and special envizonmental conditions, since any de viations woud reslt i contamination ‘Nonctheless it struc that practically all sediments wil given enough time, eventually weath- er to these three end members and become separated according to their preferred environments of dlepenition. ‘These end members are found inthe rock record, and our ability to interpret their en vironmental significance f valuable, But, if we are going to attempt to interpret earth history, what [snow important is o find methods of interpreting the contaminated rocks which are on their way fo, but have not yet reached, the end member stag ‘Of the thre important sedimentary rock categories~sandstones, shales, and limestones-shales are the most dificult to work with because to leam their degree of contamination requires sop st Gated techniques. Limestones are easier (o work with, and contain enormous amaunts of inforna tion, but thelr proper study requires knowledge of fossils which we will not study here. This leaves the sandstones, and here we begin the study of contaminated end members, {atl achieved and in he proses nvolvd age numberof intermediate sediments ind seimen- are produced. The key to understanding these intermediate ratand the stones and finally to mature sandstones. With these snes aly With these concepts in mind, the study of sedimentary rocks THE IMPORTANCE OF SANDSTONES In the study of sedimentary rocks, sandstones and larger-rained rocks) are of special interes because thelr grain sve (1/16 €02 mim), shape, and composition can be easly studied by eye 0 handfens. ‘Thesefonc, the sdiments wh up mudstones can fell ws mich about Phere Gutere they come from, what the source tock was lke, the energy conditions in the environment ff deposition, ef). Thus, sandstones can tll us much about the history ofthe earth. Its {Unustal then; that special ieas have been developed for work with sandstones. One of these the concept of maturity MEASURING THE MATURITY AND INMATURITY OF SANDSTONES: Maturity i relative measure of how extensively and thoroughly the sediment which composes a sandstone has been weathered, transported, and reworked toward its ultimate end product, quartz Sind. Sandstone maturity involves both composition and texture "A-sandatone of mature Composition Is one which his reached its ultimate end member, quartz sand. Allothcr mineral grains, rock fragments, and clay have been removed by weathering anc/or ‘ texturally mature saidstone is one in which all the sediment grains have been worn by the rounding process to perfect spheres and sorted perfectly to size (ll the particle in any one place fare the same sie) Fora sandstone to attain compositional and toxtural maturity is difficult and rare. It probably requires that 4 sediment go through several cycles of weathering, transportation, and deposition before compositional maturity is attained, while textural maturity requires conditions inthe depost tonal cavronment hich ere uniform overlong periods of time. In general, though, we can tak about immature sandstones, submature sandstones and mature sandstones immature sandstones contain any of the following: angular fragments, many different minerals (feldspar, mica, rock fragments, cay), and many sizes. Immaturity of sandstones implies very incomSedimentary Rocks PURPOSE The purpose of this exercise is to bring together the knowledge and theoretical concepts pre sented in the Preliminary to Sedimentary Rocks and the practical identification and study of ed } Imentary rock hand specimens. By the time you finish this exercise you should (1) know the bass of sedimentary rock clas Fiction, and (2) be able to recognize and identify the common sedimentary rocks MUCH OF WHAT FOLLOWS WILL NOT MAKE MUCH SENSE TO You UNLESS YOU 1. Know the origin of sedimentary particles, fe, distinguish between mechanical and chemical weathering and thei products Know why quartz sind, clay, on oxides, and minerals in solution are of fun importance in the study of sedimentary rocks 3, Know what happens to sedimentary particles as they are transported downstream, 4. Know what sediment maturity is 5. Know the importance of sedimentary structures I you do not know the answers to these, find out NOW. Read the Pel Sedimentary Rocks, your notes, or Your book, ot ask your neighbor minary £0 EEESPECIMEN — MINERAL SEDIMENTARY MINERALS NUMBER. NAME PH For the most part, the igneous rock-forming minerals are unstable under the conditions found ICAL PROPERTIES ose into a wide variety of new minerals as soon as they are exposed. Tt s these decomposition =— HARDNESS 1, alete 1. kaolinite $. sia minerals T (D2. Selectamineral from the tray and write its number (if available) on the chart on pages 77-78. ete F a =e I Determine the physical properties for the mineral and list them on the same chart. a elem > COLOR “OTnER faces, but do the best you can. Ask your instructor for assistance, If curved, broken a LS G EAVAGE COIS ta surfaces ate present, iis conchoidal facture, E,Color-record the color of the miner F.Other—list whatever eae you soe that looks interesting, such a (1) Giystal shape-cubic, shomboledral, dodecahedral (12 sides), er bly heavier than the other minerals? TNRGE ory or {Q). Specific gravity—is the mineral noi G)_Tasto-any special taste, siliness. (@) Magnetism Tar = \ © Bre 3 TNE Ue the Key to Mentification of Minerals on pages 19-22 to identify the minerals. ae wi one 5, Ask your ifstructor to chock your identifications, [aad aut EEE EECLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS BY ORIGIN SPECIMEN MINERAL NUMBER, NAME (aster WEATHERING PRODUCTSSPECIMEN MINERAL NUMBER NAME fk PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ks SiN WEATHERING pees Sas PRODUCTS DETRITAL ROCKSIn addition to the size name, it is not uncommon to use an adjective to help describe a detitl (4 Wind sorts sedimentary particles extremely wel, as in dunes. rock's composition or other special characteristics. For example, a detital rock with large amounrs ‘hfeldspar would be referred to as an arkose breccia, arkose conglomerate, or arkose sandstone, ‘Sepending on arain size and shape, We wil use only afew of these terms, as necesary, but they srl be pointed out in the Key to Sedimentary Rock Identification, A WORD OF CAUTION Although all the roeks you wil be identifying in the remainder ofthis laboratory canbe found in thr pre form, hy ata a iy fob found mined to vaioun eons. or ntact Wis there re sandals, clavoushels,suley limestone, ef nthe abortery You il probably be sceing examples of rocks that are both pure and mixed. With practice, you will eam to make these distinctions, but to begin examine the rocks closely (use & microscope or handlens) and with the help ofthe instructions which follow, make the best identifications you can, Your Insttor wil help with any difcuties, a CHEMICAL ROCKS (Chemical rocks form from the weathering products of preexisting rocks which dissolve into solution, OF the chemical rock, limestone snd dolomite are by far the most abundant, All, how {ver ean precipitate directly out ofthe water, usually under conditions of aridity andor high eporation, In addition, they form best when water is clear, shallow, and free of detrital particle ‘Chert halite, and gypsum rocks usually are identical withthe mineral form. Limestone and dolomite tock do'not look like the mineral calite and dolomite, These last bwo, however, are serait identiied by the acid fest (cy fizz in dilate hydrochloric acid), and this tests diagnosti for only these two minerals and rocks, wenn AND T ICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS EIR ENVIRONMENTS OF FORMATION D1, Obtain a tray of sedimentary rocks from your instructor. Work together in pais BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS The biochemical rocks are formed from the shells or skeletons of organisms, o from plant remains (coal). Coal is principally carbon, with lesser amounts of other material, and js diagnostic [eal ind biochemical imestones often interprade with each other, and identification may, therefore, be amatter ofjudgment. The tock identification key will separate most examples. © 3. Whon ll foursteps have been completed, ask and interpretations. You wl nthe fate be veuied to make and wee sus nee tations, so understanding this procedure is important, ee ‘SEDIMENTS AND ENVIRONMENTS OF DEPOSITION Sediments and sedimentary