Question Paper Code: 42369 B.E./B.Tech. Degree. Examinations, November/December 2010 Seventh Semester Electrical and Electronics Engineering EI 1001—FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS (Common to Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering and Instrumentation & Control Engincering) (Regulation 2004) Time: Three Hours Maximum: 100 Marks Answer ALL Questions Part A—{10 x 2 = 20 Marks) 1. State the advantages of optic fibre. Ans: * Highly reliable and secure. * Safe in explosive and nuclear environment. * Most suitable for remote sensing. * Corrosion resistant. * High accuracy and sensitivity. * Less transmission losses. 2. What is acceptance angle? Ans: The maximum angle >... with which a ray of light can enter through the entrance end of the fiber and still be totally internally deflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber. 3. Mention the applications of fibre optic sensor. Ans: It is used for * Measurement of length. * Measurement of pressure. * Measurement of temperature. * Measurement of current. Measurement of voltage. Measurement of strain.4. Define Moire fringes. Ans: Moire fringes or fringes are the relatively thick lines produced when two patterns of thin lines overlap. 5. What are the properties of LASER? Ans: * Monochromaticity. * Directionality. ‘ Spatial and temporal characteristics. *. Coherence. * Brightness. * High power levels: 6, What is cavity damping? Ans: It is the method for producing short pulses with duration in the nanosecond to microsecond time. 7, What is LASER heating? Ans: When the LASER beam is incident on the surface of the specimen, there is simultaneous absorption.and reflection which increases rate of rise of temperature. 8. Define Vaporization. Ans: Vaporization is the process defined as the material differs away into the surrounding atmosphere without further interaction with the LASER beam. 9, What are holographic components? Ans: The holographic components are * Coherent light source (LASER). * Beam splitter. * Film plate. 10. List the medical applications of LASER. Ans: * Laser diagram’s * Laser therapy * Laser surgery 1) Thermal distribution. 2) Hydrodynamical destruction. 3) Photo ablation.PART B—{5 x 16 = 80 Marks) 11. (a) (i) Explain step and Graded index fibre. (8) Ans: * Based on fibers used in communication they are classified into: 1) Step index fiber - Single mode, - Multimode, 2) Graded index fiber - Multimode. Step index fiber * Here, the refractive index of core is maximum and constant throughout the core. * There is a stepwise decrease of refractive index in cladding. * The refractive index of cladding is given by, . n, =n, (1 - A) where, 1, - refractive index of core A - Relative refractive index difference between core and cladding. * This step index fiber is further classified into 2 types: * 1) Step index muitimode fiber 2) Step index singlemode fiber Step index multimode fiber ‘Nature of light ray propagation Refractive index profile Nature of light ray propagation * — Here, the difference between refractive indices of core and cladding is more, * — Further, its core has large diameter. * Generally it is used in short distance communication because attenuation is large.Step index single mode fiber Cladding ‘Core n Refractive index profile Nature of light ray propagation Refractive index profile Nature of light ray propagation * — Here, the difference between refractive indices of core and cladding is very less, * — Its core diameter is also very small. * 'Tthas low attenuation and very high bandwidth. “It has low numerical aperture (NA). So these are used in long distance communication. Graded index fiber * — Here the refractive index of core varies parabolically such that its maximum at the core axis and-minimum at the core cladding boundary. * The refractive index of a graded index fiber is given by, - ai 42 n=m|'-24(2) | for Oa where, 7 - radical distance from the fiber axis a- Core radius n, - refractive index of cladding n, - refractive index of core 4A- refractive index differencea - Refractive index profile * For paraboll: ype graded index fibers, a = 2. When @ =co, (7) =n, Refractive Index Profile Nature of light ray propagation WM ENE NEN APF MMMM Refractive Index Profile Nabore of light ray propagation Numerical Aperture NA = [n (? = nV"? mmo (HS = zero for r>a where, NA(o) - Axial numerical aperture = 0, (2X *€ Graded index fibers have smaller diameter than step index multimode fibers and it has large bandwidth and low attenuation. 11. (a) ii) Write a note on intrinsic and extrinsic absorption. (8) Ans: * Extrinsic Absorption Extrinsic or impurity absorption results pre dominantly from transition metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt, copper and from OH (water). The transition metal impurities which are present in the starting materials used for direct meit fibers range between | and i0 ppb passing losses from | to 10 dB/kin.