CH 09

Grinding Wheel
Bond
Grinding
wheel
Porosity
Grain
Bond fracture
Microcracks
Workpiece
Attritious wear
Wheel surface
Grain
fracture
FIGURE 9.1 Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing its structure and grain
wear and fracture patterns.
TABLE 9.1 Knoop hardness range for

various materials and abrasives.
Common glass
Flint, quartz
Zirconium oxide
Hardened steels
Tungsten carbide
Aluminum oxide
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
350-500
800-1100
1000
700-1300
1800-2400
2000-3000
Titanium nitride
Titanium carbide
Silicon carbide
Boron carbide
Cubic boron nitride
Diamond
2000
1800-3200
2100-3000
2800
4000-5000
7000-8000
Grinding Wheel Types

Grinding face
Grinding face
(a) Type 1straight
(b) Type 2 cylinder
Grinding face
Grinding face
(c) Type 6straight cup
(d) Type 11flaring cup
Grinding faces
Grinding faces
(f) Type 28depressed center
(e) Type 27 depressed center
(g) Mounted

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FIGURE 9.2 Some common types of grinding wheels

made with conventional abrasives (aluminum oxide and
silicon carbide). Note that each wheel has a specific
grinding face; grinding on other surfaces is improper and
unsafe.
Superabrasive Wheels
Type
1A1
2A2
1A1RSS
(a)
(b)
(c)
11A2
DW
(d)
(e)
DWSE
(f)
FIGURE 9.3 Examples of superabrasive wheel configurations. The rim consists of superabrasives and the
wheel itself (core) is generally made of metal or composites. Note that the basic numbering of wheel types
(such as 1, 2, and 11) is the same as that shown in Fig. 9.2. The bonding materials for the superabrasives are:
(a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitrified; (b) metal; (c) vitrified; and (f) resinoid.

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Grinding Wheel Marking System

Example:
51
Prefix
Manufacturer!s symbol
(indicating exact
type of abrasive)
(use optional)
A Aluminium oxide
C Silicon carbide
Abrasive
type
36
Abrasive
grain size
L
Grade
Coarse Medium Fine Very

fine
8
220
70
30
10
80 240
36
12
90 280
46
14
100 320
54
16
120 400
60
20
150 500
24
180 600
Soft
Medium
Hard
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Grade scale
Structure
Dense 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Open 15
16
etc.
(Use optional)
Bond
type
23
Manufacturer!s
record
Manufacturer!s
private marking
(to identify wheel)
(use optional)
B
BF
E
O
R
RF
S
V
Resinoid
Resinoid reinforced
Shellac
Oxychloride
Rubber
Rubber reinforced
Silicate
Vitrified
FIGURE 9.4 Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide bonded abrasives.

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Diamond and cBN Marking System

Example: M
Prefix
Manufacturer!s
symbol
(to indicate type
of diamond)
100
Abrasive
type
B Cubic boron
nitride
D Diamond
100
Grit size
Grade
Diamond
concentration
20
24
30
36
46
54
60
80
90
100
120
150
180
220
240
280
320
400
500
600
800
1000
A (soft)
25 (low)
50
75
100 (high)
to
Z (hard)
B
Bond
1/8
Bond
modification
B Resinoid
M Metal
V Vitrified
Diamond
depth (in.)
1/16
1/8
1/4
Absence of depth
symbol indicates
solid diamond
A letter or numeral
or combination
(used here will indicate
a variation from
standard bond)
FIGURE 9.5 Standard marking system for diamond and cubic-boron-nitride bonded abrasives.

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Abrasive Grains
A
Grain
Abrasive grain
Chip
Chip
Wear flat
F
F
v
10 Mm
Workpiece
(a)
FIGURE 9.6 The grinding surface of an

abrasive wheel (A46-J8V), showing grains,
porosity, wear flats on grains (see also Fig.
9.7b), and metal chips from the workpiece
adhering to the grains. Note the random
distribution and shape of the abrasive grains.
Workpiece
(b)
FIGURE 9.7 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive

grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. Source: After
M.E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an
abrasive grain. Note the negative rake angle, the small shear angle,
and the wear flat on the grain.

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Grinding Variables
Chip length, external grinding
V
Grinding wheel
l=
Grains
Dd
1 + (D/Dw)
t
d
v
l
Workpiece
FIGURE 9.8 Basic variables in surface grinding.