rocks are powerfully sensitive indicators of the enviroments in which they form. Knowkdge of the proper vocabulary enables us to read them with clavty and Vvidness, ‘The vocabulary consists of @ wide assortment of environmental indicators: (1) particle ze, sorting shape, and composition; (2) sedimentary structures; and (3) fossil ws discussed above, we have seen that sediments of chemical and biochemical origin often require special environments in which to form. Their presence, then, is usually taken as evidence that such conditions existe, Detrtal sediments, hovever, re much more widespread and variable and, although they eon tin much information, equire more understanding to interpret. For detailed environmental Studies large amounts of information (and experience) are needed, as might be expected. ‘The basic principles ae not complicated, however and we can make some interpretations. ‘One very useful method of interpretation is the distribution of particle sizes in a sediment. The diagram on pase 87 lustrates how the enenay conditions indifferent depositional environments omrol which partiles will be found there, Tn particular, these charts illustrate some ideas out lined in the Preliminary to Sedimentary Rocks, (1). Notice how gran size decreases downstream or away from the shore Terretral alluvial fan (formed near the site of weathering), to the river chan flood plain Marine trom the beach, progressively offshore, and finally to the abysal depositional (2). Environments such as lagoons which ae alternately calm (nor (Guring flooding or storms) ave two concentrations of grain sizes (3) Quist envionment, such ss swamps, with low energy consist mostly of finer particles such ar silt snd clay 1 4. Ask your instructor whic laboratory follows next ssi Gr Metamorpic Rocks) and be sto read the appropaate elimina before weg It is a necessary prerequisite to understanding that exercise 7 srt on; ont B. Ask your instructor to check your determinations. aly) and strongly agitatedJ wmaturE | SUBMATURE COMPOSITION |[ Many Minerals ‘Quartz a Other, Min TEXTURE Poorly Sorted L gular Frogments Rounding Excellent eae (ceca [aa | STEP TWO: DETRITAL ROCKS 5 ae 3 an fi itty but grains EXAMPLES Paco conc ovenare| 5 [- GURRTZ | oT |_|, | —ouartz SANDSTONE sanosrone | Marwity: Record if immature, submature, or mature, Refer tothe chart above Identify: The rock using the key on page 85, Depositiona Environme Determine the possible environment(s) by using diagram and chart on page 87 STEP THREE: CHEMICAL ROCKS A. Recond the origin and all other properties (listed below) of each rock inthe appro: priate space on the data sheets, pages 89-92, B. Grain Size: Record IF Medium Grained (or Larger) ~Grains visible by eye or hand lens; greater than 1/16 mm. Record shape or any other fe Fine Grined May om ea itty but arsine NOT visible even under microscope; les than 1/16 min, Cleavage or crystal faces present, OR conchoidl Costaline Ail palaulugual gl TComposition First, Record if harder of softer than glass, Second: /F softer than sas, test with acid. Record if (1) Reacts with acid ()_ Reacts only when powdered Third: Jno acid reaction, second other distinctive characteristics, Maturity: Does NOT apply to chemical sedimentary rocks Ientif: The rock using the key on page 86. Record depositional environment() STEP FOUR: BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS A B, Record the origin and all other properties (listed below) ofeach rock inthe appre priate space on the data shects, pages 89-92. Grain Size: Recora IF Medium Grained (or Large) Grains visible by eye or handlens; greater than 1/16 mm May foo rity but grains NOT visib is than 1/16 mm, Composition First. Test with aid for presence of calete Second: [calcite present, record if animal shell material is visible, OR i tock, “appears sandy, or erytalline on broken surface Third: IFINO CALCITE the rocks other distinctive characteristics. Matwrity: Does NOT apply to biochemical sedimentary rocks. ‘enify: The rock using the key on page 86, Record depositional environmert(). KEY 10 THE IDENTIFICATION OF DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS a7‘SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Cee eee TYPICAL ENVIRONMENTS OF DEPOSITION AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS AND SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES! => (“> |TERRESTRIAL E ae ENVIRONMENTS (MENTS ENVIR { { ‘SUMMARY DESCRIPTIONS OF COMMON SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS. tal Fan-1 deposit shaped ike an open fn formed atthe base of mountain whee stan addcly diagrg rom natvow ally and spread out, doping tel se ‘aS Teads the fn ihghest nar the sre mooth and tapersaway othe es Duve-a wind deposited socmulaton of sndsied atrl found in ests nd shone iver Chanel long, marrow depression n which a steam over confined dung Flood Pinon res adjacent to iver whch covered by water during nes of Nooding tod underaln by ie tepostd sediment. Swamp low, wet, vey drained, hevly vegetated arc, way a hom inate pon near the mouth ofa iver wher ows nto a per, gue, standing Lazoon-an oceanic fesh water environment protected by tht oberon ofan ofthore ar-an environnt of sifting sated ‘ongatedacculation of sand (or en deposited offshore from beac oF an pin ueas ad ses each-the traston zone betwen the Ind and age body of water, eg. ke or ocean ‘olay where waves break nto the bore. Zone of and deposition rial Flot» ow acu aacent tothe wa whlch i afete by tdes-submerged during re de etgoved during ow te, Cons both of channel and now-chanel tins nto mre tha 200 3 0 fet (approximately este Zone—an offshore ofthe sx floor of vaabe wid ta) bat extending ron ow te evel fon maximum the edge of the coatinentl se) Abymal lings acu ofthe deep ocean lor whlch normaly rece manly fie gai SEDIMENTAR SPECIMEN ROCK NUMBER: NAME ALS > > Y CHARACTERISTICS | S pana» eae= e SEDIMENTARY SEDIMENTARY SPECIMEN ROC SPECIMEN ROCK Hc MED Rec NUMBER NAME CHARACTERISTICS S ! D rar pes eS, |r TOSTORAL ENERO Se oe RS et ctSPECIMEN ROCK NUMBER NAME CHARACTERISTICS Preliminary to Depositional Environments and the Evolution of Sedimentary Rocks 7 PURPOSE schind the model forthe evohiFACIES, FACIES MAPS, AND CROSS SECTIONS “The concept of the facies in ology has, oer the year, gained many meanings. For our in= tents snd purposes, howewer, we ean bol al these down to two simple bu related ideas. ‘The firs isthe more general Facles Definition One: “The facies isthe sum total ofall ofthe physica, bioloseal, and chemical characteristics of a sedimentary rock at one place With this definition, itis possible to define a rock in great detail. Usually, however, the ferm facts ths a more practical use. For example, rocks which characterstically form on beaches all have ee {ain featuroe in common, ie. they are metly quartz, well-sorted, rounded, and crossbedded (Gitong other things). In general diseussion, then, goolopsts may speak of the “beach facies” to juickly deseribe a rock which his these characteristis and is believed to have fotmed on a beach Likewise, we may speak of a shale facies, ref face, floodplain faces, fe, to describe rocks which Share ceriain characteristics associated with specific rock types or depositional environments. This definition i for quick, practical reference The second facies definition is more restricted in its meaning. It should be apparent by now that all the sediments being deposited at any one time are not alike. In the world today, depost tional environments ar of ereat variety; each contains its own special and unique combination of energy conditions, size and shape, and sedimentary characteristics. This leads to: Facies Definition Two: Faces are the many different sediments and result which form at de same time bat in different depositional environments ne rocks Thus, there are in many parts of the world today river facies, which lead to/a beach facies, which sade offshore to shale Faces. and so on ut we are not restricted (o the present, or there are sound reasons to belive that depositional environments existing today have also existed in the past, And one ofthe things geology is trie tO Gols toreconstruct the postion of these different environments at particular times inthe pat {cally we would lke to construct a frame-by-frame motion picture history of the earth so we Gould watch evolve) “This is whexe the