Question Paper Code : 53443 B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2014. Seventh Semester Electrical and Electronics Engineering El 1001/E] 1012/El 1353 A—FIBER OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS {Common to Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Instrumentation and Control Engineering) (Regulation 2004/2007) Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL questions. PART A—(10 x 2 = 20 marks) 1. Define (a) Meridional ray. (b) Skew ray. Ans: A meridional ray is a ray that passes through the axis of an optical fiber. A skew ray is a ray that travels in a non-planar zig-zag path and never crosses the axis of an optical fiber. 2. What are permanent and semi permanent splicers? Give examples, Ans: A permanent splicers are unpluggable and fixed. Example: Fusion Splicers. A semi-permanent splicers are pluggable and temporary or restoration work. Example: Mechanical splicers. 3. . What is Mode Field Diameter? Write its significance. Ans: In fiber optics, the mode field diameter (MFD) is an expression. of distribution of the irradience, i.e., the optical power per unit area, across the end face of a single-mode fiber. It indicates the light travel path. 4. What is “speckle pattern”?Ans: A speckle pattern is an intensity pattern produced by the mutual interference of a set of wavefronts. 5. Define (a) Population Inversion. (b) Optical Pumping. Ans: A population inversion occurs when a system (such as a group of atoms or molecules) exists in a state with more members in an excited state than in lower energy states. Optical pumping is a process in which light is used to raise (or “pump”) electrons from a lower energy level in an atom or molecule to a higher one. It is commonly used in laser construction, to pump the active laser medium so as to achieve population inversion. 6. What are SLM and MLM lasers? Ans: Multi-Longitudinal Mode (MLM) Single-Longitudinal Mode (SLM). 7. What is meant by laser welding? Ans: Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces of metal through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates 8. State the advantages of using Laser in Industry. Ans: (i) There is no contact tool required, unlike normal machining in which the too! bit must be sharpened and often replaced. (ii) Brittle or very pliable materials that are very difficult or impossible to machine with tools can be processed using lasers. (iii) Laser processing is easily automated to allow computer and robot control. (iv) New types of processing has and continues, to be developed, including producing new surface alloys and hardening of materials. .9. What are holographic components? Ans: Components of Hologram: LASER, beam Splitter, Lenses, Mirror and Photographic plate. 10. What are the requirements of laser instruments for plastic surgery? Ans: Requirements of Laser in Plastic Surgery: @ Should be highly intense. @ Should not produce mush temperature rise. e Should not create any side effects. e Must be safe and reliable. PART B—(5 x 16 = 80 marks) 11.(a)(i) Describe the different types of optical fibers with neat sketches. Explain their applications. () Ans: A dielectric waveguide that operates at optical frequencies is known as optical fiber. It is generally available in cylindrical form. Fiber Types There are two fiber types (i) Step index fiber (ii) Graded index fiber, (i) Step Index Fiber Step index fiber is further divided in two types, 1. Single mode stepindex fiber. 2. Multi-mode step index fiber. Single mode step index fiber is shown below, The typicaldim ension ofcore is8 to 12 wm and cladding is 125 jum. In step index fiber, the refractive index of the core is uniform and at the cladding boundary, it undergoes a step change. Insingle mode step index fiber, there is only one mode of propagation. The multimode step index fiber is shown below:Lt 34 | _— fA Figs, :Single Mode Step Index Fiber In multimode step index fiber, hundreds of modes are present. ‘The typical dimension of core is 50 to 200 jum and cladding is 125 to 400 um. Mulimode fiber has several advantages, which includes, the transmitting the light directly in to fiber using LED. na (oy ..[} | << ' Figs. :Multi Mode step index fiber Graded Index Fiber Graded index fiber also contains single mode and multimode. In graded index fiber, the refractive index of thecore is made to vary as a function of radial distance taken from the center of the fiber, The dimension of its core is 50 to 100 ym and cladding is 125 to 140 pm. In both cases (step index and graded index) multimode has several advantages. When compared with single mode, however, multimode has a drawback, that is, it suffers from inter-model dispersion.Figs. :Multi-Mode Graded Index Fiber 11.