3.

Continuous Groups

Lectures on Symmetries in Physics

Apostolos Pilaftsis
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester,
Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
http://pilaftsi.home.cern.ch/pilaftsi/

0. Literature
Group Theory as the Calculus of Symmetries in Physics
1. Introduction to Group Theory

Definition of a Group G
The Discrete Groups Sn, Zn and Cn
Cosets and Coset Decomposition
Normal Subgroup H and Quotient Group G/H
Morphisms between Groups

2. Group Representations (Reps)

Definition of a Vector Space V

Definition of a Group rep.
Reducible and Irreducible reps (Irreps)
Direct Products and ClebschGordan Series

SL(N, C); SO(N ); SU(N ); SO(N, M )

Useful Matrix Relations in GL(N, C)
Generators and Exponential rep of Groups
[ Examples: SO(2), U(1), SO(3), SU(2) ]
4. Lie Algebra and Lie Groups
Generators of a Group as Basis Vectors of a Lie Algebra
The Adjoint Representation
Normalization of Generators and Casimir Operators
5. Tensors in SU(N )
Preliminaries
Young Tableaux
Applications to Particle Physics
6. Lorentz and Poincar
e Groups
Lie Algebra and Generators of the Lorentz Group
Lie Algebra and Generators of the Poincare Group
Single Particle States

7. Lagrangians in Field Theory

Variational Principle and Equation of Motion
Lagrangians for the Klein-Gordon and Maxwell equations
Lagrangian for the Dirac equation

In order of relevance and difficulty:

1. H.F. Jones: Groups, Representations and Physics (IOP,
1998) Second Edition

8. Gauge Groups

Literature

Global and Local Symmetries.

Gauge Invariance of the QED Lagrangian
Noethers Theorem
YangMills Theories

2. L.H. Ryder, Quantum Field Theory (CUP, 1996) Second

Edition
3. T.-P. Cheng and L.-F. Li, Gauge Theory of Elementary
Particle Physics (OUP, 1984).

9. The Geometry of Gauge Transformations (Trans)

Parallel Transport and Covariant Derivative
Topology of the Vacuum: the BohmAharanov Effect
10. Supersymmetry (SUSY)

4. S. Pokorski, Gauge Field Theories (CUP, 2000) Second

Edition.
5. J. Wess and J. Bagger, Supersymmetry and Supergravity,
(Princeton University Press, 1992) Second Edition

Graded Lie Algebra

Generators of the Super-Poincare Group
The WessZumino Model
Feynman rules

A list of related problems from H.F. Jones:

1. 2.5, 2.9, 2.12

1. Introduction to Group Theory

Definition of a Group G

2. 3.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6

A group (G, ) is a set of elements {a, b, c . . .} endowed with

a composition law that has the following properties:

3. 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

4. 9.1
5. 8.1, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9

(i) Closure. a, b G, the element c = a b G.

6. 10.1, 10.2, 10.3

(ii) Associativity. a, b, c G, it holds a (b c) = (a b) c

7. 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8

(iii) The identity element e. e G: e a = a,

8. 11.3, 11.5, 11.7, 11.8

(iv) The inverse element a1 of a. a G,

a a1 = a1 a = e.

Note that more problems as exercises are included in these

notes.

a G.

a1 G:

If a b = b a, a, b G, the group G is called Abelian.

The Discrete Groups Sn, Zn and Cn
Group G
Sn: permutation
of n objects
Zn: integers
modulo n
Cn: cyclic group
{e, a, . . . an1 }
with an = 1

Multiplication
Successive operation
Addition mod n

Remarks
Non-Abelian
in general
Abelian

Unspecified product

Cn
= Zn

Order
n!

 Cosets and Coset Decomposition

Normal Subgroup H and Quotient Group G/H

Coset. Let H = {h1, h2, . . . , hr } be a proper (i.e. H 6= G

and H 6= I = {e}) subgroup of G.
For a given g G, the sets

Conjugate to H. If H is a subgroup of G, then the set

H 0 = gHg 1 = {gh1g 1, gh2g 1, . . . , ghr g 1}, for a given
g G, is called g-conjugate to H or simply conjugate to H.

gH = {gh1, gh2, . . . , ghr } ,

Hg = {h1g, h2g, . . . , hr g}

are called the left and right cosets of H.

Lagranges Theorem. If g1H and g2H are two (left) cosets
of H, then either g1H = g2H or g1H g2H = .
Coset Decomposition. If H is a proper subgroup of G, then
G can be decomposed into a sum of (left) cosets of H:
G = H g1H g2H g1H ,
/ H; g2
/ H, g2
/ g1H, etc.
where g1,2,... G, g1
The number is called the index of H in G.
The set of all distinct cosets, {H, g1H, . . . , g1H}, is a
manifold, the coset space, and is denoted by G/H.

Normal Subgroup H of G. If H is a subgroup of G and

H = gHg 1 g G, then H is called a normal subgroup
of G.
Groups which contain no proper normal subgroups are termed
simple.
Groups which contain no proper normal Abelian subgroups
are called semi-simple.
Quotient Group G/H. Let G/H = {H, g1H, . . . , g1H}
be the set of all distinct cosets of a normal subgroup H of G,
with the multiplication law:
(giH) (gj H) = (gi gj ) H ,
where giH, gj H G/H. Then, it can be shown that (G/H, )
is a group and is termed quotient group.
Note that G/H is not a subgroup of G. (Why?)

 Morphisms between Groups

Group Homorphism. If (A, ) and (B, ?) are two groups,
then group homorphism is a functional mapping f from the
set A into the set B, i.e. each element of a A is mapped
into a single element of b = f (a) B, such that the following
multiplication law is preserved:
f (a1 a2) = f (a1) ? f (a2) .
In general, f (A) 6= B, i.e. f (A) B.
Group Isomorphism. Consider a 1 : 1 mapping f of (A, )
onto (B, ?), such that each element of a A is mapped
into a single element of b = f (a) B, and conversely, each
element of b B is the image resulting from a single element
of a A. If this bijectiv 1 : 1 mapping f satisfies the
composition law:
f (a1 a2) = f (a1) ? f (a2) ,
it is said to define an isomorphism between the groups A and
B, and is denoted by A
= B.

2. Group Representations (Reps)

Definition of a Vector Space V
A vector space V over the field of complex numbers C is
a set of elements {vi}, endowed with two operations (+, ),
satisfying the following properties:
(A0) Closure. u + v V

u, v V .

(A1) Commutativity. u + v = v + u u, v V .
(A2) Associativity. u+(v+w) = (u+v)+w

(A3) The identity (null) vector. 0 V , such that

v + 0 = v, v V .
(A4) Existence of inverse. v V , (v) V , such that
v + (v) = 0.
(B0) u V

C, u V .

(B1) (u + v) = u + v.

A group homorphism of A into itself is called endomorphism.

(B2) (1 + 2) u = 1 u + 2 v.

A group isomorphism of A into itself is called automorphism.

(B3) 1 (2 u) = (12) u.
(B4) 1 u = u.

u, v, w V

10

 Definition of a Group Rep.

Reducible and Irreducible Reps.

Group Rep. A group representation T ,

Reducible rep. A group rep. T (g) is said to be (completely)

reducible, if there exists a non-singular matrix M GL (N, C)
independent of the group elements, such that

T : g T (g) GL (N, C) g G ,
is a homomorphism of the elements g of a group (G, ) into
the group GL(N, C) of non-singular linear tranformations of
a vector space V of dimension N , i.e. the set of N N dimensional invertible matrices in C.
In addition, homomorphism implies that the group
multiplication is preserved:
T (g1 g2) = T (g1) T (g2) .

