Question Paper Code : 31434 B.E./B. Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2013. Seventh Semester Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering El 2404/EI 74/E! 1354 ANC 1002/10133 El 704—FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS (Common to Sixth Semester-Instrumentation and Control Engineering and Electrical and Electronics Engineering) (Regulation 2008/2010) Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL questions. PART A—(10 x 2 = 20 marks) 1. Enumerate the different types of glass fibers. Mention a potential application of each. Ans: Types of Glass Fibers: e Silica glass fiber-long distance communication. © Mutlicomponent glass fiber-endoscopic applications. 2. Define Intermodal and Intramodal dispersions. Ans: Intermodal Dispersions: It is due to variation of group velocity for each mode at a single frequency. Intramodal Dispersions: They are material dispersion and waveguide dispersion. These are due to dependence of group velocity on the wavelength. 3. | What are the different types of fiber optic sensors? Ans: Different Types of Fiber Optic Sensors: * Intrinsic Sensor or Active Sensor e Intensity Modulated Sensors, e Phase Modulated Sensors, e Polarization Modulated Sensors:e Wavelength Modulated Sensors. * Extrinsic or Passive Sensor. 4. What is the Principle of Acousto optic modulator? Ans: Principle of Acousto Optic Modulator: It is based on photo- elastic effct refers to the change in refractive index of a medium due to mechanical strain produced by the passage of acoustic waves. 5. | Why optical pumping is preferred in lasers? Ans: Optical Pumping: It is a process in which light is used to raise or pump electrons from a lower energy level in an atom or molecule to a higher one. It is commonly used in laser construction, to pump the active laser medium so as to achieve population inversion. 6. What is the Principle of Double hetero structure Laser? Ans: Principle of Double Hetero Structure Laser: In double hetero structure laser, the active medium is sandwiched between p and n materials which are different from the active material. 7. Write the features of laser melting. Ans: Features of Laser Melting: e Conduction limited melting by low power lasers. e@ Deep penetration or key hole melting by high power lasers. 8. Whatis the significance of shielding gas during the material processing by lasers? Ans: Significance of shielding gas during the material processing by lasers: e to protect the focussing lens. : ° to provide a protective environment ona weld pool. e it is much effect at low welding speed where local vapour density is much higher. 9. Mention the components of Hologram. Ans: Components of Hologram: . A low power LASER. e Beam splitter. ° Film plate.10. What is the principle of Fiberoscope? Ans: Principle of Fiberoscope: The light rays are focused and coupled to the illuminating fiber bundle. The light rays are finally incident on the surface of the object under study. The light rays reflected by the surface will be received and transmitted through the fiber bundle. PART B—{5 x 16 = 80 marks) 11.(a)(i) Compare and contract the different parameters of glass fibers with plastic fibers. Ans: Plastic Fibers (8) Glass Fibers = They are inert. They can able to withstand higher temperature. m It faces the moisture issues. m They are easy to handle, non-abrasive to both tooling surfaces. = They are low cost, lower production energy requirement. = Ithas high tensile strength, stiffness, impact resistance. a They are less consistent in dimension and overall quality. They can able to withstand lower temperature. Itdoes not faces any moisture issues, They are difficult to handle, abrasive to both tooling surface and skin. They are high-cost. It has low physical properties. They are very quality and overall dimensions. 11.(a)(ii) Explain the requirements for an ideal optical source and an ideal optical detector. (8) Ans: Optical Sources: Requirements of light source used for communication: ° It must emit the required wavelengths of 1.3 um and 1.55 um in case of silica fiber.The spectral line width of the source should be as small as possible (= | nm) because dispersion is directly proportional to the spectral line width of the source. The light source should have compact size and high efficiency. It should be reliable, durable and inexpensive. It must require very small time for its operation. Photo Detectors: A photodetector is a device used to convert the light signals to electrical signals a the receiver end of the fiber link. Requirements: A high quality photodetector should have: 11.(b)@) High quantum efficiency/conversion efficiency n, where 1 number of electrons produced per incident photon. Low dark current. Signal dependent noise should be low. (or) Explain the types of loss due to Scattering in optical fibers. (8) Ans: Linear Scattering: Linear scattering transfers linearly the optical power in one propagating mode to a different mode. This linear scattering process may cause the attenuation of operating mode power by means of transferring power to leaky or radiation mode which will not continue to propagate within the core of fiber but is radiated from the fiber. There is a large scattering loss in multimode fibers due to higher dopant, concentration E, greater compositional fluctuations. Rayleigh Scattering: It is the dominant loss mechanism in the ultraviolet region. Its tail extends upto infrared region.Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. It arises from the microscopic homogeneities present in the material of fiber. The inhomogeneities may arise from the density fluctuations, refractive index fluctuations and compositional variations. By operating the fiber at higher wavelengths, Rayleigh Scattering loss can be reduced. This is called as Elastic Scattering because there is no change in frequency. Mie Scattering e It is a linear scattering which arises from the inhomogeneities which are comparable in size to the guided wavelength It is also due to the imperfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide, irregularities in the core-cladding interface, core- cladding refractive index difference along the fiber and diameter fluctuations. Mie scattering created by inhomogeneities is mainly in the forward direction. This loss can be reduced by deflect free fiber fabrication and by increasing the relative refractive index difference. Non-Linear Scattering Losses When we use high optical power levels (= 100 mw), non- linear scattering losses occur, This scattering causes the optical power gets scattered from one mode to the other at a different frequency either in forward or backward direction. These scatterings are observed in single mode fiber at high optical power densities. These scatterings are inelastic scatterings due to shift in frequency.Stimulated Brillouin Seattcring ° This is defined as the modulation of light through thermal molecular vibrations within the fiber. ° The scattered light contains an upper and lower side bands along with incident light frequency. ° An incident photon produces a scattered photon as well as a photon of acoustic frequency. The frequency shifl varies with the scattering angle. e The frequency shift is maximum in the backward direction and it is reduced to zero in the forward direction. . The threshold optica! power for Brillouin scattering is proportional to d77a,, where. d: fiber core diameter 2. operating wavelength «., Brillouin scattering loss coefficient. Stimulated Raman Scattering e Here, the scattered light consists ofa scattered photon and a high frequency optical photon. . Further, this occurs both in the forward and backward direction in the optical fiber. . The threshold optical power for Raman scattering is about three orders of magnitude higher than the Brillouin threshold fora given fiber. « The threshold opticai power for Raman scattering is proportional to dAd,. where d core diameter, A operating wavelength, o,, Raman scattering loss coefficient. 11.(b)(ii) Differentiate an optical connector from a splicer. Explain any one Splicer with a neat diagram. (8)Ans: Optical Connectors: These are removable joints which allow easy, fast manual coupling and uncoupling of fibers. Demountable fiber connectors are more difficult to achieve than optical fibers. Splicers: A permanent joint formed between two individual optical fibers in the field or factory is known as a fiber splice. Types of Splicing: These are of two types: (i) Fusion splicing/welding, (ii) Mechanical splicing. Mechanical Splice The four main types of mechanical splices are: 1. Capillary type, 2. Vgroove type, 3. Elastic groove type, 4. Spring groove type. Capillary Splice Type Square Cross Class or Soar Section Capillary Capillary NS <— Optical Fiber Opticai Fiber Figs. This common method involves the use of an accurately produced rigid alignment tube into which the prepared fiber ends are permanently bonded. This tube splive which is shown above, utilises a glass or ceramiccapillary with an inner diameter just large enough to accept the optical fibers. Transparent adhesive (eg., epoxy resin) is injected through a tranversed bore’in the capillary to give mechanical ceiling and index matching of the splice. Average insertion losses as low as 0,1 dB have been obtained with multimode graded index and single mode fibers using ceramic capillaries. V-Groove Splice: Epoxy Optical Fiber V grooved Glass substrate Fig. This method involves the use of grooves to secure the fibers to be joined. Here, a V groove is used into which the two prepared fiber ends are pressed. This splice is made permanent by securing the fibers in the “V’ groove with epoxy resin. Here, the joint insertion losses is around 0.1 dB. 12.(a)(i) Explain the role of optical fibers in the measurement of pressure, in detail. (10) Ans: Measurements Using Fiber Optic Sensor: Measurement of Pressure ° All the displacement sensors can be used to measure pressure. Here, the pressure is first converted in to displacement and the change in intensity is reflected or transmitted light is measured in terms of displacement. ° The pressure sensor based on reflective concept is shown in Figure.Transmitting fiber = is {ossrsom x Receiving fiber ie ba Pressure sensor based on the reflective concept (detector) e Depending upon the value of pressure, the radius of curvature of the diaphragm is changed. Hence, the intensity of the reflected light is changed. e The response curve shows that as the pressure increases, output voltage decreases. ° With increase of pressure, the intensity of reflected light is decreased and hence the output voltage decreases. Output ‘vatts) 4 20 40 60 80 100. Pressure (psi) Fig, : Response Curve of Pressure Sensor 12.