Question Paper Code : 21434 B.E/B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2013. Seventh Semester Electronics and instrumentation Engineering El 2404/E! 74/El 1354 A/IC 1002/10133 El 704—FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS (Common to Sixth Semester-Instrumentation and Control Engineering and Electrical and Electronics Engineering) (Regulation 2008) Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL questions. PART A—(10 x 2 = 20 marks) 1. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fibre? Ans: Necessity of cladding for an optical fiber: © — Toprovide proper light guidance inside the core. ° To avoid leakage of light from the fiber. ° To give mechanical strength of the fiber. . To protect the core from scratches and other mechanical damages. 2. Mention any two required properties of light sources used in the optical fibre communication. Ans; Requirements of light source used for communication: ° It must emit the required wavelength. ° The spectral line width of the source should be as small as possible. 2 orce should have compact siz e Ushould pe reliable, durable and inexpe: e it aust require very smail time fer iis operation.3. What is meant by fibre optic temperature sensor? Ans: Fiber optic temperature sensor: It will be used to sense the temperature with help of photo detector anda light source. The amount of light reflected decreases with increase in temperature so that the output of photo diode decreases with increase in temperature, 4. | What are Moire fringes? Ans: Moire fringes or fringes are the relatively thick lines produced when two patterns of thin lines overlap. 5. State the characteristics of laser. Ans: Characteristics of LASER: ° It produces monochromatic radiation e Ithas very high intensity ° It is coherent ° Ithas directionality. 6. An atom is stimulated form the state of energy of 1 x 10 J to an excited level of 7.62 x 10%‘ J, What is the frequency of stimulating photon? __1xto7™4 Toxo y =0.131 Hz. 7. What is meant by active material in laser? Ans: Active Material in LASER: The material which is used to the intense beam of light. In other words the working material of laser. Ans: =0.131 Hz. 8. Name any two sues of laser in industry. Ans: Industrial applications of LASER: e Surface alioying and surface ladding. e LASER welding, cutting and drilling. ° Material processing.9. Distinguish between photography and holography. Ans: Photography Holography = Itcontains only amplitude It contains only phase information. and amplitude information. = tis two dimensional. It is three dimensional, 10. What are the uses of laser in medicine? Ans: Uses of Laser in Medicine: ° Vocal chord surgery e Brain surgery ° Stereotactic surgery e Plastic surgery ° Photodynamic laser surgery. PART B—(5 x 16 = 80 marks) 11.(a)(i) Discuss the various types optical fibres. (12) Ans: ° Based on fibers used in communication they are classified into: 1, Step index fiber — Singlemode, — Multimode. 2. Graded index fiber — Multimode. Step Index Fiber e Here, the refractive index of core is maximum and constant throughout the core. e There is a stepwise decrease of refractive index in cladding. ° The refractive index of cladding is given by: n,=n, (1-4) where, 1, — Refractive index of core A — Relative refractive index difference between core and cladding.© This step index fiber is further classified into 2 types: 1. Step index multimode fiber 2. Step index singlemode fiber. Step index multimode fiber Cladding Core Core a Cladding —a Tas Nature of light ray propagation Refractive index Profile Figs. e Here, the difference between refractive indices of core and cladding is more, ° Further, its core has large diameter. ° Generally it used in short distance communication because attenuation is large. Step index single mode fiber ( ‘Cladding ere : EGE Core LLL ——__1 —___ + Nature of light ray propagation Refractive Index Profile Figs.° Here, the difference between refractive indices of core and cladding is very less. . Its core diameter is also very small. . It has low attenuation and very high bandwidth. ° It has low numerical aperture (NA), So these are used in long ditance communication. Graded index fiber ° Here the refractive index of core varies parabolically such that its maximum at the core axis and minimum at the core cladding boundary. e The refractive index of a graded index fiber is given by: id Wy n(r) = 1=2a | for Osra where. NA(o) - Axial numerical aperture = 7, /24 e Graded index fibers have smaller diameter than step index multimode fibers and it has large bandwidth and low attenuation. 11.(a)(ii) What are the required properties of optical detectors? 