significance ofthe second facvs definition comes in or cuuple, below area series of iustrations. ‘The top illustration (no, 1) shows the edge rewith the sourceland, beach, an offshore depositional environments. ‘The second illustration ho. 2) shows the same situation, but with the water removed so that we can ste the distribution ‘oimente "The thind illustration (no. 3) indicates the sedimentary facies present, withthe sediments ansformd to map syinbols forthe corresponding rocks. The Fourth istration (no. 4) shows the top scene converted to a Geologie Facies Map, or simply a facies map. This map diagrams how di fetont faces (or depositional envionments) are distributed through part of the depositional basn atone point in time. Facies Definition Two i important because it means that all the faces shown ton this map, or any other facies map, were formed at the exact same instant in time Thus, when you lear or ead a statement such as “Rock A is considered to be a facies of Rock BB itincans that these rocks ae interpreted as having formed atthe same time but in different depositional environments Tradition to the facies map, faces relationships in depositional basin may also be shows ina goologic cross section. Cross sections are sie views ofthe earth; itis asf the earth were sie long a line, exposing what is below the surface, To the fifth ilustration (no. 5) the cross section ALB is shown along the edge ofthe diagvam, bat geological eross sections may be constructed be tween any to, of more, points across facies map. "You may be wonderig at this point about the value ofa cross section since the faces map shows the same iaforiation much more thoroughly. And, inthis example, you are correct. But sles maps ate restréted to only one instant in time, and if we wish to view many instances in time it takes many maps. Cross sections, however, can stack many time levels on top ofeach other Sid uickly summerize in one diagram evens overs period of time, although along only one bine ‘onthe map. Later inthe course, we wil ullize ross sections for sich summaries. 94 DEPOSITIONAL SOURCELAND =. = E> 2. 4 SK 8 6, geese ate aaa 5. GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTION : aa . A Pract ° A ms, 4 = GEOLOGIC FACIES MAP AN IDEAL, SIMPLIFIED MoDEL FoR THE EVOLUTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS” In the Preliminary to Sedimes Asting the origin ofthe three most abundant Kinds of sediment. aut Clem, apparent fom bh the Preliminary and nt wees bray owiehe fee dives rocks ay seem unelated and songz, lope todal 1 explin the ways in which these diveniied sed ines With this mode in ming, sedimentary rocks ae considertbly sac Mah model in mind Sedimentary rst ae conde a tsa the Jel, simplified model ‘quartz sand, clay, and calcite However, while nary ick are coserably eer unestan, ts 08 Oy aie whic an individual roc was derived, bu A aliagram of the model forthe evolution of seine serve ab. felerence forthe follow. Cis mode disssion fellow, (This model actualy conconed mest alslay, stable iron oxides (hematite, imonite), and minerals in solution. And, a the less resistant minerals decrease in abundance throueh weathering, the relative a producing the submature “DIRTY” SANDSTONES. The category of “dirty” sandstones is catchall, It includes an enormous variety of sands derived from many sources. To accommodate this variety, geologists have proposed a number tlasitication schemes and a plethora of specialized names, which we need not get into; therefore, all sandstones composed mostly of quartz, but with other minerals and finy rock fragments present in small amounts, we will al “dirty” sandstones, And, as might be anticipated, the variety of po tential depositional environments for “dirty” sandstonce i great; deciphering these requires» ero scope and the use of sedimentary structures and fossils wvoarune | summarure |, waTuRe mr chanson AP SANDSTONE T™ SANDSTONE es a y\e Bal seal Peace’ Si | / Continuing downstream, however, “dirty” sandstone i, isl, subject to weathering, a the =a arkose and grayWacke were hefore it. During this step, all the remaining, resistant mineral ar [ ma) broken down, the resulting clay eventually to be removed by sorting. Wit will remain isa “CLEAN’ (eee (nature) QUARTZ SANDSTONE, the final end product of the maturation process. These sindstoncs ae the most diffu to produce, equing not only the time for thorough Weathering, but a enon tent where silts and cays can bs completely sorted out, Such environments ate ot common, Dut teaches are the best example "AL this stag, the ony materials which remain are the finerained sits and cays. As with inty" sandstone, sits and clays ae deposited in a great vaielyof (mostly terest and tans these of sedimentary strates an fossils: Mos sits an lays are deposited nthe oshore neritic envionment, owever, and within our simple mode we can follow te process responsible (eeiusration below), SOURCELANO =e DOWNSTREAM mmm BEACH mmm OFFSHORE posted nea 1g rock is a breccia. Such she an allan re chan he eae eS bjcome founded or Channels ut are usualy much more widely distibuted than brea, extend — : aol fans and en pep ae prose et tend by sri or caro Mecies Soa pe ough beng, arson and fre rounding. Eval, eel "PGanaived and smaller particles are now the major sediment traveling downstream. In 5 nei somes ate GRAYWACKE and ARKOSE. Doli of thes at immature ieee ru quar ar jor componens of the rss) ano appear bore ext thet (pattern, Dest is slr potion, ts two fe pare sins he 2 eines, Aen fo te neo wean of ris, Gay — = eae ee oe capone sdments, in addonakese and paywackes are not normally the high ncay ofthe ur connuouty sti pth eat tan, ad ay, Sand, hee es eae again None mine both ofthe rook arsed 10 UR anna than th ih qu ete and so remaav the beach one Te sto cy : BS ‘area where they finally settle to the bottom without disturbance, : SANDSTONE FACIES,[And now, finaly, i the far offshore neritic environment where even the finest clay particles do nat ranch tie et imestone sediment in solution ntl now) are deposited, ether chemically ocks requite warm, sallow water, (ree of any detrital particles, in order Tn the neritic environment, then, to form and so ae almost always Separated from sand or clay. In th ‘| this the casi (and spied) sequence of faces formations: coarsest particles ae found on the +H Cooly sand, rarely quartt gravel), while offshore the finer patiles are deposited in sequence bi from sand, to sit 1 lay, to limestone (limestone, in his eas, is considered to be very fine grained).* CONCLUSIONS. si to interpret the past. A superficil Jook os eres trp of te ea ay of wdimentry rocks may make thi se ken formidable task. The secret to simplifying the formidable task lies in having a model to explain the ly simplified, makes us realze anged ina logical sequence rea tendency tobe found in ch, and relationships among the sedimentary rocks. Our model, although 8 that sedimentary rocks are tot izolated from each other but can be Eee ee 7 downstream tothe be particular depositional environments, begining in the sourelan each an Tnolfshore. Beyond tis, however, we find that cach depositional environment i distinctive fn renee shape, and in the energy conditions of the wate. These circumstances not only contr mental indicators, each more or less predictable, which we can use to interpret the earth’s past. the kindof sediment being deposited in ea Depositional Environments and the Evolution of Sedimentary Rocks PURPOSE Approximately 75% of the earth’s land is covered with sedimentary rocks. Because of their feat abundance and the large amount of information they eamry, the study of earth history is prin ‘ipally the study of sedimentary rocks, In the last laboratory, you learned how to recognize and identify sedimentary rocks, and to extract some ofthe information they cary. The purpose of this laboratory isto explore the first principles of the interpretation of sedimentary faces relation ships, By the time you finish, you should be able to (1) describe the position of any detrital sock in the model for the evolution af stiments, (2) explain the procomes by which G) constrict andior interpret «facies map. MUCH OF WHAT FOLLOWS WILL NOT MAKE MUCH SENSE TO YOU UNLESS YOU: 1, Know what is meant by a sourceland and a basin of deposition. 