C

{ Csh Bsk
uSv & I
h mkU S x
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u|mk
h PP
Pa \, \ 600 006

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u v & 2005
vzv v & 2007

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a\ P, \ 600 030.

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_. C\\

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xP mhu B] (C)
A_ {
PhUP, \ 600 024

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A\U |P, \ 600 083

P. oP

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h (C)
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\ 600 008

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va\[Pk
637 211
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u { (C)
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N.

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.

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S.R.M. A
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C 60 GSM u Aa]hmkx.

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xP mhu B]
(C)
A_ P {
zu|UP,
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va\[Pk 637 211
|UP mh

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xP mhu B]
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Bzy, \ mh & 636102.

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UP P UQx vP Ax
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AP

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n, n u[PP u[P Gsn[P UPna \x
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v uPP PkUPmk.

h[P uP mk.

N n n Pn v US uzv
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uS Bzu \ x. n n uvmk
Sv E UP / PnUSP mk, h /
hzvmhzvx PmPhUTi UP PnUSPUS
hUP BzukzvU P sk.
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Szu
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hzvmh
(180 h P)
AS & 1 {
(18 h P)
E mh, mh[P A A &
T
v
&
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\.

mh[Ph \ & xu uzx.

& mhzu , U PkP,
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A zu B.
& P u kP (1) i, }sh
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(E ).
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x, Cu x) & uUQ kP & uUQ
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TP \ & Phzv & &i&Q C.
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(11 hP)
mh & EPU Phzv mh & Cz
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K v, uh V-I ]P & uh Gs, Phzx v.
Phzx v Aih P Pk & U Phzxv
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uh UP CnP uhUQP & uh
{ k & P AP uh & P zu
v

k US \.
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& uzx & C PP US \P Jh.
v & mhzv v & v PP
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\UP.
AS & 3 mhzv P
(15 hP)
& v & B \zu.
P & ^U & i & u\ &
mh & US \, v mk {.
mh AkUS.
mhzv Pu & Pu Pzx. Khm
\u & m \m v & i, }sh, | Phzv mhU
Pa _ Pu & hg\m Pmh & A
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B _ v & Cv kP.
^ Puzv zv C[S xP u \ &
^ Pu zv mhU Phzv u \, Cn
mhU PhzvPUQh \ & B .
^ Puzv mh En v\ &
C[S _ Pmh & Amh m mhP u
& mh J Pu C & Pu Cz vv.
_ GUm Puz vzv.
AS & 4 Puz ysh v\ mh
(14 h P)
Puz ysh & h vP & yshmh US \,
mh & v.
u ysh & ysh & }sh a_ u
vi

ysh Gs & C } a_P ysh Gs.

US \z ysk P & (1) Puz ysh
x (2) Pa _ x (3) Pa _
v\ x (Pou S).
AC

& oP v (J Pmh, Pmh).

_ mh & kP & & }sh uS

v Ak.
v\ mh & A CI Aku & uhUQ E A C
_ & ysi E A C _, uUQ E A C _ & LCR uh _
& Jzv\ & Q Po & A C _P v.
AS & 5 Pu AP A J
(17 hP)
Pu AP A ]P & Pu {,
i, U AP, APa], Psq, Fu, X &PvP,
PU PvP.
k EmP { & , mh, uh {P
& Ju {u.
J C & ~sxP & A & Pu Ssh
PPP.
Ja]u & ]u & ish ]u & C & C
{ & }{z u & ` Eu `
] {zv uu.
A P & uzx & Gv, P AP
Gv, J P (\u A P \uzv).
SURmk & [ Cmh a \u & mh
AP & K [P & J SURmk & kP
sn[P uu (Pou S) & {mh [P.
& SURmk , & kP
& U Ro.
J u & Gv u & h v &
vii

Cmh P & |UP mhP & u J P &

kP & ua _] & u.
AS & 6 Aq C
(16 hP)
Aq A & GUm Pski & mh {z uP
(u\ ) & GUm mh (P ) B ]u &
uk Aq v.
v & B SshUPku & B A
Gs \k & m { & B mh h & \i
u\ { & Qa] AUP zu[P. \k
Aqv.
X &PvP

&
Ezv,
sP,
Psknu,
EmPu,
& \u & U v & U { & X &Pv
{ & uh ] X &Pv { & v Aq
Gsq.
\, \ & ua\ ysk E & C{
AqzuP AqzuP H & \, He-Ne \, \
J sP kP & n .
AS & 7 Pva_ C s & \
PP (10 hP)
J & J AP mhP & Ij
J \k & J vP & B xP s &
B & JP & kP.
AP & Aq A GvU Pzx & xPP
A s & i \k & GUm i A} &
GUm ~snUQ.
, {, P Pzx & P Aa_P (\mh). ]a
\ PP & v\Pzua \x }, P, { J &
(E=mc2)

viii

AS & 8 AqUP C
(14 h P)
AqUP sP & AqUP B, {, n,
Ahzv, mh & I\hP & I\P & I\hP &
{ & AqUP {zu & m { .
AqUP \ & {m & Pski & sP, \P
& xP kUQ.
PvUP & , , - Pva_P, sP & ]u, & ]u,
& ]u. PvUPa ]u v & A B & \\ B. \PU
PvUP & PvUP I\hP & P &
PP& Gso.
PvUPU P x Po & Pva] wP.
AqUP & uh n & AqSsk & AqUP E &
AqUP Cn & m Ssk & PU PvP & Aihz
xPP.
AS & 9 SUPhzv PP A kP
(26 hP)
SU Phzv PP & vs[P B mhP & B
PP Aih EP[P, Phzu P SU
PhzvP kzxu & SU Phzv `mh & Eu
SUPhzvP.
\v Eu & zu Aq CUP Sv & P N
\v hk, US USa \ ] P &
hk vzv & \ hk. \ hk J zua
^UQ & LED.
PN

\v i]hP & ] P & i]h J _m\P &

i]h J UQ & i]h \ & UQP RC, LC, |
nP & mh UQ & | Gv mh & Gv
mh UQ {P & A & AP {v & LC
_ & Pm A.

ix

U PmkP & N O T, OR, AND, EXOR (uzu EP

kzv) x PmkP NAND, NOR & Ja \v, Cmha \v
PP & uSa _P.
CPouzv u[P vP & \mk
UQ & sP & Smk & Aih kP.
mk UQ, mhu UQ, Tmk UQ, mk UQ.
Ak PP & PukU Pv A & uzx &
P[P & P & i mh & i P.
AS & 10 uP uh AP
(15 hP)
P & u A & A .
a_ s, {P SP & kP & Avs
s & {P kP & Pmh s.
Bsh v\ |kzx v.
i J H & A M F M & PUQ US H.
uUPm] u H & UPsnmh C\
\u.
iP (P) hU S & J { TV
Ha _P Pmhh[P.
h & uzx & kP.
ih uP uh & uP J H & LU, h,
xnUP uh & P, P, J uP uh.

\uP (12 2 = 24 hP)

1.

{U Psk, mhPzv Pn ]z
v\U PnzuU PnUQmk, mhP JP
GsnU PnUQku.

2.

U Ro { Psk, SzuP
k Tmh A}[PU PnUQku. (N &v
Au v GU Pv)

3.

{mh [P \u Euh, S]
BzuU PnUQku.

4.

mh \a_U Psk, P uh, P

uh Gsn PnUQku.

5.

zuU Psk C u PP US
\P Jku.

6.

hg\m PmhU Psk, Pu zv QhzuU

TU PnUQku.

7.

mhU Pa _ Aa]x J Pu zuU

PnUQku.

8.

_ PU Psk v\ mhzv AvsnU

PnUQku.

9.

(a) PN

\v hi USa \ P x, US
uh PnUQku.
\ hi ] P x, v
zuzuU PnUQku.

(b)

10.

x E N P N i]h ] P x, Ek,
k vP mh UPzuU PnUQku.

11.

741&IU Psk Aih UQ (OP - amp) izu

(mk, mhu, Tmk).

12.

uSa _PU Psk Aih U PmkP Au

(NOT,AND, OR, NAND, NOR, EXOR PmkP).

IC

xi

hUP
UP

1.

2.

mh

55

3.

mhzv P

93

4.

Puz ysh
v\ mh

140

Pu AP A J

188

5.

hUP AmhnP

241

xii

1. {
{ mh[P Ax K { mh[P
US C J Sv { Gk. Ch Sv
{ mh[P Aih {PP Ax P.
D zv E {P u zv E
mh[P BS. mh[P u[PUQh \k
\P u, A { B . CUPzxP
mh P, Aq PP x
kzukQ.

1.1 { & E
Q.. 600& u G QUP Ab B (Amber) G
] xsiU P uUP, Ax PQu \ P
P s Qx G Pshu. 17&B si
Q m G, Psni, Gm uSu Pk
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C uUPkx, mh[P P
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CzuP B G k GUm (electron) G QUP
zux mhS. E ES mh,
E mh G AUPk. J E mh[P
|P G, A mhzu { mh G
AUP.

1.1.1 mh[P C PP
(i) J Psniz ush, mkz xoh uUP, Psniz usk

| mhzu Qx. mkzxo Au A Gv mhzu

Qx.
(ii) Gm usk J P uUP, Gm Gv
mhhQx. Px Au A | mhzu Qx.
mh[P, AUP A Ab g\ [P G,
| Gv mh[P G CPP UPmk.
BP uv, mhh usk J, mh
EUPkv. B mh[P UP
kQ Ax mh[P QuUPkQ.
1

1.1.2 K mh[P J mk.

mh[P J P & \u \
mk C u[Phmk mhmh Psniz usk
J Qhzuzv AQx. ux Au UPQ
mh Psniz usk Psk mh, C P
J mkuU Pn (h 1.1). Cu v
mhmh Gm ushx, u[Phmh Psniz usi
UPQ Psk mh, C uskP J
PQ (h 1.2). Ca\u K mh[P J
mk, mh[P J P G u Qx.

mk

mk
Psni
F

Psni

+++
++++
+
++
+
+
++
F

Psni

++++
+++
F F
------

Gm
h 1.2 mh
C mh uskP

h 1.1 K mh
C mh uskP

mh PUQh u P
mk sP, { sn uzu, xP a_,
PU TskP US \ \Pzu, u v Gv
(Ink-Jet-Printer) Aa_ P |P Gv (Xerox)
kPU Psk.

1.1.3 PhzvP PP
{ sP Aih P, PhzvP
Phzu P (P P) G CPP UP.
mhzu u \ AvUS P PhzvP
Gk. GkzxUPmkP EP[P, u Eh, .
mh[P u \ AvUPu P Phzu
P (PP) Gk. GkzxUPmkP Psni, UP,
Gm, iU .
2

1.1.4 mh[P Aih sP

(i)

mh[P SshUP
J mhzv e Aih AS Gx, J GUm u[Qa
\ mhzv AS. Cu AS Coulomb BS. e- Gs
v 1.6 1019 C.
CP Gu J A mh, J mhzv
] v Gs h[SPP Gx AQx.
mhzv A, e- Gs h[S Psh uzu vP
Hu J mk Qx. G mh q = ne. Cv n&Gx
J Gs BS.
(ii) mh[P A
mh[P BUP AUP ix. mh A
vi, uzu A J zu mh Gx
S. B, A zu mh Gx u
P, A J Svx SvUS mh[P
kQ. GkzxUPmhP, (92U238) B xP (2He4
AqUP) mk uP (90Th234) Qx.
238

+ 2He4
]uUS zu mh = + 92e, ]uUS zu
mh = 90e + 2e. G zu mh Ex. Aux,
92U

90Th

234

P AQx.
(iii) mh[P Tmh s
J A zu mhx, A E Azx
mh[P S Tmkz uPUSa \. GkzxUPmhP, +2q, -5q
mh[P Psh C P \zx UPkx, A
zu mh -3q BS.

1.1.5 T v
1785&
T
G,
C
mh

PUQh \x Pshmhx.
T vi, C mh[PUS Ch Pa]
\ Ax mk \x, mh[P USz uUS
|zuP, AS Ch E u CiUS Gvz
uP A. mh[P CnUS Pmi \
v\ A.
P Ax hzv, r u Au C mh[P
q1 q2 GP (h 1.3a).
3

T vi,
F

q1q 2
r2

(Ax) F = k

q1q 2
r2

q2

q1
r

h 1.3a T \P

Cv k Gx Qu BS.
1

P Ax hzv, k = 4 , Cv o Gx hzv
o
kv BS. o& v 8.854 1012 C2 N1 m2 BS.
1
F = 4
o

q1q 2

(1)

r2

4 = 9 109 N m2 C2
o
Ps \mi, q1 = q2 = 1C r = 1m G
F = (9 109)

11
12

= 9 109 N

P Ax hzv, J mh Ch,
UPmk, Jzu mh[PUQh mk \ 9 109 N
G Amh v J T G UPkQx.
kv Psh FhPzv mh[P UPk, C
mh[PUQh \ A
Fm =

1 q1q2
4 r 2

(2)

\k (1)I (2)B SUP

F

=
= r
Fm

uP = r Gx FhPzv J kv Ax P

GUPk. P Ax hzvS r& v 1 BS.

= o r
F
Fm = Gu, C mh[PUQh \,
r

mh[P A FhPzv C zuQx.

4

T v & Uh i

F 21 Gx mh q1&B, q2 x uUPk \
G (h 1.3b),

qq
F 21 = k 1 2 ^
r 12
2

r12

Cv ^
r 12 Gx q1&x q2&UP AS Uh BS.

F 12 Gx mh q2&B q1 x uUPk \ G,

F 12 = k

q1q 2

^
r 21

2
r21

q1
+

Cv ^
r 21 Gx q2&x q1-UP F12
AS Uh BS.
^
r 21
r 12
Csk J
( ^
v
EhuP,
Gvvz
v\ AQ.)
q1q 2

F 12 = k r 2
( ^
r 12)
12

qq

1 2

Ax F 12 = k r 2
12

q1
+

r^ 12

q2
+

r^ 12

F21
q2
F21

F12
r

h 1.3b Uh
izv T v

^
r 12

Ax F 12 = F 21
G, mh[P J x \zx \
A \P, Gvz v\ AQx.

1.1.6 xu uzx
xu uzxzv q1 G mh q2, q3 . qn
G mh[P En \U PnUQh.
J mhzv u zu \ Gx mh[P
Amhzv x uUS \P Uh TkuS.
q2& q1 u \
1 q1q 2

^
F 12 = 4
r 21
2
r21

Cu , q3 q1 u \
1 q1q3

^
F 13 = 4
r 31
2
r31

Azx mh[P q1 x ES zu \ F1.

F 1 = F 12 + F 13 + F 14

1 q q

qq

......... +

F 1n

qq

1 2
1 3
1 n

G, F 1 = 4 r 2 r21 + r 2 r31 + ....... r 2 rn1

n1
31

21

1.2
J mhzv Gx, Amhzua _
, J \u mhzu Enk \S. J
mhzvS AQ mhzuU Psk u
mhzua _ zuU Psh ix.
zvSU Pn mh q&US AQ, \u
mh qo UPk Au x { \ F
\kQx.

a \ (E)
J , a \ AhkQx.
zv E J UPmk KS | mh
En \, A a \ GUPkQx. Cx J
Uh AS.

F
E =
. a \ AS N C1.
qo

a \, Ax G
Sh. G, mhzv x uUS \,
F = qoE BS.

1.2.1 mhzu
P O G UPmk q G mhzuU
Px (h 1.4). mh q x r u, P,
\u mh qo UPmkx. T vi, q& qo
u \,
1 q qo
F = 4
2
o r

h 1.4 mhzu

F
1 q
E = q = 4 2
o
o r

E& v\, O,

+q0

+q

P
x,
i, KS \u
mhzv u \S.

P P CnUS Pmi , |

mhP Cu |UQ, Gv mhP Cu E

|UQ A.

E =

q ^
r Gx zv Uh ShS. Cv
4o r 2

^
r

Gx q-x |UQ A AS Uh BS.

1.2.2 mh[P uS

{ mh[P, J ES uS
(\) uzu mhzv Au
[P Uh TkuUSa \.

= E 1 + E 2 + E 3 ...... E n

1
4 o

q2
q3
q1

r 2 r1 + r 2 r2 + r 2 r3 + .........
2
3
1

1.2.3 \U PkP
Pu [PU P \x PuPP UP
h G UPkP G Pzx APkzumhx.
zv KS |mh J, |P ]US |
Ax P u \UPk Gk.
] mh[P Hk [P h 1.5&
Pmhmk.

\UPkP sP
(i) \UPk | mhzv uh[Q Gv mhzv

ihQx.
(ii) \UPkP Jx J mia \x.

+q

+q

(a)

uzu mh

-q

+q

(b)

+q

(c)

mh[P K mh[P
h 1.5 \UPkP

(iii) J zv v\ (E), A E
\UPmkUS k ukPmi SUPk.
(iv) \UPkPUS |USzu v\, KS \u
\ \UPkP GsoUP a \ E&US
|zuP CUS. Aux E& v AvP Ch[P PkP
|UPP, E& v S Ch[P PkP Ch
mk CUS.
(v) J KS |mh,

A \U

PkP hzv EUS. G hzv J

mh q&x ES \U PkP GsoUP
q
N = .
o

1.2.4 C Cz vzv
C \, Gvv, Pa ] Ch UPmk
mh[P
J

CS.
},
A,
P&h&BU\k S UTP {
C
PUS
]
GkzxUPmkPS.
CUTP
|mhzv , Gv mhzv JP
v, ]x Ch UPmk.
+q -q G C
mh[P
2d
u
UPmk (h 1.6).
C

vzv
Gsvx
Hu
J

-q

p
2d
h 1.6 C

+q

mhzv Gsv mh[PUQh u

UPU QhuS.
C vz v P = 2qd. Cx J Uh
AS. Cu v\ -qx +q |UQ A. Cu AS C m BS.

1.2.5 C Aa_UPmi E J

AB Gx, -q +q G C mh[P 2d G ]

u zx UPmk J C BS (h 1.7).
C Ox, Aa_UPmi, r u Ax
P BS.
A
-q

O B
+q
2d

E2

E1
x axis

h 1.7 Aa_UPmi E
B& E +q mhzv P&
1
q
E1 = 4
2
o (r d )

(BP )

A& E -q P&
1
q
E2 = 4
2 (PA )
o (r + d )

E1 E2 Gvvz v\ \kQ.

G, uS zv Ax (E) Gsv
Psh Uh v\ \kQx. P uS
E = E1 + (E2)
q
1
q
1

E = 4
2
2 BP
4

o (r d )
o (r + d )

q
E = 4
o

1
1

BP
2
(r + d )2
(r d )

q
E = 4
o

4rd
2
2 2 BP
(r d )

C x P u P AvP G d <<r
q 4rd
q 4d
=
E = 4
4
3
4

o r
o r

1 2p
E = 4
3
o r

(BP )

( C vz v p = q x 2d)
E&x C vzv v\ \kQx.

1.2.6 C |kU Pmi E J

AB G C JU Px. 2d Gx C
Chzu G, p Gx C vz v G
P. C O&x r u |kU
Pmi Ax P GP (h 1.8a).

E1

E1
E

E1cos

E2
N
A
-q

B
+q

E2cos

E2

(a) |kU Pmi E

E1sin

E2sin

(b) zv TP

h 1.8
C +q mhzv P& ,
E1

1
q
= 4
2
o BP

(BP

1
q
= 4
2
2 (BP
o (r + d )

) ( BP2 = OP2 + OB2)

C -q mhzu P ,

10

1
q
E2 = 4
2
o AP

(PA )

1
q
E2 = 4
2
2 (PA )
o (r + d )

E1 E2 & Gs vP \. E1 E2& \[Szx

QhzuU TPP USx (h 1.8b).

\[SzxU TP E1 sin E2 sin A \P

Gvvz v\ Au J \ \Q.
Qhzu TP E1 cos E2 cos Csk PR&v\
TmhkQ.
C P uS
E = E1 cos + E2 cos (PR v\)
E = 2 E1cos

( E1 = E2)

1
q
E = 4
2
2 2 cos
o (r + d )

B cos =
E

d
2

r + d2

1
q
2d
1
q 2d

= 4
2
2
2
2 1/2 = 4
2
2 3/2
o (r + d ) (r + d )
o (r + d )
1
p
= 4
2
2 3/2
o (r + d )

( p = q2d)

r-Eh Jh d u Pa ]uS.

1 p
E = 4 3
o r

E& v\ C Aa_US CnP PR & P,

C vz v v\US Gvz v\ AQx.

1.2.7 ^ zv C
^ zv (E), AB G C, Pn \P
CuPU P. Au C vz v p GP
11

(h
1.9).
mh
+q
B +q F=qE
zv v\ qE G
\ EnQx. -q Au A
\ Gvz v\ EnQx.
2d

E
G C u uS
p
\ _S. C \,
Gvvz
v\
CnPa
A
\k \P J F=-qE -q
C
\x. G, C
h 1.9 ^ zv
x v \ J EQx.
C
Cx C zv
v\ \{US Psk .
v \ Gs v,
= \P J \PUS Ch \[Szxz u
= F 2d sin
= qE 2d sin = pE sin

Uh Smi = p E

( q 2d = p)

S : ^ zv, C Pn \
A, v \h, TkuP J \
Qx.

1.2.8 zv E C zu B
zv E C zu B Gx
zv C u {US _uS
BS.
E
p C vz
B F=qE
v Psh J C,
+q
2d
E zv, Pnzv E
x, Au u v \,
p
A
= pE sin
-q
C, d Pn
F=-qE
_, \k
h 1.10 C
dw
= .d
zu B
= pE sin.d

G, C Pnzv _ \k ,
12

W = dw
W = pE sin.d = pE cos

Cx, C { BS (U).

U = pE cos

C zv v\ J[Pzu, = 0o

U = pE

zv E C En v \x ( = p E)
C zv v\ J[Pa \ . Cu
PnP, { BP `US kQx.

U A \P (Microwave oven)
Cx, PU SQ Pzv En \UP kQx. P
\kx, U AP uUPkQ. C ^
A zu EUSQ. En } UTP,
CPP Au, A v \US EUPmk
J ] } UTP nP UPkQ. Cu
B EQ, En \UPkQx.

1.3 zu
O
G +q G +q
E
mh
EuPU
Px O
B
A
x
(h 1.11). A, B G zv E
dx
C
P
GP.
KS
h 1.11 zu
|mhx A x BUS
|Pzuk \ kQx. Cu A
PUQh zu k BS. Aux, dV = WA B.

zv C PUQh E zu k Gx
J x US mk \US GvP KS |
mhzu |Pzua \k G UPkQx.
zu mi AS m BS. J x
US J T | mhzu \UPvP Gkzxa
\a \k J G APUQh E
zu k J m BS.
zv E J zu Gx KS |
mhzu iz ux \US GvP, AUS
Psk a \k G UPkQx.
13

a \S zuzvS E uh
A B PUQh E ] u dx GP. KS |
mhzu A x B&US |Pzua \k dV = E.dx.

mk \US GvP, +q mhzu

mhzu |Pzu \kQx. G,

|UQ

KS

dV = E.dx
E=

dV
dx

u zu zu zua \S.
G a \x GvU Shmh zua \US
\S.
GvUSx zv v\ zu SuU
SUQx. a \S V m1 G AS kzuh.

1.3.1 J mhzu J Hk zu
P O UPmk uzu mh +q GP.
+q&x r u E P GP. O-x x x + dx
u E P A BU Px (h 1.12).
A

PUQh
zu k,

dV = E.dx
A UPmk

+q

dx

p
r

E
B

h 1.12 mhzu

KS | mhzu Enk \,
E =

1
q
.
4o
x2

1
q
dV = 4
2 . dx
o x

\k , \US Gvx Gu GvUS

SUQx.
+q
mhzv P& zu Gx, KS |
mhzu iz ux, AUSU Psk a
\k zu S.
r

V=

4 x

q
. dx = 4 r
o

14

1.3.2 C J zu
2d G ] u UPmh, A, B P E -q
+q G C mh[P C EUSQ. Cu C
vzv p BS. (h 1.13)
P Gx C O G x r u
E . C, zu CnUS Phx
(PO) C Aa_h (OB) Hkzx Pn GP. r1 r2
G +q qx P uP
P
GP.
+q

mhzv
1

r2

zu = 4 r
o 1
-q

mhzu

zu

q

=
4 o r2
1

-q

p
d

B
+q

h 1.13 C J
zu

C P
1

180-

r1

zu, V = 4 r 4 r
o 1
o 2
V =

1 1

4o r1 r2
q

...(1)

P\ v kzu
r12 = r2 + d2 2rd cos

cos d 2
+

r12 = r2 1 2d
r

r2

d Bx r&I h Pa ]u,
1

2d
2
r1 = r 1
cos

15

d2
r2

&I UPoUP.

Ax,

1/ 2
1 1
2d

= 1
cos
r1 r
r

Dz (Binomial) uzu kzv, kzv, E

AkUSP UPoUP,
1 1
d
= 1 + cos
r1 r

Cu,

(2)

r22 = r2 + d2 2rd cos (180 )

r22 = r2 + d2 + 2rd cos .

Ax

1/2

2d

cos
r2 = r 1 +
r

Ax

d2
r2

UPoUPzuUPx)

1/2
1 1
2d

= 1 +
cos
r2 r
r

uzu kzv, E AkUSP UPoUP

1 1
d

= 1 cos
r2 r
r

...(3)

\k (2) (3) I \k (1) vh

V

q 1
d
d

= 4 r 1 + r cos 1 + r cos

q 2d cos
4o . r

1 p . cos
4o
r2

(4)

] |P :
1. P x C Aa_UPmi +qUS AQ
Au, = 0

V =

p
4o r 2

2. Px
Au = 180o,

16

Aa_UPmi

qUS

AQ

V =

p
4o r 2

3. Px C |kU Pmi Au, = 90o,

V = 0

q1

1.3.3 zu B

q2

mh[P
r
zu B Gx A
h 1.14a zu
mh[P
J[Pa
B
\mh Ax J
mhzu AUS Psk \mh Ax J
mhzu iz ux AUS Psk
\mh Gk.
A& UPmk mh q1 GP (h 1.14a)

q1
q1-x r u E B zu, V = 4 r
o

iz ux mh q2&Bx
BUS Psk kQx. C[S mh q2& x \mh
x, q1 q2 mh[P Psh A {
zu BP (U) \UPkQx.

\mh , w = Vq2

q1q 2
zu B (U) = 4 r
o

mh q2 Bx B& UPmk,
q1& iz ux AUS
Psk uP P \u Cu A
\kQx.

r23

q3
r13

q2
r12

q1

h 1.14b
, q1 q2 G mh[P mh A
r Ch E A B zu B
PUS, iz ux Psk
kQ. G, A zu B, u P
mh BUSa \P CUS.
CskUS mh mh[PU Psh AS (h
1.14b), zu B (U) Bx,
U =

q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2q 3
+
+

r13
r23
4o r12
1

17

1.3.4 \ zu
J h Azx P, \ zuzv E
G, A \ zu Gk.
(i) uzu mhzu zu , Avx \
B

+q

(a) \ zu

(P i)

(b) ^ zxUS (u)

h 1.15

u E Azx P \ zuzv CUS.

BP, \ zu P G mhzu PU
Psh uha] P[PS (h 1.15a). Cuv
zux P[PUS P CUS.
\ zu x Gu C PUQh, J
mhzu GP |Pzv \mh _S.
H,
VB VA =

PUS

Chmh

zux

W AB
q G UPkQx. VA = VB G, WAB = 0. G

U PkP \ zu USa \[SzuP CUS.