2) Ans: The required properties of optical detectors: e High quantum efficiency/conversion efficiency 1, where ) ~number of electrons produced per incident photon e Low dark current. e Signal dependent noise should be low. (or)11.(b)(i) Explain the absorption and scattering losses in an optical fibre. (42) ic Absorption; ° Extri transition metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt, copper and from OH (water). ic or impurity absorption results pre-dominantly from e The transition metal impurities which are present in the starting materials used for direct melt fibers range between 1 and 10 ppb passing losses from | to 10 dB/km, ° These losses occur either because of electronic transitions between the energy levels associated with the incompletely fill inner subshell of these ions (or) because of charge transitions from one ion to another. e The presence of OH ion impurities in fiber perform results mainly from the oxyhydrogen flame used for the hydrolysis reaction of SiCl,, GeCI, and POCI, starring materials. _ e Water impurity concentrations of less than a few parts per billion (ppb) are required if the attenuation is to be less than 20 dB/km., e By reducing the residual OH content of fibers to around | ppb, standard commercially available single mode fibers have nominal attenuations of 0.5 dB/km in 1100 nm window and 0.3 dB/km in 1550.nm window as shown, e An effectively complete elimination of water molecules from the fiber results in the dashed curve as shown. This is for an all wave fiber made by lucent technologies.Intrinsic Absorption: e ‘This is associated with the basic fiber material and it is the principle physical factor that defines the transparency window of a material over a specified spectral regicn, e It occurs when the material is in a perfect stage with no density variations, impurities, material inhomogeneities etc. e This results from the electronic absorption bands in the ultraviolet region and from atomic vibration hands in near infrared region. ° The electronic absorption bands are associated with the band gaps of the amorphous glass materials. ° Absorption occurs when a photon interacts with an electron in the valence band and get it excited to a higher energy level. Scattering losses: There are two types of scattering losses. (i) Linear scattering losses. {ii) Non-linear scattering losses. Linear Scattering Losses: Linear scattering transfers linearly the optical power in one propagating mode to a different mode. This linear scattering process may cause the attenuation cf operating mode power by means of transferring power to leaky or radiation mode which will not continue to propagate within the core of fiber but is radiated from the fiber. There is a large scattering loss in multimode fibers due to higher dopant, concentration E, greater compositional fluctuations. Non-Linear Scattering Losses: when we use high optical power levels (~100 mw), non-linear scattering losses occur. This scattering causes the optical power getsscattered from one mode to the other at a different frequency either in forward or backward direction. These scatterings are observed in single mode fiber at high optical power densities. These scattering are inelastic scatterings due to shift in frequency. 11.(b)(ii), Among different fibres which has the least dispersion? (4) Ans: Single mode fibers has negligible dispersion. This is because axial ray propagation and small core radius. Therefore this fiber are highly used in long distance communication systems. 12.(a)G) Explain the different types of fibre optic sensors. (12) Ans: Types of Fiber Optic Sensors: 1. Intrinsic/Active Sensor: Here, the guided light in the fiber gets modulated by the variable to be measured and then demodulated. Thus. sensing and simultaneous measurementsare taking place in the active sensor. Four types of Intrinsic sensors are, 1, Intensity Modulated Sensors: Based on change in absorption transmi: temperature, etc. ion of light, refractive index, 2. Phase Modulated Sensors: Involve the interference between signal and reference int he interferometer, leading toa shift in the interference fringer by the variable. 3. Polarization Modulated Sensors: Involve the change in the polarization state of the guided signal by the variable. 