* ‘These losses occur either because of electronic transitions between the energy levels associated with the incompletely fill inner subshell of these ions (or) because of charge transitions from one ionto another. The presence of OH ion impurities in fiber perform results mainly from the oxyhydrogen flame used for the hydrolysis reaction of SiCl,, GeCl, and POCI, starting materials. Water impurity concentrations of less than a few parts per billion (pph) are required if the attenuation is to be less than 20 dB/km, By reducing the residual OH content of fibers to around 1 ppb, standard commercially available single mode fibers have nominal attenuations of 0.5 dB/km in 1100 nm window and 0.3 dB/km in 1550 nm window as shown. Attenuation (4B/em) ——» An effectively complete elimination of water molecules from the fiber results in the dashed curve as shown. This is for an all wave fiber made by lucent technologies. Intrinsic Absorption * This is associated with the basic fiber material (eg.: pure SiO.) and it is the principle physical factor that defines the transparency window of a material over a specified spectral region. It occurs when the material is in a perfect stage with no density variations, impurities, material inhomogeneities etc.This results from the electronic absorption bands.in the ultraviolet region and from atomic vibration bands in near infrared region. The electronic absorption bands are associated with the band gaps of the amorphous giass materials, Absorption occurs when aphoton interacts with an electron in the valence band and get it excited to a higher energy level. The ultraviolet edge of the electron absorption bands of both amorphous and crystalline materials follow the empirical relationship, et, = Co®!Fo C, E, - Empirical constants £- Photon energy This is known as Urbach’s rule. 11. (b) (i) Discuss linear and non-linear scattering. (8) Ans: Linear Scattering * Linear scattering transfers linearly the optical power in.one propagating mode to a different mode. This linear scattering process may cause the attenuation of operating mode power bymeans of transferring power to leaky or radiation mode whichwill not continue to propagate withint he core of fiber but is radiated from the fiber. * There is a large scattering loss in multimode fibers due to higher depant, concentration E, greater compositional fluctuations. Rayleigh Scattering : * It is the dominant loss mechanism in the Ultraviolet region. Its tail extends upto infrared region. Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. Itarises from the microscopic homogeneities present in the material of fiber. The inhomogeneities may arise from the density fluctuations, refractive index fluctuations and compositional variations. For SiO, fiber, the Rayleigh scatteirng loss at a given wavelengthresulting from density fluctuations is given by 8x? . scat aya P BeKT ym x where 7 Refractive index for Silica P Photoelastic coefficient for Silica ’ B, Isothermal compressibility K : constant A: wavelength T, : Frictive/Annealing temperature (Temperature at which solidification of glass takes place). * The transmission loss due to Rayleigh scattering is given by, @ = EXP(-O scar ~ L) where 1: Length of fiber * . By operating the fiber at higher wavelengths, Rayleigh Scattering loss can be reduced. . * — Thisiscalled as Elastic Scattering because there is nochange in frequency. Mic scattering . * — Itisalinear scattering which arises from the inhomogeneities which are comparable in size to the guided wavelength. * - Itis also due to the imperfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide, irregularities int he core-cladding interface, core-cladding refractive index difference along the fiber and diameter fluctuations. * Mie scattering created by inhomogeneities is mainly in the forward direction. * This loss can be reduced by defect free fiber fabrication and by increasing the relative refractive index difference. Non-Lienar scattering losses * When we use higho ptical power levels (100 mw), non-linear scattering losses occur. * — This scattering causes the optical power gets scattered from one mode to the other at a different frequency either in forward or backward direction,* * These scatterings are observed in single mode fiber at high optical power densities. These scatterings are inelastic scatterings due to shift in frequency. Stimulated Brillouin scattering * This is defined as the modulation of light through thermal! molecular vibrations within the fiber. The scattered light contains an upper and lower side bands along with incident light frequency. An incident photon produces a scattered photon as well as a photon of Acoustic frequency. The frequency shift varies with the scattering angle. The frequency shift is maximum in the backward direction and it is reduced to zero in the forward direction. The threshold optical power for Brillouin scattering is proportional to FV a, where, d: fiber core diameter A: operating wavelength a.,: Brillouin scattering loss coefficient. Stimulated Raman scattering * Here, the scattered light consists of a scattered photon and a high frequency optical photon. Further, this occurs both in the forward and backward direction in the optical fiber. The threshold optical power for Raman scattering is about three orders of magnitude higher than the Brillouin threshold for a given fiber. ‘The threshold optical power for Raman scattering is proportional to # ho, where d core diameter 4 operating wavelength a, Raman scattering loss coefficient.11. (b) (ii) Explain the characteristics of optical sources and detectors. (8) a Ans: Optical Sources:Requirements of light source used for Communication: It must emit the required wavelengths of 1.3m and 1.55pm in case of silica fiber, The spectral line width of the source should be as small as possible (1 nm) because disnersion is directly proportional to the spectral line width of the source. The light source should have compact state and high efficiency 1: should be reliable, durable and inexpensive. Tt must require very smail time for its operation. Photo Netectors:A photodetector is a device usec to convert the light signals to electrical signals at the receiver end of the fiber link. Requirements:A high quality photodetector should have, High quantum efficiency/conversion efficiency 1, where ) ni of electrons produced per incident photon Low clark current. Signa! dependent noise should be low 12. (a) (i) Deseribe the fibre optic instrumentatiou system for the measurement of strain. (8) Ans: Reference |-_—_-——___-, e Detector | 3 | oat | M Force | ' (hrs | { R - doy A ou | 7 ; 0 RMicrobending losses are produced in the fiber whent he top block presses the fiber by the applied external force. The microbend losses are found to increase with increase in force applied to the top block. The intensity danger produced by the applied force are meagured with reference to a direct unmodulated signal from the light source. The comparator compares these two values and gives the value of strain roduced. 