(b)(i) Compare optical sources with optical detectors. (6) Ans: Optical detectors or photo-detectors are devices that perform the exact opposite function to that of an optical source. i.c., they receive the optical signal available to them from the output end of the optical fiber and convert it to electrical signal. An optical detector may be hence termed as an optical transducer. As the name suggests, the photo-diode is in fact a p-n junction put to the exact opposite use as the LED. In this device light is made incident onto the device and used for generation of electron-hole pairs at the junction thereby varying the current. The variation in current is a function of the incident light. It is, however, interesting to note that the same p-n junction used for photo-generation, can also be used for photo-detection. Different materials have different photo-responsive properties both- quantitatively and qualitatively, 11.(b)Gi) Explain the principle of operation of LED with neat sketches. (10) Ans: Principle of Operation of LED: A light-emitting diode (LED) isa two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn-junction diode, whichemits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes usually recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a variety of colours, LEDs are usually built on an #-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.bare jap wider dary Fig. 12.(a)(ii) What are the different types of fiber optic sensors? Explain them. (8) Ans: A fiber optic sensor isa sensor that uses optical fiber either as the sening element (“intrinic sensors”), or as a means of relaying signals from a remote sensor to the electronics that process the signals (“extrinsic sensors”). Fibers have many users in remote sensing. Depending on the application, fiber mayu be used because of its small size, or because no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using light wavelength shift for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time-delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer and wavelength shift can be calculated using an instrument implementing optical domain reflectometry. Intrinsic Sensors: Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain,!"! temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying a fiber so thatthe quantity to be measured modulates the intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A particularly useful feature of intrinsic fiber optic sensors is that they can, ifrequired, provide distributed sensing over very large distances. Extrinsic Sensors: Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally a multimode one, to transmit modulated light from eithera non-fiber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsinc sensors is their ability toreach places which are otherwise inaccessible. An example is the measurement of temperature inside aircraft jetengines by using a fiber to transmitradiation into a radiation pyrometer located outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible. Extrinsic fiber optic sensors provide excellent protection of measurement signals against noise corruption. Unfortunately, many conventional sensors produce electrical output which must be converted into an optical signal for use with fiber. f ; Optical Fiber as Transducer Light Modulator Input Output {hb} Fiber Fiber | VV . : “4 Environ | { mertal i Signal Light Source Light Detector @ | \ _ Light Source Light Detector Extrinsic Fiber Optic Sensor Intrinsic Fiber Optic Sensor_ Fig. :Extrinsic Fiber Optic Sensor Fig. :Fiber Optic Sensor (or)13.(a)(i)_ Describe LASER modes. (8) Ans: LASER Modes: A transverse mode of a beam of electromagnetic radiation is a particular electromagnetic field pattern of radiation measured in a plane perpendicular (i.c., transverse) to the propagation direction of the beam. ‘Transverse modes occur in radio waves and microwaves confined to a waveguide, and also in light waves in an optical fiber and in a laser soptical resonator. A longitudinal mode of a resonant cavity is a particular standing wave pattern formed by waves confined in the cavity. The longitudinal modes correspond to the wavelengths of the wave which are reinforced by constructive interference after many reflections from the cavity’s reflecting surfaces. All other wavelengths are suppressed by destructive interference. A longitudinal mode pattern has its nodes located axially along the length of the cavity, Transverse modes, with nodes located perpendicular to the axis of the cavity, may also exist. 13.