4, Wavelenvgh Modulated Sensors: Involve the spectral dependent variation of absorption and emission by the variable.Multimode fiber sensors — Intensity modulation Single mode fiber sensors — Intensify phase and polarization modulation technique. IE. Extrinsic or Passive Sensors: The modulation takes place outside the optical fiber. The fiber merely acts as a convenient transmission channel for light radiation. Consists of a sensor head and the remote sensed optical signal is transferred to a point for processing, Light from the source is intensity modulated by the signal. Signal F Transducing Light 2 Material Detector Source (Modulator) ispl: Signal Display Processor Fig. : Intensity Modulated Sensor It is then detected using a detector. The losses due to transmission, reflection, microbending and absorption are taken in to account by the signal processor and it gives the output. Phase Modulated Sensor: These sensors use interferometric technique to detect pressure, magnetic field etc. The laser beam is spitted in to two-one acts as a reference beam and the other acts as a sensing beam. The two beams pass through separate single mode fiber. When there is no signal, light in the sensing fiber and that in the reference fiberare exactly in phase upon recombining at the detection. There is constructive interference with an increase in light intensity. If they are out of phase, destructive interference occurs and the detector intensity is very small. This phase shift is produced by the signal in the sensing fiber. The intensity of the detected signal varies with amount of signal. Signal Detector Processor Reference Fiber Beam combines [Leser} >_> 00005 Beam Sensing Fiber splitter Fig. TIE. Temperature Sensor: Intensity Modulated Sensor Light source Transmiting fiber SteelBrass 5 ae ; S —) & Detector © > cor 3 NS ee oa i ie ee Receiving fiber Bimetallic 0'C temp s00°c °c Element The bimetallic strip acts as a sensing element. It consists of steel and brass which are welded together to form a strip. The brass has higher linear expansivity compared to steel. The strip is attached to a bifureated reflective fiber optic probe. The strip is designed to move continuously and its movement is directly proportional to temperature. The amount of reflected light is converted in to voltage by a photodiode. The amount of light reflected decreases with increase of temperature so that output of photodiode decreases with increase of temperature.Phase Modulated Temperature Sensor: Here, the phase shift produced in the sensing fiber relative to the reference fiber is a function of temperature. This is given by the equation, AQ _2nL{ndL | A aT 4 ce ar where L ~ fiber length n ~ refractive index. The arrangement is called Mach-Zehnder. The semiconductor laser acts as a light source. A 3 dB splitter acts as the beam splitter which sense the light through the sensing and refernece fiber. Another 3dB coupler acts as a combiner for these 2 beams. A series of light and dark fringes are formed when light from 2 fibers interface on the displace screen. A phase change of 2x radians causes a displacement of 1 fringe. By counting the fringe displacement. the magnitude of temperature is AL determined. If — is negligible. SQ _2nk | An] AT. 2d ar By placing a photodetector to measure the intensity of the fringes, di we can get sensitivity as a(aoy”’ where 7 — Photodetector current A Q phase shift. Sensing Fiber Display Transducer Reference Fiber 3B 3.08 Fiber Coupler Fiber Coupler LaserPhotodetector current reaches maximum when the phase shifts are 0, 2m, 4m, ... and minimum when the phase shifts are m, 31, 57, ... a ; 3m Sm maximum sensitivity is got when phase shifts are re 3 > > gp BEB ces This is called quadrature condition and sensitivity is zero when the phase shift are x, 22, 32, 41, ete. By taking the difference between the two output signals from the sensing fiber and reference fiber, sensitivity of the sensor is doubled Quadrature Point Photo- detector current “! max. Sensitivity ae (b) ddd ? 0 wW2 3yi2 2a Sal2 3n (Ap) radians IV. Displacement Sensor: . Multimode passive optical fiber sensors are used to measure the displacement. When a shutter is placed between two fibers (one is transmitting fiber and the other is receiving fiber), its lateral displacement produces loss in intensity of light received by the receiving fiber.Movable =] Shutter Fiber 2 Se, ee Lenses Fig. Displacement sensor based on reflective concepts: Light in —Q gg —0 Light out (detector) Fig. Hence there are bundle of fibers half of which are connected to a source of light, the other half to a detector. When the bundle is placed near the reflecting surface which is movable by displacement the light will be reflected back from the reflecting surface and then to a detecting fiber bundle. The amount of light detected will depend on the distance from the fiber ends to the surface. The spot size hitting the reflecting surface is given by, D=2Rtand. where, D - Distance R - Distance between tip of probe and reflecting surface 8 - Inclination angle.Response Curve Response