12. (a) (ii) Expiain different types of modulators used in fiberoptic instrumentation system. (8) Ans: Different Types of Modulators: * Internal modulators are placed in the resonant cavity of laser diode or LED. By means of drive circuit, the laser light in intensity modulated. * — External modulators are those which modulate the laser light outside -the resonant cavity. * — Types of external modulators are {} Electrooptic modulators based on terr effect. {] Magnetooptic modulators based on faraday effect. ‘{], Acoustooptic modulators based on photoelastic effect. Electrooptic modulators * Many elements like Potassium tantalate niobate (KTN), Nitrobenzene, Nitrotoaluene exhibit eléctrooptic effect in presence of applied electric field. *° Kerr effect refers to the change in the refractive index of the medium which is proportion to the square of the applied electric field or yoltage. Aa=Ki EY where Av Change in refractive index XK Kerr constant (mv?) 4, Wavelength of light used * — The change in refractive inde~ is due to inducement of electtical dipole moments by the applied electric field.Advantage * Have tow value of half wave voltage. It is 250 V for KTM and BaTiO,. Disadvantage * — The clements used are poisonous and quickly evaporated. * — The change in refractive index is highly temperature dependent. * — Higher bandwidth cannot be obtained. Modulation up to 10! Hz can be obtained. Magneto optic Modulators * — Faraday effect refers to the rotation of the plane of polarisation by the applied magnetic field. * — The angle of rotation of plane of polarisation is given by. 8 = VBL Where V - Verdet constant, B- Applied magnetic field L-Path length of the medium This angle can be expressed in terms of change in refractive index ‘as Gat mt A Thus 9 « An, Disadvantages * — The value of angle of rotation is very small even for higher value of applied magnetic field. * — Angle of rotation depends on wavelength too. Uses *, They are mainly used in optical Isolators and computer memories. Acoustooptic Modulator * — Acoustooptic effect refers to the change in refractive index of a medium due to mechanical strain produced by the passage of acoustic waves. * — The change in refractive index is proportiona! to the square root of the acoustic power.Special feature _ This gives zero order diffraction intensity and -1 order diffraction intensity in separated form. the +1 order diffraction intensity is reduced to zero. ‘Working * — A narrow collimated laser beam is incident on the medium at Braga. angle “0° in the wansverse manner with respect to the direction of propagation of ultrasonic Waves. * — Bragg angle *U’ is defined as i Afnre @=sin“!i Se { 2h whiere, A, wavelength of laser beam, 7., wavelength of ultrasonic beam * The strains produced in the medium act as opaque rulings in the ordinary grating. Thus, incident laser light gets dirfracted: ; (2) cos? 2) The intensity of zero order diffracted beam = The intensity of -] order diffracted beam = /, = sir? (z where, y- Raman-Nath parameter y is given by,where, H’s - Width of the ultrasonic cell An - Change in refractive index of the medium * When y is large, approximately 25% of the intensity of incident light is transferred to ~1 diffraction order. * — The frequency of - 1 diffracted beam is given by, LT where’ f, - frequency of laser (carrier) J, - frequency of ultrasonic waves * — At Bragg angle, the diffraction efficiency is given by, n =sin? (2| 2nf AnL where, 2 | ©, ~ Bragg angle of incidence L- Length of the modular/medium Advantages * — Drive voltage is only few volts, But in electrooptic modulator, drive voltage is in kV. +. These are not expensive. Disadvantages * — Doesn’t work in a fast manner. * — There is some loss of intensity due to absorption of light by the medium. * — Presence of light intensity in the zero order diffraction pattern doesn’t have any signal information.12. (b) (i) Explain the principle of interferemetric method of measurement of length. (8) Ans: Interferometric method of measurement length: The large coherence length and high output intensity coupled with a low divergence enables to laser to find application in precision vent measurements using interferometric techniques. Here, the laser beam is split in to two parts, and they are made to interfere after traversing two different paths. One beams emerging from the beam splitter is reflected bya fixed reflector and the other by a cube corner reflector. ALLELLLILL gee Wire The two reflected beams interference to produce other constructive or destructive interference. As the reflecting surface is moved, one would get alternatively constructive and destructive interference which can be detected with the help of a photodetector. Since the change from a constructive to a destructive interference. Corresponds to a change of a distance of a half’ wavelength, one can measure the distance traversed by the surface on which the reflected is mounted by counting the number of fringes which have crossed: he photodetector: Accuracies up to 0.1 nm can be obtained by using such a ‘eohhtques This technique is used for accurate positioning of aircraft components