(a)(ii) Give an account on “Moire Fringes”. (6) Ans: Moire Fringes: Moire fringes or fringes are the relatively thick lines produced when two patterns of thin lines overlap. The set of farely thick, sometimes coloured additional lines ean be distracting,Pattern Explanation: The sketch shown in figure demonstrates the formation of moire fringes. One grid consists of equally spaced straight lines sloping upwards to the left. The grid sloping upwards (o the right consists of straight lines whose spacing is the same as that of the first grid. The pattern is relatively bright around the points of intersection of the wo grids. The loci of these points specify the position of the moire fringes. (or) 12.(b)()_ Explain the working principle of electro optic modulator with a neat sketch. .* (8) ‘Ans: Modulation mit} VV | Input Carrier Wave f, Output PM wave WWW oc WWW = IElectro-optic a Fak Material x Polariser oe Transparent Electrodes Fig. : Electro-Optic ModulatorAn electro-optic material has the property that its refractive index depends upon the fields applied to its crytal structure. The effective refractive index experienced by a wave passing through the material depend upon the magnitude and direction of any applied field. It also depends upon the polarisation state of the wave. EDM’ various ways depending on the relative field, wave and crystal an be used in orientations. For this example, we will assume that the device is laid horizontally and the wave passes through it in the horizontal plane in a beam parallel to the z-axis of our co-ordinate system. Hence the EOM produces a PM/EM wave by imposing phase fluctuations on a steady input carrier. Note that this technique differs from the VCO approach where wave is created with required modulation. Here we need a separate, fixed frequency coherent oscillator to provide the carrier input to the modulator. 12.(b)(ii) Explain the principle of laser for measurement of temperature. (8) Ans: Light source “ON Transrritting fiber Steel Brass 5 a p ane wf G Ths 5 2 Detector, aaa =@_> >? Gr es Receiving ‘ber Freaie es ee 200°C (a) (b) Fig. : Intensity Modulated Sensor ° The bimetallic strip acts as a sensing element. ° It consists of steel and brass which are welded together to form a strip ° The brass has higher linear expausiv ity compared to steel,° The strip is attached to a bifurcated reflective fiber optic probe. ° The strip is designed to move continuously and its movement is directly proportional to temperature. 13.(a)(i) Explain the difference between direct and indirect band gap semiconductors. Give examples. (6) Ans: Direct Band Gap Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors Semiconductors ® Anelectron can shift from Energy the lowest-energy state in the conduction band to the highest energy state in the valence band without a change in crystal momentum Depicted isa transition in which a photon excites an electron from the valence band tothe conduction band ae 7 Valence band Moment Anelectron cannot shift from the lowest energy state in the conduction band to the highest energy state in the valence band without a change in momentum, Here, almost all of the energy comes from a photon (vertical arrow), while almost ailof the momentum comes from a phonon (horizontal arrow). Conduction band > Ss a oe Ec 7 Phonon & | assisted _—_tansition| 8 | le ce band Momentuma The minimal energy state in the conduction band and the maximal-energy state in the valence band are each chara- cterized by a certain crystal momentum (k-vector) in the Brillowin zone.-If k-vectors are same it is called a ‘direct gap’. Momentum of electrons and holes is the same in bothhe conduction band and the valence band; an electron can directly emit a photon. Two requirements for transi- tion between bands are the energy supplied is greater than band gap and the momentum is conserved. Iris always satisfied near the zone centre and so only need energy. Generally means absorption of light is greater. Materials such as GaAs, InP, InAs are examples of direct semi- conductors used in opto-electronies. it the “E” vectors aredifferent it is called an indirect gap A photon cannot be emitted because the electron must pass through an intermediate state and transfer momentum to the crystal lattice. ‘Transition requires the addition or subtraction of momentum in order to satisfy conservation condition. Require interaction with a third particle with nomentum- phonon, Three particle transition less likely hence lower light absorption. amples include Si, Ge as well as IL-V materials such as ALAS.13.(a)(ii), Explain the structure of Fabry Perot resonator and its principle of operation with a neat diagram. (10) Ans: Fabry Perot Resonator Structure . ° It consists of two parallel semi transparent mirror having power reflectivities R, and R, separated by a given distance ¢ e The space between the mirror is referred to as the cavity. e More generally, any cavity that is coupled to the outside world through two ports can at same level of abstraction be described as a Fabry-Perot resonator. Resonance in a Fabsy-Perot interferometer occur if a wave after making a full round trip through the cavity arrives in phase with itself. The resonance condition is given by: o = 2BL=m2n o = Soundstrip phase shift. m Resonance order m. B- Propagation constant.