Two reps. T1 and T2 are equivalent if there exists an

isomorphism (1 : 1 correspondance) between T1 and T2.
Such an equivalence is denoted as T1
= T2, or T1 T2.

M T (g) M 1

0
T1(g)
..
0
T2(g)
g G.
=
...
..
0
0

0 Tr (g)

T1(g), T2(g), . . . , Tr (g) P

divide T into reps. of lower
r
dimensions, i.e. dim (T ) =
i=1 dim (Ti), and is denoted
by the direct sum:
T (g) = T1(g) T2(g) Tr (g) =

T(i) .

Two equivalent reps may be related by a similarity trans. S:

T1(g) = ST2(g)S 1 g G and S independent of g.

Character of a rep T of a group G is defined as the

set of all traces of the matrices T (g): = {(g)/(g) =
P
i [T (g)]ii g G}.

Irreducible rep (Irrep). A group rep. T (g) which cannot be

written as a direct sum of other reps. is called irreducible.

11

12

Corrolary:
Equivalent reps have the same character.
Conversely, if two reps have the same character, they are
equivalent.

 Direct Products and ClebschGordan Series

ClebschGordan Series

Direct Product of Groups. If A = {a1, a2, . . . , an} and

B = {b1, b2, . . . , bm} are two groups with

If g1 = g2 = g, then the symmetry of the product group

G G is reduced to its diagonal G, i.e. G G G.

ai b j = b j ai

ai A, bj B ,

then a new direct-product group G = A B can be uniquely

defined with elements g = ab. The multiplication law in G is
(a1b1)(a2b2) = (a1a2)(b1b2) .
Remarks:

(i) A and B are normal subgroups of G.

(ii) A
= G/B = {a1B, a2B, . . . , anB}
and B
= G/A = {Ab1, Ab2, . . . , Abm}.

In this case, D (a)(g) D (b)(g) may not be an irrep and can

be further decomposed into a direct sum of irreps of G:
D

(a)

(g) D

(b)

(g) =

ac D(c)(g) .

Such a series decomposition is called a ClebschGordan series,

and the coefficients ac are the so-called ClebschGordan
coefficients.
Applications to reps of the continuous groups SO(2), SU(2)
and SU(N ) will be discussed in the next lectures.

Direct Product of Irreps. If D (a) and D (b) are two irreps

of the group G, a direct product, denoted as D (ab)(g1g2)
D(a)(g1) D(b)(g2), can be constructed as follows:
[D (ab)(g1g2)]ij;kl = [D (a)(g1)]ik [D (b)(g2)]jl .
Frequently, direct products of irreps are called tensor products.
It can be shown that D (ab) is an irrep of the (direct) product
group G G.

13

14

 Useful Matrix Relations in GL(N, C)

3. Continuous Groups

Definitions:

SL(N, C); SO(N ); SU(N ); SO(N, M )

(i) e
Group

Properties

No. of indep.
parameters

Remarks

(ii) ln M
GL(N, C)

detM 6= 0

2N 2

General rep

SL(N, C)

detM = 1

2(N 2 1)

SL(N, C)
GL(N, C)

PN
(xi )2
i=1
PN
0i 2
=
i=1 (x )

1
2 N (N

SO(N, R)

as above +
detO = 1

1
2 N (N

SU(N )

PN
|xi|2
i=1
PN
0i 2
=
i=1 |x |
detU = 1

N 1

PN +M i
j
i,j=1 x gij x
P
N +M 0i
0j
=
i,j=1 x gij x

O(N, R)

SO(N, M )

1)

1)

O T = O1

X
Mn

;
n!
n=0

n=1
Z1
0

U =U

where M GL(N, C), i.e. det M 6= 0.

Basic properties: If [M1, M2] = 0 and M1,2 GL(N, C),
then the following relations hold:

as above

(M 1)n
n

du (M 1) [u(M 1) + 1]

(i) eM1 eM2 = eM1+M2 ,

2

(1)n+1

(ii) ln(M1M2) = ln M1 +ln M2 .

Useful identity:
T g = g
det = 1

gij = diag (1, . . . , 1, 1, . . . , 1)

| {z } |
{z
}
N times

15

M times

ln(det M ) = Tr (ln M ) .
This identity can be proved more easily if M can be
c,
diagonalized through a similarity trans: S 1M S = M
c is a diagonal matrix, and noticing that ln M =
where M
cS 1. (Question: How?)
S ln M
16

 Generators and Exponential rep of Groups

[ Examples: SO(2), U(1), SO(3), SU(2) ]

U(1): The 2-dim rep of SO(2) in (V, R) can be reduced in

(V, C), by means of the trans:

SO(2): Transf. of a point P (x, y) under a rotation through

about z axis:


x0
y0

 
cos sin
x
.
=
sin cos
y
|
{z
}

O()

02

02

SO(2) is an Abelian group, since O()O(0) = O( + 0) =

O(0)O().

: 12

with 22 = 12 and 2 =

2.


0 i
i 0
| {z }

+ O[() ] ,

O()

: 2 = i |=0

M 1 =

1
2
1
2

i
2
i

O() M =

0
ei
i
0 e

Both reps, D (1)() = ei and D (1)() = ei, are faithful

irreps of U(1).

D(m)() = eim ,
where m Z. (Question: What is the generator of U(1)?)
Direct products of U(1)s:

lim [O(/N )]N = exp[i 2] .

The Pauli matrix 2 is the generator of the SO(2) group.

17

= D(1)() D (1)() .

D(m)() D (n)() = D (m+n)() .

Exponential rep for finite :

O() =

A gerenal irrep of U(1) is

Taylor expansion of O() about 12 = O(0):


1 0
i
O() =
0 1
| {z }

1
2
i
2

i.e.

Note that O ()O() = 12 and hence x + y = x + y ,

i.e. O() is an orthogonal matrix, with detO=1.

M=

1
2
i

18

Spatial rotation of a wave-function:

Unitary operator of rotation of a wave-function:
bR() (r, ) = (1 iX)
(r, ) = (r, ) ,
U

where

= i d = Jz
X
d
~
is the z-component angular momentum operator.

SO(3): Group of proper rotations in 3-dim about a given

unit vector n = (nx, ny , nz ) = (n1, n2, n3), with n2 = 1.
Rotations about x, y, z-axes:
1
1
0
0
R1 () = @ 0 cos sin A ,
0 sin
cos
0
1
cos sin 0
cos
0 A.
R3 () = @ sin
0
0
1
0

cos
R2 () = @
0
sin

0
1
0

1
sin
0 A,
cos


i() 
The generators Xi = i dRd
of SO(3) are
=0
X1

X3

0
= @ 0
0
0
0
= @ i
0

1
0
i A ,
0
1
i 0
0
0 A.
0
0
0
0
i

0
X2 = @ 0
i

0
0
0

1
i
0 A,
0

Equivalently, they can be represented as

(Xk )ij = i ijk ;

ijk =

8
>
>
<

1
>
>
:
0

for (i, j, k) = (1, 2, 3)

and even permutations,
for odd permutations,
otherwise

where ijk is the Levi-Civita antisymmetric tensor.

General rep of the Group element of SO(3):
R(, n) = exp(i n X) ,
with X = (X1, X2, X3).
19

20

Properties of the Generators of SO(3).