In actual grinding operations, the wheel depth
of cut, d, and contact length, l, are much smaller
than the wheel diameter, D. The dimension t is
called the grain depth of cut.

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Chip length, internal grinding

l=
Dd
1 (D/Dw)
Chip length, surface grinding

!
"
4v
d
t=
VCr D
Grinding Parameters
Ridges
Chip
ve
o
ro
FIGURE 9.9 Chip formation and plowing

(plastic deformation without chip removal) of
the workpiece surface by an abrasive grain.
Workpiece
Process Variable
Wheel speed (m/min)
Work speed (m/min)
Feed (mm/pass)
Conventional Grinding
1500-3000
10-60
0.01-0.05
Creep-Feed Grinding
1500-3000
0.1-1
1-6
TABLE 9.2 Typical ranges of speeds and feeds for abrasive processes.
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Buffing
1800-3600
-
Polishing
1500-2400
-
Specific Energy in Grinding

Workpiece Material
Aluminum
Cast iron (class 40)
Low-carbon steel (1020)
Titanium alloy
Tool steel (T15)
Hardness
150 HB
215 HB
110 HB
300 HB
67 HRC
Specific Energy
W-s/mm3 hp-min/in3
7-27
2.5-10
12-60
4.5-22
14-68
5-25
16-55
6-20
18-82
6.5-30
TABLE 9.3 Approximate Specific-Energy Requirements for Surface Grinding.
Temperature rise:
! "1/2
1/4 3/4 V
Temperature rise D d
v

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Tension
Residual Stresses
0.10
0.15
4000 ft/min (20 m/s) 400
20
3000 (15)
2000 (10)
220
240
2200
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
Depth below surface (in.)
(a)
MPa
200
0.15
Soluble oil (1:20)

200
20
Highly sulfurized oil
0
220
240
5% KNO2 solution
2200
MPa
60
0.05
2400
260
Compression
Residual stress (psi x 103)
Tension
80
40
Compression
Residual stress (psi x 103)
mm
40
mm
0.05
0.10
280
2600
2100
0
2800
0.002
0.004
0.006
Depth below surface (in.)
(b)
FIGURE 9.10 Residual stresses developed on the workpiece surface in grinding tungsten: (a) effect of wheel speed and
(b) effect of type of grinding fluid. Tensile residual stresses on a surface are detrimental to the fatigue life of ground
components. The variables in grinding can be controlled to minimize residual stresses, a process known as low-stress
grinding. Source: After N. Zlatin.

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Dressing
Single-point
dressing diamond
for dressing forms
up to 608 on both
sides of the grinding
wheel
60
Fixed-angle
swivelling dresser
to dress forms
up to 908 on both
sides of the grinding
wheel
Rotary dressing
unit for dressing
hard grinding
wheels or for
high-volume
production
Grinding wheel
Precision
radius dresser
for single- and
twin-track
bearing
production
Formed diamond
roll dressing for
high-volume
production
Dressing tool
Silicon carbide
or diamond dressing
wheel for dressing
either diamond or
cBN grinding
wheels
Dressing tool
(a)
Diamond
dressing tool
Grinding
face
Grinding wheel
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering(b)

Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 9.11 (a) Methods of grinding wheel

dressing. (b) Shaping the grinding face of a wheel
by dressing it with computer-controlled shaping
features. Note that the diamond dressing tool is
normal to the wheel surface at point of contact.
Source: OKUMA America Corporation.
Surface Grinding
Wheel
Wheel
Workpieces
Wheel
Work table
Workpiece
Workpiece
Horizontal-spindle surface
grinder: Traverse grinding
Rotary table
Horizontal-spindle surface
grinder: Plunge grinding
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 9.12 Schematic illustrations of surface-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a horizontal-spindle
surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder, producing a groove in the workpiece. (c)
Vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as the Blanchard-type grinder).
Wheel guard
Worktable
Workpiece
Wheel head
Column
Saddle
Feed
Bed

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FIGURE 9.12
Schematic illustration of a
horizontal-spindle surface grinder.
Thread and Internal Grinding

Grinding wheel
FIGURE 9.14 Threads produced by (a)

traverse and (b) plunge grinding.
(a)
(b)
Workpiece
Workpiece
Workpiece
Wheel
Wheel
Wheel
(a) Traverse grinding
(b) Plunge grinding
(c) Profile grinding
FIGURE 9.15 Schematic illustrations of internal-grinding operations.