on a machine tool, for ca (bration and testing of machine tools, for comparison with standards,12. tb) (ii) Explain the method of measurement of temperature sing fibre optic sensors. (8) Ans: Temperature Sensor: Intensizy. modulated sensor mee Se Set eS Co ; ad mare) . Fig. : Intensity modulated sensor * — The bimetailic strip acts as a sensing element. * Itconsists of steel and brass which are welded together to form a strip. * The brass has higher linear expansivity compared to steel. * ~ The strip is attached to a bifureated reflective fiber optic probe. * — The strip is designed to move continuously and its movement is directly proportional to temperature. * The amount of reflected light is converted in to voltage by a photodiode. * The amount of light reflected decreases with increase of temperature so that output of photodiode decreases with increase’ of temperature. Phase modulated temperature sensor * Here, the phase shift produced in the sensing fiber relative to the reference fiber is a function of temperature. This is given bythe equation. AQ. Onl) nab | Aa aT A LLAT ATwhere L-finer length n-refractive index * The arrangement is called mach-zehnder * The semiconductor laser acts as a light source. Fig. : Interferometric all fiber temperature sensor * A 3dB splitter acts as the beam splitter which sense the light through the sensing and reference fiber. * — Another 3dB coupler acts as a combiner for these two beams. A series of light and dark fringes are formed when light from 2 fibers interface ont he displace screen. * A phase change of 26 radians causes a displacement of | fringe. * — By coutning the fringe displacement, the magnitude of temperature is determined. AL * tar is negligible, AQ _ 2nt An AT A’ LAT * By placing a photodetector to measure the intensity of the fringes, di ‘we can get sensitivity as dan where i- photodetector current A- Q phase shift * Photodetector current reaches maximum when the phase shifts are 0, 2n, 4x ... and minimum when the phase shifts are m, 37, Sz...‘ os a5 s m 3n Sn Maximum sensitivity is got when phase.shifts are Ta ete... * — This is called quadrature condition and sensitivity is zero when the - phase shifts are n, 27, 31, 4 etc. 13. (a) (i) Describe LASER modes. (8) Ans: Laser Modes: * Laser mode is the possible standing electromagnetic wave with in the laser cavity. * Laser Resonator or Laser Cavity: * — The optimal mirrors, active (gain) medium and pumping system form the laser resonator, which is also called as laser cavity. * Laser cavities can be divided in to stable cavities and unstable cavities according to wheather they make the oscillating beam converge in to the cavity or spread out from the cavity. * Type of Laser Modes: Laser modes are divided in two types. i) Longitudinal/Axial mode. if). Transverse mode. i) Longitudinal Mode:Axial standing electromagnetic waves with in the laser cavity are called longitudinal or axial modes. Selecting a single longitudinal mode: * The laser that operates with a single longitudinal mode is called as single frequency laser. * — There are two ways to force a conventional two-mixer laser to operate with a single longitudinal mode. * — The first is to design the laser with a short enough cavity that only a single mode can be sustained. Example: In He-Ne laser, a 10 cm cavity would allow only one mode to oscillate. This is not a practical approach for most gas lasers, because with the cavity short enough to suppress additional modes there may be insufficient energy in the lasing medium to sustain anylasing action. If there occurs any lasing action in this case, the output will be very low.The second methods is to introduce a frequency controlled elements, typically a low fine fabry-perototation in to the laser cavity. ii) Transverse Mode: CO) TEMoo TEM,o Vv Oo < db a TEMp2 TEM,, TEMo; * — A transverse mode of a beam of electromagnetic radiation is a particular intensity pattern of radiation measured in a plane perpendicular through the propagation of the beam. * — Transverse modes occur in laser’s cptical resonators. * — Transverse modes occur because of boundary conditions imposed on the wave by the wave guide. 13. (a) (ii) Explain Q-switching and Mode locking. ® Ans: Q-Switching: In case of lasers, Energy stored inthe do min ant made x w_ ti Energy dissipated /persecond inthe mode * If the energy should stored in the domain dominant mode is very large, we get high Q. * Q-switching means maintaining the population inversion in a very high value above the threshold population inversion and simultaneously bringing down all the atoms to under go laser transition. * This will lead to a giant pulse with very high power (> 10°W).* Energy of the pulse (£) = ; Ny - NV. Where, N,: Population inversion during Q-switching. N,: Normal/threshold population inversion, V: Volume of active medium. hy: Energy of the emitted photon. Q-Switching Technique: Laser Cavity | t tt | a“ Mirror Mirror My, M * Pockets cell act as a quartet wave plate producing a phase difference of 1/2. * . When there is the voltage given to the cell, there is no phase shift for libearly polarised light from the polariser. * Let the light photons travel from mirror M, to M,. * When the voltage is given to the cell, there is a phase shift of x/2. Therefore, the linearly polarized light is converted in to circularly polarised light. , * Reflection at the mirror M, changes the direction of rotation of circularly polarised light. * — After passing through the cell, the circularly polarised light is converted in to linearly polarised light, but is 90” out of phase with . the original polarised light. * — So, the polariser does not allow this light to pass through it. Now, the