2. Can recognize or describe the terrestrial 3. Understand the model fort © evolution of sedimentary rocks 4. Know the importance of 1 various sedimentary stuctuves, If you do not know these, find out NOW. Read the Preliminary to Deposiional Environments and the Evolution of Sedimentary Rocks, your notes, or your textbook, orask your neighbor.THE IDEAL, SIMPLIFIED MODEL FOR THE EVOLUTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, Inthe P rocks, At dhs poi the model it just an abstraction, and before we use it to help interpret faces felationships we want to bring tore o14 o 2 D3. 4 Jiminary to ths laboratory, we presented the model for the evolution of sedimentary tor the rocks you learned last week and the evolutionary model ‘Obtain the tray of sedimentary rocks which you studied last week, Work together iy pais Located in the back of the manual i three-page foldout of the evolutionary model for [edimeneary rocks, Remove this flout and spread it out on the table before you. Reexamine the sedimentary rocks which you studied lst week, and place each one of them on the diagram in is appropriate place. (NOTE: You may not have examples of any tock, and some rock types, especially chemical rocks, may not be on the chart) Ask your instructor to check your arrangement. The following questions deal with the model. Answer them as best you can in the soe provided oth considered |A. In terms of composition, explain why graywacke and arkose are immature rocks B. In fetms of texture and composition, expln the way in which graywecks and ikose are transformed into a "dirty sandstone ‘The model forthe evolution of sedimentary rocks predicts that both arkose and taywacke sandstones should be preceded by breccia and conglomerate rocks of the sere comporition. Yet, you may have a broceia or conglomerate of different com- Bouton, 2, quartz conglomerate or limestone breccia. And actualy these cther broccas and conglomerates are more common than those of araywacke or arkose Chrnposition, List as best you can the composition of the brecias and conglemera fn your collection and, foreach, describe the kind(s) of sources from which i might Ihave been derived. (Ask your instructor for help if you need it.) : b, In general, mature “clean” sandstone requites a considerably I requires a considerably longer period of tim and more exacting environmental conditions, in which to form than do other sand Stones. In ferms of the processes necesary Tor maturation, explain why “clean sandstones require so Tong to form (review the definition oft mature sandstone on page 72, if you need to} . Siltstones and shales occur in greatest abundanc in th tones atest abundance in the neritic environment. Yet these two rock types also comtmonly Form in other places, sch as llood pins and transition environment (sv pages 87 and 88). Interns of the process af formation, explain how and/or why thes rocks ean form in such diverse environments Sittstones and sles form in many different environments, The problem of the EEsort ond in the rook ears which wi allow hse teen enon (1) List the possible environments in which siltstone or shale might form (s pages #7 and 88) maine Then for eich environment, list eieria which might be useful different environments (as the chart on page 87 Tora start). * ENVIRONMENT CRITERIAINTERPRETING ANCIENT SEDIMENTARY FACIES. fuide you through a systematic study of each facies map. Your instructor wil al you which ones to do. mine the bese the dasription CHANGES: a 6, When you have answered all the questions (or if you have trouble answering some of them), ask your instructor to check your conclusions. ‘The ukimate goal of the study of historical geology i to ‘The problem is learning how to recognize ancient faces inthe roc composition, color, matusiy, structures, fos, et. that are dae point, you posses this requisite knowledge, or atleast have access to {To practice applying it. On the next several pages area series of facies interpretation problems Gesiqned fo develop your skill and confidence in this mot basic tsk, The instructions below wil Work together in pairs. Three facies probloms are found between pages 104 and [1 2 Begin a systematic intexprctation of each facies map by folowing the steps |A. Read the introduction to each facies map before beginning B) Quickly peruse the facies descriptions listed below the Scitional enviconment foreach faces nd write it in the space provi ‘he charts on pages 87 and 88 wil aid you in correlating onal environments) rock type, sedimentary structures, ef, with deposi ers corresponding to the Examine the facies maps. You will notice that a series of Te facies descriptions are distributed over the maps sentative samples ofeach rock specimen may fines showing the boundaries between all the fucies.on the maps ‘The essence ofthe model forthe evolution of sedimentary rocks is that as sediments tre transported downstream and offshore they undergo predictable changes, Under- Standing these changes (andthe process which cause them) i of enormous value in the interpretation of ancient sedimentary facies. In the space below, list as many of sponsible for them. PROCESSES, siscover what the cath was like at The principal record for this the sediments deposited duting these times. The evidence les in the texture, for each facies. At this and our present purpose ft M4. below. ntroduction, Then deter- These represent places where repr ae been found. You should draw b, SH on wy . (ta (uh Pi 0 us. he yo" “INT. First earch the map Tor the location of those depositional environments nied you «ge ofthe evolution of sedimentary rocks. Have your instructor check your inter pretations. Label on the map the depositional environments of all facies represente tion, cll your instructor over and scribe the eology represented inte faces hap.INTRODUCTION TO FACIES MAPS ONE, TWO, THREE, AND FOUR These are hypothetical, simplified faces maps, They are designed to introduce you to faces ‘map construction wile ilustrating the priniple of environmental interpretation and the evolution ri inert rocks. ‘The maps are seaeless that i, although al the environments represented are croperly positioned relative to cach other, their lative sizes are not necessarily accurate, The following faces descriptions apply to all four facies maps. DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS. FACIES DESCRIPTIONS, Arkose breccia. Arkose conglomerate Shales and siltstones, black and brown: isolated plant fragments, rare mu tracks. Cut by ditty sndstone hanes Dirty sandstone, mostly quartz with feld- spar ni (ar), and cay ;eross-bedded in braided channels Dirty sandstone in cross-bedded channels ‘Guannel cut into siltstones, shales, and (Glan (quartz) sand, occasional cross bedding Sandy-sitstones and siltstones; n alter: ating layers, sparse brackish (mixed fresh and salt water) fossil shells Shae, marine Foss Micrite limestone; black, marine Fos FACIES MAP ONEFACIES MAP THREE © FACIES MAP FOUR QUESTIONS FOR FACIES MAP FOUR raw an arrow on the map pointing inthe d of the highest sourcsland. Then expla the evidence you used to draw the arrow the way you di. Describe the composition of the soureeland (Le, what kind of igneous rock composes the souresland), Limestone is presently being deposited in the far offshore, neritic environment (Le, its sep~ arated from the beach by shale). What conditions would have to exis in this are for the limestone to be deposited directly next to the beach?INTRODUCTION TO FACIES MAP FIVE rier aa cits are probably the most complicated to study in merous environments (rive, flood plain, ake, lagoon, beach se rapid. A second reason ps in sea Tevel occur, these environ hanging size and shape as thoy do. The cin the growth of Transition environments associated with the rock record. One reason is that nu tur, norte plus others) are all clotly associated so that facies chan B that as new sediment i brought down by the rivers, o ments continuously shift around relative to each othe, ch mon pase 109 represents the facies which were deposited atone instant in ti TA mber of transition environment i close association will hus be involved FACIES DESCRIPTIONS Dirty sandstone, crose-bedded in channels, rare freshwater Foss shells Siltstones and shales, black laminar bedding, ‘abundant plant fossils. Sandy siltstones and shales, black, laminar teding, brackish water fossil Fine rained dirty sandstone and sandstone, tross-bedding in poorly developed Siveruing