(ii) ^ zu zu, \ zu P
Cn u[PP, A P \U PkPUSa
\[SzuP E Gu h 1.15b PmkQx.

18

1.4 P v Au kP

^ zv E S G i
U Px (h 1.16). Cu
x ds G Pa ] U Px.
ds&
v\x,
US
SzuP
|UQ Ex. ds&u

E PU P. E ds

S
ds

ds

\[Szx

JUP Pnzu HkzxQ.

h 1.16
Gx PkUPmh
\ \U PkP
zu GsoUP BS G UPkQx.
ds \k ,
d = E . ds = E ds cos

Ps \mh, zx uPkzu, i
S \k, zu kQx.

= d =
E . ds

uPUP Smi SUPmk ]mh i

, uPkzxuU SUS. J P
AS. Cu AS N m2 C1

1.4.1 P v
Cv, Gu i \
zu, A E zu mhzu uh
kzxQx. Cvi, Gu i \k
zv zu v, A E zu mhzv
1/o h[SUSa \.
q
=
o

Cu hmh P P (Gaussian Surface)

GUPkQx. S G i \
(E) E zu mhzv v mk \ux,
B, Amh[P Ax Chzua \uu G P
vx AQ. US E mh[P
zvS Pnv.
19

1.4.2 P v kP
(i) | i } Psh mh P

Hk
^P mhmh, i
2 r
ds
} Psh, P J mh
+
} Ahzv () (KS }zvP
+
mh) uPU Px.
+
Px r u E P
+
E GP (h 1.17). C
+
ds E
+ r
P
Aa_USa
\[Szu E
+
Psh, l }, r B
P
l
+
Eh
J
E
P
+
PU Px. P
+
+
x ds
G
Pa]
U
+
Px. J s PnP
E E Azx
h 1.17 i }
P
zv
Gsv
Psh |
\P,
BUPmi

mhmh P
|UQ AQx. E ds
J v\.
() =
=

[ = 0;

E ds

E ds cos

cos = 1]

= E (2rl)

( 2rl)
E ds JUP \[SzuP Au,

= 0
P zu , = E. (2rl)

P E zu mh q = l
P vi,

l
E (2rl) =
o

Ax E = 2 r
o
20

 E& v\x, Aa] mh,

|mh G, Bzv |UQ, Gv mh
G Bzv E|UQ AQx.

1.4.3 mh i, \u Hk

mh
Ahzv

Psh
i \u
JU
Px
(h 1.18). x
r u E E

P E GP.
mh

2r
US
SzuP,
}, A SUS mk
Psh E
i
P
U Px.

ds
P

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

ds

A
+
+
+
+

P
+
+
+
+

h 1.18 i \u

E C SvP, SU SzuP, \a^

[P \kQ. A uzu mk Q CUS. P,
P G SvP [P Gsv \P CUS.
G hmh zu
=
=

E.ds + E.ds

P
P 1

( = 0, cos = 1)

EA + EA = 2EA

\u KS E mh G, P
E zu |mh, q = A
P v kzu,
A
2EA =
o

E = 2
o

21

1.4.4 C Cn mhmh uPkP Hk

C Cn, \u i,
i Psh, mh

uPkP,
h
1.19&
Pmhmkx , \ B
mh AhzvP

uPU
Px.
mh J uPkUS C
zv A E = /2o.

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

E1(+)
P1
E2(-)

E1(+)
P2
E2(-)

C uPmiS SzuP,
|US mh |UQh 1.19 C
, GvUS mh E|UQ
CnzuPkP

\k.

(i) P
G C uPmiS
1

|k
Au,
C
uPkP
[P \P, J v\ A. P1&
uS ,

E = E1 + E2 = 2 + 2 = ( |UQ)
o
o
o
(ii) zu P2 G , [P A
\P, v\ GvvP CUS. P2& uS

E = E1 E2 = 2 2 = 0.
o
o

1.4.5 ^ mh P iU Tmi Hk

P (i) P iU TmiS E
B R Eh, mh P iU Tk (shell) JU
Px (h 1.20a). Au O&x r u P iU
TmiS E P GP. r B Psh P i P
. US, E&x SzuPa \kQx.
P Pzv
\k
=

s E . ds = s E ds

USU

SzuP

= E (4 r 2 )

(H E ds&US Ch Pn = 0)
22

|UQ

P v i,
q
E . (4r2) =
o
1

Ax E = 4 2
o r

Ca\mix,
P]
P
iU
TmiS

x, P iU
Tmi zu mh
E
h
1.20
a
PUTmi

E zu
Avu
Hkzx
zvSa \S G uQx.

P (ii) x E J
mh PiU Tmi E P
E,
1 q
E = 4
2 ( r = R)
o R

P (iii) P iU Tmi
Emzv E J
P
iU
Tmi
zvx
r
u,
Pzv Ax P
GP. r B Psh P i
P U Px.
P

,
US
SzuP,
|UQ
v\ \k zu

s E . ds

s Eds

P/

P]

h 1.20b PU Tmi
Emzv E

= E (4 r 2 )

P Gu mh Cu, P
vi,
q
E 4r 2 = = 0
o

23

E=0

Aux ^ mh Psh PU Tmi PU

Tmi E Azx P zv v _ BS.

1.4.6 { uk (Electrostatic shielding)

Cx zvx, J Smh Sv
ukzx {P BS. C{P, Phzv EmSv
_S Gu Aih AQx.
Cih Ti x, vu Ax
zvi AuU Pmi, v Cx P
xPuS. v EP , v
_u x, { ukPa \kQx.
x v UP |hQx.

1.5 { ysh
J mhzv uku
C mhzu
i. CP mh[P
yshmh
mh[PS.
C yshmh mh[
Pz
uUS
{P
{ysh
GUPk
Qx. Cx i Q
{ Gv[P, uUQ
P kQx.
{ ysh ,
EPU P J iiP
ku
h
1.21
PmkQx.
(a)

mh
EPU
Px Phzu
u[Q x UPmk Ex.

(a)

-- - --- -- --

+
+
+

+
+
+

(b)

(c)

+
+
+

(d)

++
+ +
+++

(e)

h 1.21 { ysh

(b) Gv mh iU usk J Pzv AQ

Psk x, mk \ PnP, Pmk GUmP Qa

\ Gv u[Pz x[SQ. G, AP E
GUm S Hmk, |mhhQx. EPzv E
Pmk GUm u zu \ _S x Cmh Q
{Pa] {zukQx. (C{P P P |h).
24

(c) EPU P un h, Gv mh

u AhQx. AP E E |mh, D
\P PnP A[P { kQx.
(d) EPU Px ux APmh S AP

E |mh uhx {zvUQx.

(e) iU usk }UPmhh, Azx | mh[P

Pzv x J ^P Q.

1.5.1 Phzv uUS v

uzu Phzv JS q G mh AUPkx, Au
zu
hQx.
Azu

Phzv
nzu, izu zuQx. PhzvUS AUPmh
mhzu, Phzv zu V AUS hQx G,
q V Ax q = CV
Aux C = q/V

C[S C&x Phzv uUSv GUPkQx.

J Phzv uUSv Gx, AUPhzvUS AUPk
mhzvS, Phzv ES zuzvS Ch E
uP G UPkQx.
uUSz v AS m (farad) BS. Phzv JS 1 T
mh AUPkx, Au zu E 1 m G,
Phzv uUSz v 1 m BS.
uUSz v \ ASP F pF BS.

uUQ uzx
Pk Phzv (EPz umk A) J q A |
mhzu, V zuzu uPU Px
(h 1.22a). A uUS v, C = q/V. P B G
EPz umk A AP Psk kx, A US AP
E B& UPzv Gv mh yshkQx. AuS \ A |
mh B& UPzv yshkQx (h 1.22b). B Gv
hh A zuzuU SUS. B | mh, A
zuzu AvPUS. B | mhzu h Gv mh
AUS AQ Cu A zu Sx kQx. Cu A
uUS v AvPUQx.
umk B h CnUSx, Av |mh |k
25

{UPkQx (h 1.22c). Cu A zu
SQx. A uUS v Sk AUS AvPUQx.
A

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

(a)

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

(b)

B
(c)

h 1.22 uUQ uzx

uUSz v PhzvP izu, FhPzv C,
zux. uUQ Gx mh[P \US \uS.
1.5.2 Cnzumk uUQ uUSz v
Cnzumk uUQ J A Eh X, Y G
C EPz umkP, d G Ch JUP CnP
UPmk (h 1.23). Au mh hzv GP.
umkPUQh FhP P BS. umk X&US +q A
|mh ukQx. Cu -q A Gv mh
YUS
n

umk
+q
X zv yshkQx. umkP
+
+
+
+
+
+
P
|UPP
Ax
umkPUS Ch SvUS
d
PmkkzukQx. umk
-q X&x mk Y- ih
Y
\U
PkP,
umkPUSU
h 1.23 Cnzumk
SzuP JU P CnP
uUQ
AQ.
P v mii, C umkPUQh
,

E=
o
26

X Y umkPUS Ch, zu k
0

V =

E dr =

dr =

d
o

Cnzumk uUQ uUSz v,

C =

C =

A
q
= d/ =
V
o

o A

[ H =

PP

polarisation)

o A

uUSz vx umkP US
ChzuS (d) GvzuP AQx.

1.5.3

q
A

UP

(A)

|zuP,

(Dielectrics

and

PP (Dielectrics)
Azx GUmP AqUPh CP nUPmk
AqUP

Phzu
P
PP
GUPkQ. C mhzu Gkzxa \ Gu
GUmP C. Gm, UP, Gsn
PPUS
GkzxUPmkPS.
C
GUmP,
zv P C CUP iv.

UP (Polarisation)
| mh[P (mhP) D (centre of
gravity), Gv mh[P (GUmP) D JP
v
AQ
UT

UT
Gk.
GkzxUPmkP : O2, N2, H2. UTP { C
vzv v.
UTP , P zv
zu, A mh[P UPkQ.
ux
AUTP
GUm
UP Ahx
Tmh
G, A ys hmh +q
-q
-q
+q
CP
G
GUm
AUPkQ . A
E
Tmh
z v v\
h 1.24 yshmh C
(h 1.24) yshmh
27

C vz v (p) Q.
| m h[P D , Gv mh[P D
zvx UPmk UT UT Gk.
GkzxUPmkP : N2O, H2O, HCl, NH3. CUTP {
C vz v .
Cu {, UTP C
vzvP

v\P
Ax.
G,
PP uS C vzv Pnkv.
\zumhh, zv v\ C vz
vP u[P \kzvU PQ. Cu uS
C vz v EUPkQx (h 1.25).

+ -

+ + + -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

(a) A { (b) zv
h 1.25 U TP

\kzuk x, { Ax yshmh
CP C vz vP, zv v\
J[PUPkQ {P UP Ax UP
GUPkQx.
yshmh C vzv
zvS |z uP AQx.
p

p&

vx

E Ax p = E Cv Gx Qu BS. Cx

UTP
US
GUPk.

(molecular

polarisability)

1.5.4 P UP
+q q mh[P Cnzumk uUQ
JU Px. P, C umkPUQh E0 GP.

umkPUQh, P J Szv, P
UP Qx. uUQ umkPUS Gvzv E
28

P
P
E
yshmh mh[P +qi
qi G, Czyshmh
mh[P u[PUQh _
Ei&, Eo&US GvP
EUSQ (h 1.26). G
uS E < Eo. B
E Bx Eo& v\ A.

E0

+ + + -

+ -

Ei

+qi

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

1.5.5 Cnzumk uUQ,

umkPUQh P E
x uUSzv

+ -

( Ei Bx, Eo& v\US

Gvz v\ AQx)

+ -

E = Eo + (Ei)

+ -

-qi

h 1.26 P
UP

d u UPmh J A Psh, X, Y G

P
d

P
P

Y
t<d

h 1.27 uUQ P
C Phzx uPkP
Psh, J Cnzumk uUQU
Px. X&US | mh AUPku, Au mh
hzv BS, Y&Bx n x.
umkPUQh, t ui, r J kv Psh
P J, Szumkx GP (h 1.27).
P ui = t.

29

P Ch ui (dt).
umkPUS Chmh P E J ,

E= .
o

P E J E = .
r o

umkPUQh zu zu hx, J
umix umiS KS |mhzu, E G zv
(d-t) }zvS, E G zv t }zvS, Psk \uS
\k AUSa \. BP
V

E (dt) + E t

t
(d t ) +
o
o r

(d t ) +

umk X&u mh, q = A

G, uUQ uUSz v
C =

o A
q
A
=
=
t
t
V

(d t ) + (d t ) +

r
r
o

P
uUQP, C umkPUS Chmh Svx, UP
Ax Gsn P {k. P
{mk uUQ uUSzv,
o A
C =

P {mk uUQ uUSzv

r o A
C =

C
= r Ax C = rC
C

Pzu, Gu J P FhPzvS, r > 1 Gu,

P UPkx, uUSzv AvPUS.
30

1.5.6 uUQ kP
(i) u[Q Gv[P, G Gmk AP,

w Hkuz uUP kzukQx.

(ii)

v [QP (Power supplies) zu H

CUPzuU SuS, v Ami Au v
AvPUPa \ uUQP kQ.
(iii) uUQP, Pu APz uUP, i

_P Jzv\ \ kQ.

1.5.7 uUQP uh Cn UP Cn
(i) uhn uUQP
C1, C2, C3 G uUSzvP Psh uUQP

(h
1.28)
uhn
CnUPmkuPU
Px.
uhn uS US \kzuk zu
k V GP. J uUQ \ mh A q
Pskx. C1, C2, C3 &UQh E zu kP
V1, V2, V3 GP. BP, V = V1 + V2 + V3
J uUQ
E zu k

Ch
c1
+
+
+
+

q
q
q
V1 =
;V2 =
;V3 =
C1
C2
C3
q

V = C + C + C = q C + C + C
2
3
1
1
2
3

v1

c2
-

c3
-

+
+
+
+

v2

+
+
+
+

v3

V
+
uhnz
uS,
h
1.28
uhn
G,
uS uUSzv CS
uUQP
AuS V zu AUPkx, q
mhzu Qx.
q

Aux, V = C
S
q
q
q
q
=
+
+
Cs C1 C2 C3
1
1
1
1
C =C +C +C
s
1
2
3

31

G, uUQP uhn CnUPkx

uS uUSzv uR v, uzu uUQP
uUSz vP uR vP Tmkz uPUSa \.
(ii) UP Cn uUQP
C1, C2, C3 G uUSz vP Psh uUQP

(h 1.29) UP Cn CnUPmkuPU
Cn, \kzuk zu
c
k V GP. J uUQ
zu k \P CUS.
uUQP E mh[P
c

Px.
1

q1 = C1V, q2 = C2 V, q3 = C3V.

uUQP
mh

uS

zu
c3

q = q1 + q2 + q3
q = C1V + C2V + C3V

B q = CpV. Cv Cp&x +
uS uS uUSzv BS.
CpV = V (C1 + C2 + C3)
CP = C 1 + C 2 + C3

V
-

h 1.29 UP
Cn
uUQP

G, UP Cn CnUPmk uUSP
uS uUSzv, uzu uUQP uUSz vP
Tmkz uPUSa \.

1.5.8 uUQ uUQ UPmk B

uUQ Gx, mhzu uUQ US \u BS.
uUQ, mhzuz uUQ UP, \h
six. Cu x, uUQ { zu
BP \UPkQx.
uUQ umkPUS Chmh zu V Au
mh q GP. umiSU TkuP umh mh dq G,
\mh , dw = Vdq
dw =

q
dq
C

V =
C

32

uUQ \uS \mh zu

w = dw =

q
1 q2
dq =
C
2 C

Cu x, uUQ {zu { BP
(U) \UPkQx.
U=

1 q2 1
= CV 2
2 C
2

( q = CV)

uUQx, UP
v kQx.

1.5.9 Phzv u
TP \k

\kx,

mh[P

Cu

J
Phzx
B
P,
Jh
CnUPmk, A, B G
r1
r2
C Phzx P[PU
Px. A B[P r1
q2
r2 GP (h 1.30). B
q1
r1&Bx r2&I h AvP GP.
h 1.30 h u
Cu AS AUPmh
mh A B x q1
q2 BP Qx. P[P A B u mh AhzvP
1 2 GP.
A zu,
q1
V1 = 4 r
o1
B zu,
q2
V2 = 4 r
o 2

P[P CnUPmku, A zu[P \S.

q1

4o r1

q2

4o r2

1r1 = 2r2

q1 = 4 r121

2
q 2 = 4 r2 2

33

Aux r Gx J BS.
Ca\mix,
B
Su,
mh
Ahzv
AvPS
Gx
uQx.

A
+ + + + +
+
+ ++
+
+
+C
+
+
+
+ + + + + +

h 1.31& Pmhmk i
Psh Phzv mh ^P h 1.31 Ta
C. AvP,
Aux B
\k
SP E TP, mh[P
A \vUS. x
TPU Psh, mh , Phzv J, u
mh[P S P Cx kQ Ga \u
Pshmkx.
CuSU Pn, TPk uhh P UTP
AUPkQ.
|mh
AP
T
mhkQ. Gv mh AP T PkQ.
Cu TP mh SUPkQx. C, mh
Phzv TPx mh P]Q {P
TP
\k
Ax
Jmh
UP
GUPkQx. Cuz uzx mhzua \PUS {
Gv[P, PhzvP kzukQx.

1.6 Phzv (Lightning Conductor)

P E Pmih[P x xPUP Eu K G
\u Phzv BS Cu UPzv Ciu[Q G Tx
Esk. Cx Pmihzv uUSa \ J }sh, uizu uz
usiU Pskx. usi R x, u AvP Bzv
uUPmk
uz
umkh
CnUPmkx.
Au
GsoUPUP TP Eh u F]P
CnUPmk, Pmihzv E Sv UPmkx.
Gvmh P Pmihzv \x,
Phzv T P | mh yshkQx. |mh
TP AQ E P UTP AUP
\Q. Cx Pzv E Gv mhzv J Sv \
\x, Pzv zuzuU SUQx. Phzv Pmh Gv
mh[P u |UQ oUQ. Cu Pmih
uUSu Cx xPUPkQx.
34

&i&Q C
1929 m J &i&Q G { Gv J
izu. Cu 107 V A AvP {
zu k Ezv \kQx.
+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

Cu
\k,
{ysh

Ta
\mkz
uzx[P
Ai
h AQx.

J
Eh
EPU
P
A
h
1.32&
Pmh
mh
Belt
mkx

P ysP
x zumkx.
Pzv zv B
G P, Pz
yo
AiSvUS
+
AQ C G P
D
Pz
C
zumk.
Insulating
ys
mkz xo mh
Pillar
J
PP

\Qx.
P
C
mh
J
h 1.32 &i&Q

uhx
CUPkQx. PPUS AP H TP Psh D
E G C ^ iU PhzvP zumk. ^ D
|zu 104 V G CUS v [Q \Qx.
^ E&Bx Eh EPU Pzv Em CnUPmkx.
^ DUS AQ E E zv, Ta \mi
PnP P AUPkQx. P E GvAP
TP |UQ |PQ. |AP mh |UQ
mhkQ. Cu | AP mh JmiU Pu
|UQa \ ^ E& |[SQx.

35

{ysh uzxzv P ^ E Gvmh

Qx. P |mhzu Qx. Cmh[P
P Q. ^ E& E AvP A P
AUSQx. G, Gv mh[P mh |UQ
mhkQ. Cu mh Ah P, Av E |
mh[P \\mk kQ. G mh R[Sx
mh { AhQx.
C Gv uha]P, |mhzu PzvS
Qx. Cu P Pzv zu J G
v AhQ , AvPzxU Psh CUS. Psk
Pzv mh[P HPh iu { Gmih, P
AUPzv PnP mh[P P]z uh[SQ.
E Azuzv P {mh GLSU Pzv Pzu
kv , Pzv mhU P]U SUP.
C k E zu AqUP
k | AP (mh, im) kUSUP
kzukQx.

36

wUPmh PnUSP
1.1

J v ] xP
3 1012C,
8 1012C 4 1012C mh[PU Psk.
A J uk {US Psk x zx
UPkQ. (i) J v mh, (ii) ukuUS
J v E AvPi Ax US
GUmP GsoUP BQU PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = 3 1012C, q2 = 8 1012 C, q3 = 4 1012 C
w : (i) J v mh
q=

q1 + q 2 + q 3 3 + 8 + 4
12
=
10
3
3

= 3 1012 C
(ii)

mh |mh BP, J
GUmP GsoUP S Hk.
n=

q
3 1012
=
= 1.875 107
e 1.6 10 19

GUmP GsoUP = 1.875 107.

1.2

Phmh, J 6.5 107C mh C

P[P 0.5
m
u zx UPmk.
APUQh { \U PnUQk.
(i) mh[P Ch[PUPmk, u vPU SUP
k x (ii) mh[P P }
UPk x (r = 80) \U PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = q2 = 6.5 107C, r = 0.5 m
w :

1
F = 4
o

q1q 2
r2

9 10 9 (6.5 10 7 )2
(0.5)2

= 1.52 102 N.
(i) mh C h[PP AvPUPmk, u vP

SUPmh,

37

F1 =

2q1 2q 2

( r 2)

4 o

F & 16 h[S
= 16 1.52 102
F1

= 0.24 N

(ii) r = 80 & Eh } UPk x,

1.3

1.52 10 2
80

F2

=
r

F2

= 1.9 104 N

2 108 C vh C ] mh[P, A B
G P 6 cm Ch UPmk. AB& C
\U Tk \[SzxU Pmi 4 cm u E P G
UPmk, 1 108 C mhzv u \U

PnUQk.
uP : q1 = +2 108 C,

q2 = 2 108 C

P q3 = 1 108 C
XP = 4 cm or 0.04 m, AB = 6 cm or 0.06 m

w :

q3= +1 x 10-8C

R
F
5cm

5cm
4cm
-8

q1= +2 x 10 C

-8

X
3cm

3cm

q2= -2 x 10 C

APX, & Cx, AP = 42 + 32 = 5 cm or 5 102 m.

A E mh, P& E mhzu F G \
(AP ) mkQx.

38

q1q 3
r2

1
= 4
o

9 109 2 10 8 1 10 8
(5 10 2 )2

= 7.2 104 N (PB )

B E mh P E mhzu, Au F G
\ PB PQx. H BP = AP = 5 cm. R

vUPn, \ C TPP UP sk.

R

F cos + F cos = 2F cos

2 7.2 104

BX 3

cos = PB = 5

8.64 104 N

R =

1.4

3
5

i Aq r u zx UPmk J
mhUS, GUmUS Ch {
D \P Gs vP JkP.
uP : me = 9.11 1031 kg ;
G = 6.67

1011

m2

kg2;

mP = 1.67 1027 kg;

e = 1.6 1019 C)

w :
GUmUS, mhUS Ch D \
Fg = G

me m p
r2

i Aq GUmUS, mhUS Ch
\\ u r GP.
C mh[PUQh { \
1

Fe = 4
o

q 1q 2
r2

q1q 2
Fe
1
e2
1
=
=
Fg 4 o Gme m P
4 o Gme m P

9 109 (1.6 1019 )

6.67 1011 9.11 1031 1.67 1027
2

=
Fe
Fg

= 2.27 1039

Cvx, { \ D \
2.27 1039 h[S P Ex G A.
39

1.5

r
G C +9e
+e
q
+
+
mh[P
Jx
(r-x)
x
16 cm u
UPmk.
Cu
C
mh[PUQh, x mh q, G
zu Cx uhx \{ CUS?

+9e +1e

uP : r = 16 cm Ax 0.16 m;

q1 = 9e q2 = e

w : x mh q Bx 9e&x x u,
+ e&x (r x) u UPmkuPU Px.
q 1q 2

F = 4 r 2
o

1 9e q
1
q e
=
2
x
4o (r x )2

= 4
o

x2
=9
(r x )2

x
= 3
r x

x = 3r 3x

Ax

4x = 3r = 3 16 = 48 cm

x=

48
=12 cm
4

Ax 0.12 m
x mh +9ex 0.12 u UPmkx.
1.6

4 107 C 8 107 C BQ C mh[P UP A

20 cm Psh ABP
G \UP UPnzv A B
P UPmk. P G Pnk uS

a \U PnUQkP.
uP :q1 = 4 107 C;

q2 = 8 107 C;

r = 20 cm = 0.2 m

w :
E1
P
E
E2
-7

10 60

+4 A

X
20cm

40

-8 x 10-7C
B

AP E1
E1 =

1
4 o

q1 9 109 4 10 7
=
= 9 104 N C1
r2
(0.2)2

PB E2
E2 =
E=

1
4 o

q2
9 10 9 8 10 7
=
= 18 104 N C-1
2
r
0.04

E12 + E22 + 2E1E2 cos120o

4
2
2
= 9 10 2 + 1 + 2 2 1 12

= 9 3 104 = 15.6 104 N C 1

1.7

(i) 4 107C mhzv Cx 0.09 u E J

zuzu, (ii) 2 109 C mhzu iz

ux, AUS
PnUQkP.

Psk

si

uP : q1 = 4 107C, q2 = 2 109 C, r = 0.09 m

w : (i) q1 G mhzu J zu
1

V = 4
o
=
(i)

q1
r

9 109 4 107
= 4 104 V
0.09

q2

G mhzu iz
AUS Psk \ si

ux

W = q2 V = 2 109 4 104
W = 8 105 J

1.8

HCl , 2.5 104 N C1 A zv UPkQx.

UT C vz v
J HCl
30
3.4 10
C m G J UT x \k v

\U PnUQkP.
uP :

E = 2.5 104 N C1,

p = 3.4 1030 C m.
41

w : UT x \k v \

(z v \US, = 90o)

= pE sin

= 3.4 1030 2.5 104

= 8.5 1026 N m.

UT u z v \
1.9

= 8.5 1026 N m.

hzv Pmi \xzv P UPmk

mh[P,
zv
E

ES
zuzuU PnUQkP.
q2 = 24 n C; q3 = +31n C;
q4 = +17 n C;

q1
+12nc

uP : q1 = + 12 n C;

d = 1.3 m

w :

+31nc
q3

P G zu,

r
d=1.3m

q2
-24nc
d
+17nc
q4

1
q1 q 2 q 3 q 4
+
+
V = 4 +
r
r
r
r
o

u r =

d
2

zu mh

1.3
2

= 0.919 m

= q1 + q2 + q3 + q4
= (12 24 + 31 + 17) 109
q = 36 109 C

V =

9 109 36 109
0.919

V = 352.6 V

1.10 20 cm UP A ABC G \UP UPnzv Ea]P

2 109C, +3 109C, 4 109C BQ mh[P
UPmk G, mh[P A, B C

42

A
-9
-2 x 10 C

UPnzv
UP[P
P A1, B1
C1&US
|Pzu
\k
U PnUQkP.
uP :

q1 = 2 109C;
10

-9

q2 = +3 109C;

-9

x
+3

q3 = 4 109C;

-4 x 10 C
C

AB = BC = CA = 20cm = 0.20 m

w : mh A zu B
1 q1q 2 q 2q 3 q 3 q1
+
+
U = 4
r
r
o r

mh[P A, B C &UP A1, B1

C1US Cha] \ \k ,
W = Uf Ui
Ui Uf

G A, uhUP Cv

zu B,
Ui =

9 109
0.20

[6 1018 12 1018 + 8 1018]

= 4.5 107 J
Uf =

9 109
[6 1018 12 1018 + 8 1018]
0.10

= 9 107J
\k = 9 107 (4.5 107)
W = 4.5 107J

1.11 i mh, 2 cm u 9 104 N C1 zu

EUSQx G mh } AhzvU PnUQkP.
uP : E = 9 104 N C1, r = 2 cm = 2 102 m
w :

E = 2 r
o

= E 2or
43

 = 9 104

1
2 2 o =
9
9 2 10
18 10

18 10

= 107 C m1

1.12 J mh, Au PU Psk A 10 cm

B, J P i P \
6 103 Nm2 C1 A zu EUSQx, G
(i) P B Ch[PUPkx

\ zv AU PnUQkP.
(ii) mhzv v G?

uP :

= 6 103 N m2 C1;

r = 10 cm = 10 102 m

w : (i) P B C h[PUPkx, v
\ x. H,
E zu mhzua \x A u
Bzua \x Ax.

