S 4927 B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2007. Seventh Semester Electrical and Electronics Engineering EL 1001—FIBER OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS (Common to Electronics and Instrumentation & Instrumentation and Control Engineering) (Regulation 2098) Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL questions. PART A—(10 x 2 = 20 marks) 1. Define: (a) Meridional ray (b) Skew ray . What are permanent and semi permanent spiicers? Give examples. . What is the principle of electro optic modulators? Bown . What is “Speckle pattern”? What is pumping? Enumerate different types of pumping. . Mention the two applications of Fabry perot cavity. . What are the merits of laser heating? What is population inversion in semiconductor lasers? ewnan . What is the principle of holog-aphy? 10, What are the requirements of laser instruments for surg PART B—(5x 16 = 80 Marks) 11. (a) (i) Describe the different types of fibers and their proprties with neat sketches. (7) 11. (a) (ii) Define and explain (1) Numerical Aperature (2) Aci (3) Total internal reflection (9) ceplance cone(or) 11..(b) (i) Enumerate and explain the requirements for an optical source and an optical detector. (6) 11. (b) (ii), What is ISI in optical fibers? Derive an expression for rms pulse broadening ina multi mode glass fiber due to intermodal dispersion. (10) 12. (a) (i) Explain the working principle of different types of modulators with neat sketches. (3) 12. (a) (ii) What are the different types of fiber optic sensors? Explain them (8) (or) 12. (b) Describe in detail the principle of measurement of pressure and temperature using fiber optic sensors. (8) 13. (a) (i) Differentiate three level laser from four level laser system. (6) 13. (a) (ii) Explain the basic characteristics of lasers. Derive an expression for threshold gain for laser. (10) (or) 13. (b) (i) Explain the principle of Q switching and mode locking. (8) 13. (b) (ii) Explain the working principle of semiconductor laser with a neat diagram. . (8) 14. (a) Explain the principle of laser for the measurement of distance and velocity with neat diagram. (or) 14. (b) (i) Explain in detail the principle oflaserweldingandraelting, (8) 14. (b) (i) Explain the application of laser in melting and trimming of materials. (8) 14, (a) (i) Discuss the basic principle of holography. (8) 15. (a) (i) Explain in detail the princip‘zs of holographic interferometry and its applications. (8) (or) 15. (b) Write technical notes on: (i) Laser instruments for brain surgery (8) (ii) Laser instruments for gyneco and oncology. (8)S 4927 B.E./B.Tech, DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2007. Seventh Semester Electrical and Electronics Engineering EI 1001—FIBER OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS (Common to Electronics and Instrumentation & Instrumentation and Control Engineering) (Regulation 2008) Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL questions. PART A—(10 x 2 = 20 marks) 1. Define:(a) Meridional ray (b) Skew ray. Ans: a) Meridional rays are the rays following Zig Zag path when they travel through fiber and for every reflection it will across the fiber axis. b) Skew rays are the rays following the helical path around the fiber axis when they travel through the fiber and they would not cross the fiber axis at any time. 2, What are permanent and semi permanent splicers? Give examples. Ans: Permanent splices are accomplished by applying localised heating at interface between two butted. Example: by flame or by electric are. Semi permanent splices are held in alignment by some mechanical means which may be either by the use of tubes around the fiber ends into which butted fibers are placed, Example: capillary tube, V-grove type. 3. What is the principle of electro optic modulatory? Ans: The principle of electro optic moduiation is that the char refractive index of the medium which is proportion to the square of the applied electric field or voltageAn = khAE An - change in refractive index A - constant 2. - wavelength of light E- Applied electric field. 4. What is “Speckle pattern”? Ans: Speckle pattern formed on the photo detector surface is the result of constructive and destructive interference between propagating modes. Speckle pattern axis when coherent laser light is launched into a multimode fiber. 5. What is pumping? Enumerate different types of pumping. Ans: The process of achieving population inversion by raining the Guard level atoms to excited state is called pumping. There are two types of pumping. They are electrical and optical pumping. 7, What are the merits of laser heating? Ans: * Heat affected zone is very narrow. * The material processing can be done even at room temperature. * High efficiency can be achieved. * There is minimum residual stress and disortion. 