Commutation relations:

SU(2): Rotation of a complex 2-dim vector v = (v1, v2)

(with v1,2 C) through angle about n:
v0 = U (, n) v ;

[Xi, Xj ] XiXj Xj Xi = iijk Xk .

(Need to use that (Xk )ij = iijk and
ijmklm = ik jl iljk .)

where n2 = 1 and = (1, 2, 3) are the Pauli matrices.

[X1, [X2, X3]] + [X3, [X1, X2]] + [X2, [X3, X1]] = 0 .

(j)
3|jmi = m mm0 ,
[X3 ]m0m = hjm0|X

(j)

p
|jmi = (j m)(j m + 1) m0,m1 ,
= hjm0|X
(j)

(j)

with X = X1 iX2

Xi = 12 i are the generators of SU(2), with

1 =

Irreps of SO(3). These are specified by an integer j (the socalled total angular momentum in QM) and are determined
(j)
by the (2j + 1) (2j + 1)-dim rep of the generators Xi :

(j)

with det U = 1 and

U (, n) = exp(in 12 ) = cos 12 i n sin 12 ,

Jacobi identity:

[X ]m0m

v v = v0 v0 ,

i = L
i/~.
and X
(1)

Exercise: Find the relation between Xi

and Xi.

0 1
1 0

2 =

0 i
i 0

3 =

1 0
0 1

Properties: (i) Tr i = 0; (ii) ij = ij 12 + i ijk k .

Commutation relation: [Xi, Xj ] = i ijk Xk i.e. the same
algebra as of SO(3).
Precise relation between SO(3) and SU(2):
Since R(0) and R(2) [with R(0) = R(2) = 13] map into
different elements U (0) = 12 and U (2) = 12, a faithful
1 : 1 mapping is
SO(3)
= SU(2)/Z2 ,
where Z2 = {12, 12} is a normal subgroup of SU(2).

21

22

4. Lie Algebra and Lie Groups

The Adjoint Representation

Generators of a Group as Basis Vectors of a Lie Algebra

The Lie algebra commutator [Tc, ] (for fixed Tc) defines a

linear homomorphic mapping from L to L over C:

A Lie algebra L is defined by a set of a number d(G) of

generators Ta closed under commutation:

[Tc, 1Ta + 2Tb] = 1[Tc, Ta] + 2[Tc, Tb] ,

c
Tc ,
[Ta, Tb] = Ta Tb Tb Ta = ifab
c
fab

where
are the so-called structure constants of L.
In addition, the generators Tas satisfy the Jacobi identity:
[Ta, [Tb, Tc]] + [Tc, [Ta, Tb]] + [Tb, [Tc, Ta]] = 0 .
The set Ta of generators define a basis of a d(G)-dimensional
vector space (V, C).
In the foundamental rep, Ta are represented by d(F ) d(F )
matrices, where d(F ) is the least number of dimensions
needed to generate the continuous group.
Ex: (i) SO(3): Ta = Xa; (ii) SU(2): Ta = 12 a; (iii) U(1): ?
Exponentiation of Ta generates the group elements of the
corresponding continuous Lie group:

Ta, Tb L.
For every given Ta L, [Ta, ] may be represented in the
vector space L by the structure constants themselves:
c
[DA(Ta)]cb = ifab

c
(= ifba
).

Such a rep of Ta is called the adjoint representation, denoted

by A.
The Killing product form is defined as
gab (Ta, Tb) Tr[DA(Ta)DA(Tb)] ( TrA(TaTb) ) .
d c
gab = fac
fbd is called the Cartan metric.
c
The Cartan metric gab can be used to lower the index of fab
:
d
gdc .
fabc = fab

R(, n) = exp[in T] ,

Exercise: Show that fabc = i TrA([Ta, Tb] Tc) , and that

fabc is totally antisymmetric under the permutation of a, b, c:
fabc = fbac = fbca etc.

23

24

with n2 = 1.

General Remarks

Normalization of Generators and Casimir operators

c
If all fab
s are real for a Lie algebra L, then L is said to
be a real Lie algebra.

The generators of a Lie group DR(Ta) of a given rep R are

normalized as

If the Cartan metric gab is positive definite for a real L,

then L is an algebra for a compact group. In this case, gab
can be diagonalized and rescaled to unity, i.e. gab = 1ab.
[Ex: the real algebras of SU(N ) and SO(N )].

Tr [DR(Ta) DR(Tb)] = TR ab .

There is no adjoint representation for Abelian groups.

(Why ?)
An ideal I is an invariant subalgebra of L, with
[TaI , Tb] I, TaI I and Tb L,
or symbolically [I, L] I.

For example, in SU(N ) [or SO(N )], TF = 12 for the

fundamental rep and TA = N for the adjoint reps.
Casimir operators T2R of a Lie algebra of a rep R are matrix
reps that commute with all generators of L in rep R.
A construction of a Casimir operator T2R in a given rep R of
SU(N ) [or SO(N )] may be obtained by
d(G) d(R)

X X

Ideals I generate normal subgroups of the continuous

group generated by L.

(T2R)ij

Lie algebras that do not contain any proper ideals are

called simple (Ex: SO(2), SU(2), SU(3), SU(5), etc).

where g ab is the inverse Cartan metric satisfying: g ab gbc = ca.

Lie algebras that do not contain any proper Abelian ideals

are called semi-simple. (Question: What is the difference
between a simple and a semi-simple Lie algebra?)

= TA

25

a,b=1 k=1

Exercises:
Show that (i) [T2F , Ta] = 0;
(ii) TR d(G) = CR d(R);
(iii) CF =

A semi-simple Lie algebra can be written as a direct sum

of simple Lie algebras: L = I P .

[DR(Ta)]ik g ab [DR(Tb)]kj = ij CR ,

N 2 1
2N

and CA = N in SU(N ).

26

SU(N ) trans. properties of the Kronecker delta ji and

Levi-Civita symbol i1i2...in :

5. Tensors in SU(N )
Preliminaries

Invariance of ji under an SU(N ) trans:

Trans. of a complex vector i = (1, 2, . . . , n) in SU(N ):

i i0 = Uij j

j0i = U ik Uj l lk = U ik Uj k = ji .

(= Ui j j ) ,

The Levi-Civita symbol i1i2...in :

where U U = U U = 1n and det U = 1.

Define the scalar product invariant under SU(N ):
(, ) = ii
Hence, the trans. of the c.c.

(= i i) .

i1i2...in =

is

j
i i i0 = Uij

(or 0i = U ij j ) ,

and UkiU kj = U ik Uj k = ji .
with Ui j = Uij , U ij = Uij
...

Higher-rank tensors are defined as those quantities that have

the same trans. law as the direct (diagonal) product of
vectors:
0i i ...i

k k ...k

p
2
j11j22...jqp = (U ik11 U ik22 . . . U kpp ) (Ujl11 Ujl22 . . . Ujqq ) l11l2...l
.
q

1 if (i1, . . . in)
permutation
1 if (i1, . . . in)
permutation
0 otherwise

Note that i1i2...in is defined to be fully antisymmetric, such

that ji2...in ii2...in = (n 1)! ji .
Invariance of i1i2...in (and i1i2...in ) under an SU(N ) trans:
0i1i2...in = Ui1j1 Ui2j2 . . . Uinjn j1j2...jn
= det
| {zU} i1i2...in = i1i2...in .
= 1

i i ...i

The rank of j11j22...jpq is p + q, with p contravariant and q

covariant indices.
27

is an even
of (1, . . . n)
is an odd
of (1, . . . n)

28

Reduction of higher-rank tensors:

Young Tableaux

Lower-rank tensors can be formed by appropriate use of ji

and i1i2...in :

Higher-rank SU(N ) tensors do not generally define bases

of irreps. To decompose them into irreps, we exploit the
following property which is at the heart of Young Tableaux.

i ...i

j22...jpq

i1

i i ...i

= ij11 j11j22...jpq ,
=

i1 i2 ...in

i2...in ,

An illustrative example. Consider the 2nd rank tensor ij ,

with the trans. property:

= i1i2...in i1i2...in ,
i1 j 1

0
ij
= Ui k Uj l kl .