channels, brackish water Clean (quartz) sndstone,oocasional cross bedding, ‘Clean (quate) sandstone, largecale eros eins, oocastonal Foss Thinly laminated gray shales, marine Foss, boturbationINTRODUCTION TO FACIES MAPS SIX, SEVEN, AND EIGHT The following facies maps are based on events which occured in he northeastern and mi wrote Unie Sates stween approxiotety 200 lion and #20 ion yea go, Wee deen orn ate events which ovured at thee ssparate instances ring his tne span thy eens mtsan ipprosimately 500 raion Yers ag), Uppet Ordovician approximately 435, oo eran sepa ale Shuren (approximately 420 milion yea ago). Although leaving ma itemstingswets, these hie stances sie are representative ofthe ret geologe FACIES DESCRIPTIONS FOR MAPS SIX, SEVEN, AND EIGHT Mur cs reset FACIES MAP SIX ‘Upper Cabra ‘QUESTIONS FOR FACIES MAP SIX, UPPER CAMBRIAN Briefly describe what the extreme maturity of the sandstone (Unit A) implies about its history (in terms ofthe evolution of sedimentary rocks). Draw sirow(s) on the facies map pointing in the general drection(s) of the soureland(s) for Drs P Xs) of th Jand() fe Note thatthe sandstone facies (Unit A) grades offshore directly into the limestone fai (Unit B), skipping a shale facies. What does this relationship imply about the kinds of sedi ments being supplied tothe depositional basi?4. Onthe basis ofthe processes necessary forthe production ould you expect the sourceland are to be (citele one) AREGION OF MODERATE ELEVATION A. RUGGED MOUNTAINOUS, REGION Explain your answer the ray wacke trbdite (Unit C). 6. What kind of souresland (ce 1. Callyour instructor and explain your interpretation FACIES MAP SEVEN Upper Ordovician raw arrow(s) on the fecies map pointing in the general di composition) might have been eroded to produce Unit C2 % and deposition of Units A and B, QUESTIONS FOR FACIES MAP SEVEN, UPPER ORDOVICIAN 1. Draw arrows) on the map pointing inthe general direction(s) of the sourceland(). A PEATURELESS i REGION VERY CLOSE TO SEA LEVEL Briely describe the evidence you used to draw the arrows) for question 1 fons) of the sourceland(s) for (On the bass of the pro found on this cs necessary for the production and deposition of the sediments facies map, would you expect the sourssland area tobe (tele one) A RUGGED. A REGION OF A FEATURELESS MOUNTAINOUS MODERATE REGION VERY CLOSE REGION ELEVATION TO SEA LEVEL Explain your answer Call your instructor and explain your interpretation HEE EE EEE E 13Mile Sara QUESTIONS FOR FACIES MAP EIGHT, MIDDLE SILURIAN 1. BACKGROUND: Compare this ais ap wth the previous map fr the Upper Ordovicn Rote that ring te Upper Ordovilan, sale (Unit F) is being deposited throughout mest DF the central and western parts of the map. On this (Middle Silurian) map, however, lime Sone deposition (Unit J), is now occurring over much of the region where shale was formerly {lopoxted, Now sf abundant, pure limestone ean form only In the absence of detrital partcles, ‘inl limesione deposition in the Middle Siuian is lowly encroaching from west {0 east, re ‘lacing the shale deposition as it goes, then what does the change from shale deposition to Timestone deposition imply about changes in the size ofthe sourceland suppfying the shale? BACKGROUND: Rock Units D and (Upper Ondovicin) and Rock Unit H (Mie Sian) ‘pare deposited in almost the same geographic postion, derived from the same sourceland Yet they are matkedly different in composition, In terms of the model forthe evolution of sedimentary rocks, andthe processes responsible for the formation of these particular rocks, explain what the change from Units D and E (Upper Ordovician) to Unit H (Middle Situran) {implies about changes in condition in the sourceland supplying the sediment 3, Callyour instructor and expin the geologic history ofthis part of North America es you have interpreted it from study of the sediments 4 Preliminary to Metamorphic Rocks PURPOSE, In the study of metamorphic rocks, as with igneous and sedimentary rocks, we are again con- ‘zrned with recognizing the characteristies of rocks, and relating them to their origin and history Metamorphic rocks, however, preset special difficulties. There are two primary reasons for these aiticuttis, Fin, metamorphic processes (and the effects of metamorphism) are sreatly variable. In fact in their detated study, metamorphic rocks ae probably the most complex and difficult of ll earth materials to interpre. ‘Second, its not possible to observe the major processes of metamorphism, or experiment with them, in the laboratory, Igneous rocks, on the otler hand, because they cool from a magma, have been relatively easy to understand and interpret. Artifical magia can be made in the laboratory tnd the events occurring during their solidification analyzed. In addition, their relationships to ‘other rocks in the field are usually clear and easy to understand Tock, howeve ¥ mation of sedimentary Ah’ surface is, of couse, open to ready servation in most cates. Metamorphic form dep inthe earth, by the ead lteation of many ferent source ks, through several ferent presses, producing «rea varely of new products often without ees Ilationships to surounding unmetamorphond rocks (county rok). Neverthcies, in thee broadest interpretation, the process of metamorphism and theres ing minerals and rocks canbe relatively cay tnderstood. Becase the existence of tess Tocke has important implications inthe history of tho earth, we need to know how melamorphiam occu, how the responses of metamorphism canbe recognize, snd how metamorphic teal messed By the time you enter the laboratory you should (1) know the proveuea which real In morphism, (2) be abe to distinguish between regional and contact melamorphisn (causes, extent, sale sts, ee), (3) know vy quarts and liestoe become onl oe in of metsno ‘ck while sale conyers toa wide rans of metamorphic rocks, and (@) understand the importance f fabric and composition in the classification of metamorphic rocks. i i INTRODUCTION Most isneous rock-forming minerals are unstable atthe earth’s surface, as we saw inthe inves tigation of sedimentary rocks. But likewise, the new minerals formed from the weathering procsss are stable only at the conditions found on ar near the earths surface. I these mentary minerals lisare placed under new, different conditions, they become unstable and will again change to adapt Te ree conditions, ‘The process of metamorphism javoles the changes Which ecu fo any pe aay eNisting sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic rock subject to any o al of the Following new conditions 1. prolonged high temperature (250°-950°C), short of meltin metasomatism (chemical reactions resulting from the migration of hot solutions through rocks, thus altering their composition). ire—several fuctors may result in the heating of rocks, Burial alone ‘ecause of the geothermal gradient. Bu the processes of mour= The most effective way to heat 2 rock is to inet Prolonged High Tempera wil result in some metamorphism {ain building and faulting may also generate heat ‘hot igneous body next tit Pressure—the prolonged fore overlong periods of time these ws tain-ullding process, ‘Metasomatigm all magmas contain varying amounts of dissolved gases and Liquids. As the maine cautllizes however, these hot gases and liquids are forced out of the magma and penetrate eat yenine “country rock,” combining withthe minerals there, adding new elements, and pro: ducing special suites of new minerals 1s of deformation occutting at depths of more than six kilometers lly involve compression and shearing associated with the moun- KINDS OF METAMORPHISM Metamorphism may occus in several ways; we will examine only the twe most common. ere famorgnism occ in "courtry rock” which has been heated by the intrusion of raga nach ne dike il, or voleanie pine of invaded by hot fluid The cross section on pais aoe ae ate rious cifecs of contact metamorphism adjacent toa diorite volcanic pipe. con logial in theae situations thatthe degree of metamorphic change will decrease with ints ‘retUinance from the heat source. These changes ae divided into aureoles (haloes) of decreasing ! inferaity sway from the intrusion, and are characterized by specific changes in each aureole. The teers ote isa zone of metasomatism aswell as transformations duc to heat, whereas the oulce i aercole dominated by themal (heat) effects