8. What is population inversion in semiconductor lasers? Ans: The population inversion in semiconducto. lasers is produced on a steady state basis by locating to specially doped semiconducting materials adjacent to each other to form a junction and applying a forward bias voltage between them The thin layers of materials referred to as “cladding layers” are also added to the junction. 9. What is the principle of holography? Ans: Holography is the process of three dimensional image construction by recording and reconstruction of hologram by means of interference techniques without the aid of lenses. =PART B—6 x 16 = 80 Marks) 11. (a) (i) Describe the different types of fibers and their proprties with neat sketches, (7) Ans: [Refer Q. No. 11.(a)(i), November/December 2008]. 11. (a) (ii) Define and explain: (1) Numerical Aperature (2) Acceptance cone (3) Total internal reflection. (9) Ans: 1) Numerical Aperture:Numerical aperture of the fibe: is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber and it is the measure of the amount of light says that can be accepted by the fibre. This factor gives the relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three media involved namely the core. cladding and the air, NA = A, sin 8, =n, (2A)'* 2) Acceptance Line:The geometric concerned with launching a light ray into an optical fiber, a meridional ray (A) at the critical angle (.) within the fibre at the core cladding interface. This geometric structure is called as acceptance core. 3). Tota! Internal Reflection: When the light ray is incident on the interface between two medium having different refractive indices at an angle greater than critical angle, the light get totally internally reflected within the medium of higher refractive index, This can be achieved only when 1) Light is incident on the dielectric of lower index from the dielectric of higher index. 2) The angle of incidence exceeds the critical value. 11. (b) (i) Enumerate and explain the requirements for an optical source and an optical detector. (6) Ans: Requirements for an optical source: * — [tmust emit the required wavelengths of 1.3 am and 1.55 wm in case of silica fiber. * The spectral line width of the same should be as small as possible because dispersion is directly proportional to the spectral line width of the source.* The light source should have compact size and high efficiency. * Itshould be reliable, durable and inexpensive. * It must require very small time for its operation. Requirements for an optical detector: * High Quantum efficiency/conversion efficiency (1). * Low dark current. * Signal dependent noise should be low, 11. (b) (ii) What is ISI in optical fibers? Derive an expression for rms pulse broadening in a multi mode glass fiber due to intermodal dispersion. (10) Ans: Measurement of intermodal dispersion: Let I-width of fiber impulse response Zand /, - width of input pulse to the fiber are measured at 3dB points. Now TZ and P+ I? or F T=(2- BY! ns, If Z is the fiber length expressed in km, then bandwidth-length product 0.44 BLL a L GHz km. The total dispersion can be measured as Peace tag? 1, * 2, Zu) > Multimode dispersion 7, - chromatic dispersion or material dispersion 7, - waveguide dispersion ° In case of multimode fiber /,,,, fee BE Dans First the injection cases emitting a wavelength *A’ is taken. Then for that wavelength, (A)L, is determined for fiber length 4 km. (ie) HAL, = EA) - BOY". >>L, >>IKA),, is determined for fiber having short length L, I). = 3A) — PO)? As time passes, the wavelength is slightly decreased the amount of decrease in wavelength is equal to the spectral width ‘dA’ of the light source, Intramodal dispersion parameter di D=—2= im) dh 12. (a) (i) Explain the working principle of different types of modulators with neat sketches. (8) Ans: Type of external modulators are * Electro optic modulators based on the effect * Magneto optic modulators based on faraday effect * Acoustoptic modulator based on photo elastic effect. Electro optic modulators:Many elements like potassium tantalate niobate (KTN), Nitrobenzene Nitrotoaluene exhibit electro optic effect in the presence of applied electric field. Kerr effect refers to the change in the refractive index of the medium ewhich is proportion to the square of the applied electric field or voltage. An = kik An - change in refractive index k - kerr constant (mv7) 4. - wavelength of light used. Magneto optic modulators:Faraday effect refers to the rotation of the plane of polarisation by applied magnetic field. 