cavity is switched off. * — Thus, when the voitage given to the cell is zero, the cavity is Q- switched and if there is voltage, the cavity in inactive to produce laser oscillator.The change of voltage from 0 to 1on-zero value should take with in 1 ns. Mode Locking: Due to broadened nature of laser cavity, a laser source can support oscillations in many modes simultaneously. The number of modes produced depends on the laser transition line width. If the laser transition line width is more, the number of modes produced will be more. The amplitude, phase and frequency of all modes are time varying so that the modes are incoherent. The total irradiance/intensity is the sum of irradiances of individual modes. Since the modes have different phases, only two or more modes have same phase of any given time. Therefore, the total Irradiance is very small due to out of phase. If we mode lock the laser, ie, if we forcealll the modes to maintain the same relaiive phase to one another, the total irradiance get will be more Rvecrane Be | APPR | MAAR © 1 ARRAY senmense | Poe Tet ed ae AAAAR AA ALARIC , ses | ANA ARIANA : ene Treamanrg, /\ [ / Sehetaed «eg Hes.* ‘The resultant irradiance consists of a series of narrow intense pulses 1f22 of time spacing 2L/C and pulse duration 2) Procedure done to get mode locking: * It can be achieved by placing an electro-optic shutter near one of the end mirrors in the resonant cavity. The shutter is opened only for every 2L/C second. If the aware packet consisting of different waves is exactly arrived when the shutter, it is open, it will be passed freely. If any parts of the wave packet arrive after closing of the shutter, it will not be passed, i.e., it will be eliminated. Thus, the constancy in the phase relationship of the oscillating modes are continuously restored by the periodic opening of the shutter, 13. (b) With neat diagram explain the working of liquid and semiconductor laser. (3 + 8) Ans: + Cavityond = Turing mnireor featag Midhwerceneh Sesto Tess —{}-}—" 7 Singlot : state 5, Ra1008) 3 \\ Dye stream at. i Brenstar ~ agi wou iow F ; wavaianath i ¥ sransition pumping taser, Singtor state Sy Fouvity wd mice e100) After reflections at the end mirrors, then it is passed through the tuning element light grating or prism. The tuned wavelength of dye lasers is larger than the pumping wavelength due to fluorescence phenomenon.Working * The active medium is an organic dye dissolved in a solvent. * — During the incidence of light from the pumping laser which has ‘shorter wavelength, the dye molecules are excited and they go from the ground state of the singlet state S, (level 1) to the. level between 3 and 4 of the singlet state S,. * The higher level molecules at level ‘4’ will go to level 3 by radiationless transition. * Now, there occurs population inversion at level 3. .* Laser transition takes place between level 3 of the singlet state S, and level 2 of the singlet state Sy * Due to broadened singlet states of S, and S, there-is a range of wavelengths present in the laser transition. * The laser transition wavelengths are higher than the pumping wavelength due to fluorescence phenomenon, * - So, the laser radiations are passed through a tuning medium (grating or prism) to select a particular wavelength which will apear at the Jaser eutput wavelength. Advantages: * High optical homogeneity. * — Easy to prepare active medium. * No over heating. Liquid lasers have high density of active atoms when compared to gas lasers. * When the oprating wavelength of optical communication goes beyond 2 jum, dye lasers will act as light sources for that system. Semiconductor lasers: * — Semiconductor lasers are small, efficient laser device with optical dimensions of less than amm. * They operate an wavelengths ranging from 1.¢-1.55 um, depending upen the materials of the laser medium. * Semiconductor lasers generally operate on a clockwise basis.Liquid Lasers: Dye lasers:Dye lasers are very important liquid lasers. There are called “wide band amplifiers” since they can be tuned over a significant wavelength range. Constrnetion: * The laser pulse from the pumping laser is incident on the dye medium which is kept between the dye laser cavity end mirror having 100% reflection co-efficient. * — The dye stream is perpendicular to the incidence of light from the pumping laser. 14. (a) Describe the method for the measurement of (i) Acceleration and (8){ii) Current. (8) Ans: i) Acceleration: Laser for Measurement.of Acceleration: As atominterferometer, based on an atomic fountain of laser cooled continuous caesium at using laser light has been used to make a very accurate measurement of *g” Principle: Ia this interferometer. the frequency of the light is changed ina phase continuous way so that it remains resenaut with the transition as the atoms accelerate under thei nfluence of gravity. As a consequence, the phase difference buty the interferometer is proportional tu the gravitational attraciion. Ure two paths iaBasic Atom Interferometer: * — Caesium atoms are extracted from a low pressure back ground vapour and loaded into a magneto optical trap during a 600 ms period. The magnetic fields are turned off and the cantered atoms are launched into the atomic fountain of this censor using a specialised technique known as moving poiarisation gradient optical molasses. Vibration fsolator + Mirror Raman 7 Beams an Caesiim otf “Atoms Magnetic ‘Shield Magnete —»_ Optic Trap (MOT) * — During this period, further coding of the ‘launched’ atoms occur, using reward techniques. “in the finai stage of the launch, the laser intensities are reduced to zero to 409 pis. So that atoms are cooled, * — The launched atoms are subjected to a