alone. All of the transitions are gradational, however. ‘Widthoof the various sureoles wll vary according to the size and temperature ofthe intruding body wi the lithology ofthe intruded rock, and may extend from only a fraction of an inch away Po fhe intrusion 0 distances of hundreds of feet, Limestones, the most intensely affected of the naga rock types, develop a broad “skam” zone in Which a variety of ealeiumesch (from the CCS categ ae formed. These silicates form where the oriinal limestone contained ifesous Tesceltes or where it was penetrated by sifccous metasomatic Maids from the magma. Metasoma am af other rock types results in a partial or complete change inthe original chemical composition. eee ine Geeal aureole vary with the type of parent rock. In general, the simpler the ovcinal mineralogy of the tek, the simpler the metamorphic product (exshuding any metasomatic eres Quart sandstone, forexample, wil slightly ecrystalize in the thermal aureale,forring ‘Juoraie, while Limestone (CaCO) and dolomite (CaMg(CO,)_] produce marble of the same aaartttion but with » markedly lighter color toward the dirite contact. Shale, however, products Clccous, fine pained, dense, dark rock called horafels with a new mineralory ‘Of these three metamorphic rocks (marble, quartzite, and hornfels) the horfels s the most important becuse iis dapnostic of this kind of metamorphism (contactor thermal) AS a general epora e sandetone becomes quartzite, regardess ofthe intensity oF type of metamorphism. Like- | vik mestone becomes marble, regardless ofthe intensity or type of metamorphism. But shale, sae ofits complex and variable composition (silicon, oxygen, iron, aluminum, magnesite) us ‘CONTACT OR THERMAL METAMORPHISM. (Nv ny | | Kora r ya ‘ | sloniTE = see NS : | 2 a can be transformed into great vatety of new ro hare, bat het in consuntion with presurerepional metanarpluat reduces treaty different product) hism—produces an entirely REGIONAL METAMORPHISM Zones of regional metamo Appalachian Mountains or the Alps) where rocks are deeply buved, Heated and detonated by fang andor futing. In adaton, lane intrasios offence rock es, balsa) ahr een ay the proces. Many new miners and rocks are formed over very ats aese dui elena Inetamorphism and often obliterate ti metamorphism and oe obieate the ria aks tos have been unite in the region shown in the cross secti the mpl, ranite from preexisting [almast always sec y ization, with er sone f0eks a ite fected, Notice thatthe quartz sandstone nit an he traced est-ntensity metamorphism on the let ito the Zones of high-intensity metamorphism on he ur‘ite eer hand, rocks of more complex composition show d y 1, Foliated—rocks consisting of olatively large percentages of sh tle (mica) minerals all parallel or planar, sd-rocks containing relatively lage percentages of rdlike, prismatic, or fibrous min ral rans lined up or pointing inthe same ditection. 3. Granular—rocks containing minerals which are nelthersheeilike nor ctongate, but of intr eng paine Foliated ond tneated metamorphic rocks are confined to regional meta resulf of directed pressure as wells heat. Theis mineralogy is always complex; that, any one tock contains several different minerals, In dition, the mineralogy of any one ofthese socks wil change with changing temperature-pressue conditions inthe environment Granular rocks are both regional and contact metamorphic. The pitty rason these rocks, exist i their simple on sition which will not allow the sheetike/pistatic minerals neeessary for Folation/lineation to occur. ‘The one exception isthe granular hornfes of contact metamorphism, CLAS IFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphic rocks are classified ont Fabric-most important 2. Composition-of secondary importanc Accepting the fact tha its really not possible to appreciate these differences without handing and comparing the specimens, we wll conclude this Preliminary by outlining the distinctions to be emphasized in the laboratory Granular rocks ae straightforward; their fabric and compositions do not change with the intensity of metamorphism. The importance of classification on the basis of fabric and composition isrmost critical withthe fotiated/tieated metamorphic rocks ‘Neanly all folited/lineated metamorphic rocks ste © Slates—hard, very fine grained rocks with well ef eg, slate challe boards) Phyilites—fine-ruined (grain stil not visible, but larger than in slats) rock having a due to the presence of very fine choritemica. Schists-stronely foliated or lineated, individual minerals visible (mica, quartz, f 1c), but minerals not separated into band. Gneiss—contse banding separating layers of mica from layers of other minerals In terms of composition, slates and phyllites are bath dominated by one mineral~chlorite Schists and gncises, however, have many possible minerals capable of producing helt particu fabrics. Thus schists and gneisses fe many appearances, and distinctions between them must be understood and based on mi Hats a tae a aay sw minctlsare formed diag reconal metamorphism which are platy o rodike, W a these new minerals are subject to the diected pressure of region metamorphism, they align in the eof four kinds ned sheetike parting surfaces which are smooth dspar, kyanito, FABRICSOF METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphic rocks can be divided into thre categories based on their respective fabrics (the arrangement of tnineal grains with respect to each other inthe rock) us = 119Metamorphic Rocks PURPOSE Metamorphic rocks have resulted from the slow alteration of previously existing rocks by the application of heat and/or pressure. What changes occur depend on the orginal source rock and the exact characteristics of the metamorphic process. ‘The purpose of working familiarity with these products of metamorphism, AA the finish of this exercise you should be able to (1) recognize the metamorphic minerals provided by your instructor, (2) recosnie, repardles of mineral makeup, the follated and/or morphic rocks and the kinds of metamorphism which ean protuce each, and (4) ist the unmet morphosed source ro¢k(s) for each kin! of metamorphic rock hislaboratory Is CO give you MUCH OF WHAT FOLLOWS WILL NOT MAKE MUCH SENSE TO YOU UNLESS YOU: 1, Know the processes which result in metamorphism. 2. Know the difference between contact and regional metamorphism, 3. Know which rocks chang during metamorphism, and which do not. 4. Know the bass of metamorphic rock classification I you do not know these, find out NOW. Read the Preliminary to Metamorphic Rocks, your notes, or yout book, or ask your neighbor EEMetamorphic Rocks PURPOSE Metamorphic rocks have resulted from the slow alteration of previously existing rocks by the application of heat andor pressure. What changes occur depend on the orginal source rock and the exact characteristics of the metamorphic process. ‘The purpose ofthis laboratory i (0 sve you Working familiarity with these products of metamorphism AA the finish of this exercise you should be able to (1) recognize the metamorphic minerals provided by your instructor, (2) recognize, regardless of mineral makeup, the fliate andlor ‘morphic rocks and the kinds of metamorphism which ean produce each, and (4) ist the unmet morphosed source ro¢k{s) for each kind! of metamorphic rock MUCH OF WHAT FOLLOWS WILL NOT MAKE MUCH SENSE TO YOU UNLESS YOU: 1, Know the processes which result in metamorphism, 2. Know the difference between contact and regional metamorphism, { 3. Know which rocks chang e mineralogy during metamorphism, and which do not 4. Know the basis of metamon hic rock ctsiication I you do not know these, find out NOW. Read the Preliminary to Metamorphic Rocks, your notes, or yout book, or ask your neighbor HierMETAMORPHIC MINERALS The evidence for metamorphism lies inthe products ofthe process in essence the minerals ach mineral has its own particular range of temperature, pressure, and chemical Outside of that range of temperature, pressure, and chemical environment, the minesal will not fori, ori will react to produce other minerals, Ths as heat and pressure increase, early ormed mineals give Way successively fo later-and latersformed minerals, Anda the minerals hinge 40 do the rocks, Understanding and recognizing these transformations isthe essence of understanding metamorphic processes, Metamorphic rocks may contain basically