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Centerless Grinding
Through-feed grinding
Plunge grinding
Grinding
wheel
Feed
Grinding
wheel
End
stop
Workpiece
Work-rest blade
Regulating
wheel
Regulating wheel
(a)
(b)
Internal centerless grinding

Pressure
roll
Regulating
wheel
FIGURE 9.16 (a-c) Schematic illustrations of

centerless-grinding operations. (d) A computernumerical-control centerless grinding machine.
Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Grinder shaft
Workpiece
(revolves clockwise)
Support roll
(c)

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(d)
Creep-Feed Grinding
d = 16 mm
Low work speed, v
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 9.17 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of
cut. (b) A groove produced on a flat surface in one pass by creep-feed grinding using a shaped wheel.
Groove depth can be on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped
wheel. Source: Courtesy of Blohm, Inc. and Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

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Finishing Operations
Abrasive grains
Size coat
Make coat
Backing
Spindle
FIGURE 9.18 Schematic illustration of the structure of a

coated abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in the 16th century,
and emery cloth are common examples of coated
abrasives.
Stone
FIGURE 9.19 Schematic illustration of a honing tool to

improve the surface finish of bored or ground holes.
Nonabrading
bronze guide
Oscillation
(traverse if
necessary)
Motor
Stone
Holder
Rotation
Stone
Workpiece
Workpiece
(a)
Rolls
(b)

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FIGURE 9.20 Schematic illustration of the superfinishing

process for a cylindrical part: (a) cylindrical microhoning;
(b) centerless microhoning.
Lapping
Lap position and
pressure control
Upper lap
Lap
Abrasive
Workpiece
Workpiece
Before
Workholding
plate
After
Guide rail
(a)
Workpieces
Machine pan
(b)
FIGURE 9.21 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production
lapping on flat surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.

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(c)
Lower lap
Chemical-Mechanical Polishing
Abrasive slurry
Workpiece
Workpiece carrier
Workpiece
carrier
Workpiece (disk)
Polishing pad
Polishing
table
Polishing table
(a) Side view
(a) Top view
FIGURE 9.22 Schematic illustration of the chemical-mechanical polishing process. This process is
widely used in the manufacture of silicon wafers and integrated circuits, where it is known as
chemical-mechanical planarization. Additional carriers and more disks per carrier also are possible.

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Polishing Using Magnetic Fields
Drive shaft
S-pole
Workpiece
N-pole
Guide ring
Magnetic fluid
and abrasive
grains
Ceramic balls
(workpiece)
Float
NSNSNSNSNSNS
Magnetic fluid
Permanent magnets
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 9.23 Schematic illustration of the use of magnetic fields to polish balls and rollers: (a) magnetic
float polishing of ceramic balls and (b) magnetic-field-assisted polishing of rollers. Source: After R.
Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.

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Ultrasonic Machining
Power
supply
Transducer
Glass-graphite
epoxy composite
Workpiece
1.2 mm
(0.048 in.)
50 mm (2 in.)
diameter
Abrasive
slurry
Tool
Glass
Slots 0.64 3 1.5 mm

(0.025 3 0.060 in.)
Holes 0.4 mm (0.016 in.)

diameter
(b)
(c)
(a)
FIGURE 9.24 (a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic-machining process; material is removed through
microchipping and erosion. (b) and (c) Typical examples of cavities produced by ultrasonic machining. Note
the dimensions of cut and the types of workpiece materials.
Contact time:
5r ! co "1/5
to !
co v
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Contact force:
2mv
Fave =
to
Process
Characteristics
Chemical machining
(CM)
Shallow removal (up to 12 mm) on large flat or