series of pulses that place aioms in a specific internal staie with an effective internal temperature of 10 nk. . oT petiod of al slow velocity spread loads te a high fringe contrast over a iisdms. Vhe tater eter Measurements occur na magnetically shic region. s type of device is capable of measuring ‘g? better than a part ii) Current: Laser for Measarcmunt Current:High Verdent Constant Glass Detector Filter Polarising a Filter * Current and voltage sensor using Faraday Magneto-optical effect. * Principle: * — If polarised light is passed along a magnetic field of strength H, the plane of polarization is rotated by an amount given by, o=V frat b= VM : Angle of rotation.;V : Verdent constant for the medium. HT: Magnetic.field strength.; L : Path length.; / : Coil current. N: Number of terms on the coil. Working: * — Assystem for current/voltage measurement using the faraday effect is shown in figure. * Light from the laser source is passed through a polarizing filter and then through a high verdect constant gloss rod in the kagnetic field of the current/voltage to be measured. * — The transmitted light passes through a second polarizing screen aligned at 45° to the first screen and then to the detector. * — With no current flowing a steady signal will be received at the detector. * Inthe presence of current, the Name of polarization will be rotated clockwise or anti-clockwise depending on the direction of the current while the angle of rotation will be af unction of the current/ veltage magnitude.14, (b) Explain the industrial application of LASER in material processing. (16) Ans: * Laser instrumeutation for material processing: * The output from the laser beam is incident on the plane mirror. * After reflection, it passes through a shutter to control its intensity. * A focussing lens assembly is used to get a fine beam. an Source Focussing Lens Assembly Shielding | a yr feeder Gas Jet Bove Sample i Shielding Gas Jet: . * To remove the molten material and to favour vapourization: é * To provide cooling effect. * To protect the focussing optical arrangement against smoke and seemes and to increase the absorption of energy by the sample. * Example: Air is the assisting gas for 7, T, N, 7, Z, and glass. Powder Feeder: * Used to spray metal powder on the substrate for alloying or cladding. Example: Satellite powder is used during cladding to improve the hardness of the surface (cobalt based carbite consiting of various elements CC, M, k, and F)). Laser Heating: When the laser beam is incident on the surface of the specimen, there is simultaneous absorption and reflection. * Particularly, metals.are good reflectors of light. Thus most of the incident energy is wasted in the form of reflected energy.= . To reduced reflection, antireflection coatings are mode on the surface so as to increase the absorption of energy. * Absorptivity increases with increase of laser beam powder densities and temperature. * — The absorbed energy creates lattice vibration and heating of the material. dO Ja 1 ak Nt vr Q, : Energy density of laser beam. &: Thermal conductivity. a: Thermal diffusivity. t: Pulse duration time. Z Specimen thickness. Laser Welding: Types of Welding: i) Continuous/Seam welding. ii) Pulse/Spot welding. * Seam welding is done by continuous wave laser beams or’ overlapping pulses. * Micro-wedding is done using pulse lasers or continuous wave laser beams with shutter. Working: * — High power laser radiation incident on metals gives rise to the following process. * Electron and ion emission due to heating effects. * Melting, vapourisation and ejection of droplets of melt from the intractive region. * Thermal radiation and X-radiation upto 2keV. * — Ultrasonic vibrations in metal. due to periodicity of heating and thermal expansion in the interaction of pulses whose substructure consists of spikes.* Part of the energy of incident radiation is reflected from the target surface itself without contributing to the work process. Advantages: * High input to welding spot by the focussed beam of high power density. * Low heat release in welding elements. * High weld rates. ‘Laser Melting: * Due to rise in temperature, there is local melting. In case of surface modification, the surface is locally melted and coded with or without additions of alloying/hardening materials. For welding, the surfaces to be welded are locally method and bonded together. In case of cutting and drilling, there is vaporisation after local melting and a hole is formed. The two methods of melting are: i) Conduction limited melting/Melting by low power laser. ii) Deep penetration melting or key hole melting. i) Conducting Limited Melting: at Laser Esat Hit) Specimen Here, the metal absorbs the incident beam on the surface and heat is conducted through the metal to the sub-surface region. In this melting shape, of the melted region is in the form of dE _ dH: i i BE eg Ee hemispherical and ai ¥ : Rate of laser energy incidence.dH = : Rate of heat conduction. * — Vhe weld shape’is hemispherical data to i.e., due to uniform thermal conduction in all direction. ii) Wey Hole Melting: * — Key hole melting mode high power lasers are used, “a | Laser at as Key AHIaK Hole L_ Specimen. * This incident laser beam melts the small cylindrical volume of metal through the thickness of material. * A columof vapour is trapped inside this volume surrounded by molten meta. * As the beam is moved, the vapour column moves along with that, melting the metal in front of the column through the depth. * — This type of melting mode provides greater depth of penetration due to high absorption of vapuor column. dE | dH * Here —>>—. The shape of the method region is in the form dt dt of key