0=VBL V - Verdet constant B - Applied magnetic field L - Path jength of the medium. Acousto optic modulators: Acousto optic effect refers to the change in refractive index of a meaium due to mechanical strain produced by the passage of acoustic waves.The change in refractive index is proportional to the square rate of the acoustic power. UUtraconic Absorption Zero Order Diffractes Beam f, 1 Order Difracts Beam f,~f, Uttrasenie Transducer Modulation Driver Jnformation Sanat Fig. 12. (a) (ii) What are the different types of fiber optic sensors? Explain them. (8) Ans: There are two different types of fiber optic sensors. They are * Intrinsic or Active sensor * Exterinsic or Passive sensor. Intrinsic or Active sensor: The guided light in the fiber gets modulated by the variable to be measured and thei demodulated. Thus sensing and simultaneous measurements are taking palce in the active sensor. There are four types of intensic sensor are, 1) Intensity modulated sensors:Based on change in absorption transmission of light, refractive index, temperature, etc. 2) Phase modulated sensors:Involve the interference between signal and reference in the interferometer, leading toa shift in the interference fringes by the variable. 3) Polarization modulated sensors:Involve the change in the polarization state of the guided signal by the variable. 4) Wavelength modulated sensors:Involve the spectral dependent variation of absorption and emission by the variable. Intrinsic or Passive sensors:Signal Transcucing Light souree Material =|] _ elector (Modulation) ‘ Signal Display ~ Processor The modulation takes place outside the optical fiber. The fiber merely acts as a convenient transmission channel for light radiation. It consists of a sensor head and the remote sensed optical signal is transferred to a point for processing. The losses due to transmission, reflection, microbending and absorption are taken into account by the signal processor and it gives the output. 12. (b) Describe in detail the principle of measurement of pressure and temperature using fiber optic sensors. (8) Ans: Measurement of pressure using fiber optic sensors: [Please Refer Q. No. 12.(a)(), November/December 2008]. Measurement of temperature: Aight se)... Trensmiting Source 5 aan Reoetving Fiver gc wae Fig. : Intensity modulated sensor * — The bimetallic strip acts as sensing element and is attached to a bifurcated reflective fiber optic probe. The strip is designed to move continuously and its movement is directly proportional to temperatureThe amount of reflected light is converted into voltage by a photodiode. The amount of light reflected decreases with increase of temperature so that output of photodiodes decrease with increase of temperature. 13. (a) (i) Differcntiate three level laser from four level laser system. (6) Ans: _ Three level laser Four level laser 1) __ High intense pumping is needed] (1) Less intense pumping only (i.e) high energy level is needed. requires. 2) Only three levels are used for | (2) Four levels are used for LASER operation. LASER operation. 3) More heat generation. (3) Less heat generation. 4) Level 2 isnot keptempty. (4) Level 2 isalmost empty. 5) Radiation iwth thermal vibra- (5) Radiation less transistion. tion will be mere during transistion 6) Transistion rate from level 1 (6) Transistion rate will be very to 3 will be large. small. : 3. (a) (ii) Explain the basic characteristics of lasers. Derive an expression for threshold gain for laser. (10) Ans: Characteristics of LASERS: * It produces monochromatic radiation * It has very high intense * Tis coherent * Ithas disectionality. Threshold gainf or LASER: Let the reflectivity of end mirrors to R. = 1.0 and Ry < 1.0. /,- Intensity of light from mirror lowing reflectivity R. J- Intensity of light striking the mirror having reflecting R,. Let & be the loss co-efficient per unit length and y be the gain co-efficient per unit length. PalyR Ry 2C-ay! /- Distance between two end mirrors, under threshold condition2y = a = In RR, I nae oy MRR, Y= oi xm RR, -. yis the gain co-efficient at threshold condition of oscillation, 13. (b) ()_ Explain the principle of Q switching and mode locking. (8) Ans: If case of lasers, Energystored in the dominant modexw Q= Energy dissipated per secondin the mode If the energy stored in the dominant mode is very large, Q is high. Q-switching means meintaining the population inversion to avery high value above the threshold population inversion and simultaneously bringing down all the atoms to under go laser transistion. Energy of the pulse (£) IN, -N)V N,~ Population inversion during Q-switching N- Normal/threshold population inversion V- Volume of active medium fh - Energy of the emitted photon Mode locking: If the laser transistion line width is more, the number of modes produced will be more. The amplitude. phase and frequence of all modes are time vary ing sot hat the modes are incoherent. The total irvadiance/imensity is the sum of irradiances of individuai s modes. $ nee the modes have different phases, only two or three modes have same phase at any given time. Therefore, the total irradiance is very small due to out of phaseIf we mode lock the laser, (i.e) if we force all modes to maintain the same relative phase to one another, the total irradiance got will be more ‘The resultant irradiance consists of a series of narrow intense pulses . 2b) 4 ( 21 of time spacing (=) and pulse duration Ni =| . 