= i1i2...in j1j2...jn i2...inj2...jn .

Since the Levi-Civita tensor can be used to lower or raise

indices, we only need to study tensors with upper or lower
indices.

Permutation of i j (denoted by P12) does not change the

trans. law of ij :
0
0
= ji
= Uj k Ui l kl = Uj l Ui k lk
P12 ij

= Uj l Ui k P12 kl .

Exercise: Show that is an SU(N )-invariant scalar.

Hence, P12 can be used to construct the following irreps:

Sij

Aij

1
1
(1 + P12) ij = ( ij + ji ) ,
2
2
1
1
(1 P12) ij = (ij ji) ,
2
2

with P12Sij = Sij and P12Aij = Aij , since there is no

mixing between Sij and Aij under an SU(N ) trans:
0
= Ui k Uj l Skl ,
Sij

29

A0ij = Ui k Uj lAkl .

30

Introduction to Young Tableaux

Rules for constructing a legal Young Tableau

A complex (covariant) vector (or state) i in SU(N ) is

represented by a 2:
i

A typical Young tableau for an (n-rank) tensor with n

indices looks like:

The operation of symmetrization and antisymmetrization is

represented as
(ij)

[ij]

i j

i
j

Each row of a Young tableau must contain no more boxes

than the row above. This implies e.g. that

with (ij) = 12 (1 + P12) ij = Sij = Sji and

[ij] = 12 (1 P12) ij = Aij = Aji.
By analogy, for ijk we have

i j k
(ijk)

is not a valid diagram.

i
j
k

i j
k

[ijk]

[(ij);k]

where (ijk) is fully symmetric in i, j, k,

[ijk] is fully anti-symmetric in i, j, k and
[(ij);k] = (1 P13) (1 + P12) ijk .
Exercise: Express (ijk) and [(ij);k] in terms of ijk .
(Ans: [(ij);k] = ijk + jik kji jki.)
31

There should be no column with more than N boxes for

SU(N ). In this respect, a column with exactly N boxes
can be crossed out. For example, in SU(3) we have:

(Why?)

32

How to find the dimension of a Young Tableau rep

Rules for Clebsch-Gordan series

Steps to be followed:

The direct product of reps can be decomposed as a ClebschGordan series (or direct sum) of irreps. This reduction can
be performed systematically by means of Young Tableaux,
following the rules below:

(a) Write down the ratio of two copies of the tableau:

(a) Write down the two tableaux T1 and T2 and label successive
rows of T2 with indices a, b, c, . . .:
(b) Numerator: Start with the number N for SU(N ) in the top left box.
Each time you meet a box, increase the previous number by +1 when
moving to the right in a row and decrease it by 1 when going down
in a column:
N N+1 N+2
N1 N
N2 N1
N3

(c) Denominator: In each box, write the number of boxes being to its
right + the number being below of it and add +1 for itself:
6
4
3
1

4
2
1

a a a
b b
c

(b) Attach boxes a, b, c . . . from T2 to T1 in all possible

ways one at a time. The resulting diagram should be
a legal Young tableau with no two as or bs being
in the same column (because of cancellation due to
antisymmetrization).
(c) At any given box position, there should be no more bs
than as to the right and above of it. Likewise, there
should be no more cs than bs etc. For example, the
a b
tableau
is not legal.

(d) The dimension d of the rep is the ratio of the products of the entries
in the numerator versus that in the denominator:

d = [N (N + 1)(N + 2)(N 1)N (N 2)(N 1)(N 3)]

(d) Two generated tableaux with the same shape are different
if the labels are distributed differently.

/ [6 4 4 2 3] .

33

34

 Applications to Particle Physics

An example in SU(3)

ab a =
a a +

a a +

a +

a +

+
a
a +

a a +

The SU(3) quark symmetry

a
b

a +
a + a +1
a b
a
b

Define the quark-basis states

u

d,
qi =
s

Then, qi 3 and q i qi 3.

Exercise: Find the ClebschGordan decomposition of the

product 8 10 in SU(3), represented by Young tableaux as

q i = d .
s

ClebschGordan series: 3 3 = 8 1:
qiq j = (qiq j

8 8 = 27 10 10 8 8 1

1 j
1
i qk q k ) + ij qk q k .
3
3

In terms of YoungTableaux:

The singlet state is 1 =

1 qi q i
3

1
3

(u
u + dd + s
s).

The remaining 8 components represent the pseudoscalar octet

Pij = (qiq j 13 ij qk q k ):

(Ans: 8 10 = 8 10 27 35)

35

Pji =

1
2

0 + 16 8
+
K+

12 0 + 16 8
K0
.
2
0
K
K
6 8
36

Baryons as three-quark states:

Particle assignment in an SU(5) unified theory

ClebschGordan series: 3 3 3 = 10 8 8 1

The particle content of the SM = SU(3)cSU(2)L U(1)Y

consists of three generations of quarks and leptons.

Define qijk = qiqj qk , then

One generation of quarks and leptons in the SM contains 15

dynamical degrees of freedom:

qijk = q(ijk) + q[(ij);k] + q[(ji);k] + q[ijk] .

r,g,b
uL
r,g,b
dL

For example, the baryon-octet may be represented by

0

B
B = q[(ij);k] = @

1
2

0 + 16 8

+
12 0 +
0

1
6

p
n
26

C
A.

L
lL

r,g,b
,
uR

r,g,b
dR
,

lR .

In SU(5), the SM fermions are assigned as follows:

5 =

Exercise: Find the ClebschGordan decomposition

for 3 3 3, using YoungTableaux.
What is the quark wave-function of p and n?
and

10 =

ub
u
g
ur
dr

dr
dg
db
e

u
b
0

ur
ug
dg

ug
u
r
0
ub
db

u r dr
u g dg

u b db

0
e

e 0 L

Exercise: Given that 5 is the complex conjugate rep i = i

of the SU(5) in the fundamental rep, find the tensor rep for
the 10-plet representing the remaining fermions of the SM.
37

38

 Lie Algebra and Generators of the Lorentz Group

6. Lorentz and Poincar

e Groups

Generators and Lie Algebra of SO(1,3)

Lorentz trans:
x2 = y

Generators of rotations J1,2,3:

x02 = y 0
x00 = ct0

x = ct
O

= v/c
O

x01 = x0

x =x
3

03

x =z

x =z

J3

0
B 0
= B
@ 0
0
0
0
B 0
= B
@ 0
0

1
0
0 C
C,
i A
0
1
0
0
i 0 C
C.
0
0 A
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
i

0
0
i
0

where x = (ct, x, y, z), x = (ct , x , y , z ) are the

contravariant position 4-vectors, and

0 0

0 0
, for k ex .
=
0
0
1 0
0
0
0 1
Given the metric g = diag (1, 1, 1, 1), the covariant
4-vector is defined as x = g x = (ct, x, y, z).
Under a Lorentz trans, we have xx = x0 x0 or
x g x = x g x T g = g ,

K1

K3

0
B i
= B
@ 0
0
0
0
B 0
= B
@ 0
i

i
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0
0 C
C,
0 A
0
1
i
0 C
C.
0 A
0

0
B 0
J2 = B
@ 0
0

0
0
0
i

0
0
0
0

1
0
i C
C,
0 A
0

0
B 0
K2 = B
@ i
0

0
0
0
0

i
0
0
0

Commutation relations of the Lie algebra SO(1,3):

[Ji, Jj ] = i ijk Jk ,
[Ji, Kj ] = i ijk Kk ,
[Ki, Kj ] = i ijk Jk

so SO(1,3), with det = 1.