hole. Trimming of Material: * It is a term that describes the manufacturing process of using a laser to adjust the operating parameters of an electrom » circuit. Process of laser trimming: * “Laser Trimming” is the controlled alteration of the attributes ofa capacitor or a resistor by a laser action. * Selecting one or more components on the circuit and adjusting them with the lasers achieves this. * The train changes the resistor or capacitor value until the nominal value has been-reached.Usual approach is to use a laser to burn away small portions of resistors, raising their resistance value. The lateral cut in the resistor material by the laser narrows the current flow path and increases the resistance value. Tempered Pressure — Glass Pressurised TED Chamber | : i Bottom Side Contact yo ‘Types of Trim:There are two types of trim available. They are: * Passive trim. * Active trim. Advantages: Better cleanliness when compared to conventional method of abrassive trimming. Better control of final resistance. Material Removal and Vapourisation:Material processing refers to a variety of industrial operation in which the laser operates on a workpiece to modify it. * Some of the possible applications include welding, hole drilling, cutting and trimming of electronic components, heat treating and alloying. Properties of laser light that enable mate. ial processing applications are its collimation, radiance and focuss ability. Because of these properties, laser light can be concentrated by a lens to achieve extremely high irradiance at the surface of a workspace.15. (a) (i) Discuss holography for non-destructive testing. (8) Ans: * Non-Destructive testing using Holography: * — Acoustical holography is useful in the non-destructive testing of engineering components as well as in the field of medicine to investigate the internal structure of the body in three dimensions. * An acoustical hologram contains the amplitude and phase information at all points, of the acoustical wavefront. * Steps Involved: * . Formation of the object wave by illuminating the object with ultrasonic waves. * — Conversion of the object wave and reference wave into electrical waves and making interference pattern on fluorescent screen. * Photographing the interference pattern and making optical hologram after developing the holographic film. * Reconstruction of the three dimensional image of the object using optical reference beam. * Construction and Working: * A single large ultrasonic transducer which sends out ultrasonic waves towards the object under study and it scans the object. * — The scattered waves from the object waves. * A receiving transducer collects the scattered object waves and converts them into electrical signals. thuminating Tr* The reference electrical waves are given by the R.F. oscillator and these object to reference waves are made to interference by the electronic adder. * The interference pattern is formed on the fluorescent screen of the cathode say tube display. * — Acamera photographs the visual interference patterna nd then the photographic film is developed. * — The developed photographic film serves as a hologram. * — The hologram is illuminated by a low power laser like He-Ne laser acts as the optical reference source. * — The T.Y camera takes the videograph of the 3 dimensional Image of the object and it displays on the T.V monitor. Advantage: When the object is opaque for light waves, then its internal structure can be studied only by acoustical nolography. Disadvantage: * — Since, the ultrasonic frequency (object wave) and laser frequency (reference wave) are different, the image is distorted. * — Thre is no direct acoustical hologram. 15. (a) (ii) Describe the LASER instruments for surgery and removal of tumours of vocal cards. (8) Ans: * Laser instruments for surgery: * Vocal chord surgery: * Vocal chord surgery is a general name for many different types of procedures that can be performed on the vocalcords. * Indications for vocal cord surgery: * Vocal cord surgery is performed when the vocalcords have growths such as polyps, tremours or other masses that need to be removed for biopsy or to improve function. * — Itis also perform to normalize vocal cord functioning when vocal cords are scarred from varous causes, paralized or otherwise abnormal. * — These conditions may interfere with the complete opening and closing of the vocal cords, which is necessary for normal speech and breathing.* * Performing vocalcord surgery: Surgery on the vocal cards can be performed either directly in an open surgical approach by making an incision in the neck or indirectly through an endoscopic approach through a tube inserted into them outh and throat. Either procedure is performed under general anesthesia i.e., the person is fully asleep. Laser in vocaleord surgery: The Co, laser device increases the ity of light waves using Co, and concentrates th.+, as an intense, penetrating beam of light. so DAR] Card BP Monitor Pulse Rate Body Temp. This is similar in a way to use a magnifying glass to concentrate the sun’s rays. The concentrated sun rays underneath the magnifying glass get hot enough to burn paper for example. Similarly, the Co, laser beam can be used very accurately to “burn off” areas of tissue that need to be removed on vapourised. 15. (b) (i) Explain holography in detail. (8) Ans: Holography: * This is the process of image construction by recording and reconstruction of hologram by means of interference techniques without the aid of lenses. This was invented by Dennis Gabor in 1948. The other name for this nethod is “ensloss Photography”. Here, recording of optical image is done by means of interference technique without using lenses.