Curve 1) Separation for ° e T ee Back slope Reflected Light intensity a Front slope 100 200 Fig. Receiving Fiber Core Receiving fiber core Emitting fiber core Fig, The curve shows a maximum with a steep linear front slope and a back slope that follows 1/R? dependence. When the fiber bundle is in contact with the reflecting surface, the detector has no output. As the reflecting surface is moved away from the detector, the detector output increases steeply. This region has maximum. sensitivity and it is represented by front slope. There is one position at which maximum output can be achieved, this occurs when there is a complete overlapbetween the detecting fiber core area and the csoss sction of the light cone emitted by the image of the emitting fiber. After that, the output falls with increasing distance followed by 1/R? dependence and gives black slope of the response curve. 12.(b)(i) Explain how the pressure and current can be measured by using an optical fibre. (12) Ans: Measurement of pressure using an optical fiber: All the displacement sensors can be used to measure pressure. Here, the pressure is first converted in to displacement and the change in intensity is reflected or transmitted light is measured in terms of displacement. The pressure sensor based on reflective concept is shown in Figure. Light —. B Transmitting fiber > Diaph 2-@ oo TH ‘out (detector) —_ Receiving fiber }-— (a) Pressure sensor based on the reflective concept Depending upon the value of pressure, the radius of curvature of the diaphragm is changed. Hence, the intensity of the reflected light is changed, the response curve shows that as the pressure increases, output voltage decreases. With increase of pressure, the intensity of reflected light is decreased and hence the output voltage decreases. (b) Response Curve of Pressure Sensor Output (votts) 4Measurement of Current (Magnetic Field): Cladding Mode Stripper , Palaiser Hest laser Microscopic r Objective t yee ---{ fy Combiner ; Single Mode Wollaston >>> ei ro Fiber Microscopic. Prism ade.” Objective Detector — The linearly polarised laser light from the negative laser is launched into fiber. Cladding m ode stripper removes cladding modes. The direction of polarisation of the light in the fiber rotated by the longitudinal magnetic field around the current carrying conductor. The returning light from the fiber loop is passed through the Wallaston prism which is used to sense the resulting rotation and it resolves the emerging light in to two Orthogonal Components, I, and I: These components are separately detected by photodiode detectors and the difference and sum of these output signals are found out. Tl +I," Now k6,= where, 9, — Polarisation state rotation. k — Constant. Faraday Rotation Effect This refers to altering the angle of polarisation of a mode of light by a magnetic field/current, Faraday rotation is given by, ,=u,unVi (ie) 8b where, »— no. of turns of fiber surrounding the current carrying conductor. VY . Verdet constant. [- Current flowing through the conductor.Thus, by measuring 6,, we can get the value of current, 8, H (i.e.) I= £ and [= ~— Uguynv 2ar or is given by, 6,=2r VB (ic.,) 6, aB. where r — radius of turn. Using faraday rotation sensors, the change of angle of polarisation can be measured up to 0.1 and current can be measure dup to 30 A. 12.(b)(ii) What are the advantages of optical fibre in communication? Ans: ° The optical fiber cables do not have speed limits or bandwidth limitations. ° The losses in communication is less. e The chance of cross-talk is very less. e Wire tapping with optical fiber cables is more difficult. ° OFC are not affected by EMI as they carry light. e They are used to provide broadband. 13.(a)(i) Describe the construction and working of a solid state laser. (2) Ans: Solid Lasers: ° Ruby laser is a three level solid state laser constructed by a maximan. ° It is a pulsed laser having very high power of hundreds of megawatts in a single pulse with 10 ns duration.Construction Flash tube -— —— Laser ——> Output PL Working Power Source The active element is pure AL,O, with 0.05% of chromium and it is shaped in to a cylinder with transparent sides. The diameter of the active element is about 0.5 cm and its length is about few cms. Pumping source isa flash tub. The flash lamp tube is spirally wound over the curved surface of the ruby rod and is connected to a power supply. Chromium atoms are particularly responsive to light having a wavelength 5600 A°. Most flash lamps are able to supply energy in this wavelength range. The output beam red wavelength 6934 A° and frequency 4.32 x 10! Hz. e Its power is of the order of the few hundred megawatt.H SUE EEEEEEEERTEeee | * Radiationless : Transition Photons ot += 5600 A° i from flash tube Way Photons of 7 = 6943 A $$ $$$ H: Higher energy state M: Metastable state G: Ground state Fig. 13.