39

Generators of boosts K1,2,3:

x0 = () x ,

J1

40

1
0
0 C
C,
0 A
0

SO(1,3)C
= SU(2) SU(2) [or SO(1,3)R SL(2,C)]

Classification of basis-states reps in SO(1,3)

Define

We enumerate basis-state reps in SO(1,3) by (j1, j2), using

the relation of SO(1,3) with SU(2)1 SU(2)2, where j1,2 are
the total spin numbers with respect to SU(2)1,2. The total
degrees of freedom are (2j1 + 1)(2j2 + 1). In detail, we have

1
= (J i K) ,
2

then
[Xi+, Xj+] = i ijk Xk+ ,
[Xi, Xj] = i ijk Xk ,
[Xi+, Xj] = 0 .
Hence, SO(1,3) algebra splits into two SU(2) ones:
SO(1, 3)C
= SU(2) SU(2) ,
where SO(1,3)C is the rep from a complexified SO(1,3)
algebra. However, there is an 1:1 correspondence of the
reps between SO(1,3)C and SO(1,3)R. In fact, we have the
homomorphism
SO(1, 3)R SL(2, C) ,
which is more difficult to use for classification of reps.

(0,0): This is a total spin zero rep, with dim one. (0, 0) represents
a scalar field (x) satisfying the Klein-Gordon equation:
(2 + m2)(x) = 0, where 2 = .
( 12 , 0): This a 2-dim rep, the so-called left-handed Weyl rep,
e.g. neutrinos. It is denoted with a 2-dim complex vector
, usually called the left-handed Weyl spinor. Under a
Lorentz trans, transforms as
0 = M ,
where M SL(2, C).
(0, 12 ): This is the corresponding 2-dim rep of the right-handed
Weyl spinor and is denoted as , which transforms under
Lorentz trans as

0 = M ,

where M SL(2, C).

( 12 , 12 ): This is the defining 4-dim rep, describing a spin 1 particle
with 4 components. One can use the matrix rep: A()
or simply A, e.g. A = (/c, A) in electromagnetism.

41

42

 Lie Algebra and Generators of the Poincar

e Group

The Lie Algebra of the Poincar

e Group:

The Poincare trans consist of Lorentz trans plus space-time

translations:
x0 = x + a ,

The commutation relations defining the Poincare Lie algebra

are

where a is a constant 4-vector.

[P , P ] = 0 ,

The generator of translations in a differential-operator rep is

[P, L ] = i (gP g P) ,

, ),
= i
= i(
x
ct

P = i

with P = i = i( ct
, ), because

eia

[L , L ] = i (gL g L + g L gL ) .
In terms of J and K, the commutation relations read:
[P0 , Ji] = 0 ,

= x + a . (Why?)

[Pi , Jj ] = i ijk Pk ,
[P0 , Ki] = i Pi ,

An analogous differential-operator rep of the 6-generators of

Lorentz trans is given by the generalized angular momentum
operators:
L = xP x P ,

with the identification

Ji =

1
ijk Ljk ,
2

Exercise: Show that Ji =

the SO(1,3) algebra.

Exercise: Prove all commutation relations that appear on this

page.

Ki = L0i .

1
2 ijk Ljk

43

[Pi , Kj ] = i P0 ij .

and Ki = L0i satisfy

44

 Single Particle States

Classification of massless particle states

The Poincare group has two Casimir operators: P 2 = P P

and W 2 = W W, where

Massless particle states, for which P 2|ai = 0 (m = 0),

are characterized only by their 4-momentum p and helicity
= P J.

1
W = L P ,
2

Alternatively, in addition to the operator P, one may use the

PauliLubanski operator W:

with 0123 = 1, is the so-called PauliLubanski vector.

W|a; p, i = p |a; p, i .

Classification of massive particle states

A single massive particle state |ai can be characterized by its
mass and its total spin s, where s is defined in the rest of
mass system of the particle:
P 2 |ai = m2 |ai ,

W 2 |ai = m2J2 |ai = m2s(s+1)|ai .

In addition, we use the 3-momentum P and the helicity

H = J P operators to classify massive particle states:
P |a; m, s; p, i = p |a; m, s; p, i ,

H |a; m, s; p, i = |p| |a; m, s; p, i .

Note that a massive particle state has (2s + 1) polarizations

or helicities, also called degrees of freedom,
i.e. = s, s + 1, . . . , s 1, s.
Examples: for an electron, it is = 12 , and for a massive
spin-1 boson (e.g. the Z-boson), we have = 1, 0, 1.
45

If the theory involves parity, then a massless state has only

two degrees of freedom (polarizations): .
Examples of the above are the photon and the neutrinos of
the Standard Model.

Exercises:
(i) Show that P 2 and W 2 are true Casimir operators,
i.e. [ P 2, P ] = [ P 2, L ] = 0 , and likewise for W 2;
(ii) In particles rest frame where p = (m, 0, 0, 0), show that
W0 = 0, Wi = 12 mijk Ljk = mJi and W 2 = m2J2;
(iii) Show that [J P, P] = 0, [P, W ] = 0, and WP = 0;
(iv) Calculate the commutation relation [W, W ].

46

7. Lagrangians in Field Theory

Variational Principle and Equation of Motion
Classical Lagrangian Dynamics

Hamiltons principle
Hamiltons principle states that the actual motion of the
system is determined by the stationary behaviour of S
under small variations qi(t) of the ith particles generalized
coordinate qi(t), with qi(t1) = qi(t2) = 0, i.e.

The Lagrangian for an n-particle system is

L(qi, qi) = T V ,
where q1,2,...,n are the the generalized coordinates describing
the n particles, and q1,2,...,n are the respective time
derivatives.

=
=

t2
t1
t2
t1

S[qi(t)] =

t2

dt L(qi, qi) .

t1

Note that S is a functional of qi(t).


L
L
dt qi
+ qi
qi
qi


d L
L
dt qi

= 0.
qi
dt qi

The EulerLagrange equation of motion for the ith particle is

T and V denote the total kinetic and potential energies.

The action S of the n-particle system is given by

d L
L

= 0.
dt qi
qi

Exercise: Show that the EulerLagrange equations of motion

for a particle system described by a Lagrangian of the form
L(qi, qi, qi) are
d L
L
d2 L

+
= 0.
2
dt qi
dt qi
qi
[Hint: Consider only variations with qi(t1,2) = qi(t1,2) = 0.]

47

48

Lagrangian Field Theory

Lagrangians for the Klein-Gordon and Maxwell eqs

In Quantum Field Theory (QFT), a (scalar) particle is

described by a field (x), whose Lagrangian has the functional
form:
Z
L =
d3x L((x) , (x)) ,

Lagrangian for the KleinGordon equation

LKG =

1
1
() ( ) m2 2 ,
2
2

where L is the so-called Lagrangian density, often termed

Lagrangian in QFT.

where (x) is a real scalar field describing one dynamical

degree of freedom.