* Holography originates from the Greek word “holes” meating “the whole”. Principle of Hologram Recording: — Object Beam Object’ Film Plate The arrangement for recording holograms is shown in figure. A low power He-Ne lower is used as the light source because it emits coherent light. * — The light beam is spread and then divided into two beams splitter. * — The beam of light is called the illuminating beam and it illuminates the object to be | olographed. * — The object in burn, reflects port of the illuminating beam onto the film such as kodak so - 253 (or) AGFAIDE 755. This beam is called the object beam. * — The second beam of light leaving the beam splitter is called the reference beam. * — It is redirected to the film by the front surface mirror. * On the film, the reference and object beams interfere with each other Cu the interference pattern is recorded on the film as microscopic swix\s. * Conditions for Recording a Hologram: Tog et a good hologram, * The length of the illuminating object beam from the beam splitter to the film must be equal to length of the reference beam from the beam splitter to the film.* The object should be exposed fully by the laser radiation. * — The photographic plate should have (i) high resolution (ii) high sensitivity (iii) wide spectral range. Reconstruction of Hologram: * — The object is recreated by directing a beam of light at the film. This beam need not bea laser light. Ordinary sodium light can be used. Reconstructed Holos Object's —- e Image --” * ~ By moving the hologram through the light until the beam is striking the hologram at approximately the same angle as the reference beam, the three dimensional] virtual image can be get. Conditions During Reconstruction: While reconstruction of the image, The source should be placed at the same position of the reference source and it should have the same wavelength of the reference source to avoid aberrations in the image. The hologram should also be placed in the correct position to get the correct image of the object. i Uses of Holography: A hologram is a very reliable method of data storage. Them ost valuable information can be stored in holographic form. This method can be used for character recognition and for identification of finger point etc. Holography is also employed in the production of photographic marks used to produce microelectronic circuits. 15. (b) (ii) Explain the medical applications of LASER in gynaecology and oncology. (8) *Ans: * Laser in Gynecology: * — Gynocolody refers to the surgical specialty dealing with the health of female reproductive system. * — The ~='> . ditions dealt with by a gynecologist are. * Cancer-and pre-canceraes diseases of the reproductive organs including ovaries, fallepian tubes, uterus ete. i) Incontinence of time. ii) Amenorrhea (Absent monitrual periods). iii) Dysmenorrhea (painful monstrual periods). iv) Infertility. v) Menorrlogin (Heavy menstrual periods). Common operations done by a Gynecologist: * — Some of the more common operations that gynecologists perform include. i) Hysterectomy (Removal of the uteress) ii) Copherectomy (Removal of the overies) iii) Hysterectomy or Casarean iv) Tubal ligation. Lasers Used: * — The most useful lasers in gynecology are the Co,, Nd : YAG and the Argon and KTP lasers. * CO,: * — Itismost commonly used by gynecology for colpescopic procedure and during laparetomy. * This layer is safe with minimal depth of thermal injury. * Bed various limitations include less coagulating power and it isa non-contact laser, * Nd: YAG: * — This laser is the geomary endoscopic instrument. * Nd is the active medium used for lasing action while YAG isa solid with good crystalline strength. * — It is used for good deep coagulation.Argon and KTP: * This properties are like Nd: YAG and they can be used similarly. * Howevr, these lasers are best used as colour selectig photocoagulaters. Laser in Oncology: . * — Oncology is the branch of medicine that studies cancer tumours and seeks to understand their development, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. * — It is concerned with i) The diagnosis of cancer. ii) Therapy (eg.: surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other methods). iii) Photodynamic therapy. Photodynamic Therapy: * — Experiments on dyes and lights used for degrading tumors is on ‘the basis of a method called photodynamic therapy. The main objective of PDT is to destroy malignant tissues without detriment to healthy ones. * — The radiation wavelength most suitable for PDT is within 630 m. Advantages PDT: * Relatively quick. * Can be repeated multiple times. * Does not require general anesthesia. Photosensitizer: * — Photosensitizer are substance or drug which are sensitive to the laser light that fall upon. One of the photosensitizer is currently used is asubstance, derivative _ from hematoporphyian which on activation using laser light is coaverted into DHE. Laser Devices Used: * There are three types of highlight lasers available to generate rediation within 630 nm. They are:i) A variable dye laser with a pump argon laser. ii) A dye laser with a pump copper laser. i) A gold vapour laser. Effective PDT Rules: i) Touse a optimum dose of photosensitizer. ii) Density of laser radiation power at the end of wave been guide should not exceed 300 mW/cm?. iii) The time of irradiation of tumour is detection by the power at the end of the wave beam guide. The volume of the tumour and by the density of the energy absorbed. * — Itis calculated using the formula, PB Where, : T— Time of illumination in minutes. D— Diameter of tumour in cm?. £E~- Density of energy absorbed by the tumour J/cm?. P— Emissivity at the end of the wave beam guide in mW.