curved surfaces; blanking of thin sheets; low tooling and equipment cost; suitable for low production runs.
Complex shapes with deep cavities; highest rate
of material removal; expensive tooling and equipment; high power consumption; medium to high
production quantity.
Cutting off and sharpening hard materials, such
as tungsten-carbide tools; also used as a honing
process; higher material removal rate than grinding.
Shaping and cutting complex parts made of hard
materials; some surface damage may result; also
used for grinding and cutting; versatile; expensive
tooling and equipment.
Contour cutting of flat or curved surfaces; expensive equipment.
Cutting and hole making on thin materials; heataffected zone; does not require a vacuum; expensive equipment; consumes much energy; extreme
caution required in use.
Cutting and hole making on thin materials; very
small holes and slots; heat-affected zone; requires
a vacuum; expensive equipment.
Cutting all types of nonmetallic materials to 25
mm (1 in.) and greater in thickness; suitable for
contour cutting of flexible materials; no thermal
damage; environmentally safe process.
Single or multilayer cutting of metallic and nonmetallic materials.
Cutting, slotting, deburring, flash removal, etching, and cleaning of metallic and nonmetallic materials; tends to round off sharp edges; some hazard because of airborne particulates.
Electrochemical
machining (ECM)
Electrochemical grinding
(ECG)
Electrical-discharge
machining (EDM)
Wire EDM
Laser-beam machining
(LBM)
Electron-beam
machining (EBM)
Water-jet machining
(WJM)
Abrasive water-jet
machining (AWJM)
Abrasive-jet machining
(AJM)

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Process Parameters and Typical

Material Removal Rate or Cutting Speed
0.025-0.1 mm/min
V: 5-25 dc; A: 2.5-12 mm/min,

depending on current density.
A: 1-3 A/mm2 ; typically 1500
mm3 /min per 1000 A.
Advanced
Machining
Processes
V: 50-380; A: 0.1-500; typically

300 mm3 /min.
Varies with workpiece material
and its thickness.
0.50-7.5 m/min.
1-2 mm3 /min

Varies considerably with workpiece material.
Up to 7.5 m/min.
Varies considerably with workpiece material.
TABLE 9.4
General
characteristics of advanced
machining processes.
Chemical Milling
4 mm
(before
machining)
2 mm
(after
machining)
Chemically
machined area
Section
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 9.25 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffness-toweight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical milling of aluminumalloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates have first been formed into shape, such as
by roll forming or stretch forming. Source: ASM International.

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Chemical Machining
Agitator
3rd
Tank
Maskant
Steps
2nd
1st
Edge of maskant
Material removed
Undercut
Workpiece
Heating
Chemical
reagent
Cooling
coils
(a)
Depth
Workpiece
(b)
FIGURE 9.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forces are involved in
this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity by chemical machining.

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Roughness and Tolerance Capabilities

in.
2000 500
125
32
8
1000 250
63
16
2
4
0.5
1
100 50
MECHANICAL
Abrasive-flow machining
Low-stress grinding
Ultrasonic machining
0.001 in.
20 10 5
2 1
0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05
ELECTRICAL
Electrochemical deburring
Electrochemical grinding
Electrochemical milling (frontal)
Electrochemical milling (side wall)
Electrochemical polishing
Shaped tube electrolytic machining
(b)
(c)
(b) (d)
(a)
(b)
THERMAL
Electron-beam machining
Electrical-discharge grinding
Electrical-discharge machining (finishing)
Electrical-discharge machining (roughing)
Laser-beam machining
Plasma-beam machining
(a)
(a) (b)
CHEMICAL
Chemical machining
Photochemical machining
Electropolishing
CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
Turning
Surface grinding
25
50
6.3
1.60
0.4
0.1 0.025
12.5 3.12
0.8
0.2
0.05 0.012
Surface Roughness, Ra (m)
Note: (a) Depends on state of starting surface.

(b) Titanium alloys are generally rougher than nickel alloys.
(c) High current density areas.
(d) Low current density areas.
2500 1250 500 250 125 50 25 12.5

Tolerance, mm x 10-3
5 2.5 1.25
Average application (normally anticipated values)

Less frequent application (unusual or precision conditions)
Rare (special operating conditions)
FIGURE 9.27 Surface roughness and dimensional tolerance capabilities of various machining processes. Note the wide range within
each process. (See also Fig. 8.26.) Source: Machining Data Handbook, 3rd ed., 1980. Used by permission of Metcut Research
Associates, Inc.
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Chemical Blanking
FIGURE 9.28 Typical parts made by chemical blanking; note the fine detail. Source:
Courtesy of Buckabee-Mears St. Paul.