In QFT, the action S is given by

The EulerLagrange equation of motion is the KleinGordon

equation
( + m2) (x) = 0 .

S[(x)] =

d4x L((x) , (x)) ,

Lagrangian for the Maxwell equations

with lim (x) = 0.

x

By analogy, the EulerLagrange equations can be obtained

by determining the stationary points of S, under variations
(x) (x) + (x):

L
L

= 0.
()

1
LME = F F JA ,
4
where F = A A is the field strength tensor, and
J is the 4-vector current satisfying charge conservation:
J = 0.
A describes a spin-1 particle, e.g. a photon, with 2 physical
degrees of freedom.

Exercise: Derive the above EulerLagrange equation for a

scalar particle by extremizing S[(x)], i.e. S = 0 .

Exercise: Use the Euler-Lagrange equations for LME to

show that F = J , as is expected in relativistic
electrodynamics (with 0 = 0 = c = 1).

49

50

 Lagrangian for the Dirac equation

Lorentz trans properties of the Weyl and Dirac spinors

The Dirac spinor is the direct sum of two Weyl spinors
and with Lorentz trans properties:

LD = (i m) ,
where
(x) =

(x)

(x)

0

(
)

( )
0

and (x)
( (x), (x) ), with = (12, ) and
=
(12, ).
The and are 2-dim complex vectors (also called Weyl
spinors) whose components anti-commute: 12 = 21,

12 =
21, 12 =
21 etc.
The EulerLagrange equation of LD with respect to is the
Dirac equation:
LD
= 0 (i m) = 0 .

The 4-component Dirac spinor (x) that satisfies the Dirac

equation describes 4 dynamical degrees of freedom.
Exercises:
(i) Derive the EulerLagrange equation with respect to the
Dirac field (x);
(ii) Show that up to a total derivative term, LD is Hermitian,
i.e. LD = LD + j, with j = i .
51

0 = M ,

0 = M ,

0 = M 1

0 = M 1 .

with M SL(2, C).

Duality relations among 2-spinors:
( ) = ,

() = ,

(
) = ,

( ) =

Lowering and raising spinor indices:

= ,

= ,

with i2 =

0
1

1
0

= ,

= ,

= and i2 = .

Lorentz-invariant spinor contractions:

= = = = =

Likewise, () = = = = .
Exercise: Given that M M = and M 1
M 1 =
, show that LD is invariant under Lorentz trans.

52

Global and Local Symmetries in QFT

8. Gauge Groups

Consider the Lagrangian (density) for a complex scalar:

Global and Local Symmetries

Symmetries in Classical Physics and Quantum Mechanics:
Translational invariance in time
t t + a0

Translational invariance in space

rr+a

Energy conservation
dE
dt = 0
Momentum conservation
dp
dt = 0

Rotational invariance
r Rr

Angular momentum conservation

dJ
dt = 0

Quantum Mechanics

Degeneracy of energy states

[H, O] = 0

Quantum Field Theory

(x) (x) + (x)

dO
dt

= i[H, O] = 0

Noethers Theorem
?

L = ( ) () m2 + ()2 .
L is invariant under a U(1) rotation of the field :
(x) 0(x) = ei (x) ,
where does not depend on x x.
A transformation in which the fields are rotated about xindependent angles is called a global transformation. If the
angles of rotation depend on x, the transformation is called
a local or a gauge transformation.
A general infinitesimal global or local trans of fields i under
the action of a Lie group reads:
i(x) 0i(x) = i(x) + i(x) ,
where i(x) = i a(x) (T a)ij j (x) , and T a are the
generators of the Lie Group. Note that the angles or group
parameters a are x-independent for a global trans.
If a Lagrangian L is invariant under a global or local trans, it
is said that L has a global or local (gauge) symmetry.
Exercise: Show that the above Lagrangian for a complex
scalar is not invariant under a U(1) gauge trans.

53

54

 Gauge Invariance of the QED Lagrangian

QED Lagrangian with an electron-photon interaction

Consider first the Lagrangian for a Dirac field :

The complete Lagrangian of Quantum Electrodynamics

(QED) that includes the interaction of the photon with the
electron is

LD = (i m) .
LD is invariant under the U(1) global trans:
(x) 0(x) = ei (x) ,
but it is not invariant under a U(1) gauge trans, when
= (x). Instead, we find the residual term
.
LD = ((x))
To cancel this term, we introduce a vector field A in the
theory, the so-called photon, and add to LD the extra term:
.
L = LD e A
We demand that A transforms under a local U(1) as
A A0 = A

1
6 ),
LQED = F F + (i 6 m e A
4
where we used the convention: 6 a a.
Exercises:
(i) Show that LQED is gauge invariant under a U(1) trans.
(ii) Derive the equation of motions with respect to photon
and electron fields.
(iii) How should the Lagrangian describing a complex scalar
field (x),
L = ( ) () m2 ,
be extended so as to become gauge symmetric under a U(1)
local trans?

1
(x) .
e

L is invariant under a U(1) gauge trans of and A.

55

56

 Noethers Theorem
Noethers Theorem. If a Lagrangian L is symmetric under a
global transformation of the fields, then there is Ra conserved
current J (x) and a conserved charge Q = d3x J 0(x),
associated with this symmetry, such that
J = 0 and

dQ
= 0.
dt

With the aid of the equations of motions for i, the last

equation implies that

L
i
(i)

Proof:
Consider a Lagrangian L(i, i) to be invariant under the
infinitesimal global trans:

Q (t) =

L
L
(i) = 0 .
i +
i
(i)

This last equation can be rewritten as

L =

L
L
L

i +
(i)
i
(i)

57

i = 0 .

d3x J a, 0(x) .

Indeed, it is easy to check that

Hence, the change of L is vanishing, i.e.

The corresponding conserved charges are

a

where T a are the generators of some group G.

L
L

(i)
i

L i
L
i (T a)ij j .
=
a
(i)
(i)

i = i a(T a)ij j ,

The conserved current (or currents) is

J a, =

L =

dQa
dt

a, 0

d x 0 J (x) =
Z
= ds Ja 0 ,

d3x Ja(x)

because surface terms vanish at infinity.

i = 0 .

Exercises: Find the conserved currents and charges for

(i) QED;
(ii) the gauge-invariant Langrangian with a complex scalar .
58

 YangMills Theory

Interaction between quarks qi and gluons Aa in SU(3)c

The Lagrangian of a YangMills (non-Abelian) SU(N ) theory

is
1 a a,
LYM = F
F
,
4
where

If qi = (qred, qgreen, qblue) are the 3 colours of the quark,

their interaction with the 8 gluons Aa is described by the
Lagrangian:
6 a(T a)ij ] qj .
Lint = qi [ i 6 ij m ij g A

a
F
= Aa Aa + g f abc Ab Ac ,

and f abc are the structure constants of the SU(N ) Lie algebra.
It can be shown that LYM is invariant under the infinitesimal
SU(N ) local trans:
1
Aa = a + f abc b Ac .
g
Examples of SU(N ) theories are the SU(2)L group of the SM
and Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) based on the SU(3)c
group.
The gauge (vector) fields of the SU(2)L are the W 0 and W
bosons responsible for the weak force.
The gauge vector bosons of the SU(3)c group are the gluons
mediating the strong force between quarks.
Gauge bosons of YangMills theories self-interact!