(a)(ii) Explain Q-switching and Mode locking. (8) Ans: Q-Switching: In order to store many atoms in an upper level, the flow to a lower level must first be limited. Thus, stimulated emission must be prevented by placing an attenuator in the cavity to stop light from travelling back and forth. In this case, for a radiative transition, the only decay to a lower level is due to spontaneous emission. When the pumping system supplies more atoms per second than lose energy by spontaneous emission, the population in the upper level can become very large. After a certain time, the energy losses in the cavity are suddenly reduced so that laser oscillation becomes possible. As there is a very large population in the upper level, stimulated emission becomes very probable and the laser is suddenly triggered. The flow due to stimulated emission is much greater than the other flows (filling by pumping andemptying by spontaneous emission): all the atoms stored in the upper level fall sharply, emitting stimulated photons (starting with the spontaneous emission trapped in the cavity). Thus, the laser cavity fills with stimulated photons at the same time as the upper level empties. Eventually, the upper level is completely empty. There is no further stimulated emission and the cavity will also empty due to the losses created by the output mirror. (in general, the cavity empties after only a few round trips). This process gives rise to a dramatic variation in the number of. photons in the cavity (first by a significant amplification due to stimulated emission then by the complete emptying of the cavity at the end). The net result is the emission of a short pulse of light via the output mirror. It should be noted that Q-switched lasers never reach a steady state as they stop functioning after several round trips of the light in the cavity. Mode Locking: The second operating technique is completely different. This time, the laser oscillator is left to reach a steady state and the oscillation in the cavity is not blocked. However, the cavity is prevented from filling with photons everywhere at the same time: only a packet of photons is allowed to propagate in the cavity. This pulse lasts for a shorter time than a round trip in the cavity. In other words, its spatial extension is markedly shorter than the length of the cavity. * The method used to obtain these operating conditions consists in using a rapid light modulator that can chop the light in the cavity into periods of exactly the same length as a round trip. Thus, only those photos allowed to pass through the modulator in its on-state will be amplified and will always find the modulator in this state after each round trip. The other photons elsewhere in the cavity will be subject to losses when they travel through the modulator. The average power of a mode-locked laser is of the same order of magnitude as that of continuous-wave lasers. In fact, in contrast to Q-switched lasers, these can also reach a steady state like continuous- wave lasers, The fundamental difference is that the stimulated photons are condensed in a packet rather than spread all around the cavity. During one round trip, only one laser pulse is emitted via the output mirror. The pulse energy is thus equal to the average power myltiplied by the duration of a round trip. Generally, these energies are of the order of several nanojoules. The term “mode-locking” comes from the analysis of the various frequencies. A laser operating under these conditions will emit over several different frequencies due to the rapid modulation of the modulator. They are also imposed by the optical cavity, spaced out by c/2L : the longitudinal modes of the cavity, (or) 13.(b) With neat diagrams explain the working of liquid and semiconductor lasers. (8+8) Ans: Liquid LASER: The Dye Laser is a Liquid Laser. Liquid lasers are those lasers which uses liquid as an active medium. In dye laser the liquid material cailed dye (for example rhodamine B, sodium fluoresein and rhodamie 6G) uses as an active medium, which causes to produce laser light. Working/Function of Dye Lasers: The active medium used in a dye laser can be one of organic dyes. The medium is dissolved in a solvent such as water, alcohol or ethylene glycol The organic dyes such as rhodamine B, sodium fluorsin in for example chemical formula for one of these dyes rhodamine-B is c28H31. It is therefore very difficult to determine the element that actually lases. For this reason we will simply say that some organic dye will lase. Note that the organic dye laser produces a range of wavelengths. For example rhodamine-B produces wavelengths in the 590 mm to 660 mm range. However the amount of amplification varies across the range of frequencies, with maximum output at about 618 nm.By using the birefringent filter, it is possible to tube the laser to specific output frequency. This filter bends the different wavelengths much the same as a prism but to as much greater extent. This makes it possible to tube the laser with great deal of accuracy. Semiconductor Laser: The semiconductor laser is very small in size and appearance. It is similar to a transistor and has the operation like LED but the output beam has the characteristics of laser light. The material which often used in semiconductor