2.

3 Transmission line protection

Transmission lines serve as interconnecting links in a power system and help to transmit power
from generation to load. Hence, they are the most important part of a power system. They are
usually operated at high voltage and low current to minimize the losses during power transfer
(power lost is proportional to the square of current) and so, a fault on the transmission line must
be identified and the faulted section isolated quickly to reduce equipment damage.
Thus, design of a protection system consisting of appropriate switchgear and protective gear is
required to ensure reliable operation of the system i.e., to reduce the duration of power outages
and possible equipment damage, and provide best service to customers. For protection at lower
voltages, fuses are used. However, at high voltages, relays and circuit breakers are commonly
used for protection of power systems.
They can be classified into different types based on the operating parameters, construction and
function. On the basis of function, the types of relays are over current, differential, distance,
definite time, and inverse time.
While over-current, voltage, distance and directionality are powerful techniques, all of them
involve some compromise between the objectives of reliability, security, speed, selectivity and
economy. On the other hand, differential protection is secure, reliable, fast, and economical.
Thus it is one of the effective types of protection.

2.3.1 Types of transmission lines

-OHTL (Over head transmission line)
-UGC (under ground cable)

2.3.2 Types of Fault and Abnormality

- Short-circuit faults (LLL , LL , LG, )
- Open-circuit faults (open conductor)
- Complex faults (inter-circuit, broken conductor, cross-country etc)
- Overload and excessive operating temperature
- Power swings
- Power frequency overvoltage or under voltage

2.3.3Causes of Short-Circuit Faults

- Insulation breakdown due to inherent weakness
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- Lightning
- Birds and animals bridging insulators
- Dig-ups for underground cables
- Poles collapsing
- Conductors breaking
- Wind borne debris
- Incorrect operation by personnel

2.3.4 Effects of Short-Circuit Type Faults

Large or very large currents can flow through parts of the network. thousands or tens of
Thousands of Amps can be involved. These large currents can only be allowed to flow for very
short Otherwise equipment and generators would be damaged, most likely terminally
allowable short. Circuit current flow duration could range from as short as 10 milliseconds up
to say 3 seconds.
Arcs, sparking and the heating effect of short-circuit currents can start
fires involving Non-electrical assets/property.
Very large mechanical forces can be caused by short-circuit currents which have
Potential to Break or damage equipment.

2.3.4Types of transmission line protection:

- 2.3.4.1 Over current protection.
- 2.3.4.2 Differential protection.
- 2.3.4.3 Impedance protection.

2.3.4.1 Over current protection:

Due to the importance of coordination between all over current relays in substation to be able to
isolate the area of faults only so I will be discuses in details in chapter two

2.3.4.2 Differential protection:

The line differential function compares the currents entering and leaving the protected overhead
line or cable. It offers phase-segregated true current differential protection with high sensitivity
The differential current is not exactly zero for external faults. The most common causes of
false differential current in transmission line differential relays are the following:
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-Line charging current

The differential protection must be set to a value which is higher than the total steady-state shunt
current of the protected object as shown in Fig.2-14 . For cables and long overhead lines, the
charging current is to be considered particularly. It is calculated from the service capacitance:

Ic = 3.63 x 10-6 x UN X FN x CB x S
Ic

charging current A

UN

rated voltage of the network in KV

FN

rated frequency of the network in HZ

CB

per unit line length service capacitance of the line in Nf/km

length of the line in km

Fig.2-14 shunt current of the protected object

- Channel time-delay compensation errors
Channel time-delay compensation errors can be addressed by careful design of the
differential element.
- Current transformer saturation
Current transformer saturation errors can be addressed by proper selection of the CTs.
Additional security can be obtained by the design of the differential element.
- Difference in length of pilot wires on either side of relays as shown in Fig.2-15. The difficulty
is overcome by connecting adjustable resistors to pilot wires. These are adjusted on site to get
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equi potential points on pilot wires. Taps can be provided on operating coil and restraining coil
of relay for adjusting the balance.

Fig.2-15 pilot wires on either side of relays

2.3.4.3 Distance or Impedance Protection

A distance relay has the ability to detect a fault within a pre-set distance along a transmission
line or power cable from its location as shown in Fig.2-16. Every power line has a resistance and
reactance per kilometer related to its design and construction so its total impedance will be a
function of its length. A distance relay therefore looks at current and voltage and compares these
two quantities on the basis of Ohms law.

Fig.2-16 Distance or Impedance Protection

Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance
measurement it is appropriate to use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of a line up to a
predetermined point (the reach point).
Distance relay is designed to operate only for faults occurring between the relay location and
the predetermined (reach) point, thus giving discrimination for faults that may occur in
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different line sections. The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of
voltage at the relaying point by the measured current. The calculated apparent impedance is
compared with the reach point impedance.
If the measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault
exists on the line between the relay and the reach point

Zones of Protection:
Careful selection of the reach point settings and tripping times for various zones of measurement
enables correct coordination between distance relays on a power system. Basic distance
protection will comprise one instantaneous (Zone 1) and one or more time delayed zones (Zone
2, Zone 3, Zone are shown in Fig.2-17 :
Fig.2-17 zones of distance protection

Zone 1: this is set to protect between 80% of the line length AB and operates without any
time delay. This under-reach setting has been purposely chosen to avoid over-reaching
into the next line section to ensure selectivity since errors and transients can be present in
the voltage and current transformers. Also manufacturing tolerances limit the measurement
accuracy of the relays.
Zone 2: this is set to protect 100% of the line length AB, plus at least 20% of the shortest
adjacent line BC and operates with time delay t2. (0.5s)
It not only covers the remaining %20 of the line, but also provides backup for the next line
section.
Zone 3: this is set to protect 100% of the two lines AB, BC, plus about 25% of the third line
operates with time delay t3. (1.5s)
It should be noted that, digital distance relays may have up to six zones, some set to measure in
the reverse direction.The shape of the operation zones as shown in Fig.2-18 has developed
throughout the years. An overview of relay characteristics can be seen below:

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Fig.2-18 The shape of the operation zones

If the relays operating boundary is plotted on an R-X diagram as shown in Fig.2-19 , its
impedance characteristic is a circle with its center at the origin of the coordinates and its radius
will be the setting (the reach point) in ohms. The relay will operate for all values less than its
setting i.e. for all points within the circle. This type of relay, however, is non-directional. It can
operate for faults behind the relaying point. It takes no account of the phase angle between
voltage and current. It is also sensitive to power swings and load encroachment due to the large
impedance circle

Fig.2-19 R-X diagram

The limitation of the impedance characteristic can be overcome by a technique known
as self polarization. Additional voltages are fed into the comparator in order to compare the
relative phase angles of voltage and current, so providing a directional feature. This has the
effect of moving the circle such that the circumference of the circle passes through the origin.
Angle is known as the relays characteristic angle as shown in fig.2-20. It appears as a straight
line on an admittance diagram.

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fig.2-20. relays characteristic

Problem in distance protection:

Fig.2-21 distance problem

The clearing time is different in two ends because the first end show fault in Z1 and second end
show fault in Z2 as shown in Fig.2-21.This leads to System instability and Line outage for
transient fault
Solve this problem by use Pilot Aided Schemes:
Pilot refers to : A communication channel between the ends of a line to provide instantaneous
clearing over 100% of the line.

2.3.5 transmission line protection diagram:

TL protection diagram as shown in Fig.2-22 represent the connection between CT and relays

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Fig.2-22 transmission line protection diagram:

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