Exercise: Show that Lint is invariant under the SU(3) gauge

transformation:
1
Aa = a + f abc b Ac ,
g

where T a = 12 a are the generators of SU(3) and a are the

Gell-Mann matrices:

1,2,3

1,2,3

0
@
=
0
i
0
0
@
=
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
i

0
0

1
i
0 A,
0
1
0
i A ,
0

Exercise: Show that LYM is invariant under SU(N ) gauge

trans.
59

qi = i a (T a)ij qj ,

60

0
= @0
1
0
0
@
=
0
0
0 1

B
= @ 0
0

1
1
0A,
0
1
0
1A,
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0

1
3

1
0
0 C
A.
2

9. The Geometry of Gauge Transformations

Parallel Transport and Covariant Derivative
Simple Example:
e2

v(t)
(t)

e1

Then, we have
1
d
v(t) =
{ vi(t + t) (vi(t) t vj (t) [ei tej ])}
dt
t
ei(t + t)
= [ tvi(t) + (ei tej ) vj (t) ] ei(t) .

We can now define the covariant derivative to act only on

the components of v(t) as:
Dtvi(t) = tvi(t) + (ei tej )vj (t) ,
= tvi(t) + 3ij vj (t) ,

Time-dependent vector written in terms of t-dependent unit

vectors:
v(t) = vi(t) ei(t)

(with i = 1, 2).

The true time derivative of v(t) is

d
v(t + t) v(t)
v(t) = lim
.
t0
dt
t
To calculate this, we need to refer all unit vectors to t + t:
ei(t) = ei(t + t) t tei(t) .
61

d
with the obvious property dt
v(t) = ei(t)Dtvi(t). The second
term is induced by the change of the coordinate axes, namely
after performing a parallel transport of our coordinate system
e1,2(t) from t to t + t.

Proper comparison of two vectors vi(t + t) and vi(t) can

only be made in the same coordinate system by means of
parallel transport. Differentiation is properly defined through
the covariant derivative.
Exercise: Show that the covariant derivative satisfies the
relation
Dtvi(t) = tvi(t) + ( v(t))i ,

with = (t),
which is known from Classical Mechanics
between rotating and fixed frames in 3 dimensions.
62

Differentiation in curved space

Covariant derivative in the Gauge-Group Space

The notion of the covariant derivative generalizes to curved

space as well. By analogy, the infinitesimal difference between
the 4-vectors V (x0) and V (x) is given by

Consider the difference of a fermionic isovector field at

x + x and x in an SU(N ) gauge theory:
D = d + ,

DV = dV + V ,
where
where dV is the difference of the 2 vectors in the same
coordinate system and V is due to parallel transport of the
vector from x to x0 = x + x.

= ig T aAa dx
and the field Aa takes care of the change of the SU(N ) axes
from point to point in Minkowski space.

In the framework of General Relativity, we have

The covariant derivative of (x) is

D = ( + ig T aAa) ,

DV = (V + V ) dx ,
where is the so-called affine connection or the Christoffel
symbol.

which is obtained from pure geometric considerations.

In analogy to General Relativity, the gauge field Aa T a is
sometimes called the connection.
Exercise: Show that under a local SU(N ) rotation of the
isovector field: 0 = U (with U SU(N )), its
covariant derivative transforms as
D D0 0 = U D ,
with
A0 = U A U +

63

64

i
(U ) U .
g

A round trip in the SU(N ) Gauge-Group Space

D

C
x

Parallels between Gauge Theory and General Relativity

In General Relativity, a corresponding round trip of a vector
V in a curved space gives rise to
V =

1
R V S ,
2

Keeping terms up to second order in x and x, we have

1
xx DD ) A,0 ,
2
1
= (1 + xD + xx DD ) B ,
2
1
= (1 xD + xx DD ) C ,
2
1
= (1 xD + xx DD ) D .
2

B = (1 + xD +
C
D
A,1
Hence,

A,1 = (1 + xx [D , D ]) A,0 ,
and A,1 6= A,0.

where S represents the area enclosed by the path and

R
is the RiemannChristoffel curvature tensor:

= + .
R

Analogies:
Gauge Theory

General Relativity

Gauge trans.
Gauge field Aa T a
Field strength F
Bianchi
identity:
P
,, D F = 0

Co-ordinate trans.
Affine connection,

Curvature tensor R
Bianchi
identity:
P

,, D R = 0

cyclic

Exercise: Show that

cyclic

i
a
Ta
[D , D ] = F
g
is the SU(N ) Field-strength tensor.
65

66

 Topology of the Vacuum: the BohmAharanov Effect

Basic Concepts in Topology

The BohmAharanov Effect:

Let a(s) and b(s) be two paths in a topological space Y both

starting from the point P (a(0) = b(0) = P ) and ending at a
possibly different point Q (a(1) = b(1) = Q). If there exists
a continuous function L(t, s) such that L(0, s) = a(s) and
L(1, s) = b(s), then the paths a and b are called homotopic
which is denoted by a b.

1
e source

x: displacement of fringes

2
B

Vector potential A and B field (with B = A) in

cylindrical polars:
Inside:

Ar = Az = 0,
Br = B = 0 ,

Br
,
2
Bz = B ,

A =

If P Q, the path is said to be closed.

The inverse of a path a is written as a1 and is defined by
a1(s) = a(1 s). It corresponds to the same path traversed
in the opposite direction.
The product path c = ab is defined by

Outside:

Ar = Az = 0,

A =

BR
,
2r

c(s) = a(2s) ,
for 0 s 12 ,
c(s) = b(2s 1) , for 12 s 1 .

B = 0,
where R is the radius of the solenoid.

If a b, then ab1 is homotopic to the null path: ab1 1.

Although the electrons move in regions with E = B = 0, the

B field of the solenoid induces a phase difference 12 of the
electrons on the screen causing a displacement of the fringes:
I
Z
e
e
B ds .
12 = 1 2 =
A dr =
~ 21
~
In regions with E = B = 0, it is A 6= 0, so the vacuum has
a topological structure! It is not simply connected due to the
presence of the solenoid.

Exercises:

(ii) Given that fn() 6 fm() for n 6= m, explain then why

L(t, ) = ei[n(1t)+mt] is not an allowed homotopy function
relating fn to fm.

67

68

(i) Consider the mappings S 1 U (1): fn() = ei(n+a)

(with a R and n Z), and show that they all are homotopic
to those with a = 0.

Homotopy Classes, Groups and the Winding Number

The BohmAharanov Effect Revisited

All paths related to maps X Y of two topological spaces

X, Y can be divided into homotopy classes.

In regions with E = B = 0, A is a pure gauge: A =

(Why?).

Homotopy Class. All paths that are homotopic to a given

path a(s) define a set, called the homotopy class and denoted
by [a]. For example, [fn] are distinct homotopy classes for
different n.

The configuration space X of the BohmAharanov effect is

the plane R2 with a hole in it, due to the solenoid. This is
topologically equivalent ( homeomorphic) to R S 1. The
space X can be conveniently described by polar coords (r, ),
with r 6= 0.

Winding Number.
Each homotopy class may be
characterized by an integer, the winding number n (also called
the Pontryargin index). For the case f () : S 1 U (1), the
winding number is determined by
1
n =
2i

Z2

d ln f ()
d

Homotopy Group. The set of all homotopy classes related

to maps X Y forms a group, under the multiplication law
[a] [b] = [ab] ,
the so-called homotopy group X (Y ).