(a)(ii), What is meant by laser modes? (4) Ans: Laser Modes: Laser modes is the possible standing electromagnetic wave with in the laser cavity, Laser cavity refers to laser resonator comprises of the optintal mirrors, active (gain) medium and pumping system. Types of LASER Mode: 1. Longitudinal/Axial mode. 2. Transverse mode 2 TE modes 4 TM modes 2 TEM modes Q Hybrid modes. (or) 13.(b)(i) Describe the construction and working semiconductor laser, (12) Ans: Semiconductor Lasers: Semiconductor lasers are small. efficient laser device with opticat dimensions of less than-a mm. They operate on wavelengths rangingfrom |.6-1 Semiconductor lasers generally operate on a clockwise basis. Ty f I / y t i kl foo Light output 1 | ' Active | 9: Al Ga As! ? Region |" 2") ly — um, depending upon the materials of the laser medium. Ga-As substrate Figs. : I": Threshold current ‘Though. optical pumping is possible, most semiconductor lasers work on the principle of electrical pumping (i.e) they are operated by passing an electrical current through the laser medium, Principle The small size of semiconductor lasers is made possible by the extremely large population inversion densities. This inversion is produced ona steady state basis by locating to specially doped semiconducting materials adjaceit to each other to form a junction and applying a forward bias voltage between them. Apart from these layer: material referred to as “Cladding layers” are also added to the junction. Such lasers are referred to as double heterostructure (DH) devices, thin layers of Purpose of Additional Layers: ‘The purpose of additional layers is to: L More effectively guide the laser mode through the material. 2. Reduce the lateral dimensions of the region where the current flows there by reducing heat dissipation in the material.Output of Semiconductor Laser: Figure shows a typical output ofthe semiconductor laser versus. current flowing through the laser, At low currents where the absorption exceeds the gain, the recombination emission from junction region increases linearly with current. At the threshold current [,, (usually in MA) where the gain exceeds the losses. laser action begins and the O/ P increases. 13.(b)(ii) Explain the term “cavity damping”. (4) Ans: Cavity Damping: In addition to Q-switching, cavity dumping is a method for producing short pulses with duration in the nanosecond to microsecond time. Here, the laser is excited continuously. The resonance cavity has high *Q’, so that the laser light simply remains in the cavity. An electrooptic or acoustooptic device periodically switches pulses out of the cavity. This method is employed with lasers to yield pulsed upto MHZ range. At high repetition rates. the average power of the cavity dumped laser may be very close to the continuous power that could be obtained from the same laser. But the peak power may reach the valve much higher than the average power. Advantage: When compared to Q-switching and mode locking, this method allows pulsing at higher pulse repetition rates. 14.(a)(i) Explain how the current and distance can measured by using laser. (12) Ans: Laser for Measurement of Distance: In interferometric techniques, distance is measured in terms of wavelength of light used. In Michelson interferometer, light from an extended monochromatic source is made roughly parallel by the lens L,. The light then falls on the beam splitter so that some of the light passes through M and is reflected first by M, and then by M so as toenter the telescope |. The rest of the light is reflected at the rear face of. then by M .. from where it passes through M to the telescope. The two beam of light entering the telescope are coherent ifthe path difference is less than the coherence length and interference fringes can then be seen through the telescope. The compensator plate C, which is a plate of glass of identical thickness to M, is included to ensure that the two arms of the interferometer can be made optically equal (ie) the two beams have the same path length in glass, so that dispersion occurs equally in both arms, If M, and M, are perpendicular to each other, a system of circular fringes of equal inclination is formed according 10: PA = 2D cos 8. where ¢ = Integer 0= Angle of inclination D = Distance. Ifhowever one of the mirror is inclined at a the arm then straight line fringes of equal thickness are formed. To measure an unknown distance, M, is aligned with one end and the fringe small