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Electrochemical Machining
75 mm
DC
power
supply
Insulating
coating
(-)
Pump for
circulating
electrolyte
Telescoping cover
140 mm
Ram
Insulating
layer
Feed
65 mm
Electrolyte
Forging
Machined
workpiece
Tool
Copper electrode
Electrode
carrier
(a)
(+)
Tank
14 holes
Workpiece
86 mm
Electrolyte
112 mm
(b)
FIGURE 9.29
Schematic illustration of the
electrochemical-machining process. This process is the
reverse of electroplating, described in Section 4.5.1.

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(c)
FIGURE 9.30 Typical parts made by electrochemical

machining. (a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy, 360
HB; the part on the right is the shaped electrode. Source:
ASM International. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel rollerbearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
Electrochemical Grinding
Electrolyte from pump
Electrode (grinding wheel)
Spindle
Electrical connection
1
in (3.1 mm)
8
Insulating
abrasive
particles
0.020 in.
(0.5 mm)
DC
Insulating
bushing
Workpiece
Work
table
Inconel
(2)
power
supply
1
in. (0.4 mm)
64
(1)
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 9.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical grinding process. (b) Thin slot produced on
a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.

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Electrical Discharge Machining

Current
Rectifier control
Servo
control
Movable
electrode
Worn electrode
(+)
(-)
Power supply
Spark
Tank
Workpiece
Melted
workpiece
Dielectric fluid
FIGURE 9.32 Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge-machining process.

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EDM Examples
1.5 mm dia.
Workpiece
8 holes,
0.17 mm
Electrode
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 9.33 (a) Examples of shapes produced by the electrical-discharge

machining process, using shaped electrodes. The two round parts in the
rear are a set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown in front; see
also Section 6.4. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. (b) A spiral cavity
produced using a shaped rotating electrode. Source: American Machinist. (c)
Holes in a fuel-injection nozzle produced by electrical-discharge machining.

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FIGURE 9.34
Stepped cavities
produced with a square electrode
by EDM. In this operation, the
workpiece moves in the two
principal horizontal directions, and
its motion is synchronized with the
downward movement of the
electrode to produce these cavities.
Also shown is a round electrode
capable of producing round or
elliptical cavities. Source: Courtesy of
AGIE USA Ltd.
Wire EDM
Wire
Dielectric
supply
Wire
diameter
Spark gap
Workpiece
Slot (kerf)
Wire
guides
Reel
FIGURE 9.35 Schematic illustration of the wire EDM process. As much as 50 hours of machining can be
performed with one reel of wire, which is then recycled.

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Laser Machining
Flash lamp
Reflective end
Laser crystal
FIGURE 9.36 (a) Schematic illustration of the

laser-beam machining process. (b) Cutting sheet
metal with a laser beam. Source: (b) Courtesy of
Rofin-Sinat, Inc.
Partially
reflective end
Lens
Power
supply
Workpiece
(a)
(b)
TABLE 9.5 General applications of lasers in

manufacturing.

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Application
Laser Type
Cutting
Metals
PCO2 ; CWCO2 ; Nd:YAG; ruby
Plastics
CWCO2
Ceramics
PCO2
Drilling
Metals
PCO2 ; Nd:YAG; Nd:glass; ruby
Plastics
Excimer
Marking
Metals
PCO2 ; Nd:YAG
Plastics
Excimer
Ceramics
Excimer
Surface treatment (metals) CWCO2
Welding (metals)
PCO2 ; CWCO2 ; Nd:YAG; Nd:glass; ruby
Note: P=pulsed; CW=continuous wave.
Electron-Beam Machining
High voltage cable (30 kV, DC)
Cathode grid
Anode
Optical
viewing
system
Valve
Electron stream
Magnetic lens
Deflection coils
Viewing
port
Vacuum chamber
Workpiece
Work table
High
vacuum
pump
FIGURE 9.37 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM, this
process requires a vacuum, and hence workpiece size is limited by the chamber size.