13. (b) (ii) Explain the working principle of semiconductor laser with a neat diagram. (8) Ans: * Semiconductor losses are small, efficient laser device with optical dimensions of less than 2 mm. ‘They operate on wavelength ranging from 1.6 ~ 1.55 ym, depending upon the materials of the laser medium * Semiconductor losses generally operate ona clockwise basis. wees |// tae an Cureni—s " Substrate Figs.: 1,’ threshold current Working Principle:Through, optical pumping is possible, not semiconductor lasers work on the principle of electrical pumping (i.e) they are operated by passing an electrical current through the laser medium. The smal! size of semiconductor lasers is made possible by the extremely large population inversion densities. This inversion is produced ona steady state basis by locating to specially doped semiconducting * materials adjacent to each other to form a junetion and applying a forward bias voltage between them.Apart from these layers, thin layers of material referred to as “cladding layers” are also added to the junction. The purpose of additional layers is to: * More effectively guide the laser mode through materials, * Reduce the lateral dimensions of the region where the current flows thereby reducing heat dissipation in the material. At low currents where theabsorption exceeds the gain, the recombination emission from the junction region increases linearly with current. 14.'(a) Explain the principle of laser for the measurement of distance and velocity with neat diagram. Ans: Measurement of distance:In interferometric techniques. distance is measured in terms of wavelength of light used. C+ Pian Mirror, Beam Spliter Ne uy Coftpentair L eee —. bi =f ‘unror, Telescope, T Fig. Light from an extended monochromatic source is made roughly parallel byt he lens Z,. The light then falls on the beam splitter so that some of the light passes through .f, and is reflected first by Mf, and then by M so as to enter the telescope T. The rest of the light is reflected at the rear face of AZ, then by Mf. from where it passes through M to the telescope T. ‘The two beam of light intering the telescope are coherent if the path difference is less than the coherence length and interference fringes can then be seen through the telescope. The compensator plate C, which is a plate of glass of identical thickness to M, is included to ensure that the two arsm of the interferometer can be made optically equal (i.e) the two beams have the same pat length in glas . So that dispersion occurs equally in both arms.{f M, and M, are perpendicular to each other a system of circular trines of equal inclination is formed according to Ph = 2D cos 0 6 - Angle of inclination d- Distance. To measure an unknown distance, H, is aligned with one end and the fringe shift is counted as M, is moved dentil it coincides with the other end of the distance being measured. Disadvantages: * Undesirable deflections from other surfaces, for: Air interface at the front of the beam splitter give rise to spurious interference pattern. * Laser is an resonant structure and any light reflected back from the interferometic into the laser may modulate the outupt wavelength and amplitude. These disadvantages could be overcome by replacing plane mirrors 1. M, with cube corner reflectors. Measurement of. Velocity: [Please Refer Q. No. 14.(a}(i), November/December 2008}. 14. (b) (i) Explain in detail the principle of laser welding and melting. (8) Ans: Laser welding: i) Continuous/Seam Welding - It is done by continuance wave laser beams or overlapping pulses. ii) Pulse/Spot Welding - It is done by using pulse laser a continuous wave base beams with shutter. Working Prineiple:High power laser radiation incident on metal give rise to melting, vapourisation and ejection of droplets of melts from interactive region. Laser Melting: Due to rise in temperature. there is local meltin. In case of surface modification, the surface is locally melted and cooled with orw ithout additions of alloying’ hardening materials.Melting can be either conduction limited or deep penetration depends on the laser used. 14, (b) (ii) Explain the application of laser in melting and trimming of materials. (8) Ans: Applications of laser in melting:A conduction limited melting which is used for surface treatments and welding and cutting of thin specimens. Specimen dE/dt — rate of lower energy incidence dH/dt —> rate of heat conduction Fig. Here, the metal absorbs the incident beam ont he surface and heat is conducted through the metal to the sub-surface region. Low passes lasers are used in this method. So depth of penetration is limited. Akety hole melting or deep penetration melting where high power lasers are used. This incident laser beam melts the small cylindrical volume of metal through the thickness of the material Key Hole Specimen Fi a oe oe The molten metal present in the walls of the cylindrical column of vapour is held firmly by the equilibrium between high vapour