angle to axis of shift is counted as M, is moved until it coincides with the other end of the distance being measured. Disadvantages: Undesirable deflections from other surfaces, ror example. A glass interface at the front of the beam splitter gives rise to spurious interference pattern. Laser is a resonant structure and any light reflected back from the interferometer into the laser may modulator the output wavelength and amplitude. Overcoming Technique The above disadvantages could be overcoine by replacing plane mirrors M,, M, with cube ciner reflectors. Cube corners have the property of reflecting an incident beam back alonga direction parallel to its incident path but displaced from it. An added advantage of this is that they simplify alignment of the interferometers.____] Plane Mirror M, Beam Splitter M L Compensator Plate C L_ Plane Mirror ty | > Telescope, + Fig. Cube-Gorner-Reflector“MF, Cube Corner Reflector Mi, ae Fre Corner Beam Reflector M, Splitter — “— Fig.Laser for Measurement of Current: High verdant tT constant glass baer. | / / / Detector Polarising Polarising Filter Filter Fig. ‘urrent and voltage sensor using Faraday Magneto-Optical effect Principle: If polarised light is passed along a magnetic field of strength H, the plane of polarization is rotated by an amount given by: o=¥ fHdL $= VNI o: Angle of rotation V: Verdet constant for the medium H: Magnetic field strength L: Path length 1: Coil current N: Number of turns on the coil. Working: A system of current/voltage measurement using the faraday etfect is shown in Figure. Light from the laser source is passed through a polarizing filter and then through a high verdet constant glass rod in the magnetic field of the current/voltage to be measured. The transmitted light passes through a second polarizing screen aligned at 45° to the first screen and them to the detector. With no current flowing, a steady signal will be received at the detector. In the presence of current. the plane of polarisation will be rotated clockwise ar anti-clockwise depending onthe direction of the current while the angle of rotation will be a function of the current/voltage magnitude. 14.(a)(ii) What is meant by laser melting? (4) Ans: Laser Melting: e The surface is focally melted and coated with or wwithout additions of alloying/hardening materials. . For welding, the surfaces to be welded are locally melted and bonded together. e In case of cutting and drilling, there is vapourisation after local melting and a holes is formed. Methods: e Conduction limited melting ‘@ Deep penetration melting. (or) 14.(b)(i), Explain the different steps involved in laser material processing. (12) Ans; Laser Instrumentation for Material Processing: e The output from the laser beam is incident on the plane mirror. e After reflection, it pas: through a shutter to control its intensi e A locussing lens assembly is used to get a fine beamLaser Source | Shutter | Focussing _» Lens —\——— “assembly Window 1 | 2-2 Power Feeder Shielding Gas Jet; ° To remove the molten material and to favour vapourisation. e To provide cooling effect. ° To protect the focussing optical arrangement against smoke and fumes and to increase the absorption of energy by the “sample. ° Example: Air is the assisting gas for T, T,, N,, T,, Z, and glass. Powder Feeder: ° Used to spray metal powder on the substrate for alloying or cladding. ° ° Example: Satellite powder is used during cladding to improve the hardness of the surface (cobalt based carbite consisting ments C, Cr, Mo, KI and Fé]. of varioLaser Heating: ° When the laser beam is incident on the surface of the specimen, there is simultaneous absorption and reflection. ° Particularly, metals are good reflectors of light. Thus most of the incident energy is wasted in the form of reflected energy. e To reduce reflection, antireflection coatings are made on the surface so as to increase the absorption of energy. e Absorptivity increases with increase of laser beam powder densities and temperature. e The absorbed energy creates lattice vibration and heating of the material. a _Os Vd 1 (=) ask Vi vn Q,: Energy density of laser beam, k: Thermal conductivity, a: Thermal diffusivity, 1: Pulse duration time, z: Specimen thickness. Laser Welding: Types of Welding: (i) Continuous/seam welding, (ii) Pulse/spot welding, ®. Seam welding is done by continuous wave laser beams or overlapping pulses. @ Micro-welding is done using putse lasers or continuous wave laser beams with shutters.Working: e High power laser radiation incident on metals gives rise to the following process. e Electron and ion emission due to heating effects. . Melting, vapourisation and ejection