(ii)

= 6 103 N m2 C1

= or q = (8.85 1012 6 103)

o

q = 5.31 108 C

1.13 J Cnzumk uUQ, uPkP 200 cm2. A

umkP 1 mm Ch zx UPmk G
(i) uUQUS 1nC mh AUPk x, uPkPUS
Ch zu k, (ii) Au mhzvS (1n C)
Chzu 2 mmUS AvPUPmh v zu k
(iii) uPkPUQh BQU PnUQkP.
uP : d = 1 mm = 1 103m;

A = 200 cm2 or 200 104 m2 ;

q = 1 nC = 1 109 C ;

w : uUQ uUSzv
C =

o A
d

8.85 10 12 200 10 4
1 10 3

C = 0.177 109 F = 0.177 nF

44

(i) uPkPUQh zu k
V=

q
1 10 9
=
= 5.65 V
C 0.177 10 9

(ii)

uPkPUQh u 1 mm-x 2mm&US

AvPUS x uUS v C h[PPU S. zu
k C h[S AvPUS.
v zu k = 5.65 2 = 11.3 V
(iii)

q
1 10 9
= = A . = 8.85 10 12 200 10 4
o
o

= 5650 N C1

1.14 P {mh, J Cnzumk uUQ uUSv

8 pF. umkPUQh E u vP SUPmk, Au
Ch P 6 Psh P
{k x uUSzv G?
uP : Co = 8 pF , r = 6, P E x u
d Bx d/2 BP .

w : Co =

Ao
= 8pF
d

u vP SUPmk, P Ch
{k x, v uUSv,
C

r A o
d /2

2 r A o
d

= 2r Co
C

= 2 6 8 = 96 pF

1.15 hzv Pmi Cn

uS uUSz vU
PnUQk.
uP : C1 = 10F ;

C1
10 F
C3
4 F
5 F

C2 = 5F ;
C3 = 4F
45

C2

w : (i) C1 C2 uhn CnU Pmk.

uh n CnUPmk uUQ Tmh
uS uUS v
1
1
1
=
+
CS C1 C 2

CS

1 1
+
10 5

10 5 10
F
=
10 + 5
3

(ii) CS Bx C3&h UP Cn CnUPmkx. UP

Cn, uUQP uS uUSzv

Cp = Cs + C3

10
22
F
=
+ 4 =
3
3
Cp = 7.33 F

1.16 J Cnzumk uUQ uPmi 90 cm2. A

2.5 mm Ch zx UPmk.
umkP
uUQx 400 V
zxh CnUPmk
\kQx G, Av uUQ UPmk {
B G?
uP : A = 90 cm2 = 90 104 m2; d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 103 m;
V = 400 V

w : Cnzumk uUQ uUSzv

C=

o A
d

8.85 10 12 90 10 4
2.5 10 3

= 3.186 1011 F

uUQ B

=
=

1
2
1
2

C V2
3.186 1011 (400)2

B = 2.55 10-6 J

46

u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP PnUSP
vP. C, h Sv Gu J Ax
PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk Svx
mk, h x iUPhU Ti UPUS
PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

Psniz usk, mkz xoh uUPk x

+8 1012 C mhzu HQx. Ax HUPsh Ax Cu
GUmP GsoUP
(a) 5 107 (Hx)

(b) 5 107 (Cux)

(c) 2 108 (Cux)

(d) 8 1012 (Cux)

C mh[P, r = 6 Psh FhPzv, d u

zx UPku ES { \ 0.3 N.
hzv,
Au
u
zx
UPmh,
Amh[PUQh \
(a) 20 N

(b) 0.5 N

(c) 1.8 N

(d) 2 N

J mhzvx 2 m u a \
Gzu Au a \ 100 V m1 BP
A?
400 V m1
(a) 50 cm

(b) 4 cm

(c) 4 m

(d) 1.5 m

C mh[P +4q +q, 30 cm u zx

UPmk. Amh[P CnUS Pmi x
G _S?
(a) mh +q&x 15

cm

(b) mh

+q&x 7.5 cm

(c) mh

+4q&x 20 cm

(d) mh

+q&x 5 cm

47

1.5

^ zv, zvS CnP, Au Aa_ A J

C UPmh, Ax Enx
(a)

zu \ mk

(b) v \ mk
(c) zu \ v \ Csh
(d) zu \ A, v \ A

1.6

1.7

C zvx x u A
zu, GuS |zuP AQx?
(a)

1
x2

(b)

1
x3

(c)

1
x4

(d)

1
x 3/2

a UP Psh \xzv |S P A, B, C DUP

mh[P +q, +q, q q UPmk.
\xzv O & zux,
1

(a) 4 a
o
1

4q
(c) 4 a
o

1.8

1.9

(b) 4

2q
a

(d) _

C mh[P zu B (U) ...... BS.

q1q 2
(a) 4 r 2
o

q 1q 2
(b) 4 r
o

(c) pE cos

(d) pE sin

\ zu E C PUS Ch 500 C
mhzu |Pzu \k
(a) _

(b) |US v

(c) GvUS v (d) i

1.10. RUPsh AP Gx P AS?

(a) C vz v

(b) \

(c)

(d) zu

48

1.11 kv AS
(a) C2 N1 m2

(b) N m2 C2

(c) H m1

(d) N C2 m2

1.12 1 T mhzvx ES \UPkP GsoUP

(a) 1.129 1011

(b) 1.6 1019

(c) 6.25 1018

(d) 8.85 1012

1.13 mh Ahzv Psh, C Gvv mh EPz

uPkPUS E
(a)

+
2 o

(b)

2 o

(c)

(d) _S.

1.14 J Cnzumk uUQ uUS vx, umkPUQh

P U Psk {u, 5 Fx 60 FUS
AvPUQx. P P
(a) 65

(b) 55

(c) 12

(d) 10

1.15 mh Eh EP x J, _ zu
GP uUQx?
(a) PzvS

(b) Au

(c) Pzv Em

(d) C h[S uUS A

1.16 { T vU T, Au Uh izuU
Sk.
1.17 kv J kv G G? A G
uhkzumk.
1.18 xu uzuzu US.
1.19 J . Au APU T, J
mhzu Hk zvP P P.
1.20 \U PkP sPU TP.
1.21 C G G? C vz v
.
49

1.22 ^ zv UPmk C x \k
v \UP P P.
1.23 J ^ ^ zv J C UPk
x {Px G?
1.24 C Aa_U Pmi E J , |kU
Pmi E J a \P P P.
1.25 J zu . Cx J P A Ax
Uh A? J mhzu Hk zuzvP
P P.
1.26 zu zu k C kzxP.
1.27 \ zu G G?
1.28 C mh[P A zu B G
G? AuP P P.
1.29 C Hk AzuzvP P P.
1.30 zu . Au APz uP.
1.31 P vU T. Cu kzv, (i) ^ mh Ahzv
Psh i, }sh, | Phzv (ii) q mh Eh
i \u uPk, BQ zu [PU PnUQkP.
1.32 uUQ G G? Au uUSzv .
1.33 uUQ uzxzu . J Cnzumk uUQ
uUSz vUP P P.
1.34 P
G
G?
J
Cnzumk
uUQ
umkPUQh P zu u Hk
.
1.35 J Cnzumk uUQ J Pzxh CnUPmkx.
uPkPUS Ch E uUSa \ ui Psh
P
,
uPkPUQh
Szukx
(i) uUQ uUSzv, (ii) uPkPUQh
(iii) uPkPUQh zu k, C G
HkQx?
1.36 uUQP uhn, UP Cn CnUPk
x uS uUSz vPU PsP.

50

1.37 J Cnzumk uUQ, \zx UPk B

q2
G
2C

{P.
1.38 P UP G G?
1.39 &i&Q uzx, A \k
uzu .
1.40 Ci, x J zvi {u h J P (car)
E Cx xPx. H?

PnUSP
1.41 C mh[P Tku 6 C. hzv 40 cm
Ch A UPk x 0.9 N \h J
J PQx G, Amh[PU PnUQkP.
1.42 J ] mh P[P J 2 103 N
\h mkQ. J Pzv u mh u
C h[S BS. mh[P J x
10 cm uUS |Pzv \x 5 104 N
BS. Amh[P, AQh Au Bz
u PnUQkP.
1.43 J \xzv |S P +q, +2q, +q q BQ
mh[P UPmk. q = 5/3 109C G, 10 cm
UP Psh Aa\xzv mh[P miU P
zuU PnUQkP.
1.44 10 109 C 20 109 C G C mh[P, 0.3 m
u zx UPmk. C mh[P Chz
u zu a \U
PsP.
1.45 5 mm u zx UPmh,
2 1010 C

10
2 10
mh[P Psh Cx 10 V m1
^ zv 60o Pnzv UPmkx. (i) J
mhzv x \k \ Gs v v\
(ii) zu \kzuk v \ BQU PsP.

51

1.46 J C mh[P 2 106 C 2 106

C Csk, 1 cm u zx UPmk. C
(i) Aa_UPmi, Au zvx 1 m u
E (ii) |kU Pmi, zvx 1 m u
E BQ Hk zuU PnUQkP.
1.47 +q 3q G C mh[P 1 m u zx
UPmk. Au Aa_UPmi, mh[PUS Ch
G zu _S?
1.48 60 cm UP[P Psh J \UP UPnzv Ea]P +1 C,
+3 C

5 C
mh[P
UPmk.
Cmh[P A zu BU PnUQkP.
1.49 10 cm Chz u 12 C 8 C G C |
mh[P zx UPmk. Chzu 6 cm BP
CUS, A 4 cm u |UQU Psk \
si U PnUQkP.
1.50 J Eh, 10 cm UP Psh P \xzv zv 8.85 C
mh UPmkx. Au J UPzv P
\ zuU PsP.
1.51 0.12 m B Psh, P i Phzv x
1.6 107 C mh ^P x. (i) Pzv E
(ii) Pzv x (iii) Pzv zvx 0.18 m u
E GS?
1.52 J 4 102 sq m Psh J Cnzumk
uUQ umkPUQh 103 m ui Psh P
SzukQx. P J kv 7
G, uUQ uUSzvU PnUQkP.
1.53 C
uUQP,
uhn
UP
Cn
CnUPkQ. Cu C CnP QhUP
uS uUSz vP 6 F 25F G,
AuUQP uUSzvPU PnUQkP.
1.54 uUSzv 0.5 F 0.75 F Psh C uUQP UP
Cn CnUPmk J Ah 110 V P
CnUPmkx. zv mh J
uUQ E mh PsP.

52

1.55 uUQP UP Cn CnUPmk

100 V Pzxh CnUPmku h
PmkQx. uUQ uS \zx
UPmk zu B G?

30 F

C1
C2

20 F

C3

10 F

1.56 J Cnzumk uUQx, Smh

zuzv UPkQx. uPkPUQh
100V
3 mm ui Psh J SzukQx.
uPkPUS Ch E zuzu UP, uPkP
Chzu 2.4 mm. AvPUPkQx. zv P
U PnUQkP.
1.57 J Cnzumk uUQ uPkPUQh E Ch
|Q Sv, P 3 Eh P
{kQx. P \zx UPmk
B \uu G?
2 F

1.58 hzv
Pmhmk

D
uUQP mhzuU PsP.
AP Ch E
zu mhU PsP.

C1

C2

2 F
1 F

C3

120V

1.59 J 9 pF uUSzv Psh uUQP uh

n CnUPmk. uS zu uUSzv
x? uSx 120 V zxh CnUPkx, J
uUQ Ch E zu k x?

53

hP
1.1 (b)

1.2 (c)

1.3 (c)

1.4 (c)

1.5 (d)

1.6 (a)

1.7 (d)

1.8 (b)

1.9 (a)

1.10 (d)

1.11 (a)

1.12 (a)

1.13 (d)

1.14 (c)

1.15 (c)

1.35

(i) AvPUS (ii) vUS (iii) vUS

1.41

q1 = 8 106C , q2 = 2 106 C

1.42

q1 = 33.33 109C, q2 = 66.66 109C, x = 0.1 m

1.43

0.9 104Vm1

1.44

V = 1800 V, E = 4000 Vm1

1.45

2 109N, zv v\, = 0.866 1011 Nm

1.46

360 N/C, 180 N C1

1.47

+q --x 0.25 m u

1.48

0.255 J

1.49

5.70 J

1.50

1.67 105 N m2 C1

1.51

_, 105 N C1, 4.44 104 N C1

1.52

2.478 109F

1.53

C1 = 15 F, C2 = 10F

1.54

q = 137.5 C, q1 = 55 C, q2 = 82.5 C

1.55

0.3 J

1.56

r = 5

1.57

50%

1.58

q1 = 144 106C, q2 = 96 106C, q3 = 48 106C

V1 = 72 V, V2 = 48 V

1.59

3 pF, J 40 V

54

1. {
{ mh[P Ax K { mh[P
US C J Sv { Gk. Ch Sv
{ mh[P Aih {PP Ax P.
D zv E {P u zv E
mh[P BS. mh[P u[PUQh \k
\P u, A { B . CUPzxP
mh P, Aq PP x
kzukQ.

1.1 { & E
Q.. 600& u G QUP Ab B (Amber) G
] xsiU P uUP, Ax PQu \ P
P s Qx G Pshu. 17&B si
Q m G, Psni, Gm uSu Pk
uUPkx Cu s kzxQ G Pskizu.
C uUPkx, mh[P P
"UP Ahu (electrified)Ax mh ' G.
CzuP B G k GUm (electron) G QUP
zux mhS. E ES mh,
E mh G AUPk. J E mh[P
|P G, A mhzu { mh G
AUP.

1.1.1 mh[P C PP
(i) J Psniz ush, mkz xoh uUP, Psniz usk

| mhzu Qx. mkzxo Au A Gv mhzu

Qx.
(ii) Gm usk J P uUP, Gm Gv
mhhQx. Px Au A | mhzu Qx.
mh[P, AUP A Ab g\ [P G,
| Gv mh[P G CPP UPmk.
BP uv, mhh usk J, mh
EUPkv. B mh[P UP
kQ Ax mh[P QuUPkQ.
1

1.1.2 K mh[P J mk.

mh[P J P & \u \
mk C u[Phmk mhmh Psniz usk
J Qhzuzv AQx. ux Au UPQ
mh Psniz usk Psk mh, C P
J mkuU Pn (h 1.1). Cu v
mhmh Gm ushx, u[Phmh Psniz usi
UPQ Psk mh, C uskP J
PQ (h 1.2). Ca\u K mh[P J
mk, mh[P J P G u Qx.

mk

mk
Psni
F

Psni

+++
++++
+
++
+
+
++
F

Psni

++++
+++
F F
------

Gm
h 1.2 mh
C mh uskP

h 1.1 K mh
C mh uskP

mh PUQh u P
mk sP, { sn uzu, xP a_,
PU TskP US \ \Pzu, u v Gv
(Ink-Jet-Printer) Aa_ P |P Gv (Xerox)
kPU Psk.

1.1.3 PhzvP PP
{ sP Aih P, PhzvP
Phzu P (P P) G CPP UP.
mhzu u \ AvUS P PhzvP
Gk. GkzxUPmkP EP[P, u Eh, .
mh[P u \ AvUPu P Phzu
P (PP) Gk. GkzxUPmkP Psni, UP,
Gm, iU .
2

1.1.4 mh[P Aih sP

(i)

mh[P SshUP
J mhzv e Aih AS Gx, J GUm u[Qa
\ mhzv AS. Cu AS Coulomb BS. e- Gs
v 1.6 1019 C.
CP Gu J A mh, J mhzv
] v Gs h[SPP Gx AQx.
mhzv A, e- Gs h[S Psh uzu vP
Hu J mk Qx. G mh q = ne. Cv n&Gx
J Gs BS.
(ii) mh[P A
mh[P BUP AUP ix. mh A
vi, uzu A J zu mh Gx
S. B, A zu mh Gx u
P, A J Svx SvUS mh[P
kQ. GkzxUPmhP, (92U238) B xP (2He4
AqUP) mk uP (90Th234) Qx.
238

+ 2He4
]uUS zu mh = + 92e, ]uUS zu
mh = 90e + 2e. G zu mh Ex. Aux,
92U

90Th

234

P AQx.
(iii) mh[P Tmh s
J A zu mhx, A E Azx
mh[P S Tmkz uPUSa \. GkzxUPmhP, +2q, -5q
mh[P Psh C P \zx UPkx, A
zu mh -3q BS.

1.1.5 T v
1785&
T
G,
C
mh

PUQh \x Pshmhx.
T vi, C mh[PUS Ch Pa]
\ Ax mk \x, mh[P USz uUS
|zuP, AS Ch E u CiUS Gvz
uP A. mh[P CnUS Pmi \
v\ A.
P Ax hzv, r u Au C mh[P
q1 q2 GP (h 1.3a).
3

T vi,
F

q1q 2
r2

(Ax) F = k

q1q 2
r2

q2

q1
r

h 1.3a T \P

Cv k Gx Qu BS.
1

P Ax hzv, k = 4 , Cv o Gx hzv
o
kv BS. o& v 8.854 1012 C2 N1 m2 BS.
1
F = 4
o

q1q 2

(1)

r2

4 = 9 109 N m2 C2
o
Ps \mi, q1 = q2 = 1C r = 1m G
F = (9 109)

11
12

= 9 109 N

P Ax hzv, J mh Ch,
UPmk, Jzu mh[PUQh mk \ 9 109 N
G Amh v J T G UPkQx.
kv Psh FhPzv mh[P UPk, C
mh[PUQh \ A
Fm =

1 q1q2
4 r 2

(2)

\k (1)I (2)B SUP

F

=
= r
Fm

uP = r Gx FhPzv J kv Ax P

GUPk. P Ax hzvS r& v 1 BS.

= o r
F
Fm = Gu, C mh[PUQh \,
r

mh[P A FhPzv C zuQx.

4

T v & Uh i

F 21 Gx mh q1&B, q2 x uUPk \
G (h 1.3b),

qq
F 21 = k 1 2 ^
r 12
2

r12

Cv ^
r 12 Gx q1&x q2&UP AS Uh BS.

F 12 Gx mh q2&B q1 x uUPk \ G,

F 12 = k

q1q 2

^
r 21

2
r21

q1
+

Cv ^
r 21 Gx q2&x q1-UP F12
AS Uh BS.
^
r 21
r 12
Csk J
( ^
v
EhuP,
Gvvz
v\ AQ.)
q1q 2

F 12 = k r 2
( ^
r 12)
12

qq

1 2

Ax F 12 = k r 2
12

q1
+

r^ 12

q2
+

r^ 12

F21
q2
F21

F12
r

h 1.3b Uh
izv T v

^
r 12

Ax F 12 = F 21
G, mh[P J x \zx \
A \P, Gvz v\ AQx.

1.1.6 xu uzx
xu uzxzv q1 G mh q2, q3 . qn
G mh[P En \U PnUQh.
J mhzv u zu \ Gx mh[P
Amhzv x uUS \P Uh TkuS.
q2& q1 u \
1 q1q 2

^
F 12 = 4
r 21
2
r21

Cu , q3 q1 u \
1 q1q3

^
F 13 = 4
r 31
2
r31

Azx mh[P q1 x ES zu \ F1.

F 1 = F 12 + F 13 + F 14

1 q q

qq

......... +

F 1n

qq

1 2
1 3
1 n

G, F 1 = 4 r 2 r21 + r 2 r31 + ....... r 2 rn1

n1
31

21

1.2
J mhzv Gx, Amhzua _
, J \u mhzu Enk \S. J
mhzvS AQ mhzuU Psk u
mhzua _ zuU Psh ix.
zvSU Pn mh q&US AQ, \u
mh qo UPk Au x { \ F
\kQx.

a \ (E)
J , a \ AhkQx.
zv E J UPmk KS | mh
En \, A a \ GUPkQx. Cx J
Uh AS.

F
E =
. a \ AS N C1.
qo

a \, Ax G
Sh. G, mhzv x uUS \,
F = qoE BS.

1.2.1 mhzu
P O G UPmk q G mhzuU
Px (h 1.4). mh q x r u, P,
\u mh qo UPmkx. T vi, q& qo
u \,
1 q qo
F = 4
2
o r

h 1.4 mhzu

F
1 q
E = q = 4 2
o
o r

E& v\, O,

+q0

+q

P
x,
i, KS \u
mhzv u \S.

P P CnUS Pmi , |

mhP Cu |UQ, Gv mhP Cu E

|UQ A.

E =

q ^
r Gx zv Uh ShS. Cv
4o r 2

^
r

Gx q-x |UQ A AS Uh BS.

1.2.2 mh[P uS

{ mh[P, J ES uS
(\) uzu mhzv Au
[P Uh TkuUSa \.

= E 1 + E 2 + E 3 ...... E n

1
4 o

q2
q3
q1

r 2 r1 + r 2 r2 + r 2 r3 + .........
2
3
1

1.2.3 \U PkP
Pu [PU P \x PuPP UP
h G UPkP G Pzx APkzumhx.
zv KS |mh J, |P ]US |
Ax P u \UPk Gk.
] mh[P Hk [P h 1.5&
Pmhmk.

\UPkP sP
(i) \UPk | mhzv uh[Q Gv mhzv

ihQx.
(ii) \UPkP Jx J mia \x.

+q

+q

(a)

uzu mh

-q

+q

(b)

+q

(c)

mh[P K mh[P
h 1.5 \UPkP

(iii) J zv v\ (E), A E
\UPmkUS k ukPmi SUPk.
(iv) \UPkPUS |USzu v\, KS \u
\ \UPkP GsoUP a \ E&US
|zuP CUS. Aux E& v AvP Ch[P PkP
|UPP, E& v S Ch[P PkP Ch
mk CUS.
(v) J KS |mh,

A \U

PkP hzv EUS. G hzv J

mh q&x ES \U PkP GsoUP
q
N = .
o

1.2.4 C Cz vzv
C \, Gvv, Pa ] Ch UPmk
mh[P
J

CS.
},
A,
P&h&BU\k S UTP {
C
PUS
]
GkzxUPmkPS.
CUTP
|mhzv , Gv mhzv JP
v, ]x Ch UPmk.
+q -q G C
mh[P
2d
u
UPmk (h 1.6).
C

vzv
Gsvx
Hu
J

-q

p
2d
h 1.6 C

+q

mhzv Gsv mh[PUQh u

UPU QhuS.
C vz v P = 2qd. Cx J Uh
AS. Cu v\ -qx +q |UQ A. Cu AS C m BS.

1.2.5 C Aa_UPmi E J

AB Gx, -q +q G C mh[P 2d G ]

u zx UPmk J C BS (h 1.7).
C Ox, Aa_UPmi, r u Ax
P BS.
A
-q

O B
+q
2d

E2

E1
x axis

h 1.7 Aa_UPmi E
B& E +q mhzv P&
1
q
E1 = 4
2
o (r d )

(BP )

A& E -q P&
1
q
E2 = 4
2 (PA )
o (r + d )

E1 E2 Gvvz v\ \kQ.

G, uS zv Ax (E) Gsv
Psh Uh v\ \kQx. P uS
E = E1 + (E2)
q
1
q
1

E = 4
2
2 BP
4

o (r d )
o (r + d )

q
E = 4
o

1
1

BP
2
(r + d )2
(r d )

q
E = 4
o

4rd
2
2 2 BP
(r d )

C x P u P AvP G d <<r
q 4rd
q 4d
=
E = 4
4
3
4

o r
o r

1 2p
E = 4
3
o r

(BP )

( C vz v p = q x 2d)
E&x C vzv v\ \kQx.

1.2.6 C |kU Pmi E J

AB G C JU Px. 2d Gx C
Chzu G, p Gx C vz v G
P. C O&x r u |kU
Pmi Ax P GP (h 1.8a).

E1

E1
E

E1cos

E2
N
A
-q

B
+q

E2cos

E2

(a) |kU Pmi E

E1sin

E2sin

(b) zv TP

h 1.8
C +q mhzv P& ,
E1

1
q
= 4
2
o BP

(BP

1
q
= 4
2
2 (BP
o (r + d )

) ( BP2 = OP2 + OB2)

C -q mhzu P ,

10

1
q
E2 = 4
2
o AP

(PA )

1
q
E2 = 4
2
2 (PA )
o (r + d )

E1 E2 & Gs vP \. E1 E2& \[Szx

QhzuU TPP USx (h 1.8b).

\[SzxU TP E1 sin E2 sin A \P

Gvvz v\ Au J \ \Q.
Qhzu TP E1 cos E2 cos Csk PR&v\
TmhkQ.
C P uS
E = E1 cos + E2 cos (PR v\)
E = 2 E1cos

( E1 = E2)

1
q
E = 4
2
2 2 cos
o (r + d )

B cos =
E

d
2

r + d2

1
q
2d
1
q 2d

= 4
2
2
2
2 1/2 = 4
2
2 3/2
o (r + d ) (r + d )
o (r + d )
1
p
= 4
2
2 3/2
o (r + d )

( p = q2d)

r-Eh Jh d u Pa ]uS.

1 p
E = 4 3
o r

E& v\ C Aa_US CnP PR & P,

C vz v v\US Gvz v\ AQx.

1.2.7 ^ zv C
^ zv (E), AB G C, Pn \P
CuPU P. Au C vz v p GP
11

(h
1.9).
mh
+q
B +q F=qE
zv v\ qE G
\ EnQx. -q Au A
\ Gvz v\ EnQx.
2d

E
G C u uS
p
\ _S. C \,
Gvvz
v\
CnPa
A
\k \P J F=-qE -q
C
\x. G, C
h 1.9 ^ zv
x v \ J EQx.
C
Cx C zv
v\ \{US Psk .
v \ Gs v,
= \P J \PUS Ch \[Szxz u
= F 2d sin
= qE 2d sin = pE sin

Uh Smi = p E

( q 2d = p)

S : ^ zv, C Pn \
A, v \h, TkuP J \
Qx.

1.2.8 zv E C zu B
zv E C zu B Gx
zv C u {US _uS
BS.
E
p C vz
B F=qE
v Psh J C,
+q
2d
E zv, Pnzv E
x, Au u v \,
p
A
= pE sin
-q
C, d Pn
F=-qE
_, \k
h 1.10 C
dw
= .d
zu B
= pE sin.d

G, C Pnzv _ \k ,
12

W = dw
W = pE sin.d = pE cos

Cx, C { BS (U).

U = pE cos

C zv v\ J[Pzu, = 0o

U = pE

zv E C En v \x ( = p E)
C zv v\ J[Pa \ . Cu
PnP, { BP `US kQx.