laster is the gallium Arsenide, therefore semiconductor laser is sometimes known as Gallium Arsenide Laser. It is also called Injection Laser. The semiconductor is made in unique manner for the semiconductor laser. Working Principle: [n reality a semiconductor laser is simply a semiconductor diode, because its active medium is the junction of the forward biased P-N diode, shown as Metal Contacts Laser 4 Output * Junetion ‘ Fig. Here the metal contacts shown are used to connect the P-N material to the DC power supply. The junction shown is few micrometers thick. At the junction light is emitted when electrons or current pass from N to p type material. In other words, current is injected into the junction between N and P type materials. [t is why we use to semiconductor laser the name of Injection Laser also. Since we know that a minimum current density (similar to the gainthreshold) is necessary for the occurrence of lasing. So when the minimum current density is reached then increasing current density across the junction region will increase the output of the laser. 14.(a) Explain how laser is used for the measurement of distance, velocity, current and voltage. Ans: [Refer: Question No. 14.(a) in Nov/Dec 2013]. (or) 14.(b) Explain how laser is used in material processing and also explain laser heating process and laser trimming of material. Ans: [Refer: Question No. 14.(b) (i) and (ti) in Nov/Dec 2013]. 15.(a)(ii) Explain the different holographic procedures used in the non-Destructive Testing of engineering components. (8) Ans: [Refer: 15.(a)(i) in May/June 2013}. (or) 15.(b) Write technical notes on: (i) Laser based Microsurgery. (8) (ii), Endoscopes. (8) Ans; (i) Laser Based Microsurgery: Laser surgery is surgery using a laser (instead of a scalpel) to cut tissue. Examples include the use of a Iser scalpel in otherwise conventional surgery, and soft tissue laser surgery, in which the laser beam vaporizes soft tissue with high water content. Laser resurfacing is a technique in which molecular bonds of a material are dissolved by a laser. Laser surgery is commonly used onthe eye. Techniques used include LASIK, which is used to correct near and far-sightedness in vision, and photorefractive keratectomy, a procedure which permanently reshapes the cornea using an excimer laser to remove a small amount of tissue Types of surgical lasers include carbon dioxide, argon, Nd: YAG, and KTP, LASER in Eye Surgery: Lasers produce a focused beam of light that can make a very small burn or opening in your eye tissue, depending on the strength of the light beam, Laser surgeries are performed in an outpatient setting in your doctor’s office or in a hospital clinic. During the laser surgery, the eye is numbed so that there is little or no pain. The eye doctor then halds a special lens to the eye. The laser beam is aimed into the eye, and there is a bright light, like a camera flash. (ii) Endoscopes: Endoscopy means looking inside and typically refers to looking inside the body for medical reasons using an endoscope, an instrument used to examine the interior of a hollow organ or cavity of the body. Unlike most other medical imaging devices, endoscopes are inserted directly into the organ. There are many different types of endoscope, and depending on the site in the body and the type of procedure, endoscopy may be performed by a doctor or a surgeon, and the patient may be fully conscious or undergeneral anaesthetic. Endoscope can also refer to using a borescope in technical situations where direct line of-sight observation is not feasible. An endoscope can consist of: e arigid or flexible tube. e alight delivery system to illuminate the organ or object under inspection. The light source is normally outside the body and the light is typically directed via an optical fiber system. ° a lens system transmitting the image from the objective ens to the viewer, typically a relay lens system in the case ofrigid endoscopes or a bundle of fiberoptics in the case of a fiberscope. an eyepiece. Modern instruments may be videoscopes, with no eyepiece, a camera transmits image to a screen for image capture. an additional channel to allow entry of medical instruments or manipulators. A health care provider may use endoscopy for any of the following: Eyepiece investigation of symptons, such as symptoms in the digestive system including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, difficulty swallowing and gastrointestinal bleeding. confirmation ofa diagnosis, most commonly by performing a biopsy to check for conditions such as anemia, bleeding, inflammation, and cancers of the digestive system. giving treatment, such as cauterization of a bleeding vessel, widening a narrow esophagus, clipping offa polyp orremoving a foreign object. A Typical Endoscope Opening for wires and instruments Floxible Shatt a Fig.