of droplets of melt from the intractive region. ° Thermal radiation and X-radiation upto 2keV. ° Ultrasonic vibrations in metal due to periodicity of heating and thermal expansion in the interaction of pulses whose substractive consists of spikes. . e Paid of the energy of incident radiation is reflected from the target surface itself without contributing to the work process. Advantages: ° High I/P to welding spot by the focussed beam of high power density. . e Low heat release in welding elements. . High weld rates. Laser Melting: Due to rise in temperature, there is local melting. In case of surface modification, the surface is locally melted and cooled with or without additions of alloying/hardening materials. For welding, the surfaces to be welded are locally melted and bonded together. In case of cutting and drilling, there is vapourisation after local melting and a hole is formed. The two methods of melting are: (i) Conduction limited melting/Melting by low power laser. (ii) Deep penetration melting or key hole melting.(i) Conducting Limited Melting: Specimen Here, the metal absorbs the incident beam on the surface and heat is conducted through the metal to the sub-surface region. In this melting. the shape of the melted region is in the form of hemispherical a HE gi spherical and ae er Rate of laser energy incidence. Rate of heat conduction. The weld shape is hemispherical data to i.e., due to uniform thermal conduction in all direction. (ii) Key Hole Melting: Key hole melting mode high power lasers are used. dE/dt Laser = Key 0 Hole dH/at SpecimenThis ineident laser beam melts the small cylindrical volume of metal through the thickness of material, A column of vapour is rpaped inside this volume surrounded by molten metal. As the beam is moved, the vapour column moves along with that, melting the metal in front of the column through the depth This type of melting mode provides greater depth of penetration due to high absorption of vapour column, 7 dE os. dit ere >> dt dt form of key hole. . The shape of the melted region is in the ming of Material: It is aterm that describes the manufacturing process of using, a laser to adjust the aperating parameters of an electronic circuit. Process of Laser Trimming: “Laser Trimming” is the controlled alteration of the attributes of a capacitor or a resistor by a laser action. Selecting one or more components on the circuit and adjusting them with the lasers achieves this. The trim changes the resistor or capacitor value until the nominal value has been reached. Usual approach is to use a laser to burn away smal! portions of resistors, raising their resistance value. The lateral cut in the resistor material by the laser narrows the current tlow path and increases the resistance value,Pressure _4 Glass Tempered V7 H) | ' : ‘i + Pressurised - iim iin |= Bottom Side } | Contact t 1 | | Fig. Types of Trim: There are two types of train available. They are: . Passive trim. ° Active trim. Advantages: e Better cleanliness when compared to conventional method of abrasive trimming. ° Better contro! of finai resistance.Material Removal and Vapourisation: 15.(a)(i), Material processing refers to a variety of industrial operation in which the laser operates on a workpiece to modify it. Some of the possible applications include welding, hole drilling, cutting and trimming of electronic components. heat treating and alloying. Properties of laser light that enable material processing applications are its collimation, radiance and focussability. Because of these properties, laser light can be concentrated by a lens to achieve extremely high voidance at the surface of a workspiece. Explain how the hologram is used in non-destructive testing. (12) Ans: Hologram is used in Non-Destructive Testing: Acoustical holography is useful in the non-destructive testing of engineering components as well as in the field of medicine to investigate the internal structures of the body in three dimensions. An acoustical hologram contains the amplitude and phase information at the points of the acoustical wavefront. Step Involved i) (ii) Formation of the object wave by illumating the object with ultrasonic waves. Conversion of the object wave and reference wave into electrical waves and making interference pattern on fluorescent screen. Photographing the interference pattern and making optical hologram after developing the holograpiiie tim Reconstruction of the three dimensional image of the object using optical reference beam.Construction and Working: A single large ultrasonic transducer which sends out ultrasonic waves towards the object under study and it scans the object. The scattered waves