U A \P (Microwave oven)
Cx, PU SQ Pzv En \UP kQx. P
\kx, U AP uUPkQ. C ^
A zu EUSQ. En } UTP,
CPP Au, A v \US EUPmk
J ] } UTP nP UPkQ. Cu
B EQ, En \UPkQx.

1.3 zu
O
G +q G +q
E
mh
EuPU
Px O
B
A
x
(h 1.11). A, B G zv E
dx
C
P
GP.
KS
h 1.11 zu
|mhx A x BUS
|Pzuk \ kQx. Cu A
PUQh zu k BS. Aux, dV = WA B.

zv C PUQh E zu k Gx
J x US mk \US GvP KS |
mhzu |Pzua \k G UPkQx.
zu mi AS m BS. J x
US J T | mhzu \UPvP Gkzxa
\a \k J G APUQh E
zu k J m BS.
zv E J zu Gx KS |
mhzu iz ux \US GvP, AUS
Psk a \k G UPkQx.
13

a \S zuzvS E uh
A B PUQh E ] u dx GP. KS |
mhzu A x B&US |Pzua \k dV = E.dx.

mk \US GvP, +q mhzu

mhzu |Pzu \kQx. G,

|UQ

KS

dV = E.dx
E=

dV
dx

u zu zu zua \S.
G a \x GvU Shmh zua \US
\S.
GvUSx zv v\ zu SuU
SUQx. a \S V m1 G AS kzuh.

1.3.1 J mhzu J Hk zu
P O UPmk uzu mh +q GP.
+q&x r u E P GP. O-x x x + dx
u E P A BU Px (h 1.12).
A

PUQh
zu k,

dV = E.dx
A UPmk

+q

dx

p
r

E
B

h 1.12 mhzu

KS | mhzu Enk \,
E =

1
q
.
4o
x2

1
q
dV = 4
2 . dx
o x

\k , \US Gvx Gu GvUS

SUQx.
+q
mhzv P& zu Gx, KS |
mhzu iz ux, AUSU Psk a
\k zu S.
r

V=

4 x

q
. dx = 4 r
o

14

1.3.2 C J zu
2d G ] u UPmh, A, B P E -q
+q G C mh[P C EUSQ. Cu C
vzv p BS. (h 1.13)
P Gx C O G x r u
E . C, zu CnUS Phx
(PO) C Aa_h (OB) Hkzx Pn GP. r1 r2
G +q qx P uP
P
GP.
+q

mhzv
1

r2

zu = 4 r
o 1
-q

mhzu

zu

q

=
4 o r2
1

-q

p
d

B
+q

h 1.13 C J
zu

C P
1

180-

r1

zu, V = 4 r 4 r
o 1
o 2
V =

1 1

4o r1 r2
q

...(1)

P\ v kzu
r12 = r2 + d2 2rd cos

cos d 2
+

r12 = r2 1 2d
r

r2

d Bx r&I h Pa ]u,
1

2d
2
r1 = r 1
cos

15

d2
r2

&I UPoUP.

Ax,

1/ 2
1 1
2d

= 1
cos
r1 r
r

Dz (Binomial) uzu kzv, kzv, E

AkUSP UPoUP,
1 1
d
= 1 + cos
r1 r

Cu,

(2)

r22 = r2 + d2 2rd cos (180 )

r22 = r2 + d2 + 2rd cos .

Ax

1/2

2d

cos
r2 = r 1 +
r

Ax

d2
r2

UPoUPzuUPx)

1/2
1 1
2d

= 1 +
cos
r2 r
r

uzu kzv, E AkUSP UPoUP

1 1
d

= 1 cos
r2 r
r

...(3)

\k (2) (3) I \k (1) vh

V

q 1
d
d

= 4 r 1 + r cos 1 + r cos

q 2d cos
4o . r

1 p . cos
4o
r2

(4)

] |P :
1. P x C Aa_UPmi +qUS AQ
Au, = 0

V =

p
4o r 2

2. Px
Au = 180o,

16

Aa_UPmi

qUS

AQ

V =

p
4o r 2

3. Px C |kU Pmi Au, = 90o,

V = 0

q1

1.3.3 zu B

q2

mh[P
r
zu B Gx A
h 1.14a zu
mh[P
J[Pa
B
\mh Ax J
mhzu AUS Psk \mh Ax J
mhzu iz ux AUS Psk
\mh Gk.
A& UPmk mh q1 GP (h 1.14a)

q1
q1-x r u E B zu, V = 4 r
o

iz ux mh q2&Bx
BUS Psk kQx. C[S mh q2& x \mh
x, q1 q2 mh[P Psh A {
zu BP (U) \UPkQx.

\mh , w = Vq2

q1q 2
zu B (U) = 4 r
o

mh q2 Bx B& UPmk,
q1& iz ux AUS
Psk uP P \u Cu A
\kQx.

r23

q3
r13

q2
r12

q1

h 1.14b
, q1 q2 G mh[P mh A
r Ch E A B zu B
PUS, iz ux Psk
kQ. G, A zu B, u P
mh BUSa \P CUS.
CskUS mh mh[PU Psh AS (h
1.14b), zu B (U) Bx,
U =

q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2q 3
+
+

r13
r23
4o r12
1

17

1.3.4 \ zu
J h Azx P, \ zuzv E
G, A \ zu Gk.
(i) uzu mhzu zu , Avx \
B

+q

(a) \ zu

(P i)

(b) ^ zxUS (u)

h 1.15

u E Azx P \ zuzv CUS.

BP, \ zu P G mhzu PU
Psh uha] P[PS (h 1.15a). Cuv
zux P[PUS P CUS.
\ zu x Gu C PUQh, J
mhzu GP |Pzv \mh _S.
H,
VB VA =

PUS

Chmh

zux

W AB
q G UPkQx. VA = VB G, WAB = 0. G

U PkP \ zu USa \[SzuP CUS.

(ii) ^ zu zu, \ zu P
Cn u[PP, A P \U PkPUSa
\[SzuP E Gu h 1.15b PmkQx.

18

1.4 P v Au kP

^ zv E S G i
U Px (h 1.16). Cu
x ds G Pa ] U Px.
ds&
v\x,
US
SzuP
|UQ Ex. ds&u

E PU P. E ds

S
ds

ds

\[Szx

JUP Pnzu HkzxQ.

h 1.16
Gx PkUPmh
\ \U PkP
zu GsoUP BS G UPkQx.
ds \k ,
d = E . ds = E ds cos

Ps \mh, zx uPkzu, i
S \k, zu kQx.

= d =
E . ds

uPUP Smi SUPmk ]mh i

, uPkzxuU SUS. J P
AS. Cu AS N m2 C1

1.4.1 P v
Cv, Gu i \
zu, A E zu mhzu uh
kzxQx. Cvi, Gu i \k
zv zu v, A E zu mhzv
1/o h[SUSa \.
q
=
o

Cu hmh P P (Gaussian Surface)

GUPkQx. S G i \
(E) E zu mhzv v mk \ux,
B, Amh[P Ax Chzua \uu G P
vx AQ. US E mh[P
zvS Pnv.
19

1.4.2 P v kP
(i) | i } Psh mh P

Hk
^P mhmh, i
2 r
ds
} Psh, P J mh
+
} Ahzv () (KS }zvP
+
mh) uPU Px.
+
Px r u E P
+
E GP (h 1.17). C
+
ds E
+ r
P
Aa_USa
\[Szu E
+
Psh, l }, r B
P
l
+
Eh
J
E
P
+
PU Px. P
+
+
x ds
G
Pa]
U
+
Px. J s PnP
E E Azx
h 1.17 i }
P
zv
Gsv
Psh |
\P,
BUPmi

mhmh P
|UQ AQx. E ds
J v\.
() =
=

[ = 0;

E ds

E ds cos

cos = 1]

= E (2rl)

( 2rl)
E ds JUP \[SzuP Au,

= 0
P zu , = E. (2rl)

P E zu mh q = l
P vi,

l
E (2rl) =
o

Ax E = 2 r
o
20

 E& v\x, Aa] mh,

|mh G, Bzv |UQ, Gv mh
G Bzv E|UQ AQx.

1.4.3 mh i, \u Hk

mh
Ahzv

Psh
i \u
JU
Px
(h 1.18). x
r u E E

P E GP.
mh

2r
US
SzuP,
}, A SUS mk
Psh E
i
P
U Px.

ds
P

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

ds

A
+
+
+
+

P
+
+
+
+

h 1.18 i \u

E C SvP, SU SzuP, \a^

[P \kQ. A uzu mk Q CUS. P,
P G SvP [P Gsv \P CUS.
G hmh zu
=
=

E.ds + E.ds

P
P 1

( = 0, cos = 1)

EA + EA = 2EA

\u KS E mh G, P
E zu |mh, q = A
P v kzu,
A
2EA =
o

E = 2
o

21

1.4.4 C Cn mhmh uPkP Hk

C Cn, \u i,
i Psh, mh

uPkP,
h
1.19&
Pmhmkx , \ B
mh AhzvP

uPU
Px.
mh J uPkUS C
zv A E = /2o.

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

E1(+)
P1
E2(-)

E1(+)
P2
E2(-)

C uPmiS SzuP,
|US mh |UQh 1.19 C
, GvUS mh E|UQ
CnzuPkP

\k.

(i) P
G C uPmiS
1

|k
Au,
C
uPkP
[P \P, J v\ A. P1&
uS ,

E = E1 + E2 = 2 + 2 = ( |UQ)
o
o
o
(ii) zu P2 G , [P A
\P, v\ GvvP CUS. P2& uS

E = E1 E2 = 2 2 = 0.
o
o

1.4.5 ^ mh P iU Tmi Hk

P (i) P iU TmiS E
B R Eh, mh P iU Tk (shell) JU
Px (h 1.20a). Au O&x r u P iU
TmiS E P GP. r B Psh P i P
. US, E&x SzuPa \kQx.
P Pzv
\k
=

s E . ds = s E ds

USU

SzuP

= E (4 r 2 )

(H E ds&US Ch Pn = 0)
22

|UQ

P v i,
q
E . (4r2) =
o
1

Ax E = 4 2
o r

Ca\mix,
P]
P
iU
TmiS

x, P iU
Tmi zu mh
E
h
1.20
a
PUTmi

E zu
Avu
Hkzx
zvSa \S G uQx.

P (ii) x E J
mh PiU Tmi E P
E,
1 q
E = 4
2 ( r = R)
o R

P (iii) P iU Tmi
Emzv E J
P
iU
Tmi
zvx
r
u,
Pzv Ax P
GP. r B Psh P i
P U Px.
P

,
US
SzuP,
|UQ
v\ \k zu

s E . ds

s Eds

P/

P]

h 1.20b PU Tmi
Emzv E

= E (4 r 2 )

P Gu mh Cu, P
vi,
q
E 4r 2 = = 0
o

23

E=0

Aux ^ mh Psh PU Tmi PU

Tmi E Azx P zv v _ BS.

1.4.6 { uk (Electrostatic shielding)

Cx zvx, J Smh Sv
ukzx {P BS. C{P, Phzv EmSv
_S Gu Aih AQx.
Cih Ti x, vu Ax
zvi AuU Pmi, v Cx P
xPuS. v EP , v
_u x, { ukPa \kQx.
x v UP |hQx.

1.5 { ysh
J mhzv uku
C mhzu
i. CP mh[P
yshmh
mh[PS.
C yshmh mh[
Pz
uUS
{P
{ysh
GUPk
Qx. Cx i Q
{ Gv[P, uUQ
P kQx.
{ ysh ,
EPU P J iiP
ku
h
1.21
PmkQx.
(a)

mh
EPU
Px Phzu
u[Q x UPmk Ex.

(a)

-- - --- -- --

+
+
+

+
+
+

(b)

(c)

+
+
+

(d)

++
+ +
+++

(e)

h 1.21 { ysh

(b) Gv mh iU usk J Pzv AQ

Psk x, mk \ PnP, Pmk GUmP Qa

\ Gv u[Pz x[SQ. G, AP E
GUm S Hmk, |mhhQx. EPzv E
Pmk GUm u zu \ _S x Cmh Q
{Pa] {zukQx. (C{P P P |h).
24

(c) EPU P un h, Gv mh

u AhQx. AP E E |mh, D
\P PnP A[P { kQx.
(d) EPU Px ux APmh S AP

E |mh uhx {zvUQx.

(e) iU usk }UPmhh, Azx | mh[P

Pzv x J ^P Q.

1.5.1 Phzv uUS v

uzu Phzv JS q G mh AUPkx, Au
zu
hQx.
Azu

Phzv
nzu, izu zuQx. PhzvUS AUPmh
mhzu, Phzv zu V AUS hQx G,
q V Ax q = CV
Aux C = q/V

C[S C&x Phzv uUSv GUPkQx.

J Phzv uUSv Gx, AUPhzvUS AUPk
mhzvS, Phzv ES zuzvS Ch E
uP G UPkQx.
uUSz v AS m (farad) BS. Phzv JS 1 T
mh AUPkx, Au zu E 1 m G,
Phzv uUSz v 1 m BS.
uUSz v \ ASP F pF BS.

uUQ uzx
Pk Phzv (EPz umk A) J q A |
mhzu, V zuzu uPU Px
(h 1.22a). A uUS v, C = q/V. P B G
EPz umk A AP Psk kx, A US AP
E B& UPzv Gv mh yshkQx. AuS \ A |
mh B& UPzv yshkQx (h 1.22b). B Gv
hh A zuzuU SUS. B | mh, A
zuzu AvPUS. B | mhzu h Gv mh
AUS AQ Cu A zu Sx kQx. Cu A
uUS v AvPUQx.
umk B h CnUSx, Av |mh |k
25

{UPkQx (h 1.22c). Cu A zu
SQx. A uUS v Sk AUS AvPUQx.
A

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

(a)

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

(b)

B
(c)

h 1.22 uUQ uzx

uUSz v PhzvP izu, FhPzv C,
zux. uUQ Gx mh[P \US \uS.
1.5.2 Cnzumk uUQ uUSz v
Cnzumk uUQ J A Eh X, Y G
C EPz umkP, d G Ch JUP CnP
UPmk (h 1.23). Au mh hzv GP.
umkPUQh FhP P BS. umk X&US +q A
|mh ukQx. Cu -q A Gv mh
YUS
n

umk
+q
X zv yshkQx. umkP
+
+
+
+
+
+
P
|UPP
Ax
umkPUS Ch SvUS
d
PmkkzukQx. umk
-q X&x mk Y- ih
Y
\U
PkP,
umkPUSU
h 1.23 Cnzumk
SzuP JU P CnP
uUQ
AQ.
P v mii, C umkPUQh
,

E=
o
26

X Y umkPUS Ch, zu k
0

V =

E dr =

dr =

d
o

Cnzumk uUQ uUSz v,

C =

C =

A
q
= d/ =
V
o

o A

[ H =

PP

polarisation)

o A

uUSz vx umkP US
ChzuS (d) GvzuP AQx.

1.5.3

q
A

UP

(A)

|zuP,

(Dielectrics

and

PP (Dielectrics)
Azx GUmP AqUPh CP nUPmk
AqUP

Phzu
P
PP
GUPkQ. C mhzu Gkzxa \ Gu
GUmP C. Gm, UP, Gsn
PPUS
GkzxUPmkPS.
C
GUmP,
zv P C CUP iv.

UP (Polarisation)
| mh[P (mhP) D (centre of
gravity), Gv mh[P (GUmP) D JP
v
AQ
UT

UT
Gk.
GkzxUPmkP : O2, N2, H2. UTP { C
vzv v.
UTP , P zv
zu, A mh[P UPkQ.
ux
AUTP
GUm
UP Ahx
Tmh
G, A ys hmh +q
-q
-q
+q
CP
G
GUm
AUPkQ . A
E
Tmh
z v v\
h 1.24 yshmh C
(h 1.24) yshmh
27

C vz v (p) Q.
| m h[P D , Gv mh[P D
zvx UPmk UT UT Gk.
GkzxUPmkP : N2O, H2O, HCl, NH3. CUTP {
C vz v .
Cu {, UTP C
vzvP

v\P
Ax.
G,
PP uS C vzv Pnkv.
\zumhh, zv v\ C vz
vP u[P \kzvU PQ. Cu uS
C vz v EUPkQx (h 1.25).

+ -

+ + + -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

(a) A { (b) zv
h 1.25 U TP

\kzuk x, { Ax yshmh
CP C vz vP, zv v\
J[PUPkQ {P UP Ax UP
GUPkQx.
yshmh C vzv
zvS |z uP AQx.
p

p&

vx

E Ax p = E Cv Gx Qu BS. Cx

UTP
US
GUPk.

(molecular

polarisability)

1.5.4 P UP
+q q mh[P Cnzumk uUQ
JU Px. P, C umkPUQh E0 GP.

umkPUQh, P J Szv, P
UP Qx. uUQ umkPUS Gvzv E
28

P
P
E
yshmh mh[P +qi
qi G, Czyshmh
mh[P u[PUQh _
Ei&, Eo&US GvP
EUSQ (h 1.26). G
uS E < Eo. B
E Bx Eo& v\ A.

E0

+ + + -

+ -

Ei

+qi

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

1.5.5 Cnzumk uUQ,

umkPUQh P E
x uUSzv

+ -

( Ei Bx, Eo& v\US

Gvz v\ AQx)

+ -

E = Eo + (Ei)

+ -

-qi

h 1.26 P
UP

d u UPmh J A Psh, X, Y G

P
d

P
P

Y
t<d

h 1.27 uUQ P
C Phzx uPkP
Psh, J Cnzumk uUQU
Px. X&US | mh AUPku, Au mh
hzv BS, Y&Bx n x.
umkPUQh, t ui, r J kv Psh
P J, Szumkx GP (h 1.27).
P ui = t.

29

P Ch ui (dt).
umkPUS Chmh P E J ,

E= .
o

P E J E = .
r o

umkPUQh zu zu hx, J
umix umiS KS |mhzu, E G zv
(d-t) }zvS, E G zv t }zvS, Psk \uS
\k AUSa \. BP
V

E (dt) + E t

t
(d t ) +
o
o r

(d t ) +

umk X&u mh, q = A

G, uUQ uUSz v
C =

o A
q
A
=
=
t
t
V

(d t ) + (d t ) +

r
r
o

P
uUQP, C umkPUS Chmh Svx, UP
Ax Gsn P {k. P
{mk uUQ uUSzv,
o A
C =

P {mk uUQ uUSzv

r o A
C =

C
= r Ax C = rC
C

Pzu, Gu J P FhPzvS, r > 1 Gu,

P UPkx, uUSzv AvPUS.
30

1.5.6 uUQ kP
(i) u[Q Gv[P, G Gmk AP,

w Hkuz uUP kzukQx.

(ii)

v [QP (Power supplies) zu H

CUPzuU SuS, v Ami Au v
AvPUPa \ uUQP kQ.
(iii) uUQP, Pu APz uUP, i

_P Jzv\ \ kQ.

1.5.7 uUQP uh Cn UP Cn
(i) uhn uUQP
C1, C2, C3 G uUSzvP Psh uUQP

(h
1.28)
uhn
CnUPmkuPU
Px.
uhn uS US \kzuk zu
k V GP. J uUQ \ mh A q
Pskx. C1, C2, C3 &UQh E zu kP
V1, V2, V3 GP. BP, V = V1 + V2 + V3
J uUQ
E zu k

Ch
c1
+
+
+
+

q
q
q
V1 =
;V2 =
;V3 =
C1
C2
C3
q

V = C + C + C = q C + C + C
2
3
1
1
2
3

v1

c2
-

c3
-

+
+
+
+

v2

+
+
+
+

v3

V
+
uhnz
uS,
h
1.28
uhn
G,
uS uUSzv CS
uUQP
AuS V zu AUPkx, q
mhzu Qx.
q

Aux, V = C
S
q
q
q
q
=
+
+
Cs C1 C2 C3
1
1
1
1
C =C +C +C
s
1
2
3

31

G, uUQP uhn CnUPkx

uS uUSzv uR v, uzu uUQP
uUSz vP uR vP Tmkz uPUSa \.
(ii) UP Cn uUQP
C1, C2, C3 G uUSz vP Psh uUQP

(h 1.29) UP Cn CnUPmkuPU
Cn, \kzuk zu
c
k V GP. J uUQ
zu k \P CUS.
uUQP E mh[P
c

Px.
1

q1 = C1V, q2 = C2 V, q3 = C3V.

uUQP
mh

uS

zu
c3

q = q1 + q2 + q3
q = C1V + C2V + C3V

B q = CpV. Cv Cp&x +
uS uS uUSzv BS.
CpV = V (C1 + C2 + C3)
CP = C 1 + C 2 + C3

V
-

h 1.29 UP
Cn
uUQP

G, UP Cn CnUPmk uUSP
uS uUSzv, uzu uUQP uUSz vP
Tmkz uPUSa \.

1.5.8 uUQ uUQ UPmk B

uUQ Gx, mhzu uUQ US \u BS.
uUQ, mhzuz uUQ UP, \h
six. Cu x, uUQ { zu
BP \UPkQx.
uUQ umkPUS Chmh zu V Au
mh q GP. umiSU TkuP umh mh dq G,
\mh , dw = Vdq
dw =

q
dq
C

V =
C

32

uUQ \uS \mh zu

w = dw =

q
1 q2
dq =
C
2 C

Cu x, uUQ {zu { BP
(U) \UPkQx.
U=

1 q2 1
= CV 2
2 C
2

( q = CV)

uUQx, UP
v kQx.

1.5.9 Phzv u
TP \k

\kx,

mh[P

Cu

J
Phzx
B
P,
Jh
CnUPmk, A, B G
r1
r2
C Phzx P[PU
Px. A B[P r1
q2
r2 GP (h 1.30). B
q1
r1&Bx r2&I h AvP GP.
h 1.30 h u
Cu AS AUPmh
mh A B x q1
q2 BP Qx. P[P A B u mh AhzvP
1 2 GP.
A zu,
q1
V1 = 4 r
o1
B zu,
q2
V2 = 4 r
o 2

P[P CnUPmku, A zu[P \S.

q1

4o r1

q2

4o r2

1r1 = 2r2

q1 = 4 r121

2
q 2 = 4 r2 2

33

Aux r Gx J BS.
Ca\mix,
B
Su,
mh
Ahzv
AvPS
Gx
uQx.

A
+ + + + +
+
+ ++
+
+
+C
+
+
+
+ + + + + +

h 1.31& Pmhmk i
Psh Phzv mh ^P h 1.31 Ta
C. AvP,
Aux B
\k
SP E TP, mh[P
A \vUS. x
TPU Psh, mh , Phzv J, u
mh[P S P Cx kQ Ga \u
Pshmkx.
CuSU Pn, TPk uhh P UTP
AUPkQ.
|mh
AP
T
mhkQ. Gv mh AP T PkQ.
Cu TP mh SUPkQx. C, mh
Phzv TPx mh P]Q {P
TP
\k
Ax
Jmh
UP
GUPkQx. Cuz uzx mhzua \PUS {
Gv[P, PhzvP kzukQx.

1.6 Phzv (Lightning Conductor)

P E Pmih[P x xPUP Eu K G
\u Phzv BS Cu UPzv Ciu[Q G Tx
Esk. Cx Pmihzv uUSa \ J }sh, uizu uz
usiU Pskx. usi R x, u AvP Bzv
uUPmk
uz
umkh
CnUPmkx.
Au
GsoUPUP TP Eh u F]P
CnUPmk, Pmihzv E Sv UPmkx.
Gvmh P Pmihzv \x,
Phzv T P | mh yshkQx. |mh
TP AQ E P UTP AUP
\Q. Cx Pzv E Gv mhzv J Sv \
\x, Pzv zuzuU SUQx. Phzv Pmh Gv
mh[P u |UQ oUQ. Cu Pmih
uUSu Cx xPUPkQx.
34

&i&Q C
1929 m J &i&Q G { Gv J
izu. Cu 107 V A AvP {
zu k Ezv \kQx.
+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

Cu
\k,
{ysh

Ta
\mkz
uzx[P
Ai
h AQx.

J
Eh
EPU
P
A
h
1.32&
Pmh
mh
Belt
mkx

P ysP
x zumkx.
Pzv zv B
G P, Pz
yo
AiSvUS
+
AQ C G P
D
Pz
C
zumk.
Insulating
ys
mkz xo mh
Pillar
J
PP

\Qx.
P
C
mh
J
h 1.32 &i&Q

uhx
CUPkQx. PPUS AP H TP Psh D
E G C ^ iU PhzvP zumk. ^ D
|zu 104 V G CUS v [Q \Qx.
^ E&Bx Eh EPU Pzv Em CnUPmkx.
^ DUS AQ E E zv, Ta \mi
PnP P AUPkQx. P E GvAP
TP |UQ |PQ. |AP mh |UQ
mhkQ. Cu | AP mh JmiU Pu
|UQa \ ^ E& |[SQx.

35

{ysh uzxzv P ^ E Gvmh

Qx. P |mhzu Qx. Cmh[P
P Q. ^ E& E AvP A P
AUSQx. G, Gv mh[P mh |UQ
mhkQ. Cu mh Ah P, Av E |
mh[P \\mk kQ. G mh R[Sx
mh { AhQx.
C Gv uha]P, |mhzu PzvS
Qx. Cu P Pzv zu J G
v AhQ , AvPzxU Psh CUS. Psk
Pzv mh[P HPh iu { Gmih, P
AUPzv PnP mh[P P]z uh[SQ.
E Azuzv P {mh GLSU Pzv Pzu
kv , Pzv mhU P]U SUP.
C k E zu AqUP
k | AP (mh, im) kUSUP
kzukQx.

36

wUPmh PnUSP
1.1

J v ] xP
3 1012C,
8 1012C 4 1012C mh[PU Psk.
A J uk {US Psk x zx
UPkQ. (i) J v mh, (ii) ukuUS
J v E AvPi Ax US
GUmP GsoUP BQU PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = 3 1012C, q2 = 8 1012 C, q3 = 4 1012 C
w : (i) J v mh
q=

q1 + q 2 + q 3 3 + 8 + 4
12
=
10
3
3

= 3 1012 C
(ii)

mh |mh BP, J
GUmP GsoUP S Hk.
n=

q
3 1012
=
= 1.875 107
e 1.6 10 19

GUmP GsoUP = 1.875 107.

1.2

Phmh, J 6.5 107C mh C

P[P 0.5
m
u zx UPmk.
APUQh { \U PnUQk.
(i) mh[P Ch[PUPmk, u vPU SUP
k x (ii) mh[P P }
UPk x (r = 80) \U PnUQkP.
uP : q1 = q2 = 6.5 107C, r = 0.5 m
w :

1
F = 4
o

q1q 2
r2

9 10 9 (6.5 10 7 )2
(0.5)2

= 1.52 102 N.
(i) mh C h[PP AvPUPmk, u vP

SUPmh,

37

F1 =

2q1 2q 2

( r 2)

4 o

F & 16 h[S
= 16 1.52 102
F1

= 0.24 N

(ii) r = 80 & Eh } UPk x,

1.3

1.52 10 2
80

F2

=
r

F2

= 1.9 104 N

2 108 C vh C ] mh[P, A B
G P 6 cm Ch UPmk. AB& C
\U Tk \[SzxU Pmi 4 cm u E P G
UPmk, 1 108 C mhzv u \U

PnUQk.
uP : q1 = +2 108 C,

q2 = 2 108 C

P q3 = 1 108 C
XP = 4 cm or 0.04 m, AB = 6 cm or 0.06 m

w :

q3= +1 x 10-8C

R
F
5cm

5cm
4cm
-8

q1= +2 x 10 C

-8

X
3cm

3cm

q2= -2 x 10 C

APX, & Cx, AP = 42 + 32 = 5 cm or 5 102 m.