twa sets of minerals: a) those leftover from the orignal rock before metamorphism, and (b) those that formed during, and as a result of, metamor phism, Quartz, for example, being very stable, commonly survives metamorphism and may stl be Present inthe metamorphic rock, Clay minerals, on the other hand, are converted to whole suites of new minerals formed unset new conditions Tae following minerals ae important or commonly found in metamorphic rocks: and rocks. ability 1 quartz 6. muscovite 2. calcite 7. garnet (almandite) 3. feldspar 8. staurolite 4 chlorite 9. kyanit 5. biotite 10, silimanite In addition, i is not uncommon to find other minerals unique to metamorphic rocks, such a 1, tale 6, wollastonite 2. graphite 7. cordiente 3. epldote 8 andalusite 4. tremolite 9. corundum 5. actinolite ‘Som of these minerals you have already studied, but selected now ones willbe introduced today (depending on ths dactetion of your intrctor), You need to become familiar with these new minerals Work together 1, Obtain a tray of m tamogphie minerals from your laboratory instructor Select u mineral from the tay and write its number (if available) on the chart on pages 26-127. Determine the physical properties ofthe mineral and list them on the chart uster—metallic oF nonmetal, B. Hardness try to seratch apiece of glass. See if the mineral is harder or softer than las (H:5.5), Ifsofter than glass, then test hardness with your fingemall (H:2.5) and a copper coin (H:3.5), C Streak~ru the mineral oa porcelain pate and note the powder's color D, Cleavage and Fracture look for sooth uncured planes slong which the mineral Tass broken (see page 15), How many ate there? ‘These are easily confused with crystal (growth) Taoes, but do the best you can, Ask your instructor for assistano i you are unsure, If curved broken surfaces ae presen iti eonchoidal fracture, E, Color-record the color of the mineral F. Other-list whatever ele you se that looks interesting, such as (1). Grystal shape-cubie, hombohedral, dadecahedrai (12 side), et (2). Specific araviy—is the mineral noticeably heavier than the other minerals? G) Tasteany special taste, saltiness. A Se 11 4. Use the special Key tothe Identification of Metamorphic Minerals on dentiy the mineral TL 5. Ask yourinstructor to check your identifictio IDENTIFICATION OF METAMORE tis now time to take your knowledge of rock fabric and met ft tothe recognition Select men. Record your data inthe chars, pages 130131 SLATE proavend from—= SHALE GRAPHITE — produced rom (4). Magnetism, IC ROCKS tamorphic minerals and apply id identification of metamorphic rocks, Obtain a tray of metamorphic rocks from your laboratory instructor a rock from the tay and use the following steps (o analyze and identify the specie Fabric-foliated, linear, or granular Compositions i all one mineral? Ifs0, which? Zf more than one mineral is preset, identity all, or as many as you can (use a handlens or microscope), Source Rock(s)—the mineralogy of metamorphic rocks can be gute variable, de- Pending on (1) onginal source rock, (2) whether metasomatism has occurred, snd (9) intensity of metamorphism. In general, though, the follwing relationsips FOUATEDOR SY LINEATED ‘GRANULAR HORNFELS— produced fom SHALE PHYLLITE— produced from —> SHALE (QUARTZITE— produced from—+ QUARTZ SANDSTONE SCHIST produeed from—~ SHALE MARBLE produced fom — LIMESTONE L eee ee ee ~ boLowire SHALE ASIC GNEISS —+ produced fiom—+ ARKOSE, | SOAPSTONE— produced from — IGNEOUS GRAYWACKE, ROCK: GRANITE aaa SERPENTINITE prods from —~ IGNEOUS TARTRATE | TRE COAL COAL = mal produced fom—~ BTU (instructions continue on page 128)MINERAL NAME a ees es [Ese L>FfD. Kind of Metamorphiam—may be x rocks or (2) SPECIMEN NUMBER Be sure ‘entering the laboratory for Earth Deformation and Geologic History. Its neeessary ste lo understanding that exercise having all Ask your instructor to check your identifications. ou read the Preliminary to Ba METAMORPHIC ROCK NAME == foliated metamorphic rocks except soapstone and sexpentinit sional -¢, having (1) al foliated metamorphic morphic rocks excep® hornfes, anl/areotaet, rth Deformation and Geologic History before CHARACTERISTI KEY TO THE 1DENT ky shen fet —) = > NorFouate> |} softer OR UNEATED slo, rr [ oore banding] ieroting eee | ahef ICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS “Goud cleovag in one quaaraire Hornets uU renth roy = tale 1 > om]SPECIMEN NUMBER: METAMORPH ROCK NAME, ==) aay CHARACTERISTICS Sires SPECIMEN NUMBER: METAMORPHIC ROCK NAME, Neat (/ colts CHARAC: RISTICS zs TORREEION,METAMORPHIC SPECIMEN ROCK NUMBER, NAME = CHARACTERISTICS Tae —]—sernSeS METAMORPHIC SPECIMEN ROCK NUMBER: NAME = BS > |ARACTERISTICS eeThe Measure and Meaning of Metamorphic Grade PURPOSE. Regionally metamorphosed rocks exposed at the surface ofthe earth have the explicit implica tion of an extensive peoogic history that involves a least thre processes: (1) the time requited for {hick masses of (Sedimentary) rocks to accumulate, (2) the time required for deep burial (necessary for regional metamorphism), and (3) the time required for uplift and erosion to expose the now metamorphosed rocks at the surface. This sequence his occurred frequently in the history of the earth (and isstill occurring). Recognizing the pattera Isa problem geologists have had to solve fre quently. The solution has not been necessarily easy, however, because the the individual rocks are not obvious Tt involves being able to do at eat IL’ “Recognize the original sores rock in & metamorphic vock ( altered) 2. Recognize the intensity of metamorphism required to produce each metamorphic rock; and 3. Unravel the relationships between a series of metamorphic rocks found int region To hel interpret geologic history Step 1 above was introduced in th last exercise; tis the remaining two we consider here. As in other studies, recognizing pattern and interpreting it are alway’ easier after someone hss solved the problem. The problem below, however, wil illustrate the steps and thoughit processes eeolotss tse when studying regional metamorphic rocks. By the time you leave the aborstor lationships between less of how much it has been ‘should (1) have some fealing, in tems of rock pro- duced, for what is meant by “ow 3 high grade” met ny (2) know what metamor hie zones and isogads are and how they ean be used to determine metamorphic grade, and (3) Understand the geologic implications of increasing grades of metamorphism, INTRODUCTION When a shat is regionally metamorphosed it undergoes a series of transformations which pro Brssivelyalterits character. First, the original clay minerals become unstable and are converted 10 {new mineral, usually chlorite, and a new rock, slate. Continued metamorphism causes the chlo trystal to grow larger, forming a second rock, phyllite. As metamorphism continues, the chlorite Itself becomes unstable and breaks down; but in its place new minerals appear in sequence: biotite then gart, then staurlite, then kyanite, and finaly silimanite-all forining the rock schist.The significance of this is that each of these new minerals will not form until its own special set of temperature and pressure conulitions Is reached. By implication, then, its presence says that Stone ime that rock, now exposed atthe earths surface, was deeply buried and subject to those conditions, ‘This has ied to the use of metamonphic minerals as guides to the history of metamor ‘hsm ina resion, end by extension, to the history of mountain-building processes, METAMORPHIC GRADE, ZONES, AND ISOGRADS Metamorphic grade is aterm referring to how far metamorphism has advanced. Grade i lated to the temperature sind pressure reached during metamorphism, High grade metamorphism ‘asus closest tothe magina chamber or source of heat and/or pressure, while low grade metamor ‘phism fs found farthest away from the source of heat and/or pressure and blends nto unmetamor Thowed rocks, By itself, however, grade is only a relative measure of the intensity of metamorphism For precie measurement, metamorphic grade is divided into six zones, A zone isan are, less of how bg or sina, Enown to have been subject to the sume specifi set of environmental “enical” index minerals. Studies have shown that cach ofthese index minerals is stable only within a apecifc tinge of temperature and pressure and that they occur in sequence from low grade to high {ale metamorphism. Near the top of the chart, page 139, i row labeled "Some Important Key Minerals Indicative of Metamorphic Grade”; these are the “ertical” index minerals which define the Invtamorphie zones, The presence of any one ofthese minerals, even in quantities as small as one percent, enough to indieate the grade Of metamorphism, regardless of what other minerals are resent” For example, schist made up mostly of staurolie, but with a few crystals of slimanite {vould have to bein the sillimanite zone, or highest grade of metamorphism. ‘Changes in metamorphic grde are gradationa, of couse, but by definition each zone begins with the fst appearance of is partioular index mineral, and ends with the frst appearance of the hex index mineral. line connecting al fist appearances ofan index mineral is an isograd cach ‘Bograd is labeled forts particular index mineral (eg, biotite iserad, kyante isograd), and they scar on gralog maps to indicate erade of metamorphism and, by interpretation, the center anjor direction of the changes, A PROBLEM OF REGIONAL METAMORPHISM. although hypothetical i not unlike many of the situations gelogsts have step by step, through one o! The problem below, encountered in their work with metamorphic rocks. It will take you the most sophisticated problem-solving procedures in the study of the earth. It Sop for no other reason, beeause the relationships betwoon the earth materials used in its intespretaticn land solution ae not intuitively obvious (unlike many other rock relationships used in seotoeie Interpretation). “The Geologic Outerop Map on page 139 shows the dstibution ofa series of rocks as they ate exposed ina particular region. They were originally sedimentary and jgneous but have since been {nctamorphosed to various degrees. Only those bedrock structures which could be observed are fecorded; sol and yegetation conceal the bedrock elsewhere. The object Yo determine (1) the unmetamorphosed rock equivalents fora series of rock specimens found at selected localities, (2) where the various zones and grades of metamorphism are tocated Cindicating different degrees of alteration) and (3) the direction from which the mets ‘morphic forces originated PART ‘ 2 1. AGeologic Outcrop Map is on page 139, Beginning inthe upper center, the locations of tssrcs of rock specimens numbered 1-31 are indicated, The name of each individual tock listed on the data sect (page 138) nitions. The only way to know these conditions existed is by the presence inthe rock of slecied L_ 2, Determine for each rock listed on the data sheet the unmetamorphosed original rock() from which i¢ could have formed. Write the name inthe appropriate space inthe dat sheet (page 138). ‘The information needed to do this is summarized in Metamonphic Equivalents of a Selected Series of Sedimentary and Igneous Rocks, page 139) A Determine for each rock the metamarphie zone (or zones) to which it belongs and lst them in the appropriate space in the data sheet, B. Indicate in the samo space the metamorphic grades) of each rock specimen: e. eee pic aade(s) of each rack specimen: es UNMETAMORPHOSED Cherite zone Biotte zone LOW GRADE Garnet zone ‘Stauralite zon MIDDLE GRADE Kyanite zone Sillimanite zone HIGH GRADE Depening on the metamorphic gadts)wite“U" (unmetamorphosed), “L" (ow), Ail), 11h), any combination of these Sede te specimen tumter on he Geologie Outermp Map to ndizate the posble metamorpi ade of tat specie 5. Afterthe metamorphic grad foal specimens har been writen on he Geode Outro Map ra es separating: (3) wnctaorhd om ow rade ‘hort isograd), (b) low grade from middle grade ({¢., eamet isograd) (c) middle grade from high grade (ie., kyanite isograd). s EO ee . 6, IF you are so inclined (or your instructor insist), draw in the remaining isograds Draw a large arrow) on the Geologic Outcrop Mep pointing in the direction of the source of metamorphism 8. Ask yourinstructor to check your interpretations to this point PARTI Recxamine the metamorphic rocks you nsrctor provided for yout identify in the last exercise, Por each one which coud have cone from tae the Ceolene Ott ‘top Map, place an "X" inthe column “Rocks You Examined in Lab" on the data shes. Arrange your laboratory specimens left to ight in order of increasing metamorDic LOW, MIDDLE, HIGH When nied ask your instructor to cheek out argent CONCLUSIONS THE MEANING OF METAMORPHIC GRADE Itis apparent when studying the earth that th srt aneaten he earth that there are certain solect places where unusual, and offentinessevereeyents have occured It can be shown, or example hatin these areas sedi ‘(and other rocks undetg slow, sometimes impereepibe, changes in ther character, eventually fllsingso radically that their oreinal nature is obliterated, When thes changes occu ona rons ass they imply large forees operating at sreat depth, over extremely large areas. And by extension,METAMORPHIC EQUIVALENTS OF A SELECTED SERIES OF SEDIMENTARY AND IGNEOUS ROCKS Sawpe] Rock [UNNETAMORPHOSED]yeTawonPric | ROCKS, YOU | jwuaen] SPECIMEN OmuINal Powe a onaoe| EXAMINE | 9 | storie sons | TO_| sraomsures ecarae z || <— areenscuis 12__| seauozrne scaren I= 3 [ wearers sone 21 a 24 _| sniuimnase son 25._| wraerne oneis 26 | exmrr on 29 _ | eamas ecu oA r GEOLOGIC OUTCROP MAP 31 [eszanoms senseional metamorphic racks exposed atthe earth's surface ri > e history of great length and complexity. In ind analysis ofthe not intuitively the proenee ofthese lage expan ; in various pars ofthe world) implies a (mow intense sages this complexity i deaipherabl only throvgh knowledge i sronmental significance of specific metamorphic minerals, whose relationships a esto with indepth study ; Seat swore change tnd deformation mark concentrations of unusual Shine eath. Sites of unusual atvty of any sot a Ime fol a tie action Ths: placer of rexona metamorphism tus hol Porta ee andertanding the earth aa whole system, f we can only decipher thelr meaning Preliminary to Earth Deformation and Geologic History fbvious but ean bo PURPOSE Izneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks show seemingly great complexity. Yet we have found that individual specimens can be understood and interpreted with knowledae of only afer simple rules and processes. Understanding these rules and processes makes the stuly of rocks mech asicr. Similarly, with knowledge of only a few basie processes and their responses in the rock, plus Some simple logic, i is possible to begin interpreting geologic history. ‘The purpose af this Preliminary {so introduce these concepts, and some basic termino By the time you enter the laboratory you should (1) Know the processes responsible for lo secosnize, anicines and synelines and the several Kinds of Iau presont inthe ear know the simple logic which onders geologic history, and (3) know the origin and sigaificance of the unconformity INTRODUCTION ‘One of the most important things about the earth, and that which scparates it from every other Known planet is that it isnot quiet. As far as man studying the earth has been abe to determine the earth has been czaslesly active since its origin some five billion years ago. We really do not ‘now why the earth should beso ative, but its activity has been eritcally important to es All of the mineral resources we use have been produced and made available by geological activity, and ‘man himself exists because the changing conditions on the earth have allowed his evolulice. But on another level, because of geologic activity the earth has an historical record. This history ‘xis in the rock record, a record of the processes operating atthe time and place each igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock was forming, And, as we have seen, we can interpret these rocks individually. In addition, by studying rocks which were formed athe same Une in different places ora diferent times in the same place, a more or less detailed story ofthe pat ean be tex fonstructed, Tis isthe frst part ofthe study of earth history, But more, the rocks which form in and on the earth do not stay in one place. ‘They ate buried, Uplifted, deformed, and eroded. The history of the earth is not only the formation of rocks, but of what has happened to those rocks since thie formation, It is these processes which form the Second part ofthe study of earth history, and we need to understand them also to understand the earth.