from the objects form the object wave. A receiving transducer collects the scttered object waves and converts them into electrical signals. The reference electrical waves are given by the R.F. oscillator and these object to reference waves are made to interference by the electronic adder. The interference pattern is formed on the fluorescent screen of the cathode ray tube display. A camera photographs the visual interference pattern and then the photographic film is developed. The developed photographic film serves as a hologram, the hologram is illuminated by a low power laser like He-Ne laser which acts as the optical reference source. The T.V. camera takes the Videograph of the 3 Dimensional Image of the object and it displays on the T. V. monitor. Water Bath Receiving La Transducer IHuminating Transducer _! Osciator] Receiver Detection Camera Reference <[ mace] RT Adder Display Film pe TV. fz ™. | —{ Laser L_ Monitor Camera [ Fig.15.(a)(ii) What are the applications of Hologram? (4) Ans: Applications of Hologram: ° It is a reliable method of data storage. The most valuable information can be stored in holographic form. ° This method can be used for charcter recognition and identification of finger print, etc. ° Hologram is employed in non-destructives testing. ; e It is also employed in the production of photographic marks used to produce micro electronic circuit. (or) 15.(b)(i) Discuss any two medical applications of laser. (12) Ans: (i) Removal of tumors (ii) Oncology Vocal Chord Surgery: (Removal of tumors) ° Vocal chord surgery is a general name for many different types of procedures that can be performed on the vocal cords. Indications for Vocal Cord Surgery: e Vocal cord surgery is performed when the vocalcords have growths such as polyps, tumours or other masses that need to be removed for biopsy or to improve function. ° It is also perform to normalize vocal cord functioning when vocal cords are scared from various causes, paralized or otherwise abnormal. e These conditions may interface with the complete opening and closing of the vocal cords, which is necessry for normal speech and breathing. Performing Vocal Cord Surgery: ° Surgery on the vocal cards can be performed either directly in an open surgical approach by making an incision in theneck or indirectly through an endoscopic approach through a tube inserted into the mouth and throat. ° Either procedure is performed under general anesthesia ie., the person is fully asleep. Laser in Vocal Cord Surgery: e The CO, later device increases the internsity of light waves using CO, and concentrates them as an intense, penetrating beam of light. PC | DAQ Card BP Monitor > Pulse Rate Body Temp. Fig. e This is similar in a way to use a magnifying glass to concentrate the sun’s rays. e ‘The concentrated sun rays underneath the magnifying glass get hot enough to burn paper for example. ° Similarly, the CO, laser beam can be used very accurately to “burn off” areas of tissue that need to be removed or vapourised.Laser in Oncology: e Oncology is the branch of medicine that studies cancer tumours and seeks to understand their development, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. . It is concerned with: @ The diagnosis of cancer, (ii) Therapy (eg.: surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other methods). (iii) | Photodynamic therapy. Photodynamic Therapy: e Experiments on dyes and lights used for degrading tumors is on the basis of'a method called photodynamic therapy. ° The main objective of PDT is to destroy malignant tissues without detriment to healthy ones. e The radiation wavelength most suitable for PDT within 630 m. Advantages RDT: ° Relatively quick. ° Can be repeated multiple times. e Does not require general anesthesia. Photosensitizer:, ° Photosensitizer are substance or doing which are sensitive to the laser light that fall upon.° One of the photosensitizer is currently used is a substrate, derivative from hematoporpyxin which an activation using laser light is converted into DHE. Laser Devices Used: e There are three types of highlight lasers available to generate radiation within 630 nm. They are: ji) A variable dye laser with a pump argon laser. (ii) A dye laser with a pump copper laser. (iii) A gold vapour laser. 15.(b)(ii) How laser is used for removal of tumors of vocal cards? . (4) Ans: Removal of tumors of vocal cards; ; The CO, laser device increases the intensity of light waves using CO, and concentrates them as an intense, penetrating beam of light. Similar to concentrated sun rays using magnifying glass, CO, laser beam can be very accurately to “bush off” areas of tissue that need to be removed. o°o Oo