A E mh, P& E mhzu F G \
(AP ) mkQx.

38

q1q 3
r2

1
= 4
o

9 109 2 10 8 1 10 8
(5 10 2 )2

= 7.2 104 N (PB )

B E mh P E mhzu, Au F G
\ PB PQx. H BP = AP = 5 cm. R

vUPn, \ C TPP UP sk.

R

F cos + F cos = 2F cos

2 7.2 104

BX 3

cos = PB = 5

8.64 104 N

R =

1.4

3
5

i Aq r u zx UPmk J
mhUS, GUmUS Ch {
D \P Gs vP JkP.
uP : me = 9.11 1031 kg ;
G = 6.67

1011

m2

kg2;

mP = 1.67 1027 kg;

e = 1.6 1019 C)

w :
GUmUS, mhUS Ch D \
Fg = G

me m p
r2

i Aq GUmUS, mhUS Ch
\\ u r GP.
C mh[PUQh { \
1

Fe = 4
o

q 1q 2
r2

q1q 2
Fe
1
e2
1
=
=
Fg 4 o Gme m P
4 o Gme m P

9 109 (1.6 1019 )

6.67 1011 9.11 1031 1.67 1027
2

=
Fe
Fg

= 2.27 1039

Cvx, { \ D \
2.27 1039 h[S P Ex G A.
39

1.5

r
G C +9e
+e
q
+
+
mh[P
Jx
(r-x)
x
16 cm u
UPmk.
Cu
C
mh[PUQh, x mh q, G
zu Cx uhx \{ CUS?

+9e +1e

uP : r = 16 cm Ax 0.16 m;

q1 = 9e q2 = e

w : x mh q Bx 9e&x x u,
+ e&x (r x) u UPmkuPU Px.
q 1q 2

F = 4 r 2
o

1 9e q
1
q e
=
2
x
4o (r x )2

= 4
o

x2
=9
(r x )2

x
= 3
r x

x = 3r 3x

Ax

4x = 3r = 3 16 = 48 cm

x=

48
=12 cm
4

Ax 0.12 m
x mh +9ex 0.12 u UPmkx.
1.6

4 107 C 8 107 C BQ C mh[P UP A

20 cm Psh ABP
G \UP UPnzv A B
P UPmk. P G Pnk uS

a \U PnUQkP.
uP :q1 = 4 107 C;

q2 = 8 107 C;

r = 20 cm = 0.2 m

w :
E1
P
E
E2
-7

10 60

+4 A

X
20cm

40

-8 x 10-7C
B

AP E1
E1 =

1
4 o

q1 9 109 4 10 7
=
= 9 104 N C1
r2
(0.2)2

PB E2
E2 =
E=

1
4 o

q2
9 10 9 8 10 7
=
= 18 104 N C-1
2
r
0.04

E12 + E22 + 2E1E2 cos120o

4
2
2
= 9 10 2 + 1 + 2 2 1 12

= 9 3 104 = 15.6 104 N C 1

1.7

(i) 4 107C mhzv Cx 0.09 u E J

zuzu, (ii) 2 109 C mhzu iz

ux, AUS
PnUQkP.

Psk

si

uP : q1 = 4 107C, q2 = 2 109 C, r = 0.09 m

w : (i) q1 G mhzu J zu
1

V = 4
o
=
(i)

q1
r

9 109 4 107
= 4 104 V
0.09

q2

G mhzu iz
AUS Psk \ si

ux

W = q2 V = 2 109 4 104
W = 8 105 J

1.8

HCl , 2.5 104 N C1 A zv UPkQx.

UT C vz v
J HCl
30
3.4 10
C m G J UT x \k v

\U PnUQkP.
uP :

E = 2.5 104 N C1,

p = 3.4 1030 C m.
41

w : UT x \k v \

(z v \US, = 90o)

= pE sin

= 3.4 1030 2.5 104

= 8.5 1026 N m.

UT u z v \
1.9

= 8.5 1026 N m.

hzv Pmi \xzv P UPmk

mh[P,
zv
E

ES
zuzuU PnUQkP.
q2 = 24 n C; q3 = +31n C;
q4 = +17 n C;

q1
+12nc

uP : q1 = + 12 n C;

d = 1.3 m

w :

+31nc
q3

P G zu,

r
d=1.3m

q2
-24nc
d
+17nc
q4

1
q1 q 2 q 3 q 4
+
+
V = 4 +
r
r
r
r
o

u r =

d
2

zu mh

1.3
2

= 0.919 m

= q1 + q2 + q3 + q4
= (12 24 + 31 + 17) 109
q = 36 109 C

V =

9 109 36 109
0.919

V = 352.6 V

1.10 20 cm UP A ABC G \UP UPnzv Ea]P

2 109C, +3 109C, 4 109C BQ mh[P
UPmk G, mh[P A, B C

42

A
-9
-2 x 10 C

UPnzv
UP[P
P A1, B1
C1&US
|Pzu
\k
U PnUQkP.
uP :

q1 = 2 109C;
10

-9

q2 = +3 109C;

-9

x
+3

q3 = 4 109C;

-4 x 10 C
C

AB = BC = CA = 20cm = 0.20 m

w : mh A zu B
1 q1q 2 q 2q 3 q 3 q1
+
+
U = 4
r
r
o r

mh[P A, B C &UP A1, B1

C1US Cha] \ \k ,
W = Uf Ui
Ui Uf

G A, uhUP Cv

zu B,
Ui =

9 109
0.20

[6 1018 12 1018 + 8 1018]

= 4.5 107 J
Uf =

9 109
[6 1018 12 1018 + 8 1018]
0.10

= 9 107J
\k = 9 107 (4.5 107)
W = 4.5 107J

1.11 i mh, 2 cm u 9 104 N C1 zu

EUSQx G mh } AhzvU PnUQkP.
uP : E = 9 104 N C1, r = 2 cm = 2 102 m
w :

E = 2 r
o

= E 2or
43

 = 9 104

1
2 2 o =
9
9 2 10
18 10

18 10

= 107 C m1

1.12 J mh, Au PU Psk A 10 cm

B, J P i P \
6 103 Nm2 C1 A zu EUSQx, G
(i) P B Ch[PUPkx

\ zv AU PnUQkP.
(ii) mhzv v G?

uP :

= 6 103 N m2 C1;

r = 10 cm = 10 102 m

w : (i) P B C h[PUPkx, v
\ x. H,
E zu mhzua \x A u
Bzua \x Ax.

(ii)

= 6 103 N m2 C1

= or q = (8.85 1012 6 103)

o

q = 5.31 108 C

1.13 J Cnzumk uUQ, uPkP 200 cm2. A

umkP 1 mm Ch zx UPmk G
(i) uUQUS 1nC mh AUPk x, uPkPUS
Ch zu k, (ii) Au mhzvS (1n C)
Chzu 2 mmUS AvPUPmh v zu k
(iii) uPkPUQh BQU PnUQkP.
uP : d = 1 mm = 1 103m;

A = 200 cm2 or 200 104 m2 ;

q = 1 nC = 1 109 C ;

w : uUQ uUSzv
C =

o A
d

8.85 10 12 200 10 4
1 10 3

C = 0.177 109 F = 0.177 nF

44

(i) uPkPUQh zu k
V=

q
1 10 9
=
= 5.65 V
C 0.177 10 9

(ii)

uPkPUQh u 1 mm-x 2mm&US

AvPUS x uUS v C h[PPU S. zu
k C h[S AvPUS.
v zu k = 5.65 2 = 11.3 V
(iii)

q
1 10 9
= = A . = 8.85 10 12 200 10 4
o
o

= 5650 N C1

1.14 P {mh, J Cnzumk uUQ uUSv

8 pF. umkPUQh E u vP SUPmk, Au
Ch P 6 Psh P
{k x uUSzv G?
uP : Co = 8 pF , r = 6, P E x u
d Bx d/2 BP .

w : Co =

Ao
= 8pF
d

u vP SUPmk, P Ch
{k x, v uUSv,
C

r A o
d /2

2 r A o
d

= 2r Co
C

= 2 6 8 = 96 pF

1.15 hzv Pmi Cn

uS uUSz vU
PnUQk.
uP : C1 = 10F ;

C1
10 F
C3
4 F
5 F

C2 = 5F ;
C3 = 4F
45

C2

w : (i) C1 C2 uhn CnU Pmk.

uh n CnUPmk uUQ Tmh
uS uUS v
1
1
1
=
+
CS C1 C 2

CS

1 1
+
10 5

10 5 10
F
=
10 + 5
3

(ii) CS Bx C3&h UP Cn CnUPmkx. UP

Cn, uUQP uS uUSzv

Cp = Cs + C3

10
22
F
=
+ 4 =
3
3
Cp = 7.33 F

1.16 J Cnzumk uUQ uPmi 90 cm2. A

2.5 mm Ch zx UPmk.
umkP
uUQx 400 V
zxh CnUPmk
\kQx G, Av uUQ UPmk {
B G?
uP : A = 90 cm2 = 90 104 m2; d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 103 m;
V = 400 V

w : Cnzumk uUQ uUSzv

C=

o A
d

8.85 10 12 90 10 4
2.5 10 3

= 3.186 1011 F

uUQ B

=
=

1
2
1
2

C V2
3.186 1011 (400)2

B = 2.55 10-6 J

46

u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP PnUSP
vP. C, h Sv Gu J Ax
PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk Svx
mk, h x iUPhU Ti UPUS
PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

Psniz usk, mkz xoh uUPk x

+8 1012 C mhzu HQx. Ax HUPsh Ax Cu
GUmP GsoUP
(a) 5 107 (Hx)

(b) 5 107 (Cux)

(c) 2 108 (Cux)

(d) 8 1012 (Cux)

C mh[P, r = 6 Psh FhPzv, d u

zx UPku ES { \ 0.3 N.
hzv,
Au
u
zx
UPmh,
Amh[PUQh \
(a) 20 N

(b) 0.5 N

(c) 1.8 N

(d) 2 N

J mhzvx 2 m u a \
Gzu Au a \ 100 V m1 BP
A?
400 V m1
(a) 50 cm

(b) 4 cm

(c) 4 m

(d) 1.5 m

C mh[P +4q +q, 30 cm u zx

UPmk. Amh[P CnUS Pmi x
G _S?
(a) mh +q&x 15

cm

(b) mh

+q&x 7.5 cm

(c) mh

+4q&x 20 cm

(d) mh

+q&x 5 cm

47

1.5

^ zv, zvS CnP, Au Aa_ A J

C UPmh, Ax Enx
(a)

zu \ mk

(b) v \ mk
(c) zu \ v \ Csh
(d) zu \ A, v \ A

1.6

1.7

C zvx x u A
zu, GuS |zuP AQx?
(a)

1
x2

(b)

1
x3

(c)

1
x4

(d)

1
x 3/2

a UP Psh \xzv |S P A, B, C DUP

mh[P +q, +q, q q UPmk.
\xzv O & zux,
1

(a) 4 a
o
1

4q
(c) 4 a
o

1.8

1.9

(b) 4

2q
a

(d) _

C mh[P zu B (U) ...... BS.

q1q 2
(a) 4 r 2
o

q 1q 2
(b) 4 r
o

(c) pE cos

(d) pE sin

\ zu E C PUS Ch 500 C
mhzu |Pzu \k
(a) _

(b) |US v

(c) GvUS v (d) i

1.10. RUPsh AP Gx P AS?

(a) C vz v

(b) \

(c)

(d) zu

48

1.11 kv AS
(a) C2 N1 m2

(b) N m2 C2

(c) H m1

(d) N C2 m2

1.12 1 T mhzvx ES \UPkP GsoUP

(a) 1.129 1011

(b) 1.6 1019

(c) 6.25 1018

(d) 8.85 1012

1.13 mh Ahzv Psh, C Gvv mh EPz

uPkPUS E
(a)

+
2 o

(b)

2 o

(c)

(d) _S.

1.14 J Cnzumk uUQ uUS vx, umkPUQh

P U Psk {u, 5 Fx 60 FUS
AvPUQx. P P
(a) 65

(b) 55

(c) 12

(d) 10

1.15 mh Eh EP x J, _ zu
GP uUQx?
(a) PzvS

(b) Au

(c) Pzv Em

(d) C h[S uUS A

1.16 { T vU T, Au Uh izuU
Sk.
1.17 kv J kv G G? A G
uhkzumk.
1.18 xu uzuzu US.
1.19 J . Au APU T, J
mhzu Hk zvP P P.
1.20 \U PkP sPU TP.
1.21 C G G? C vz v
.
49

1.22 ^ zv UPmk C x \k
v \UP P P.
1.23 J ^ ^ zv J C UPk
x {Px G?
1.24 C Aa_U Pmi E J , |kU
Pmi E J a \P P P.
1.25 J zu . Cx J P A Ax
Uh A? J mhzu Hk zuzvP
P P.
1.26 zu zu k C kzxP.
1.27 \ zu G G?
1.28 C mh[P A zu B G
G? AuP P P.
1.29 C Hk AzuzvP P P.
1.30 zu . Au APz uP.
1.31 P vU T. Cu kzv, (i) ^ mh Ahzv
Psh i, }sh, | Phzv (ii) q mh Eh
i \u uPk, BQ zu [PU PnUQkP.
1.32 uUQ G G? Au uUSzv .
1.33 uUQ uzxzu . J Cnzumk uUQ
uUSz vUP P P.
1.34 P
G
G?
J
Cnzumk
uUQ
umkPUQh P zu u Hk
.
1.35 J Cnzumk uUQ J Pzxh CnUPmkx.
uPkPUS Ch E uUSa \ ui Psh
P
,
uPkPUQh
Szukx
(i) uUQ uUSzv, (ii) uPkPUQh
(iii) uPkPUQh zu k, C G
HkQx?
1.36 uUQP uhn, UP Cn CnUPk
x uS uUSz vPU PsP.

50

1.37 J Cnzumk uUQ, \zx UPk B

q2
G
2C

{P.
1.38 P UP G G?
1.39 &i&Q uzx, A \k
uzu .
1.40 Ci, x J zvi {u h J P (car)
E Cx xPx. H?

PnUSP
1.41 C mh[P Tku 6 C. hzv 40 cm
Ch A UPk x 0.9 N \h J
J PQx G, Amh[PU PnUQkP.
1.42 J ] mh P[P J 2 103 N
\h mkQ. J Pzv u mh u
C h[S BS. mh[P J x
10 cm uUS |Pzv \x 5 104 N
BS. Amh[P, AQh Au Bz
u PnUQkP.
1.43 J \xzv |S P +q, +2q, +q q BQ
mh[P UPmk. q = 5/3 109C G, 10 cm
UP Psh Aa\xzv mh[P miU P
zuU PnUQkP.
1.44 10 109 C 20 109 C G C mh[P, 0.3 m
u zx UPmk. C mh[P Chz
u zu a \U
PsP.
1.45 5 mm u zx UPmh,
2 1010 C

10
2 10
mh[P Psh Cx 10 V m1
^ zv 60o Pnzv UPmkx. (i) J
mhzv x \k \ Gs v v\
(ii) zu \kzuk v \ BQU PsP.

51

1.46 J C mh[P 2 106 C 2 106

C Csk, 1 cm u zx UPmk. C
(i) Aa_UPmi, Au zvx 1 m u
E (ii) |kU Pmi, zvx 1 m u
E BQ Hk zuU PnUQkP.
1.47 +q 3q G C mh[P 1 m u zx
UPmk. Au Aa_UPmi, mh[PUS Ch
G zu _S?
1.48 60 cm UP[P Psh J \UP UPnzv Ea]P +1 C,
+3 C

5 C
mh[P
UPmk.
Cmh[P A zu BU PnUQkP.
1.49 10 cm Chz u 12 C 8 C G C |
mh[P zx UPmk. Chzu 6 cm BP
CUS, A 4 cm u |UQU Psk \
si U PnUQkP.
1.50 J Eh, 10 cm UP Psh P \xzv zv 8.85 C
mh UPmkx. Au J UPzv P
\ zuU PsP.
1.51 0.12 m B Psh, P i Phzv x
1.6 107 C mh ^P x. (i) Pzv E
(ii) Pzv x (iii) Pzv zvx 0.18 m u
E GS?
1.52 J 4 102 sq m Psh J Cnzumk
uUQ umkPUQh 103 m ui Psh P
SzukQx. P J kv 7
G, uUQ uUSzvU PnUQkP.
1.53 C
uUQP,
uhn
UP
Cn
CnUPkQ. Cu C CnP QhUP
uS uUSz vP 6 F 25F G,
AuUQP uUSzvPU PnUQkP.
1.54 uUSzv 0.5 F 0.75 F Psh C uUQP UP
Cn CnUPmk J Ah 110 V P
CnUPmkx. zv mh J
uUQ E mh PsP.

52

1.55 uUQP UP Cn CnUPmk

100 V Pzxh CnUPmku h
PmkQx. uUQ uS \zx
UPmk zu B G?

30 F

C1
C2

20 F

C3

10 F

1.56 J Cnzumk uUQx, Smh

zuzv UPkQx. uPkPUQh
100V
3 mm ui Psh J SzukQx.
uPkPUS Ch E zuzu UP, uPkP
Chzu 2.4 mm. AvPUPkQx. zv P
U PnUQkP.
1.57 J Cnzumk uUQ uPkPUQh E Ch
|Q Sv, P 3 Eh P
{kQx. P \zx UPmk
B \uu G?
2 F

1.58 hzv
Pmhmk

D
uUQP mhzuU PsP.
AP Ch E
zu mhU PsP.

C1

C2

2 F
1 F

C3

120V

1.59 J 9 pF uUSzv Psh uUQP uh

n CnUPmk. uS zu uUSzv
x? uSx 120 V zxh CnUPkx, J
uUQ Ch E zu k x?

53

hP
1.1 (b)

1.2 (c)

1.3 (c)

1.4 (c)

1.5 (d)

1.6 (a)

1.7 (d)

1.8 (b)

1.9 (a)

1.10 (d)

1.11 (a)

1.12 (a)

1.13 (d)

1.14 (c)

1.15 (c)

1.35

(i) AvPUS (ii) vUS (iii) vUS

1.41

q1 = 8 106C , q2 = 2 106 C

1.42

q1 = 33.33 109C, q2 = 66.66 109C, x = 0.1 m

1.43

0.9 104Vm1

1.44

V = 1800 V, E = 4000 Vm1

1.45

2 109N, zv v\, = 0.866 1011 Nm

1.46

360 N/C, 180 N C1

1.47

+q --x 0.25 m u

1.48

0.255 J

1.49

5.70 J

1.50

1.67 105 N m2 C1

1.51

_, 105 N C1, 4.44 104 N C1

1.52

2.478 109F

1.53

C1 = 15 F, C2 = 10F

1.54

q = 137.5 C, q1 = 55 C, q2 = 82.5 C

1.55

0.3 J

1.56

r = 5

1.57

50%

1.58

q1 = 144 106C, q2 = 96 106C, q3 = 48 106C

V1 = 72 V, V2 = 48 V

1.59

3 pF, J 40 V

54

2. mh
mh[P CUPzu UPUTi C J
mhS. mh u EPU Phzv J
AqUPh CUPP nUPhu J ] GUmP, J[P
C[S A[SP uhx C[QU Psh CUS.
CUP AP B xuP Cu, uzu AqUP
UTmi E GUmP kUPmk
C[SQ. B, Gu J , mh[P uS
Kmh _S. G, mh {Px. Cu GUmP Pmk
GUmP (free electrons) Gk. Pmk GUmP, Smh
v\ C[P UPz uk B US \ (emf)
G. US \ Gx \. B. J x
US KS mhzu |Pzua \k S.
Phzv, J Smh v\ Pmk GUmP Kmh
mhzu (current) HkzxQx.
2.1 mh
Phzv J J Sv mh u
mh G UPkQx. Phzv J Sv t Pzv
Phx \ zu mh q G, mh I = q / t. q AS
T. t AS i. mh I B SUPk. mh
u ^P Ai mh Pzu zx k.
G mhzv Pnv i =

dq
GU T.
dt

mh J P A. | mh[P CUP v\
Ax GUmP CUP v\US Gv v\ mhzv
v\PU Pk.

2.1.1. C v\P
CUP Gs (Drift velocity and
mobility)

Pzxh CnUPmh XY
G PhzvU PxP (h 2.1). X&
Cx YI |UQa \k E G
^ Phzv {kQx.
55

vd

h 2.1 mhU Phzv

 Cu { Phzv E Pmk GUmP Gz

v\P C[QU PsiUQ. Cu mh Hhx.
B, \kzumhh Y E GUmP,
zvS Gv v\ F = eE G \ En. Cu,
GUmP kUPhx, Jh, Phzv E |
APh uUSmkQ.
u P GUmP x UQ \
\k. G, C xP, zvS Gv v\, vd G
^ \\ Cz v\zxh ukQ. zvx
\k zv, Phzv Pmkh CUPzv E
GUmP x voUPk v\P Cz v\P G
UPkQx. C uPUS Chmh \\U P G
GUm kUP a G Psh, C v\P.
v d = a
m { Psh GUm En \
F = ma
eE
G, a =
m
eE
vd =
= E
m
e
C[S =
Gx CUP Gs (mobility) Gk. Cx KS
m

Psh zv k C v\P G
UPkQx. Cu AS m2V1s1. C v\P
US |zuP A. Cu v 0.1 cm s1.A PU
SP CUS.
2.1.2 mh Ahzv (Current density)
J mh Ahzv Gx, A, mh
C[S v\US \[SzuPU Puk, KS KS
Pzv mhzv A G UPkQx.
A SUS mk Psh Phzv I
mhzvP mh Ahzv J Gx
J =

(q /t ) I
=
A
A

mh Ahzv Uh AS. Cx A m2 G AP
SUPk.
*US mh Pn | mh i G
Smi mh[P I G Smi Ch
SUPmk.
56

2.1.3 mhzvS C v\PzvS E uh

L

}, A SUS mk Psh XY G PhzvU

PxP (h 2.1). Au PUQh E Psh
\kzukQx. Phzv KS E Pmk
GUmP GsoUP n GP. GUmP vd G { C
v\Pzxh ChUPP C[S.
Phzv E Pmk GUmP GsoUP = nAL
GUm mh = e
Phzv zu mh = q = (nAL) e
L

mh[P Phzv \ BS P, t = v
Phzv mh, I =
I = nAevd

Phzv
|zuP A.

(nAL )e
q
= (L /v )
t
d

...(1)

\k (1) Cx,

mh,

v\PzvS

I
= nevd
A
I

J = A , mh Ah zv

J = nevd

2.1.4. K v (Ohm's law)

\ K G zu miS mhzvS
E uh {. Cx K v Gk. K Phzv
mh
I = nAevd

B vd =

eE
.
m

I = nAe
I

eE

nAe 2
V
mL

E = L

C[S, V Gx zu k.

mL
nAe 2

G A

PkUPmh PhzvUS S. Cx Phzv uh (R) Gk.

57

I V

Cvi, {, Phzv J ^
mh Phzv US Chmh zu miS
|zuP A.
Aux I V

Ax I =

V = IR Ax

R =

1
V
R

V
I

Phzv J PUS Chmh I

zu miS Au
mhzvS E uP Phzv uh
G UPkQx. uh AS 0
ohm ().

h 2.2 KU Phzv
uh uR Phzxz v
V-I h
(Conductance) BS. Cu AS mho (1)
zu k V, mh I US |zuP Au V
IUS Chmh h (h 2.2) J PhzvUS |PhP A.
Phzv J ^ mh x mk K v
x.

2.1.5 u uh Gs Phzx Gs
Phzv J uhx (R), Au }zvS (l) |zuP,
SUS mk S (A) GvzuP A.
R

l
A

Ax R =

l
A

Gx Phzv _ uh Ax u uh Gs
Gk.
l = l m, A = l m2, G = R

KS }, KS SUS mk Psh Phzv J

mhzvS Hkzx uh AUPhzv u uh Gs
G UPkQx. - AS ohm m ( m). Cx J Smh EP
US S.
1

u uh Gso uR Phzx Gs Gk, = .

Phzx Gso AS mho m1 (1 m1)
58

2.1.6. u uh
Pkzxu

Gso

Aih

uuh Gs Gx J ] BS. P,
PhzvP (conductors) P P (insultators) G C
PP UP. 106 108 m G A Su u uh
Gs Psh EP[P, EPU PP (alloys) |PhzvPP
A. C AvP B C Hh mhzuz u[Qa
\. GkzxUPmkP: , A, u, C, h[h,
{U, [P, Phh. { Ex EP[P
u uh { Gs E. P PUS 108 1014 m
G A P AvP u uh Gs CUS. mhzvS P AvP
uhz u. CP Phzu P Gk.
GkzxUPmkP: Psni, UP, A (amber), Sm, UPmh,
hL (Teflon), Um. C PPUS Chmh P
S PhzvP (semi conductors) BS (Amhn 2.1). C Phzx
u S. S PhzvP u uh Gs 102 104 m A
A. GkzxUPmkP : , ]P.

Amhn 2.1 A{ u uh GsP

(uUS Eu)
Pk

(
m)

PhzvP

1.6 108

1.7 108

2.7 108

10 108

0.46

]P

2300

Psni

1010 1014

UPmh

108 1011

Sm

1013

1013 1016

S PhzvP

P P

59

2.2 UPhzxz v (Super conductivity)

\un PhzvP, Su {P AvP Phzxzv
Q. PU Su {P, J ] EP[P, AP
\[P EPU PP uh _ v Ah. _
uhh mhzuU Phzx A u UPhzxzv
Gk. Cs kzx P UPhzvP (super conductors) Gk.
UPhzxz v u P[U K (Kammerlingh Onnes)
G 1911 Pshu. 4.2K (h 2.3)
{ u\zv uh vj
_ v AhuU Pshu. 1957
m,
T,
PL
BQ
Phzx sUP PP UP
umhx. Cx BCS PP Gk.
\un PhzvP, u[P uh
vj Cx UPhzvPP Q
{ { Ax
{ { Tc (Transition temperature) Gk. {
kP PnkQ.

R( )

4.2 K
T (K)

h 2.3 u\zv
UPhzx v

1. uuh Gs _Qx.
2. Phzx Gs i (Infinity) v AhQx.
3. Pu U PkP x JxUQz ukQ.

UPhzvP P
1. UPhzx CP (generators) AP, B \
v APP UPhzvP E.
2. UPhzxz v Psh Pu[P C siP
ush[P Cx Ezu kQ. PU Su B
kzv C si P AvP Pzxh \zu.
3. CUPmkP Eu, xnUPP |iP A
mhuUS H, UPhzxv Psh Pu H AP
kzu.

60

4. UPhzxv Psh Pu[PU Psk, uxUP

zukUS, Pz v u Gv[P EUP. CU Pu[P
kzv | { E \P Cx, PmiP (Tumor)
EUS \P, AvPa \ UP Puzu Psk UP.
5. UPhzx { E PhzvP mhzv
CUS. BP A AU PP kzu.
6. PoP (Computer) { (A) \US AihU
TPPa \kQ.