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Water-Jet Machining
Accumulator
Controls
Valve
Fluid supply
Mixer and filter
Sapphire nozzle
Pump
Hydraulic
unit
Intensifier
Jet
Workpiece
Drain
(a)
Control panel
x-axis
control
y-axis
control
FIGURE 9.38
(a) Schematic
illustration of water-jet machining. (b)
A computer-controlled water-jet
cutting machine. (c) Examples of
various nonmetallic parts machined
by the water-jet cutting process.
Source: Courtesy of OMAX
Corporation.
Abrasive-jet
head
Collection
tank
(b)

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(c)
Abrasive-Jet Machining
Filters
Powder
supply
and mixer
Exhaust
Hood
Pressure
regulator
Gas
supply
Hand
holder
Nozzle
Workpiece
Vibrator
Foot control
valve
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 9.39 (a) Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process. (b) Examples of parts
produced by abrasive-jet machining; the parts are 50 mm (2 in.) thick and are made of 304 stainless
steel. Source: Courtesy of OMAX Corporation.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Design Considerations
Poor
Sharp corner
Good
Breakaway
chipping
Radius 0.25 mm
(0.010 in)
or greater
Undercut 3 mm
(1/8 in) wide
or greater
Backup plate
Coolant hole
Best
Through
hole
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 9.40 Design guidelines for internal features, especially as applied to holes. (a) Guidelines for grinding the
internal surfaces of holes. These guidelines generally hold for honing as well. (b) The use of a backing plate for
producing high-quality through-holes by ultrasonic machining. Source: After J. Bralla.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Economic Considerations
m
10
0.4
300
200
63
32
16
Hone
Rough turn
Semifinish
turn
As-cast,
sawed, etc.
Surface
0
finish, Ra (in.) 2000 1000 500 250 125
Grind
100
Finish turn
Machining cost (%)
0.50
400
FIGURE 9.41 Increase in the cost of machining and finishing operations as a function of the surface finish required.
Note the rapid increase associated with finishing operations.
Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Case Study: Stent Manufacture

Proximal and distal markers
indicate position of stent on radiograph
38 m
8 mm
Guide wire
0.356 mm
(0.014 in.) max
m (0.315 1.50 in.)
2.5 mm4.0 mm
(0.0100.16 in.)
Catheter and balloon
used for stent expansion
Variable Thickness Strut (VTSTM)

3-3-3 Pattern
a
FIGURE 9.42 The Guidant MULTI-LINK TETRATM

coronary stent system.
Notes:
a. 0.12 mm (0.0049 in.)
section thickness to provide
radiopacity
b. 0.091 mm (0.0036 in.)
thickness for flexibility
FIGURE 9.43 Detail of

the 3-3-3 MULTI-LINK
TETRATM pattern.
(a)

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 9.44 Evolution of the stent surface. (a)

MULTI-LINK TETRATM after lasing. Note that a metal
slug is still attached. (b) After removal of slug. (c) After
electropolishing.

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Grinding Wheel

TABLE 9.1 Knoop hardness range for

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Grinding Wheel Types

(b) Type 2 cylinder

(d) Type 11flaring cup

(f) Type 28depressed center

(e) Type 27 depressed center

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 9.2 Some common types of grinding wheels

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Grinding Wheel Marking System

Coarse Medium Fine Very

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Diamond and cBN Marking System

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 9.6 The grinding surface of an

FIGURE 9.7 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 9.8 Basic variables in surface grinding.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Chip length, internal grinding

Chip length, surface grinding

FIGURE 9.9 Chip formation and plowing

Specific Energy in Grinding

TABLE 9.3 Approximate Specific-Energy Requirements for Surface Grinding.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

4000 ft/min (20 m/s) 400

Soluble oil (1:20)

Residual stress (psi x 103)

Residual stress (psi x 103)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering(b)

FIGURE 9.11 (a) Methods of grinding wheel

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Thread and Internal Grinding

FIGURE 9.14 Threads produced by (a)

(a) Traverse grinding

(b) Plunge grinding

(c) Profile grinding

FIGURE 9.15 Schematic illustrations of internal-grinding operations.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Internal centerless grinding

FIGURE 9.16 (a-c) Schematic illustrations of

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Low work speed, v

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 9.18 Schematic illustration of the structure of a

FIGURE 9.19 Schematic illustration of a honing tool to

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 9.20 Schematic illustration of the superfinishing

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

(a) Top view

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Polishing Using Magnetic Fields

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Slots 0.64 3 1.5 mm

Holes 0.4 mm (0.016 in.)

Shallow removal (up to 12 mm) on large flat or

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Process Parameters and Typical

V: 5-25 dc; A: 2.5-12 mm/min,

V: 50-380; A: 0.1-500; typically