It can be shown that (r, ) = const. , which is a function

in the group space of U(1), i.e. Y = U (1).
Since functions mapping S 1 onto R are all deformable to a
constant, the non-trivial part of is given by the map:
S 1 U (1) .
Because 1[U (1)] = Z, the electron paths cannot be deformed
to a null path with a constant , implying A = 0 everywhere
and the absence of the BohmAharanov effect.
Since 1[SU (2)] = 1, there is no BohmAharanov effect
from an SU(2) solenoid !

Exercises:
(i) Prove that the homotopy group satisfies the axioms of a
group.

Exercises:
(i) Show that (r, ) = 12 BR2 is a possible solution for
E = B = 0, where B is the magnetic field and R the radius
of the solenoid.

(ii) Show that for S 1 U (1), 1[U (1)]

= Z.

(ii) Verify that 12 = e~ [ (2) (0) ].

69

70

ZN -graded Lie algebra. The generalization of a Z2-graded

Lie algebra L to ZN can be defined analogously. Let L be
the direct sum of N subalgebras Li:

10. Supersymmetry (SUSY)

Graded Lie Algebra
Definition. A Z2-graded Lie algebra is defined on a vector
space L which is the direct sum of two subspaces L0 and
L1: L = L0 L1. The generators that span the space L are
endowed with a multiplications law:
: L L L.

(0)

(0)

(0)

Then, the multiplication law among the generators of L

can be defined by
T (i) T (j) = (1)gigj T (j) T (i) L(i+j)

T (0) L0, T (1) L1, the generators satisfy the following

properties:
(0)

N 1
L = i=0
Li .

(0)

(0)

(i) T1 T2 = (1)g0 T2 T1 = [T1 , T2 ] L0 ,

(ii) T (0) T (1) = (1)g0g1 T (1) T (0) = {T (0), T (1)} L1 ,
2
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(iii) T1 T2 = (1)g1 T2 T1 = [T1 , T2 ] L0 ,
where g0 = g(L0) = 0 and g1 = g(L1) = 1 are the degrees
of the graduation of the Z2-graded Lie algebra.

The ZN -graded Jacobi identity is defined analogously with

that of Z2, where gi,j = 0, 1, . . . , N 1 is the degree of
graduation of Li,j .

Exercise:??? Find the (anti)-commutation relations and the

structure constants of the Z2-graded Lie algebra of SU(2).

In addition, all generators of L satisfy the Z2-graded Jacobi

identity:
(1)gigk T (i) (T (j) T (k)) + (1)gk gj T (k) (T (i) T (j))
+ (1)gj gi T (j) (T (k) T (i)) = 0 ,

where i, j, k = 0, 1.
71

mod N

72

 Generators of the Super-Poincar

e Group

Consequences of the Super-Poincar

e Symmetry

The generators super-Poincare algebra are P , L L0

L1. They satisfy the following
and the spinors Q , Q
relations:

Equal number of fermions and bosons.

(i) [P , P ] = 0 ,
(ii) [P, L ] = i (gP g P) ,
(iii) [L , L ] = i (gL g L + g L gL ) .

, Q
} = 0 ,
(iv) {Q, Q } = {Q

} = 2( ) P ,
(v) {Q, Q

(vi) [Q, P] = 0 ,

b ( , , F ), where is a
Scalar supermultiplet
complex scalar (2), is a 2-component complex spinor (4),
and F is an auxiliary complex scalar (2).
Vector supermultiplet Vb a (Aa , a, D a), where Aa
are massless non-Abelian gauge fields (3), a are the 2component gauginos (4), and D a are the auxiliary real
fields (1).

(vii) [L , Q] = i( ) Q ,

] = i(
(viii) [L , Q
) Q
,

where ( ) = 14 [ ( ) (
)
( ) (
)
] and

)
( ) (
)
( ) ].
(
) = 14 [ (

Exercise:? Prove the Z2-graded Jacobi identity:

The simplest model that realizes SUperSYmmetry (SUSY)

is the WessZumino model. Counting on-shell degrees of
freedom (dof), the Wess-Zumino model contains one complex
scalar (2 dofs) and one Weyl spinor (2 dofs):
bosonic dofs = fermionic dofs

}] + {Q , [Q , L ]} + {Q
, [Q , L ]} = 0 .
[L , {Q , Q

73

74

 The WessZumino Model

Exercise: Show that

Non-interacting WZ model

{
+
} = 2g ,

Lkin = Lscalar + Lfermion

= ( )() + i
() ;

1
= (1 + i2)
2

Consider + and + , with

=

and = () = = ,

and infinitesimal anticommuting 2-spinor constant.

Lscalar Lscalar + Lscalar ,
)
)(
Lscalar = ( )() + (
Try + and + , with
and = i( )
= i( )
Lfermion Lfermion + Lfermion ,
Lfermion

)
(

()( ) +
)
( ) +
(

[
( )]
75

{
+
} = 2g

Noticing that = and using the results of the above

exercise, we get
)
Lfermion = ( ) + (
)
)(
= ()( ) (
)]
+ [( ) + (

L = Lscalar + Lfermion = 0 !
But, we are not finished yet ! The difference of two successive
SUSY transfs. must be a symmetry of the Lagrangian as well,
i.e. SUSY algebra should close.
(2 1 1 2 )
(2 1 1 2 )

i(1 2 2 1)
iP (with  = )

= i( 1)2 + i( 2)1

Fierz

i(1 2 2 1)
+ 12i
21i

Only for on-shell fermions, i

= 0, the SUSY algebra
closes.
76

To close SUSY algebra off-shell, we need an auxiliary complex

scalar F (without kinetic term) and add

LF = F F

The interacting WZ model

LWZ = Lkin + Lint

= ( )() + i
() + F F
1
1
+ WF
W + W F W
2
2

to Lscalar + Lfermion, with

() ,

F = i()
F = i
+ F , = i( ) + F
= i( )

where

m
h
+
2
6
is the so-called superpotential, and
W () =

Exercise: Prove (i) that the Lagrangian

() + F F
Lkin = ( )() + i
is invariant under the off-shell SUSY transfs:
=
= i( ) + F

= ,

= i( ) + F ,

() ,
F = i
F = i()
and (ii) that the SUSY algebra closes off-shell:

(2 1 1 2 )X = i(1 2 2 1) X ,
F, F .
with X = , , , ,
77

W =

h
W
= m + 2

W =

2W
= m + h

Exercise: Show that up to total derivatives,

1
1
Lint = W + W F W
+ WF
2
2
1
1
= (m + h) (m + h)
2
2
h
h
+ (m + 2)F + (m + 2)F
2
2
remains invariant under off-shell SUSY transformations.
78

 Feynman rules

Summary

Equation of motions for the auxiliary fields F and F :

The complete WZ Lagrangian is
F = W ,

F = W ,

Substituting the above into LWZ, we get

LWZ = ( )() + i
() WW
1

)
( W + W
2

mh 2
h2 2
( + 2)
( )
2
4
h
h
P L P R ,
2
2

mh 2
h2 2
( + 2) +
( )
2
4

Exercise: If =
is a Majorana 4-spinor, show that

the -dependent part of the WZ Lagrangian can be written

down as
L =

1
1
i m
2
2

where the F -field has been integrated out.

and the real potential is

V = WW = m2 +

LWZ = ( )() m2 +

1
1
i m
2
2
h
h
P L P R ,
2
2

where PL,R = (14 5)/2 and 5 = diag (12 , 12).

79

80

Feynman rules:

, p
, p

i
p2 m 2

i
6p m

imh

ih2

ihPL

ihPR

SUSY is such an elegant symmetry that it would be a pity if

nature made no use of it!

81