2.3 P uhUQP (Carbon resistors)

_UP uhUQP A uP EUS \
AvPP E. G, P uhUQP kzu
kQ. P iP k UPmh \U (Ceramic)
EPzu Bx P uhUQS. CP, A
]uP, {zuhuP, SxP E.
P uhUQP uh vP, A x {U SkP
Cmk SUPk (Amhn 2.2). {U Sk Eh P
uhUQ J E Ax u[P ,
uh k AU (tolerance) SUS. Aux, uh
mk a\U (+) SUQx. , u[P, ], {
[P mk AP 10%, 5%, 2%, 1% BS.
C { Hx
, mk A 20% G
Amhn 2.2 P
uhUQP {USk
k. Akzu E
u Csk [P uh
{
Gs
v UQ GsqUPS.
P
0
Cuh UP si 10&

1
AkUQ Ax _P (zeroes)
]
2
GsoUP x
SUQx.
Bg_
3
GkzxUPmk : h 2.4 u
g\ zvS Gs 4. Akzu
Fu zvS Gs 7,
x zvSx 103
BS.

zv
mk A 10% G zu
uh 47 103 + 10% BS.
61

g\

a\

Fu

Fu
g\

Bg_

4 7 000

+ 10%

1 0 00

h 2.4 P
uhUQ {USk

5 %

h 2.5 P uh

Aux 47K, 10%. h 2.5& 1 k , 5% P uhUQ Pmh

mkx.
uPzv,
|S
{USk
P
uhUQP
kzukQ. ] Smh kP 1% 2% mk
AP kzukQ.

2.4 uhUQP uS (Combination of resistors)

uhUQPU Psh G _P K v
kzv uS uhU Pn. uhUQP uh
UP CnP CnUP.

2.4.1. uh Cn uhUQP (Resistors in series)

h 2.6 Pmii
uhP
CnUPmk
R1, R2, R3, R4 uh
Psh uhUQPU
Px.

R2

R1
V1

V2

R3
V3

R4
V4

h 2.6 uhn
uhUQP

uhUQP
uhP Ex, J
uhUQ P J A mh .
uhUQP uS PUS Ch \zuk
zu k VG, R1, R2, R3 R4 uhUQPUS
Chmh zu k = V1, V2, V3, V4
K vi V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3, V4 = IR4 V = IRs

C[S RS
BS.

Gx uh Cn uS uS uh

G IRS = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 or RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

BP, uhP CnUPmk uhUQPUS uS
uh, uzu uhUQP uh[P TkuUSa \.
62

2.4.2 UP Cn uhUQP (Resistors in Parallel)

h 2.7 Pmii UP
Cn \UPmk R1, R2, R3,
R4 uh Psh |S uhU
QPU Px. CzuSh V
US
\
Psh

CnUPmkx. uhUQP
UP Cn Ex, J
uhUQ SUP zu
k V &USa \.
uS Ah I G
mh I1, I2, I3, I4 G x
R1, R2, R3, R4 \.
Cx

V
I1

R1
R2

I2

R3
I3
I4

R4
R

h 2.7 UP Cn
uhUQP

I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4.

K vi
V
V
V
V
V
I1 = R , I2 = R , I3 = R , I4 = R I = R
P
1
2
3
4

C[S RP Gx UP Cnz uS uS uh BS.

V
V
V
V
V
=
+
+
+
RP R1 R2 R3 R 4
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
R P R1 R 2 R3 R 4

G, uhUQP UP Cn CnUPkx,
uzu uhUQP uh uRP Tku, uS
uh uRUSa \

2.5 {a \u uh
P u uh Gs { zx k.
{ E x PhzvP uh AvPUS. 0oC&
Phzv uh Ro to C Au Phzv uh Rt G,
Rt = Ro (1 + t)

Cv Gx uh { Gs (Temperature Co-efficient of
resistance) Gk.
63

Rt Ro
Ro t

1o C

{ E Hk
uh
miS,
0oC&
E
uhUS E uP uh {
Gs G UPkQx. {
zx uh Hk k
h 2.8 Pmhmkx.

R( )

R0

0C

T (C)

EP[P
|US
uh
h 2.8
{ Gs Psh. Aux,
{a \u
{ Ex A uh
uh
AvPUS. P P S
PhzvP GvUS uh { Gs Psh. Aux,
{ Ex A uh S. GvUS uh
{ Gs Psh (Thermistor) G AUPk.
EPU PP uh { Gs SP CUS.

2.6 Pzv APuh (Internal resistance of a cell)

J _ zu, mh Pzv | Cx
GvUS Aa_ E TP a \.
mhx uha]P A, Pzv E S
vzv (electrolyte) P Au Gv Cx |US
mh sk. C Pzv mh \
{P, Pzv E S v mhzvS J
uhz uQx. Cx Pzv APuh Gk.
vuPz uUPmh Pzv APuh SP A.
|h Au APuh AvPUS.

m mhU Psk
Pzv APuhU
Pn
h&2.9 Pmii
Cna \kQx. \ K
vu
{
Ex,
PzvS
SUPP
E
uh Psh m mh
Cnzx, Pzv US
\
E
AhkQx.

+ V

E
I

h 2.9 P AP uh

64

Euh m mh UPh PU Su mhzu

GkzxU P. Bu _ vu _P Pu. G
m mh Ak Pzv US \z u. R G ]
vh uh a_ CnUPmk, \ K hkQx. RUS
Chmh zu k Pzv SUP E zu
miS (V) \.
RUS Chmh zu k, V = IR

...(1)

Pzv APuh r PnP, m mh Pmk

Ax V, Pzv US \hU SP A.
Cx, V = E Ir Ax

Ir = EV

...(2)

\k (2)I \k (1) B SUP

Ir E V
E V R
=

or r =
V
IR
V
E,V R vP uu Pzv APuh rIU
PnUQh.

2.7 Qa\L vP (Kirchoff's laws)

K v G _PUS
mk kzu. ]UP _PUS
Qa\L vP kzv mh
Ax zuzuU Pn. Cv C
xvP E. 1. Qa\L mh
v 2. Qa\L zu v

Qa\L u v : (mh v)
J _, Gu \v
\vUQ
mh[P
S
TmkzuP _S.

1
5

I5
I4

I1
O

I2
I3

h 2.10 Qa\L
mh v

\v |UQa \ mh |US Ehx G

\v Cx a\ mh GvUS Ehx G
Pkx . h 2&10 Pmii, J _ E 1,2,3,4,5
G PhzvP O G \v \vuPU Px. PhzvP
\ mh[P I1, I2, I3, I4, I5 G, Qa\L u
vi,
I1 + (I2) + (I3) + I4 + I5 = 0

or

I1 + I4 + I5 = I2 + I3.

\v |UQa \ mh[P Tku, \vx

65

a\ mh[P TkuUSa
mh A vi AQx.

\.

Cu

vx

Qa\L Csh v (zu v)

J i _ SvP E uh
mh BQ UQ AP S Tmkzu
Ai _ E US \P S TmkzuPUSa \.
Cv B Ai AQx.
_ PUS Qa\L v kzx x, mh
v\ g_ Ax Chg_PU Psk. PnUSPUSz
w Pqx, | Pv mh v\x mhzv
v\ Ai mh GvUSh A. mh
|USh Au, | Pv v\ Es mh
A.
Smh v\U Pv S,
PnUS US Au v\
kzu sk GuU Pzv
P
sk.
G,
Qa\L Csh v kzx
x g_Pa \ m
h[P
|US
EhuP,
Chg_Pa \ mh[P
GvUS EhuP Px.

I1

R2

C
I2

I1

r1

R4

R3

R1
E1

I3

E2
R6

r2

I4 E

r3

E3
R5

I3

h 2.11a Qa\L vP

h 2.11a- Pmi _U Pu.

ABCDEFA G i uU Pv,
I1R2 + I3R4 + I3r3 + I3R5 + I4R6 + I1r1 + I1R1 = E1 + E3
E1, E3 G C P[P mh[P g_P

A.
ABEFA G i uUS
I1R2 + I2R3 + I2r2 + I4R6 + I1r1 + I1R1 = E1 E2
E2 Eh E GvUS, Au mh Chg_P AuU

SUS.
Qa\L Csh v mh
_P mhzuU PnUQk.
66

UP

GkzxUPmk 1

I1

I2

h 2.11b& Qa\L u
v B \vUS kzu

I3
60

132

20

I1 I2 I3 = 0

I3 = I1 I2 ...(1)

200V

ABEFA G i uUS

132 I3 + 20I1 = 200 ...(2)

100V

I1

I2

h 2.11b Qa\L vP

\k (1)I \k (2)
vh
132 (I1 I2) + 20I1 = 200
152I1 132I2 = 200 ...(3)
BCDEB, G i uUS
60I2 132I3 = 100
I3 v (1) Cx

vh

60I2 132 (I1 I2)

10

50V

70V

B
0.5

0.5

= 100

132I1 + 192I2 = 100...(4)

10

\kP (3) (4)Iz

wUP

40V

Il = 4.39 A I2 = 3.54 A D

0.5

30V

0.5

h 2.11c Qa\L vP
h 2.11c Pmhmk i _ ABCDA Pa \
mh g_P AuPU Pv, mh |US
EhuS.

GkzxUPmk 2

10 I + 0.5 I + 5 I + 0.5 I + 8 + 0.5 I + 5 I + 0.5 + 10 I = 50 70 30 + 40

I ( 10 + 0.5 + 5 + 0.5 + 8 + 0.5 + 5 + 0.5 + 10) = 10
40 I = 10

I =

10
= 0.25 A
40

GvUSx, mh Chg_P uU SUQx.

67

2.7.1 mh \a_ (Wheatstone's

bridge)

Qa\L vP UQ k
mh \a _ BS (h 2.12). mh I1
\a _ P, Q, R, S G uhP J A I2
i _ EUS CnUPmk.
E US\ Psh P A C
R
PUQh CnUPmkx. Pz
vx k I G mh I1, I2,
I3, I4 G |S SvPP Qx.
Pmh \ mh
I
Ig. P mh uh G.
Qa\L mh v B \vUS
kzu
I1 Ig I3 = 0

I3
Q

Ig
G

I4

h 2.12 mh
\a _

...(1)

Qa\L mh v D \vUS kzu

I2 + Ig I4 = 0

...(2)

Qa\L zu v ABDA G i uUS kzu

I1 P + IgG I2 R = 0

...(3)

Qa\L zu v ABCDA G i uUS kzu

I1P + I3Q I4S I2R = 0

...(4)

Pmh _ UP Pmkx, B D P J
zuzv A. Ig = 0 BS. Ig = 0 G \kP (1), (2),
(3) vh
I1 = I 3
I2 = I 4
I1P = I2R

...(5)
...(6)
...(7)

\kP (5), (6), (7) vP \k (4) vh

I1P + I1Q I2S I2R = 0
I1 (P + Q) = I2 (R+S)

...(8)

\k (8)I \k (7) B SUP

I1(P + Q ) I 2 (R + S )
=
I1P
I 2R

P +Q R +S
=
P
R

68

1+

Q
S
=1+
P
R

Q S
=
P R

Ax

P R
=
Q S

Cx \a _ \{ AuP {uS. P, Q,
R vP uu uh S- vU PnUQh.

2.7.2 mh \a _ (Metre bridge)

mh \a _ i mh \a _S.
uh UPoUPzuUP uizu u mhP P x
zumk. u mhPUS Ch G1, G2 G C
ChP E. J mh }, ^ ui Psh [P
P AC APUS CnP P x Czx
zumkx (h 2.13). P P C u mhP
P UPmk (soldered). v uu P G uh
G1 Ch, Q G izu (standard) uh G2 Ch
CnUPmk.
P
Q
J
G EPz
ukPx
B
G
G
(G)
Pmh
E uh
G
HR
(HR) BQh
J
A
C
uhP CnUP
l
l
mk B Eh Cn
( )
Qx. ukP
K
Bt
P Hu J
h 2.13 mh \a _
uk
\x
Cn
Hkzu. AC P PUSU SUP Ug] P
\ CnUPmk.
1

mh \a _ P x ukP |Pzv Pmh

mh _S \sk. C J GP. P
AJ JC SvP mh \a _ R, S G uhPUS
vP AQ. Cx
P R r .AJ
= =
Q S r .JC
r Gx KS }U P uhS.
69

P AJ l1
=
=
Q JC l 2

C[S AJ = l1 JC = l2

l1
P = Ql
2

UPoUPzuUP
A
uhh
ui
u
mhPh uhP CnUPmhv, P AC& P
l1

mhPh UPmiu, uh PnP l &

2
v ] Hk. Cz uUP, P Q Ch
\x \ \ J&Bx P AC& zvS AQ
CUS AkP SUPmk, P & \\ v PnUQhh sk.

2.7.3 u uh Gs Pn
P uh (P), B (r) } (L) BQ vP
P r 2
u P u uh Gsn =
G
L

\mhU Psk PnUQh.

2.7.4 uh { GsnU Pn
t1, t2, {P Pa _ J uhP R1, R2
R 2 R1
G, P uh Gs =
G \mi
R1t 2 R 2t1

PnUQhkQx.

2.8 zu (Pontentiometer)
zu
mh
Ah
k
P
zuS (h 2.14). Cv 10 mh } Psh ^
[P Ax Phh P, P x zumkx.
10 mh Px 1 mh
} Psh 10 SvPP,
A
JUP
CnP
zu
miUS.
PUS CnP mh
AP J zu
miUS. Ph
Cn Hkzu uk
B
P J kQx.
h 2.14 zu
70

2.8.1 zu uzx
zuU
( )
K
P A, B PUS
Bt
I
Ch J P AkUS
J
B
Bt,
\ K BQ A
CnUPmk.
G
HR
Cx zuU
E
P I G ^
h 2.15 zu uzx
mh

(h 2.15). Cx ua
_S. K u P, Pmh, E uh
ukPh uhP CnUPmk, Au | zu
A h CnUPmkx. Cx xna _S.
A JUS Chmh zu k, P US

\USa \S x, P mh mh x.
Cx Pmh _ UP Pmk. AJ Gx \ \ }
(Balancing length) Gk. \ \ } l G, AJUS Chmh
zu k, AJ = Irl BS. r Gx KS }U P uh
I Gx ua _ \ mh.
E = Irl,
I r PP Au, E l

G, P US\, \ \ }zvS |zuP

A. Cx zu uzxS.

2.8.2 zu
kzv PkUPmh
C PP
US \P Jh
zuU P AB
Bx, P AkUS (Bt), \
(K), uh (Rh)
BQh uhP CnU
Pmkx (h 2.16). Cx
ua _S. zu
A , DPDT\ (DPDT-Double Pole
Double Throw) C,

( )
K

Bt

Rh
J

E1
D1

C1
C

C2

HR

D2
E2

h 2.16 C PP
US \P Jh
71

Eh CnUPmkx. \ D Eh Pmh
(G), E uh (HR), ukP (J) BQ uhP CnUP
mk. DPDT \ C1, D1 PUS Ch E1 US \
Psh P, C2, D2 PUS Ch E2 US \ Psh
P CnUPmk.
ua _ mh I
zuU P uh r G PxP.

G,

KS

DPDT \ C D P C1 D1 Ph
Cn ia \u, E1 P xna _ CnUPk.
uk \ zuU P x |Pzv Pmh
_UP Pmkia \kQx. \ \ } l1US Chmh
zu k = Irl1. zu uzxi,
E1 = Irl l

...(1)

E2 P xna _ Cni DPDT \a \\u S,

P mh _ UPzvP \ \ } l2 PnUQhkQx.
\ \ } l2 US Chmh zu k = Irl2
E2 = Irl 2

...(2)

\kP (1)I, (2) B SUP

E1 l1
=
E2 l2

J P US \ (E1) uu vhx G,
P US \ (E2)
E2 = E 1

l2
G uh kzvU PnUQh.
l1

2.8.3 US \ zu mh Jh
1. vu _, J P C PUS Chmh
zu[P k US\ Gk. i _
Hu C P zu[P k, zu k
Gk.
2. US \ _ CnUPmk uha \ux
A. B zu hx, C PUS Chmh
uhUS |zuP A.
72

2.9 v
R uh Psh Phzv I mh t PzvS
u, Phzv \ mhzv A, q = It. Azu
k V Psh C PUQh \ mh q G,
mhzua \zu \ si = V. q = V It.

mhzv J i \k A
v Gk.
v =

\k
P

zu
k
vUSa \.

VIt
= VI
t

mhzv

UP

V = IR Gu, v = I2R G A

Gx \ vS. Cu AS joule.
|h Ah m o (Wh) Ax Q m o
(kWh) G AS kQx. 1 kWh A 1 m (unit)
Gk.
(1 kWh = 1000 Wh = 1000 3600 J = 36 105 J)

2.9.1 m mh (Wattmeter)
kzuk v Ah k P m mh
BS. Aux, _ J KS Pzv kzuk B
AhU Tix BS. CUP, {P zumh, a _
J \i Pa _PUQh AUPmh C[S _
Ex. C[S _h S J zumiUS. S
x mh APS P C[PU TiuP CUS. Pa
_P mh x,
+
S
UPx

vUS |zuP CUS.

2.10 mhzv v

v J
mh v [P
+
Gv
EUSQx. Ca\ |
+
Szu (Electrolysis) Gk.
mh

AP h 2.17 v[P Phzxu

73

GvvP P Ah v[P mk mh \ C
(h 2.17). CzuP v[P S v[P (electrolytes) Gk.
S vzv, mhzu E, \zu k
EPz uPkP P (electrodes) Gk. | AP
\h Gv (cathode) G, Gv AP
\h | (anode) G AUPkQ.
| AP Gv AP (cations) Gk. C EP[P
Ax i Cx ES Gv AP | AP
(anions) Gk.

2.10.1 Lh Szu vP (Faradays laws of

electrolysis)
Szu x k u[P AP
\x PoP Lh Bx Au.
u v
Szu
x

{x S vzv mhzvS |zuP

A.
S v J t P AS \zuk
mh I G, Au \zumh mh (q) = I t
k uzv { m G, u vi,
m q

Ax m = zIt

C[S z Gx . Cx Azuzv v Gs (electro

chemical equivalent) Gk. Cu AS kg C1. BS.
S v J 1 T mh \x
k uzv { Azuzv v Gs G
UPkQx.
Csh v
S vzv Smh A mh \zuk
x, J k uzv {, Azuzv v
CnUS (Chemical equivalent) |zuP A.
u J v Cn E G, Csh vi,
m E

*v Cn =

J Aq{
Cnv

74

Aq {
{
1/12 [S Cnv
C12Aq

2.10.2 Lh S vPa \zu

u v : SU
P (Electrolytic cell) Jh
P AkUS, \, uh
Amh BQ
uhP
CnUPkQ
(h
2.18).
Gv
Gkzx, uzxU P,
xhzx E zu Au
{U Pnsk. Au
sk Chzv zu
sk. I1 A m
hzu t P ASa \zu
sk.

Bt

Gv

Rh

h 2.18 Lh u va
\zu

Amh Eu mh AhkQx. Gv
Gkzx, |P } A], E zx, sk Au {U Pn
sk. Cx k uzv { m1 kQx.
Gv sk zv, I2 A mhzu t P
AS \zv k uzv { m2 PnUQhkQx.
m

1
1
Cx, m = I G AuU Pn.
2
2

m I

...(1)

J A I G mh t1, t2 G P A
PUSa \zv, k u[P {P m3 , m4 G
PshkQ.
m

3
1
Cx, m = t G AuU Pn.
4
2

m t ...(2)

uhP (1), (2) Cx

m It Ax m q . G u v \UPkQx.

Csh v : CuSO4 AgNO3 P\P

Psh C SU P[P, P AkUS, \, uh
Amhh uhP CnUPkQ (h 2.19). CUSO4
P\ u P, AgNO3 P\
P \P sk.

75

Gv
P
+
+

Gkzx,
|Pz
uzxU P, E zu
S
A
{PU
Bt
Pn sk. A
S Ch[P zv ]x A
CuSO4
AgNO3
|zvS
mhzua
\zu
sk.

GvP

Gkzx |P } A], E
Rh
zu S A {P
h 2.19 Lh Csh
U Pnsk. C
va \zu
x k u
{P m1, m2 GU PnUQhkQ.
m1

E1

Cx, m = E G AuU Pn.

2
2
E1, E2 G u v CnP
BS.

mE

G, Csh v \UPkQx.

2.11 PP (Electric cells)

P (Luige Galvani) Ax ] (Lucia)
\u ] B PP EUPzvS uhUPP
Aux. AP SvPP UPmh (dissected) u
zu PUQP Psk Cz ush[P Cx u[P
mh. u PP Cz ushzuz uku
xU Svzu. Cx, [SPx \ G PzxUS
Szux. Cu S Czu |mha \u A Ab ,
, ] A\sm h
(Alessandro
Volta) G v P AkUS EUPmhx. Ax
hmh h P AkUQ u xzu|P mkP
(discs) Akzukzx UPmh uS A EU P\
UPmiu. uPkP AQh UPmh PQu[P
UPmh. C z uPkP \ oh CnUS
x \ o uhx Jzux. Cx \u Cx, C
mh EP[P, C Hu Jh EU
P\ S vP Psk Pzu EUP G
{UPmhx.
76

2.11.1 h P (Voltaic cell)

+
h
Pzv,
Psni zv J
E }zu PuP Azv
Cu
Zn
C
P
UP
mk (h 2.20). J Psni
uzux zv
++
}zu H2SO4

xzu|Pzux.
++
PzvS
,
P P CnU
Pk x, mh,
h 2.20 h P
a_ uzvx
xzu|PzvS, Pzv xzu|Pzvx uzvS .
Pzv | (A) BhP u, Gv Ax
PuhP xzu|P A. }zu PuP A S vS.

mh AP CUPzv Aih Pzv

\k
UPkQx.
Gv

xzu|P
AqUP
AUPmk Zn++ APP P\ \Q. Cu Gv
C GUmP Gv mh EhuQx. Au
\zv u | Cx C GUmP GkzxU Psk,
C m AP (2H+) kQ. Cu u
|mh EhuQx. xzu|Pzv AvPi GUmP
CUS C{P uhx {P. Bu a_
mh . G, Cu G P uhx v B
P z u AP \kQx. C uPkP E
Gvv
mh[P
PnP
u

xzu|Pz
uPkPUQh zu k uUPkQx. C[S u
xzu|Pzu h AvP zuzv A. C PUS
Chmh zu k 1.08 V BS.

2.11.2 u P (Primary Cell)

Cu v P uhx
Eu AP u P[P Gk. u Pzv
Sv P P uSu S v BQ
\USx, US \ . h P
Ug] P G Csk UQ u PP
\kP UPkQ. CP P[P mhzu
kzv sk \ Cx.
77

2.11.3 h P
(Daniel cell)

h
P,
}sh
|zvS { mhzu
xzu|Pz usk
\zu Cu u P
}zu PuP A
BS.
u
zvzv
~s x sh
umi (saturated) u \Lm
P\ GkzxU PkQx
CuSO P\
u zv
(h 2.21). ~sx sh
(Porous pot) J E }zu
PuP Azv xzu|Pz usk
h 2.21 h P
UPmiUS.
~sx
sh, u \Lm P\ UPmiUS.
4

xzu|Pz usk PuP Azxh x Zn++ AP

C GUmP u.
Zn++ AP ~sx shzv E xP
\ u \Lm P\h x Cu++AP EUS.
Cu Cu++AP | u zvzv i. h

P _ CnUPkx, xzu|Pz usix C

GUmP _ a \, uzv E u AP
|k{US. Cu uzv Cx xzu|PzvS mh
. h P 1.08V US \z u.

2.11.4 Ug] P (Leclanche cell)

Carbonusk
Rod
P

[P_&h&BUk

Mixture of MnO2
P
y Pu P
and Charcoal

~sx
Porous Pot sh
xzu|Pz
Zinc Rod usk
Ammonium Sk
A
Chloride Solution
P\
Glass Vesselzv
Psni

h 2.22 Ug] P
78

~sx sh J P UPmiUS.
P a _ [P_&h&BUk P y Pu
P UPmiUS (h 2.22). umi { E
A Sk P\ (S v) Psh Psni
zvzv ~sx sh UPmiUS. S vzv
xzu|Pz usk UPmkx.
BUzv xzu|P usi E Zn AqUP Zn++
APP, C GUmPP hQ. Zn++ AP
A Skh x xzu|PU Sh,
A uQ.
Aux, Zn++ + 2 NH4Cl 2NH3 + ZnCl2 + 2 H+ + 2e
zvzvx A uzxa \ k. ~sx
shzv E xP \ m AP
[P_&h&BUkh x, m AP |
mh P uskUS kQx. P xzu|Pz
uskP CnUSx, xzu|Pzv C GUmP
P ush Ahx Au |mhzu |k{US. G,
P Cx xzu|PzvS mh \. mh uhx
uhu Ch[P Ug] P kzuk. C P
1.5 V US \, 0.25 A mhzu ux.

2.11.5 xn PP (Secondary cells)

xn P[P sk (recharge) \ C.
xn P[P |h v P P BS.
a_
mhzua
\zxx
ES
vP, x mhzu Gvv\ \zv
sk . xn Pzvx mhzu v
{P UP (Discharge) Gk. P A \UP P
\UP G xP k xn P[PS.

2.11.6 P A \UP (Lead Acid Accumulator)

P A \UPzv Ev C Ax Psni Ax
\i B zv Ex. Cu E }zu PuP A
S vS. z u (Spongy) Psh P (pb) Gv
P, P BUk (PbO2) |P \kQ. uSu
P P P UPmk, Su
APuhz u P \UPmiUS.
79

Pb
PbO2
H2SO4
Glass / Rubber
container
Psni
/ zv

h 2.23P A \U P
P, a_ CnUPk x,Gv |h
BU z u Psh P, Pu Azxh
x P \Lm C GUmPz u. Cu
GUmP a_ Gvx |USa \.
| BU CUP |h. |, P
BUk, PuP Azxh x P \Lmhz ux C
GUmP |k{UPk. Cu a_ mh
|x GvS (h 2.23).
vuP \mh Pzv US\ 2.2 V
BP, S vzv Jhzv 1.28 BP CUS. Au APuh
SP Cu AvP mhzu UP \x
US \ 2 V BPU S.
{Px, vP {PQ.

2.11.7 xn PP kP
xn PP sk \hU Ti.
A AP uh P S. G, uUP AvP
mhzu Hkzx. sP Hx, AvP
GsoUP, A sk sk \. CP
A P . PP (cars), C\UP P[P, iUSP
(Truck)

kQ.
zvx
S J Ahzv PsPoUP sk. J
Ahzv v zv x 1.28 G, UPzv x
1.12 G CUP sk.