presssure of vapour and the surface tension of molten metal dif >> “aE The Shape of the melted region is in the form of key holeApplications of laser in trimming of metals:Laser trimming is the controlled alteration of tae attributes of a capacitor or a resistor by a laser action. Selecting one or more components on the circuit and adjusting them with the classes achieves this circuit and adjusting them with the lasers achieves this. The trim changes the resistor or caparitor value until the norminal value has been reached. The burning of small portions of resistor will vary the resistance value which depends upon geometric dimensions. The lateral cut in the resistor material by the laser narrow the current flow path and increases the resistance value. 1S. (a) (i) Discuss the basic principle of holography. (8) Ans: Holography is the proces sof image construction by recording and reconstruction of hologram by means of interference techniques without the aid of lenses Hologram recording: * The arrangement for recording holograms uses a low power He- Ne laser is used as the light source because it emits coherent light. * — The light beam is spread and then divided into two beams by a beam splitter which is illuminating beam and reference beam. * — The object in turn reflects part of the illuminating beam onto the film which is called object beam. The reference and object beam interfere with each other and interference pattern is recorded on the film as microscopic swirls. “~~ Object, c Object Beam | Fin Plate liuniratng ae am Spite ae Coheert gH Sauce Reconstruction of a hologram:In reconstruction, the object is recreated by directing a beam of light at the firm. The reconstruction beam need not be a laser ligh. Ordinary sodium light can be usedHologram Reconstructed object image iff Observer Oo -¢ By moving the hologram through the light until the beam is striking the hologram at approximately the same angle as the referenc > beam, the three dimensional virtual image can be got. 15. (a) (ii) Explain in detail the principles of holographic interferometry and its applications. (8) Ans: Three types of holographic interferometry are. * Double expensive holographic interferometry * Real time holographic interferometry * Time average holographic interferometry. Double exposure holographic interferometry:Two hologram are takens uch that one is taken before the applications of stress and other is taken after the application of stress provided both the object and the holographic plate are kept at the same positions. During reconstruction, two seis of wavefronts for the reconstructed images interface and produce interference fringe: Uses: In industries to investigate the stresses on an object or to measure small displacements or distortions of an object by counting the interference fringes. = Real time holographic interferometry: The hologram of the object is taken and proeessed and replaced in its original position. The object is distorted by app! ving presence or stress and object waves are exposed on the processed holographic plate, Thus the interference fringes are viewd in teal time through holographic plate, Uses: It is sensitive tool for measuring the strains of object Time averaged Holographic interferometry: The object is mo ing continuously during the period of exposureUses: It is used to study the spatial characteristics of low amplitude vibrations of an object like guitar where strings are under vibration. 15. (b) Write technical notes on: (i) Laser instruments for brain surgery. (8) (ii) Laser instruments for gynecology and oncology. (8) Ans: i) Laser instruments for brain surger Surgery is the pr’ ary treatment for brain humours that can be removed without causing severe damage. The following goals are need to be achieved. They are * — Conform diagnosis by obtaining tissue that is examined under a microscope. * — Remove all or as much to the turnover as possible. Reduge symptoms and improve quality of life by relieving intracranical pressure caused by the cancer, * — Provide access for implantation of internal chemotherapy or radiation. * Provide access for delivering intra-surgical treatments including laser surgery. Surgical techniques:The aim of laser surgery is to direct the laser beams at the corner and destroy it with heat. Since light beams cannot penetrate bone, the laser can be used only during surgery. Laser also perform the function ofa scalpel (surgical knife). Lasers are capable of immense heat and power when focussed at close range. * — Laser distroy tumour cells by vapourising them. Stereotactic or Computer assisted techniques are used to direct the laser beam, * Laser are chiefly used in the treatment of tumour that have involved the skull base or deep within the brain since they cannot be removed by suction or with tumours that break apart,easily. ii) Laser instruments for gynecotogy and encology: [Please Refer Q. No. 15.(b)(ii), November/December 2008].