(or) 13.(b)(i) Distinguish 3 level laser from 4 level laser. Explain the concept of population inversi them, (8) Ans: Three Level Laser Four Level Laser a [na three level system. the {na four level system, the terminal fevel for the fluo- three level laser set con- rescence process (spontaneous _ strained is removed. Most emission) is the ground level useful lasers are based on (i.e) the level with the four level systems. lowest energy. = Here, the population in- Level 2 will be almost emply version is produced by raising thus, to produce population in- electrons to the high energy version between level 3 and level by the process of pumping 2. only smail number of with an auxiliary light source. electrons need to be pushed to level 3 and not half of all the electrons. . : 3—_] > Pumping | | Radiationless Pumping t — Radietionless Light 1 Decay Lioht i Decay on Laser ton Light 1 2 T Rediationless 1 —* DecayThree Level Laser Four Level Layer Light with frequency. A#-Planck’s constant. It is observed to excite electrons from level | to level 3. Stimulated emission occurs between levels 2 and | at frequency, It is very fast radiation less transition accomplished by thermal vibrations of the atoms will drop the electrons to level 2, The difference in energy between levels 3 and 2 appears as *heat’. It subs- tantial power at frequency J, is supplied, the transition rate from level | to 3 will be large. Since level | is the ground level, almost all the electrons resides in it; to achieve popu- lation inversion, more than half of the electrons from level | should be moved to level 2 and so intense pumping is needed. Vhere is less heat generation (via) the radiationless transitions so that cooling requirements are eased. Radiation less transition from levei 4 to 3 and laser transition from level 3 to 2 is very fast Radiation less transition from level 4 to 3 and laser transition from level 3 to 2 is very fast. They require less intense pumping and offer lower threshold excitation energies.I4, (a) Describe the principle of lasers for measurement of length and velocity with neat back diagrams, (16) Aus: Laser for Measurement of Length: e The large coherence length and high output intensity coupled with a low divergence precision length measurements using interferometric techniques. e Here, the laser beam is split in to two parts. and they are made to interfere after traversing two different paths. e One of beams emerging from the beam splitter is reflected by a fined reflector and the other by a cube corner reflector. ALLLLLLLLLLL Fired Mirror i . — Cube tase = corner reflector | af Beam Y splitter L | Photo Detector Fig. e The two reflected beams interference to produce either constructive or destructive interference. ° Asthe reflecting surface is moved, one would get alternatively constructive and destructive interference which can be detected with the help of a photodetector. e Since the change from a construction to a destructive interference corresponds to a change of a distance of a halfwavelength, one can measure the distance traversed by the surface on which the reflector is mounted by counting the number of fringes which have crossed the photodetector. e Accuracies up to 0.1 nm can be obtained by using such a technique. . This technique is used for accurate positioning of aircraft components on a machine tool, for calibration and testing of machine tools, for comparison with standards. Principle of Lasers for Measurement of Velocity: Principle : . Measurement of the velocity of fluid flow can be performed by scattering a laser beam from a liquid or gas. The faser beam interacts with small particles carried along by the flowing fluid. The particles scattered some of the light in all directions. The frequency of the scattered light is slightly shifted by the doppler effect. The magnitude of the frequency shift is proportional to the velocity of the fluid. Measurement. of the frequency shift directly gives the flow velocity, Beam Splitter Vv i“ (a) Scattered Detector Light ApertureFigs. Construction: The measurement technique basically consists of a focussing laser light ata point within the flowing fluid. Light scattered from the fluid or from particles entrained within the fluid flow is collected and focussed on an optical detector. Signal processing of the detector output yields the magnitude of the doppler frequency shift and hence the velocity of flow. Working: ‘The arrangement shown in figure is a common approach called the “Dual beam mode approach”. Light from a continuous laser is split into two equal parts by a beam splitter. The lens focusses the beams to the same position in the fluid. The place where the two beams cross in the fluid, they interfere to form fringes consisting of alternating regions of high and low intensity. The fringe pattern is shown in figure (b). When a particle traverses the fringe pattern, it will scatter light when it passes through a regions of high intensity. The scattering will be reduced when a particle is passing through regions of low intensity. , Light scattered by a particle in the fluid and arriving at the detector will produce a varying output, the frequency of which is proportional to the rate at which particle traverses the interferences fringes. (or)14.