80

wUPmh PnUSP
2.1

Phzv J SUSmi J i 6.25 1018

GUmP Phx \ mhzuU PnUQkP. (GUm
mh 1.6 1019 C)
uP : n = 6.25 1018 ; e = 1.6 1019 C ; t = 1 s ; I = ?
w : I =

2.2

q ne 6.25 1018 1.6 1019

=
=
= 1 A
t
t
1

106 m2

SUS mk Psh uU P 2 A
mh
Qx.
Phzv
KS

E
GUmP GsoUP 8 1028 G mh Ahzv
\\ Cz v\P BQU PnUQkP. (e = 1.6 1019C)
uP : A = 106 m2 ; I = 2 A ; n = 8 1028

e = 1.6 1019 C ; J = ? ; vd =?

w : mh Ahzv

J =

I
2
=
= 2 106A/m2
A 10 6

J = n e vd

Ax
2.3

vd =

J
2 106
=
= 15.6 10-5 m s1
ne 8 1028 1.6 1019

US (Lamp) J 240 V zuzv \k. Au

mh 0.5 A G UQ uhU PnUQkP.
uP : V = 240 V ; I = 0.5 A ; R = ?
w : K v Cx
V = IR Ax

2.4

R=

V 240
=
= 480
I
0.5

5m } Psh uU P uh 0.5 , P mh
0.05 cm G uuh GsnU PnUQkP.

uP : l = 5m ; R = 0.5 ; d = 0.05 cm = 5 104 m ;

r = 2.5 104m ; = ?

w : R =

l
A

or =

RA
l

A = r2 = 3.14 (2.5 104)2 = 1.9625 107 m2

81

0.5 1.9625 107

5

= 1.9625 108 m

2.5

0oC& {U P uh 10 . Au uh {
Gs 0.004oC } Pv{ Au uhU PnUQkP.

i UPzuU TP.
uP :

0oC&, Ro = 10 ; = 0.004/oC ; t = 1000C ;

toC&, Rt = ?

w : Rt

= Ro (1+ t)
= 10 (1 + (0.004 100))

Rt

= 14

{ Ex P uh AvPUQx.
2.6

\ } Psh, J EPzu C PhzvP uhP

5 10 . AUPhzvP B[P QuzuU
PnUQkP.
uP : u P uh R1 = 5 ;
u P B = r1
Cshx P uh R2 = 10
Cshx P B = r2
PP } = l
P u uh Gs =
R =

w :

R1 =

l
A

; A = r 2

l
l
2 ; R2 =
r1
r22

R 2 r12
=
or
R1 r22

R2
r1
10
2
=
=
=
r2
R1
5
1

r1 : r2 = 2 :1

2.7

uU P J, Au } 0.1% AvPUSiP }mhkQx.

Au uh Hk zu UPmi PnUQk.
uP : uU P B } l1 = l
82

}mhmh S P Cv }
l 2 = l + (l & 0.1%)
= l +

0.1
l
100

= l (1 + 0.001)
l 2 = 1.001 l

}mhk x, } AvPu, SUS mk

S.
uhUP = A1l1 = A1l
Cv = A2l2 = 1.001 A2l
}mhkuS P uh = R1.
}mhmh S uh = R2
w : Pa \ \
A1l = 1.001 A2l

Ax
R =
R1 =

R1 =

A1 = 1.001A2

l
A
l1
A1

l 2
R2 = A
2
l

1.001A2

R2 =

1.001l
A2

R2
2
R1 = (1.001) =1.002

uh Hk = (1.002 1) = 0.002
uh Hk UPmk = 0.002 100 = 0.2%
2.8

Pa _ J uh 20oC 50 G, 70oC 65 G
AhkQx. uh { GsnU PnUQkP.
uP : R20 = 50 ; 70oC&, R70 = 65 ; = ?
w : Rt = Ro (1 + t)

R20 = Ro (1 + 20)
50 = Ro (1 + 20)
83

...(1)

R70 = Ro (1+ 70)

65 = Ro (1 + 70 ]

...(2)

(2)I (1)B SUP

65 1 + 70
=
50 1 + 20

65 + 1300 = 50 + 3500
2200 = 15
= 0.0068 / oC

2.9

400 W v Psh J \ mi v 30 {h[PUS

kzukQx. J m vUP Pmhn 75 \ G,

\ mi J P kzv Hk \U
PnUQkP.
uP : \ mi v = 400 W
J mkUP Pmhn = 75 p
kzuk P = 30 {h[P / |
J zvP \ = ?
w: 30 {hzv \hk B = v P (o)
= 400 = 200 W h

J zv \hk B
= 200 7 = 1400 Wh = 1.4 unit

J zvP \ = \hmh zu mkP J

mkUP Pmhn = 1.4 0.75 = Rs.1.05
2.10 hzv Pmii uhUQP 10 V zu
mkh uhP CnUPmk. J uhU
QUS Chmh zu kPU PnUQkP.
R1 5

R2 3

V1

V2

10V

84

R3 2
V3

uP : R1 = 5, R2 = 3, R3 = 2 ; V = 10
uh Cn uS uh
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10
V

10

w : _ \ mh I = R = 10 = 1A
s
R1 zu k, V1 = IR1 = 1 5 = 5V
R2 zu k, V2 = IR2 = 1 3 = 3V
R3 zu k, R3, V3 = IR3 = 1 2 = 2V

2.11 UP Cn E 3, 5 2 uhUQP 15 V
zu mkh CnUPmk. J
\
mhzuU
PnUQkP.

uS
uh, zu mhzu PnUQkP.
uP : R1 = 3, R2 = 5, R3 = 2 ;
zu k, V = 15 m
w : uS uS uh

R1
I2

I2 =

I3

mh

V 15
I1 =
=
= 5A
R1
3

R2

R2

Rp = 0.9677
R1

I1

1
1
1
1
1 1 1
=
+
+
= + +
R P R1 R2 R 3 3 5 2

R3

15V

mh

V
15
=
= 3A
R2
5

V
15
R3 mh R3, I 3 = R = 2 = 7.5 A
3
V

15

zu mh I = R = 0.9677 = 15.5 A
P

85

2.12 _
A B PUS Chmh
uS uhU PnUQkP.
10

10

10

B
5

10

10

10

w : _ J v uSPU Pskx.
J uS GUPmh _ A.
5

10

R1 = 15

10

R2 = 15

J uS uS uh
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
=
+
RP
R1
R2
15
15 or RP = 7.5

J uS uh 7.5 . Cx _
A.
7.5

R/

7.5

R/

7.5

R/

A B PUS Chmh uS uh
R = R + R + R ( Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 )
R = 7.5 + 7.5 + 7.5 = 22.5

2.13 10 uh J 10V US\ Psh Pzxh

uhP CnUPmkx. Pzxh UP Cn h
mh CnUPkx, Ax Pmk A 9.9 V G Pzv
APuhU PnUQkP.
uP R = 10 ; E = 10 V ; V = 9.9 V ; r = ?
10V

E V R

w : r =
V

10

10 9.9
10
9.9

= 0.101
86

V
9.9V

u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP PnUSP
vP. C, h Sv Gu J Ax
PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk Svx
mk, h x iUPhU Ti UPUS
PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

2.1

2.2

2.3

60 C A mh J UQ 2 {h[PUSa
\, UQ \ mh
(a) 30 A

(b) 1 A

(c) 0.5 A

(d) 5 A

mh[P G GuP x \?
(a) Sm

(b) UP

(c)

(d) u

Phzv mh GuS |zuP A?

(a) C v\P
(b) 1/ SUS mk Ci.
(c) 1/GUmP GsoUP
(d) SUS mk Ci

2.4

2.5

2.6

zuzv \k `h uh 120
G v

240 V

(a) 400 W

(b) 2 W

(c) 480 W

(d) 240 W

Smh } Psh uU P uh R. Au }
Ch[PUPk x Au uh Gs
(a) C h[PS

(b) |Q J [PS.

(c) |S h[PS

(d) hx.

C 2 uhP UP Cn Cu, uS uh
(a) 2
(b) 4
(c) 1

(d) 0.5

87

2.7

2.8

{ S x, P P uuh Gs
(a) S

(b) AvPUS

(c) hx

(d) _S.

0o C Pa _ uh2 = 0.004 /oC G 100o C

Au uh

2.9

(a) 1.4

(b) 0

(c) 4

(d) 2.8

Lh Szu vi, S vzv

mh \x, Gv i AP {
Gua \ux A?
(a) mh

(b) mh

(c) P

(d) uh

2.10 \v uh (R) Eh n uhP uhn

C, uS uh
(a) n/R

(b) R/n

(c) 1/nR

(d) nR

2.11 zu uU P hx. H?
2.12 EPU PhzvP mh[P USP.
2.13 C v\P, CUP Gs & kzxP. C v\P
mhzvS Chmh uh .
2.14 K vU TP.
2.15 J u uh Gs & . u uh Gso
Aih P G PkzukQ?
2.16 UPhzx v S P. UPhzvP PU TP.
2.17 P uhUQ Bg_, Bg_, Bg_ { [P
Cu uhUQ v x?
2.18 uhUQP uh Cn UP Cn Ex
uS uhU PsP.
2.19 { zx uh k uzu \k
h USP.

88

2.20 m mh kzv Pzv AP uhU Pq

.
2.21 _ PUP Qa\L vPU T USP.
2.22 mh \a _ kzv uh uh {
Gs BQU Pq \u .
2.23 u uh Gs & . mh \a _ kzv Cu
G Ps?
2.24 zu
uzxzu
Psk C P[P
JhkQ?

USP.
US

zuU
\P G

2.25 v, & kzxP.

2.26 Lh S vPU T. Cu vP \u
G \UPkQ?
2.27 1. h P 2. Ug] P
P |h P USP.

BQ

2.28 P A \UPzv \mi USP.

2.29 u[QP (automobiles) k P AkUSP AP
uh SP Cx H?

PnUSP
2.30 10 106m2 SUS Eh uU Phzv 2A mh
{P x GUm Cz v\P G? Phzv
10 1028 GUmP / m3 CuPU PxP.
2.31 Phzv 200 mA mh {P, J 1020 GUmP
PhUP six. PhUS | G? (e = 1.6 1019 C)
2.32 2 m } 0.4 mm mh Eh [P P uh
70 . u uh GsnU PnUQkP.
2.33 C uhUQP uhn UP Cn
Ex uS uhP 10 2.4 G,
uzu uhP G?

89

2.34 PkUPmh _ zu uh P u
mhzuU PnUQkP.
2

6V

2.35 PkUPmh _ A B &US Ch uS

uhU PnUQkP.
2

2
2

B
1

2.36 PkUPmh _ 18 uhUQ SUP Hk

zuU SU PnUQkP.
12

18

30V

2.37 PkUPmh _ I1, I2 , I3

PnUQkP.
1
3V
I1
I2

2V

I3

10

90

G mh[PU

2.38 00 C mi P uh 4 . mizv uh
{ Gs 0.0038 /0 C G 100oC P uh G?
2.39 vu _ E P 6 V zu k x.
Au 2 A mh {Pa \u zu 4 V&USU
SQx. P AP uhU PnUQkP.
2.40 mh \a _, Pmh UP _ G, uu
uhU PnUQkP. P = 1000, Q = 10000 , R = 20
2.41 80 uh \ mix 200 V zuzv
2 o | \mh, kzumh U
PnUQkP.
2.42 1500 W v Eh `h J |
45 {h[PUS kzv } PvUP UPkQx. 1 m
Pmhn .3.25 G, J uzvS (30 |P) \zu si
uP G?
2.43 1.5 V US \ Eh P&xzu|P \ P,
1000
uhUQh
CnUPmkx.
mhzu, v PnUQkP.
2.44 mh \a _ Chx UP Ch 10 uh
Ex \mk } 51.8 cm BP Ex. 108 cm } 0.2 mm
B Eh P uh u uh Gsn
PnUQkP.
A
5

2.45 3 V Ph CnUPmk
_ mhzuU
PnUQkP.

R2

R1

3V

R3
B

4V

2.46 PkUPmk
_,
J i u
\
mhzu,
10 uh SUP
Hk zuU S
PnUQkP.

91

I1
B
(I1 +I2 )
A

I2

5V

I2

I1
E

10

hP
2.1

(c)

2.2

(d)

2.3

(a)

2.4

(c)

2.5

(d)

2.6

(c)

2.7

(b)

2.8

(d)

2.9

(d)

2.10

(d)

2.17

33 k

2.30

1.25 105 m s1

2.31

80s

2.32

4.396 m

2.33

6 4

2.34

3 2A

2.35

3.33

2.36

24 V

2.37

0.5 A, 0.25 A, 0.25 A

2.38

5.52

2.39

2.40

200

2.41

1 kWh

2.42

Rs. 110

2.43

1.5 mA; 2.25 mW

2.44

1.082 106 m

2.45

0.9 A

2.46

0.088A, 0.294A, 3.82 V

92

3. mhzv P
mh, US\ PzxP v SvP
vzvUQ. CSv |h mhzv P
A. Pzuz ysk \, Pzv |,
\ k , _u, ] mh
A. US\ PkUS zvx B J
Sv mh Ex P , Gg] Sv
uhUQP (Resistors) P k. Cx mhzv
BS. mh B EUSx ,
B US \ EUP i. Cx
Gk. C{Pa] mhzv Pn mk A,
BS. ^ mh Aua _ Pu zv EshUS
{Pa] mhzv Pu BS.

3.1
Phzv J E Pmh GUmP J[P CUPzv,
Phzv AqUP, UTPh u {Pzx. V zu
Phzv PUQh PkUPk x, Pmh GUmP
kUPmk, I mh {P. G, GUmP J iUS V I
B . AoUP AP Ax UTP V I
B u\P Hk u . Cx AoUP
B En BS. G, t Pzv I {
mhzu Hk B A
H = VIt

...(1)

R uhUS,
H = I2Rt
H =

...(2)

V2
t
R

...(3)

Psh uhP, \u G \UPmk,

vP GUPmh. \k (2)x, EshS
Bx (i) R ux, mhzv CiUS
|Quzv (ii) I ux, R uhUS | Quzv
93

(iii) mh PzvS |Quzv CUS. Czxh

\k (3)x, EshS B Smh zu, V&
uhUS (R) GvQuzv CUS G A iQx.

3.1.1 v \zu
P kzv,

v
\UP.
uhUPa _ R J uU
P Pskx (h 3.1).

A +

Bt

uhU Pa _ P
P i zumk
Csk
Ph
CnUP
miUS. i E C xP
J PUQ,
{zumk. P
Csk [S } GkzxU PkQx.

Cz
uuPP
P
J
mi
UPmiUS.

K
Rh

V
T

P (Bt) \ (K), uh h 3.1 P

(Rh)
Amh (A) BQ
Ph uhP CnUPk Q. uha _US (R)
UP Cn m mh (V) CnUPmkx.
(i) mhzvP v (Law of currents)
} uhUP { 1 AUPkQx. P
PUQ, } C Hzv W G. I1 mh t
PzvS (20 {h) \zumk u vzu[P \u Cv
{ 2 AUPkQx. P } HUPsh
B

H1 = W (21). } 1 {US SUPkQx.

Ca\u I2, I3 .. mh[P, Au Pa _ Au P
Ch (t) \zv EshS BP H2, H3 ......
PnUQhkQ. Cvx

H1
I12

H2
I22

H3
I32
94

Aux

H
=
I2

Aux H I2

C mh v \UPkQx.
(ii) uhv (Law of resistance)
J A mh I, Smh PzvS (t) uhP
R1, R2, R3 ... Psh _P \zumk EshS
BP H1, H2, H3 ............. AUPkQ.
Cvx

H1
R1

H2
H3
=
R 3 G AkQx
R2

H
=
R

Aux H R
G uh v \UPmhx.
(iii) PzvP v (Law of time)
J A mh I, J uha _ R
P ChPUS t1, t2, t3 ... \zumk EshS
BP H1, H2, H3 ... AUPkQ.
H1
H2
H3
Cvx t =
=
G AkQx
t2
t3
1

H
=
t

Aux H t.
G PzvP v \UPmhx.

3.1.2 ] P
(i) \ \u[P
\mi, `h, mi _k Ak (electric
toaster) BQ mhzv kzukQx.
C zv EshUP {UP S Pu {U G
EPU P B _ kzukQx. H C
(1) AvP uh Gs Pshx.
(2) AvP ES{ Pshx.
(3) BUPnzvS EPx.
95

(ii) ES C (Fuse wire)

ES C Gx 37% D (Pb), 63% (tin) Psh
EPU P BS. AvP uh, Su ES { Pshx.
_ uu Cn (short circuit) Hkx AvP
mh x, ES C EQ, Cn xsiUPk. Cu
kzuk \u xPUPk.
(iii) US (Electric bulb)
UQ uh P AvP. G EshS
B A AvPzx E { Ahx J. AvP
ES{ (3380oC) Psh h[h kzukQx.
x, Szuzv u {mh PsniU S
CUS.
(electric arc), zu (electric welding),
P mhzv kzukQx.
h ] AP
uUPh siuS. CUPP Hk B
Su A CUS iUPmiUS.

3.1.3 ^U
C u BQ C EP[PU Psh J
_, A \vP {P UPmh,
_ US\ ES Gu 1821& a
\u Ab u ^U Pshu.
Csk \vPU Psh A mh Gk,
Hk US\ US\ G, mhx
mh G AUPk. C
Ax ^U Gk.
G

Cu
Fe

Fe

\v

Cu

\v

S
\v

(a)

(b)

h 3.2 ^U
96

S
\v

, S\vP Ch \x mh v\
. G ^U J \ BS. Cu-Fe
mh (h 3.2a) mh uzvx CS
\v (h 3.2b).
US\ Gsv, v\ kzx
EP[P \vP {Pa \ux.
EP[PU Psh mhP Bx, ^U AP[P
\P
Azu.
Cx
\
Gmhx.
mh, a \v mhx C\
E EPzvx E EPzvS .
US\ v, \ Au EP[PUS E
Ch zx AvPS.
Bi, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cu, Mn, Hg, Pb, Sn, Au, Ag, Zn, Cd, Fe, Sb Gx

\S.
C\ EPzv {, {a \ux.
US \US, {US E uh
Shk.
V = + 2,

C[S Gx \vP { k, , G
EPzva \u P.

3.1.4 v {, mk {
J mh S \v {
(C) uhUP PU Psk, a \v {US,
US
\US
Hk
uU
SUS
h
(h
3.3)
Pmhmkx.
{ k SP
CUSx
hx .C..
(mv)
|UPhS.
{
k AvP G h J
BS.
S \v {
{PU Psk a\v
{ xP Ezuk
Qx. US \
AvPzx
J
Smh
97

a\v {

h 3.3 US \ &
{ uU Pmk
h

{ v Ah. C{ v
{ (n) Gk. US \ xPU Sx,
Smh { _S. C{ mk { (i)
Gk. mk {US , US \ v\ k.
B Gs v AvPUS.
Smh mhUS v { J S.
B, mk {x S \v {a \ux.
C{PUP uh
c + i
= n

3.1.5 i
1834 g_ A Ab i G, C
EP[P Psh J _ mh x, EP[P J
\v Ek, EmPk GU
Pshu. Cx i Gmhx. Cx ^U
u BS.
Cu

Cu
1

S
\v

\v

\v
Fe

S
\v
Fe

(a)

(b)

h 3.4 i
(Cu-Fe) mh (h 3.4a) \v 1 mh uzv
x CS , EmPk (G S), \v & 2
mh Cx uzvS , Ek (G
h). mhzv v\ k x (h 3.4b) \v 1
h, \v 2 Sa]h. G i J
{P BS.

i SnP (Peltier coefficient)

Csk EP[P Psh \v J B
mh J i |zv (1 T) x hk
Ax EmP B A i SnP Gk. Cu GU
SUP. Cu AS volt. hk Ax EmPk
B A H = It
J \v i zu, Aua \v i SnP
BS. i SnPx k EP[P \vP
{ zux.
98

3.1.6 u\
u\ Ti, ^ { kzumh Phzv
mh {Px, B EmPu kzu
EPU Phzv x |h.

h EmP
ku
ku

EmP h
ku
ku
C
A

(b) Gv

(a) |

h 3.5 u\
A B G uzusi |k kzukQx (h 3.5a).
Cu mh {Pux, C &x \u E
M N G P \ { CUS. A &x
B&P mh \zui, M G Jkx N
G { AvPP CUS. Cu A G
Jkx B G { AvPP CUS. Aux,
Ax C & EmPkQx. C x B&
hkQx. C | u\ GkQx. usi
B x A US mh \zukx N G
Jkx M G { AvPP CUS.
Sb, Ag, Zn, Cd | u\ HkQx.
A B G Cz usi |k C kzukQx (h
3.5 b). Cu mh {Pu x, C &x \ u
E M N G P \ { CUS. A&x
B&P mh \zui, N &G Jkx M
G { AvPP CUS. Aux, A&x C &
hkQx. C &x B& EmPkQx.
C Gv u\ GkQx. Pt, Bi, Co, Ni, Hg
Gvu\ HkQx.

99

Dzu (lead) usk J |k C kzukQx.

Cu A x B US Ax B&x A &US mh
\zvTh, C &x \ u CUS M, N G P
Gx \ { CUS. G, Dzv u\
Hhx (_ u\ ) Cu PnP _ h
x, k mh EP[Ph D
kzukQx.

u\ SnP ()
J
EPzv
1o C
{
mi
C
PUQh J B mh J i |zvS
(1 T) x, hk Ax EmPk
B A u\ SnP Gk. Cu GU SUP. Cu
AS volt per oC .

3.1.7 mh AkUS (thermopile)

U Pv\ Psh \u mh AkUS
BS. Cx ^U Aih \kQx.
mh u US \ PU S. G
AvP GsoUP mhP uhP CnUPkQ.
Cu P J P mhh (G) CnUPkQ.
mhP J ] \vP (1, 3, 5...) Phmk U

Bi

E
4

k Pv a_

G
2

B
Sb

h 3.6 mh AkUS
100

Pva\ EmP \kQ. \vP (2, 4... ) S \vP

Gk. C x Pva_ u UPmiUS.
P \vP x (1, 3, 5) U Pva_ x,
\vP, { k u AvP US \
u. Pmh u P, Pva] \
zx A (h 3.6).

3.2 mhzv Pu
1820 h |mk C Ab Qi
Khm G, mh Phzv AP E Pu F]
P Ah GuU T. Cvx mh
Phzv Pu Hk Gx Qx.

3.2.1 mh u[Q |UPhzv Ja

_ Hk Pu

J \ Amh h 3.7 Pmii J

u[Q QhmhP Azx Aux ]x
Cz x ^P ykQx. Amh
J P \zukQx.
P P J Pzxh Cnzx
mh \zukQx. Amh \Pz
umkx, Cz xP Pa _
mh[P AuU Pn. Cu
Bx Phzva _ Pu Eu
A i.
Pu zv v\ A, Czu
uzvS \[Szu v\ Phzv \uPU
P.

h 3.7
mh
|
Phzva _
Hk
Pu

(b) |UQ mh

(a ) E|UQ mh

h 3.8 Puzv v\
101

Pu F] J zu, Phzva _ mh i
Puzv ukPmi v\ Pu F] Aa_ A.
mh E|UQ x Phzva _ Pu
g_P A (h 3.8a). mhzv v\ ,
Aux |UQ (h 3.8b) Au Pu F] x
k. Aux Pu Chg_P A. C
mh Phzva _ Pu mhzv
v\ zx A G.

U UP vS v
mh

Phzva
_
Ax
Pu
\UPkP v\x, x P vS J mh
\ v\ \zxx, vS _ v\ k.

3.2.2 mh mhU Pa _ Hk Pu
Amh J QhzuP zukQx. Av JUP
]x u Ax C xP (h 3.9) mh
iU P \zukQx.
Amh x Cz x
^Pz ykQx. P
mh \zv,
Amh \Pz umi
Cz xP uP
zuk
uhh
Puzv
v\
|UQ A. Pu
\U PkP P \
h 3.9 mhU Pa _
ua _ HUS
Hk Pu
mh u AuU
Pn. Pa _ zv, Pu \UPkP CnP
|UPmkz v\ Pa _ uzvSa \[SzuP A.

3.3. m & \m v (Biot - Savart law)

m \m BPa \x mh
Phzva _ Hk Pu, \x PoPU Pshu.
I mh XY G PhzvU Px (h 3.10). AB
Gx Phzv dl } ] Sv, mhU T Gk.
AB& O& x r u E P G U
Px. m & \m vi dl } Phzv \
102

mhzv P- Hk Puz
ysh dB Bx.
(I)

(ii) mhU T }zvS

(iii)
mhU T
P CnUS |U PmiS,

mhU T dl&US
Pnzv \ vS
Quzv,

mhU
u

GvQuzv (

E
|

v
B
O

r
I
P
X

Tx,
CiUS

h 3.10 m&\m v

1
) CUS.
r2

dB

I dl sin
r2

dB = K

Qu K =

dl
A

(dl) |Quzv,

(iv)

dl

(i) mhzvS
Quzv,

dB =

I dl sin
, K Gx Qu .
r2

, Cv Gx FhPzv EmSv.
4

I dl sin
4
r2

= r o. C[S r Gx FhPzv J EmSv, 0 Gx

hzv EmSv. Cu v o = 4 107 henry/metre.

P FhPzvS, r = 1.

o
I d l sin
.
r2
4
JJJG G
JJJG 
JJJG o Idl r
JJJG o Idl r
Uh izv dB =
or dB =
4 r 3
4 r 2

G, P FhPzv dB =

dB v\x mhU T Idl r (Aux, Czu

uzvS) SzuP E|UQ A. Puz ysh AS tesla
(Ax) Wbm2.
103

3.3.1 mh D |UPhzv J
Pu Ahzv
Y
XY
G |UPhzv J I mh
uPU P (h 3.11). Phzvx
P G a u Ex. AB Gx dl }
Psh mhU T. mhU T
P CnUS |UPk mhU Th
Hkzx Pn
G. m&\m
vi, mhUT Idl B P Hk Puz
ysh
dB =

o
I d l sin
.
r2
4

OPA = ,

dl
A

APB = d GP.

h 3.11 }
Phzv

AC = dl sin

...(2)

APC x, AC = rd

...(3)

\kP (2), (3)x

rd = dl sin

...(4)

\k (4)I, \k (1) vh,

o I rd
o I d
4

r2

a
r
a
r = cos

...(5)

OPA, cos =

...(6)

\k (6) I \k (5) vh
dB =

G \[SzxUPk

AC
AC
ABC&, sin =
=
dl
AB

dB =

... (1)

A BPUS AC
kQx.

o I
cos d
4 a

G, XY Phzv P Hk zu Puz ysh

104

B =

dB =

o I
cos d
4 a

o I
[sin 1 + sin 2]
4 a
i } Psh PhzvUS, 1 = 2 = 90o
B =

o I
2 a
Phzvx EmSv Psh FhPzv Cu,

B =

I
2 a

B =

3.3.2 mh mha _ Aa] J

Hk Puz ysh
a B Psh Pa _ I mh (h 3.12)
uPU P. _ O x Au Aa] x P G
x u Ex. dl } Psh AB G mhU TU
Px. AB C G. CP = r BS.

m&\m vi, dl T P Hk Puz ysh

dB =

o I dl sin
,
4
r2

Gx Idl rUS Ch E Pn.

C[S = 90o

dB =
A

dl
C

o I dl
4 r2
dB Cos

R
r

a
I

dB Sin
M

A/

B/

dB Cos

h 3.12 mha _
105

dB v\x Idl CPUS \[SzuP A. Aux CP

US \[SzuP PR A.
AB US GvP E AB G TU Pu, P Hk Puz
ysh dB Gsv \P, PM v\ A. dl mhU
T P CnUS Pk Aa_h Hkzx Pn
G.
dB v OP v\ dB sin G, CuS \[Szu
v\ dB cos G C TPUP. dB cos TP, JUP
GvP Au, A \kzu kQ. dB sin TP Cnx
k. G mha _ P zu Pu Ahzv
B =

B =

o Ia
2a
4 r 3

B =

dB sin =

o Ia 2

o
4

Idl
r2

o Ia
a
=
4 r3
r

dl

(H r2 = a2 + x2)

2(a 2 +x 2 )2

_ n _P Cu,
o nIa 2
B =

2(a 2 +x 2 )2

mha_ zv, x = 0
B =

o nI
2a

3.3.3 hm P mh
mhzv AUP Eu P hm Pmh
hm v Aih \kQx. JUP |USzu
C [P \k u[Phmh Pu F]x
A [P uS v\ {S (h 3.13).