(b) &xplain the applications of laser in: (i) Trimming of material, (ii) Heating, (iii) Vaporization. (5+5+6) Ans: [Refer: Question No. 14.(b)(i), May/June 2013]. 15.(a)(i) Explain the basic principle of holography with neat diagrams. (8) Ans: Holography: ° This is the process of image construction by recording and reconstruction of hologram by means of interference techniques without the aid of lenses, ° This was invented by Dennis Gabor in (948. e The other name for this method is “Lensless Photography”, Here, recording of optical image is done by means of interference technique without using lenses ° Holography originates from the Greak word “holos” meaning “the whole”, Principle of Hologram Recording: Object Beam Object “| Film Plate Illuminating ,-7 Beam Splitter Coherent Light Source° the arrangement for recording holograms is shown in figure, A low power He-Ne laser is used as the light source because itemits coherant light. ° The light beam is spread and then divided into two beams splitter, ° One beam of light is called the illuminating beam and it illuminates the object to be holographed. ° The object in turn, reflects paid of the illuminating beam onto the film such as kodak so -253 (or) AGFAIDE 755. This beam is called the object beam. ° The second beam of light leaving the beam splitter is called the reference beam. ee [t is indirected to the film byt he front surface mirror. ° On the fill, the reference and object beams interfere with each other and the interference pattern is recorded on the film as microscopic swirls. 15.(a)(ii) Explain the special features of holography for NDT. (8) Ans: Special Features of Holography for NDT: The most powerful feature of the holographic NDT is that information is obtained over the entire or large portion of the surface of acomponent rather than at justa point. The irregularities of the contour lines are usually obvious even to the untrained viewer. Itis possible therefore to locate the position, orientation and densities of the flaws and irregularities without contact being made. It is used to locate surface cracks, internal flaws in the forms of cracks and debonds. It allows the visualization of the interior of the pipe and a pressure vessel aiming at monitoring erosion, corrosion and artificially created flaws. é The ability to record two slightly different scenes and display the small difference between them.(or) 15.(b) Write technical notes on: (5+5+6) (i) Lasers for removal of tumors of vocal cards. (ii) Lasers for plastic surgery. (iii) Lasers for Oncology. An (i) Lasers fer Removal of Tumors of Vocal Cards: Surgery on the vocal cards can be performed either directly in an open surgical approach by making an incision in the neck or indirectly through an endoscopic approach through a tube insated into the mouth and throat. Fither procedure is performed under general anesthesia (i.¢.) the person is fully asleep. The Co, laser device increases the intensity of light waves using Co, and concentrates them as an intense, penetrating beam of light. This is similar in a way to use a magnifying glass to concentrate the sun’s rays. The concentrated sun rays underneath the magnifying glass get hot enough to burn paper for example. Similarly, the Co, laser beam can be used very accurately to “burn off” areas of tissue that need to be removed or vapourised. {ii) Lasers for Plastic Surgery: In plastic surgery, the tissue may be moved to fill a depression, to cover a wound, or to improve appearance: Tissue may be completely removed to alter the contours of a feature. The main applications for high power lasers in the field of plastic surgery are for the treatment of angiomas and other vascular lesions. Lasers are principally used for the treatment of port wine stains and for the coagulation of pigmented lesions such as Melanomas. Lasers have been successfully used in the treatment i's sarcoma and yascular lesions such as Cavernous Angiomas, Kap: malignant vascular tumours. The basic goals of plastic surgery are correction of disfigurement, restoration of impaired function, improvement of physical appearance. (iii) Lasers for Oncology: Oncology is the branch of medicine that studies cancer tumoursand seeks to understand their development, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. It is concermed with the diagnosis of cancer, therapy (eg. surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other methods) and photodynamic therapy. Experiments on dyes and lights used for degrading tumors is on the basis ofa method called photodynamic therapy. The radiation wavelength most suitable for PDT is within 630 nm. The main objective is to destroy malignant tissues without detriment to healthy ones. Photosensitizer are substance or drug which are sensitive to the laser light that fall upon. eg., H,D derivative from hematoporphyrin which on activation using laser fight is converted into DHE (Dihematoporphyrinether). There are three types of highlight lasers available to generate radiation within 630 mm. They are: e A variable dye laser with a pump argon laser. e A dye laser with a pump copper laser. @ A gold vapour laser.