A
Puz u zu Ax zu mh ia \mhzv
Pa _ _mk J hzv x |USzuP UPmkx. h
Qhz uzv _UTix. hzv QhmhP UP mhz
106

vSP E. mhia
\mh \[SzuP mh
\ Aa\ _.
hzv zv J u[Q
x Pu F]mi Ex.
Cmi T x
Pu F] u[PkQx. Pu
F]US
\[SzuP
}sh
AU S Ex.
S P iQ
Ahmk
mh
AP
x
C[S.
AP |S PSvP
U Pshx. Pu F]
mi F]
mha
_
zxh
x
UPmiU
S. Pa _ zv
] ^ Pu h 3.13 hm Pmh
uu ] Pu F]
(uS z u)
kzukQx.
G
Q { Pu ^P CUS. Pa _P 2, 5, 50
_P Psh PP E. A ui ku
h mh[P Ah kQ.

UP
Pa _ u Puz ysh (Bh) QhzuU TUS
CnP UPmk, _ mh x C
B
Pu[P JUP \[SzuP A
(h 3.14).
h

(1) mh u
_
uzvSa \[SzuP Hk Puz ysh (B)
(2) Puz ysh QhzuU T (Bh) BQ
[P JUP \[SzuPa \k.
C Pu [P, Pu F]
P Ah. hm vi
B = Bh tan

...(1)
107

N
B
S

h 3.14 hm
v

a B, n _P Psh _ I mh
x Au zv u Puz ysh
o nI
2a

B=

...(2)

\k (2) I \k (1) vh
o nI
= Bh tan
2a
2aBh
I = n tan
o
I = K tan

K =

C[S

...(3)

2aBh
o n I hsm Pmh _UPU Ts

G, Smh Chzv Cx J S. Ca\mix _

hzv AUP.
hm Pmh P 45o BP E x ~sqn
AvP. G, P 30o u 60o CUS x mk
CUP kzxx |.

3.4 B _ v
m&\m v B _v G T.
mh }sh, D, |UPhzv EshS Puz
ysh
oI
2 a
B (2a) = oI

B =

B (2a) Puz ysh Pa _ _ C

UP BS. C[S Pux uuS. hmh

_ L G, zu mh Io G Psh
BL = oIo

....(1)

B _v C Gu.

B. dl = oIo

....(2)

Pmk z uPmk (line integeral) vx mh

u i Phzv { Ca \uu. mh
Gv v\ u uPmk v GvUS . h
mh u mhzv Au (Phzv u mk
108

Au) Pu zv uPmk v _S. }sh |U

PhzvPUS PnUQmh, Cv GzuP PhzvUS, uUS
x. \k (1)x, B _ v RPsh
T.
Gu i Pmia _ Pu zv Pmk
z uPmk

B. dl

Bx, EmSv ()

Pmh hmh mh BQ
UP US \.

3.4.1 a_
}sh, |UP, _ i
_mh Pa _ Bx a_
Gk. }mhmh a_
A h 3.15& Pmhm
kx. a_ Hk Pu
x, J _ Hk
Pu P Uh TkuUSa
\. J _ Hk
Pu J (concentric
h 3.15 mh
circles) mh[PP Ax, _
a_ Pu
PUQhmh Sv J
C \x k. _ zv a_ Aa]
(a_ Aa]S CnP) Pu Hk. P
a_ E _P Hk Pu
RSv E _P Hk Pu zvS
GvP \mk A. G, a_
Sv Pu _S. hmh
[P (a_) u Pu zv
v\ x E[P v .
P

x E[P v
x P P v\ mh

_P
A
a_
UPsh, }mhmh Puzv
v\z u (h 3.16).

h 3.16 x
E[P v
109

3.4.2 mh }sh a_ Hk Pu
KS }zv n _P Psh a_ I mh
{PuPU Px. CzuP | (ideal solenoid) a_
(Bzxh Jkx AvP } Psh) E P
Pu _S.
}sh a_x }sh Ei EPzuPk x
(h 3.17). hzv, \ Shmk (NNN) G P,
u x mhz uPk x
uzu R \ E () G SP, mhz uPk
Czu EmSv |UQa
d
c
\x uzu
HkzxQ. a_
E J Puz
a
b
l
yshU (B) Pn abcd
G B i u
(Amperean
loop)U
Px.
C
Sv h 3.17 }sh a_ Pu

B. dl |S SvPU Pshx.

B. dl =

B. dl +

B. dl +

B. dl +

B. dl

\P Sv } l G, \mi x Sv u
z uPk Bl BS. Cshx, |Px vP _S.

H CSvP Pu zv B v\US \[SzuP CUS.

a_ E Pu _u, x
v _S.

B. dl = Bl

...(1)

l }Sv nl _P Au, zu mh
Io = Inl

...(2)

B _vi i uUS

B. dl = oIo

...(3)

\kP (1), (2) I (3) vh

Bl = o Inl

B = onI

...(4)
110

a_x, xP ^ Puzv EUPk.

a_ zv u EPzva \zv AvP
Pu u.
B = nI = o r nI

...(5)

mh a_ J uh u[Phmh,
Ax u[Phmh \mh Puzv h&u
v\ v {S. a_ Hk Pu zv v\
vU Psk .

v
S

(a)

(b)

h 3.18 v
J x |US x, a_
mh g_P Au (h 3.18a) AP E
u, \ E hS.
J x |US x a_
mh Chg_P Au (h 3.18b) AP E
h, \ E uS.

3.5 Pu \ (Magnetic Lorentz force)

Z

Z
v

v
B

+q
O

v sin

-q
O

(a)

v sin

(b)

h 3.19 \
Z

Aa] B G ^ Puz ysh Psh Pu

\ku PU P. YZ uzv +q mh Psh xP v
v\Pzxh, Puzxh Pnzv C[SuPU P
(h 3.19a). Pu zv xPx F G \ EnQx.
111

C\ ( \) F ]P H.A.
UQ.
(i) mh Av { Cu \ _S. Aux
C[S xPP mk, Pu zu vUPk.
(ii) mhx, Pu zvS CnP Ax GvP
C[Q \k \ _S. PuzvSa \[SzuP
C[Q, \x v .
(iii) \x mhzvS (q) |Quzv
(iv) \x Puz yshUS (B) |Quzv
(v) \x Puz yshUS SzuP E v\PU TUS
(v sin) |Quzv
(vi)

GvUS mh[PUS, C\ Gv
\k (h 3.19b) CiP C Gu.

v\

F = q ( v B)

\ Gsv,
F = Bqv sin

xP CUPzvS \[Szu v\ \ \ku, \

Gu \v.
E, Pu B BQ Csk \kx
mhz xP x \k \

F = q [( v B) + E]

3.5.1 ^ Puzv mh xP CUP

B

Pu Ahzv Psh Pu, Z Aa_

\kuPU P. m { q mh Psh xP XY
uzv C[SQx (h 3.20). P G v\P v.

xP x \k \ F = q ( v B). C\x v

B Au uzvS \[SzuP PO Pa \k.

\x v\ PzvSa \[SzuP \ku, \ Gu
\kv. G, v\Pzv Gsv ,
v\ mk . O G \k C\ |US
\P \mk xP mh u C[Pa \. Q R
P \x, QO, RO v\P \k.

v B JUP \[SzuP Au,

112

F = Bqv sin 90o = Bqv

Z

Pu \
u |US \U
PkUS.
Bqv

mv 2
r

mv
r = Bq

R
Q
F

...(1)

\k (1)x, mh
u Bx (i) xP {
(ii)
xP
v\P

C zx A G
AkQx.

P
X

h 3.20 mh
xP CUP

\k (1)x
Bq
v
=
r
m
Bq
=
m

...(2)

Cx xP Pn v\Pzv vS.
xP A | T =

2 m
T = Bq

...(3)

\kP (2), (3)x ^ Puzv mh u

C[S xP Pn Avsq, A | (i) xP
v\P (ii) mh u B C zuu G
uQx.

3.5.2 \Um
mh xPP, Eu B kUP
G
Eu A \Umh, _ (Lawrence)
iUPmhx.

uzx
PuzvSa \[Szu v\ mh xP
C[Sx, \k \, xP mh u C[Pa
\Qx G uzxzv Aih \Um \kQx.
113

A
Cv Eh EP E D1, D2 G C SvPP
UPmk h A UPmkx. C jUP (Dees)
Gk (h 3.21). jUP Csk \ Ch mk UPmk,
Ch A S UPkQx. Cu A
Puz x[PUS Ch UPkQx. jUP E Avs
A Ch CnUPmk.
D.P

\k u
T
q mh, m { Psh
| A, zvx m
h, Au Pnzv Gvmh
S
j DUPk. \[SzuPa \k
Pu \ xP mh u
C[S.
jUPUQhmh
Sv
D
D
A Ahx, jUP x
k. G, xP sk Akzu
j AvP Pzxh, AvP B Psh
h 3.21 \Um
_ u C[S. Ax
jUP S AP \h UPz uPkP (DP)
k. Cu E B xP, u CUQ (Target) T
x ua \.
2

xP r B Psh mh u v v\Pzxh C[S

x, \ u |US \z u.
Bqv =

mv 2
r

Bq
v
=
=
r
m

...(1)

A mhuU PhUS P
t =

(2)

\k (1)I (2) vh
m
t = Bq

(3)

\k (3)x A Amh u PhUS Px

(i) mhu B (r), (ii) xP v\P (v) Ca \uu
G A. G
114

A | T = 2t

T=

2 m
Bq =

...(4)

G, ^ Puzv A Azx mhuP J

Pzv PhUS. xP _UP Avs
=

Bq
1
=
2 m
T

(5)

A
Avs
\k
(5)
PkUPmh
v \u Jzv\ Hk. mh, im,
B xP xPP \Um kUP.

P
(i) jUP ^ Pu {x Pi.
(ii)

v\P[P
Jzv\U SUS.

Hk

{k

(iii) E AvsP, GUm J { k P

AvPP Cu, GUmP \Um kUP Cx.

3.6 Pu zv
\k \

mh

Phzv

l } A SUS Psh PQ G PhzvU Px.

CU Phzvx B Puz ysh Psh Puzxh Pnzv
Ex (h 3.22). PQ I mh Qx. G GUmP
QP
v\
vd
G
C
Z

v\Pzxh
CUP
kQ.
JS E GUmP
GsoUP n G, mhx,

I = nAvde

C l B UP

Il = nAvdel.

vd

G, mhU T

Il = nAvdel

...(1)

mh v\US GvP
GUmP CUPk Gu
GvUS SUQx.
115

h 3.22 Pu
zv mh
Phzv x \

GUmP,
\

Puzv

CUPzv

f = e (vd B)

GUmP
SUQx.

Cu,

\k

(2)

Gvmh

Psh

Gu

GvUS

Phzv Pmh GUmP zu GsoUP

N = nAl

...(3)

Azx Pmh GUmP x \k

zu \ F = N f

\k (2), (3)I E \mi vh

F = nAl { e (vd B) }

F = nAl e vd B

...(4)

\k (1)I (4)& vh,

F = Il B

Phzv Azx Pmh GUmPx \k

C\, Puzv mh Phzv x \k
\S.

\ Gs v
\ Gs v F = BIl sin
(i) Phzvx PuzuS CnP Cu, = 0o,

F = 0

(ii) Phzvx PuzvS \[SzuP Cu = 90o

F = BIl

G Phzvx \ .

\ v\
Puzv E mh Phzv x \k
\ v\, [ ChxP vx . Aux Chx
P , _mk, |k JUP |USzu
v\P zxU PP. _mk Puzv v\, |k
mhzv v\ Szu, Phzv C[S
v\U SUS.
116

3.6.1 mh C | }sh CnU PhzvPUS

Ch Hk \
AB,

G P, a
Ch E } |
CnU PhzvP BS. C I1, I2
mh Qx (h 3.23).
AB I1 mhu, a
u Hk Puz ysh,
B1 =

CD

o I1
2 a

I1

I2

B1

EmP

F F

B2

P
a

...(1)

CuU Pu u uzvS
\[SzuP E|UQ A. CuU
Puzv (B1), I2 mh
Phzv CD Axu CD
l }zv \k \
F =

h 3.23 mh
C | Cn
PhzvPh \

B1I2l

\k (1) I vh
F =

o I1I2l
2 a

...(2)

[ vi, \ F Bx ChxP \k, Cu

CD I2 mhzu a u Hk Puz
ysh
B2 =

o I2
2 a

...(3)

CuU Pu u uzvS \[SzuP |UQ

\k. I1 mh Phzv AB Cu Puzv
Eu Au l }zv \k \
F = B2I1l

\k (3)I vh

F=

o I1I2l
2 a

(4)

[ vi, C\ F xPa \k. \k (2),

(4) Tmh \P J P. G, C PhzvP
mh J v\ u Pa] \P,
v\P u mk \P CUS.
117

B (ampere)
mh C Cn PhzvP l }zv \k
\
F =

o I1I2
l
2 a

KS }zv \k \,

o I1I2
F
=
l
2 a

I1 = I2 = 1A G a = 1m G Psh

4 10-7
1 1
=
= 2 10-7 Nm-1
2
1

o
F
=
2
l

Cvx B UP.
hzv
Ax
P
J
mh
Ch
UPmk, UPoUPzuUP SUS Psh, C }sh
CnUPhzvP , J mh }zv \ mh
Hkzx \ v 2 10-7 Nm1 G, Amh A J
B G UPkQx.

3.7 Pu zv mh \P ia _ x
Hk v \
l } b AP Psh PQRS G \P ia _U
Px (h 3.24). PQRS G _x B Puz ysh Psh
Pu zv UPmk, mh I \zukQx. _
uzvS k \[SzxUPk Puzxh Hkzx Pn
G.
S
F
2

F4

B
P

F4

I
B

F3

B
Q

F1

N
F3

h 3.24 Pu zv E
_ x \k v \
118

h 3.25 v \

JJJJJJG

QR G zv x \k \, F1 = I(QR) B
JJJJJJG

I(QR) B US Chmh Pn (90o ). G,

F1 Gs v = BIb sin (90o )
F1 = BIb cos

JJJJJG

SP G zv x \k \, F2 = I(SP) B
JJJJJG

I(SP) US B US Ch Pn (90o + ), G F2 Gs v
F2 = BIb cos
F1, F2 \P JUP \P B GvvP J Pmi
\ku _S.

JJJJJJG

PQ zv x \, F3 = I(PQ) B
JJJJJJG

I(PQ) US B US Ch E Pn 90o. G,

F3 Gs v,
F3 = BIl sin 90o = BIl

F3 Bx u uzvSa \[SzuP |UQa \k.

JJJJJG

RS zv x \k \, F4 = I(RS) B

JJJJJG

I(RS) US B US Ch E Pn 90o.
F4 Gs v, F4 = BIl sin 90o = BIl

C\, u uzvS \[SzuP E|UQa \k.

F3, F4 \P Gs v \P, Gvv v\,
PkP \ku, Pa _ x J v \
\k.

G,
v \, = BIl PN = BIl PS sin (h 3.25)
= BIl b sin = BIA sin

Pa _ n _P Cu
= nBIA sin

G, Pa _ u PuzvS CnP CUSx

v\, \[SzuP CUSx _ v\
\k.
119

3.7.1 C[S_ Pmh

C[S _ Pmh
mhzv AUS PS.

Gx,

m
T2

T1

S
Q
s

S
h 3.27 B
Pu

h 3.26 C[S _
P mh

uzx
Puzv mh _ J USx Av
v \ \k.

A
AvP GsoUP Phmh uU P
_, \ \P i EPa \mhzv x _mkx (h
3.26). \ \UTi vS Jx & sPU P ,
Pa
_x
Ch
i
Puzv
x[PUQh
u[PhkQx. Pa _ , sPU
P a _ (hair spring) vSh
CnUPmiUS. Pa _ zv u E
UPmiUS. Pu P AUP i Eu, Gu
{ _ x \k B Pu CnP CUS
(h 3.27).
J ] \ \u Bi (M), Pa _ u[Phmh
& sPU P x zumiUS. US
AP kzv _ P AUP.

UP
PQRS G J _ mk Px (h 3.28). I mh
_ a \uPU P. B Pu Gx
120

_ uzvS CnP \k. QR, SP [P x \ Gx

\kv. H, Cu [P Pu zvS CnP
CUS. PQ, RS UP[P PuzvS \[SzuP CUS.
PQ = RS = l, _ }
PS = QR = b, _ AP BS.
PQ x \k \ F = BI (PQ) = BIl.

[Q ChxP vi, C\ _ uzvS SzuP

|UQ \k.
RS x \k \ F = BI (RS) = BIl.

C\ u uzvSU SzuP E|UQa \k. Cu

Csk \, Gvv PkP Pa \k
\P J Cmh (couple) Hkzv _ UPha
\. _ n _P Cu,
Cmh v \ = n BIl b = nBIA
(h 3.29 x PnUQhkQx)
Pa _ P Ahx, u[Phmh P UPk.
m] s PnP \ ES. Cmh v \,
P US A zux. Pa _ P G
P

S
F

B
B

<

_ u v\

h 3.28

h 3.29

Cmh v \ = C
C Gx KS PUS Cmh v \

\{, Cmh v \ = Cmh v \

nBIA = C
121

C[S

I =

nBA
C
, Pmh
nBA

I = K Cv K =

Aux I
Pa _ UP Au \ mhzvS
|zuP
A.
kzuk
AP
|iP
mhzv Gs v AhmiUS.

3.7.2 S P C[S _ P mh
u[Phmh _ P P mh En ~m P
AvP. CuU Psk 10-8 B A mh[P
AUP. G, CU PPU P sk. BPzv
mh \a _ BPUS Cu A En ~m
A]. G S P Pmh kzukQx.
CP Pa _x ] C SskP x zumk,
\ AU S CnUPmk, mh \x
AP x C[S AUPmiUS. Cmhx
_ (Spring) J AUPk.

3.7.3

Pmh

mh

En

~m

(Current

sensitivity of galvanometer)

Pmh KS mh x Hk
P mh En ~m Gk. J Pmhx
Su mhzvS AvP P EshUS, En ~m
Pshx G.
Pmh,
mh En ~m,

nBA

I=

nBA
C

(1)

mh En ~mzv P AvPUP.
(i) Pa _ _P GsoUP AvPzu
(ii) Puz ysh AvPzu
(iii) _ AvPzu

122

(iv) u[Phmh P KS PUP v \U

Szu
JS PUP v \ v &sP
PUS PU S Gu, Au Pmh kzu.

3.7.4

Pmh

zu

sensitivity of galvanometer)

En

~m

(voltage

KS zuzvP P zu En ~m G.
zu En ~m,

nBA

=
=
IG
CG
V

C[S G Gx Pmh uh.

C[S mh En ~mzv Ezx x, zu
En ~m E GU T Cx Gu PUP sk.
Pa _ _P GsoUP (n) Ch[PUPkx,
mh En ~m Ch[PS (\k & 1). B _UP
GsoUP Ex, uh (G) E, G zu En
~m x.

3.7.5 Pmh AmhP (ammeter) u

J _ mh
u A Eu P
Ig
I
Pmh. mhz I
G
va \x P Hmh,
AP AP B
I-Ig
SUPmiUPx. En ~m
S
UP P Gu Au
AvP mhzv \zuU
Thx. H, Pa _
Amh
vUPh. C UP
Cn Su uh S
h 3.30 P mh
J
Cnu

AmhP u
Pmh
AmhP
(h 3.30). UP Cn uh Cnzuh (shunt)
Gk. A P B AhmiUS.
Cnzuhzv uh, Pmh si
123

mhzv A zux. Ig Gx Pmh

si mh G. CmhzvS A
P P Hk.
P mh uh = G
Cnzuh uh = S
_ mh = I
Cnzuh mh = Is = (IIg)
Pmhh,
zu \.

Cnzuh

UP

Cn

Eu,

Ig . G = (I- Ig)S
Ig

S = G I-I ...(1)
g
Ig Gx I& ]Sv. G, Cnzuhzv uh PU
SP CUS. Amh uh (G Eh S UP
Cn) Ra G
1
1
1
Ra = G + S
GS

Ra = G + S
Ra

v PU SP Cu, _ Amh
uhn
mk
CnUP
sk.
uhn
CnUSx _ uh AvP Hhx. G ]u
Amh Gx _ uhU PsiUS.

3.7.6 Pmh mmhP u

mh Phzv C PUQh
zu mi AUS P m mh BS.

P
mhh
uhn E uh
R
Cnu

mmh
G
(h 3.31). AP
AP mi SUPmiUS. Ig
uhn
CnUPk
m mh
uh v U Psk
h 3.31 Pmh
m mh |kUP (range)
m mhP u
A.
124

Pmh uh = G
Pmh P Hkzx mh = Ig
mmh |kUP = V
uh = R
Pmhh uh R uhP Eu, Pmh
mh
V
Ig = R + G

V
R = I G
g

Cvx, uhn CnUP si

vU PnUQh. m mh uh,

uh

Rv = G + R
Rv v P AvP Gu, _x, m mh PU
Su mhzu . G, m mh UP Cn
CnUP sk. Aux, zu AUP si PUQh
E uhU Pmi, m mh uh P AvPP
CUP sk. C AvP mhzv m mh
U Psk, _ Gg] Sv mhzv vU
Szxk. C{ Es zu mi h PU
Su zu mi AUP C. m mh AvP
uh PshuP Cu mk Cu z uUP.
uh D vP C, AUP J ]u m mhS.

3.8 mh Pu CPa \ku

Smh mh, a_ x u Pu
\U PkP, \mh Puzv u \UPkP J
v G B Pshu. C Pa _ Pu
F]U Psk \ J v PU Pn.
Csk {PP E Jzu sP Bx, mh
\ \mh Pu \k G UQ, CuU Pu
{PP Azx _ (circulating) mhzvu
Gx B Pzx.
mh Pa _ Aa] E J
Puz ysh,
o nIa 2
B =
2( a 2 + x 2 )3 /2
125

Cu Puzv v\, _ Aa] A Gu xP

v A. _ zvx AvP u E
PUS, x>>a, G a2 PU SP Cu \mi
Sv E a2 UPoUPzuUPuS. CzuP P
o nIa 2
2x 3

B =

J _ mk Pv n = 1, A = a2
o IA

B =
...(1)
2 x 3
] \mh Puzv Aa_UPmi J Puz
ysh
B =

o
2M
. 3
4
x

o
M
. 3
2
x

...(2)

\k (1) (2)I Jh
M = IA

...(3)

G, mh x M G vzv Psh Pu
CUSa \. M = IA
mh zv C UP
mh zv vzv G UP. Czvzv
zv uzvS SzuPa \k.

3.9 _ GUm Pu Cz vz v
} Aqvi, | mh Psh AqUPa
_ r B Psh mhu Gvmh Psh GUm _
. Cu, mh EshS. Chg_Pa \ GUm,
g_ v\ mhzv EshUS.
e
. C[S T Gx GUm _UP.
T
_u GUm v\P v, G

mh, i =

T =

2 r
v

i =

ev
2 r

mh u GUm CUP PnP, l G _u

Puz vz v (orbital magnetic moment) .

126

l = i A, C[S A Gx mh u
ev
. r2
2 r
evr
l
=
2
GUm { m G,

l =

e
(mvr)
2m

(m B UP, m B SUP)

mvr = l Gx AqUPa \u Pn Eu
e
l =
l
(1)
2m

l
l

e
2m

Gx J BS.

_ Pu Qu (gyro magnetic ratio) Gk Cu

v 8.8 1010 C kg-1. Pn Eux Smh Gs
vP Gx Pzx Aux,
nh
2

l=

...(2)

n Gx C Gs, [U , h = 6.626 1034 J s

\k (2)I (1) vh
l =

e
nh
neh
.
=
2m
2
4m

Puz vz v ] v
(l)] =
eh
4m

eh
, n = 1
4m

Gx Umh (Bohr magneton) Gk.

e, h, m vP vh, Umh v 9.27 1024

Am2 GU PnUQhmhx.

GUm _u CUPzv Pn _u Puz

vzvh, u_] PnP J Puz vzv CUS.
G J GUm Puz vz vx _u Puz
vzv u_] Puz vzv C Uh
TkuUSa \.
127

wUPmh PnUSP
3.1

B J _ PUS Ch 6V zu E
x 30 {h[PUS mh \zu, { 5oC
EQx. Au mhzv _ SUP 9V zu
E x 20 {h[PUS \zv Hk { E
G?
uP : V1 = 6V, t1 = 30 60 s, 2 1 = d = 50C
V2 = 9V, t2 = 20 60 s, d = ?

V12
t = w d
R 1

w :

V 22
t = w d
R 2
V22 t 2
d
=
d
V12 t1
d =

V 22 t 2

d
V 12 t 1

(9)2
2060

5
2
3060
(6)

d = 7.5oC.

3.2

100 W,

220 V J uhU

PnUQkP.
uP : P = 100 W, V = 220 V, R = ?
w :

3.3

P =

V2
R

R =

(220)2
V2
=
= 484
100
P

} `h J 1500 W, 220 V G SUPmkx. zu

180 V BPU Su kzv v G?
uP : P1 = 1500 W, V1 = 220 V, V2 = 180 V, P2 = ?
w : (i) P1 =

V12
R

128

V12
(220)2
= 32.26
R = P =
1500
1

(180)2
V22
=
32.26
R
P2 = 1004 Watt
P2 =

P1 =

P1
V2
= 12
P2
V2

P2 = P 1

3.4

V2
V12
, P2 = 2
R
R

V22
(180)2
=
1500

(220)2
V12
P2 = 1004 Watt.

mh }sh |UPhzvx 15 cm u
Hk Puz ysh v 4 10-6T G, mhzvU
PnUQk.
B = 4 10-6T, a=15 x 10-2m, I=?
uP :
o I
w :
B =
2 a
B 2 a 4 10 6 2 15 10 2
I =
=
o
4 10 7
I = 3A

3.5

200 _P, 20 cm B Psh Pa _ 5A

mh Qx. _ Aa]x Bzu h[S
u E Puz yshU PnUQk.
uP : n = 200; a = 20cm = 2 10-1m; I = 5A; x = 3a; B = ?
w :

B =
B =
B =

o nIa 2
2(a 2 + x 2 )3 /2

o nIa 2
2

2 3 /2

2(a + 9a )

o nI 10
a 200

onIa 2
2(10a 2 )3 /2

o nI
a 20 10

4 10 7 200 5 10
2 101 200

B = 9.9 x 10-5 T
129

3.6

30 cm mh, 5 _P Psh hm Pmh

4A mh \zukQx. PuU QhzuUT
v 4 10-5 T G, Hk P vU PnUQkP.

uP :

n = 5; I = 4A; d = 3 101 m; Bh = 4 105 T;

a = 1.5 101 m; = ?

w :

tan =

2aBh
tan
on
o nI
2aB h

4 107 5 4
2 1.5 101 4 105

tan = 2.093
= 64o 28

3.7

J hm Pmh 1A mh 30 o P
EshUSQx. 60o P EshUS mhzvU
PnUQkP.
uP :

I1 = 1A;

1 = 300;

2 = 600;

I2 = ?

I1 = k tan 1
I2 = k tan 2

I 2 tan 2
=
I1 tan 1

tan 2
I2 = I1 tan
1

I2 = I1

tan60o
1 3
=
= 3 3 = 3A
tan30o 1

I2 = 3A

3.8

J a _ } 2m, mh 3 cm. Ca_ 1000 _PU

Psh 5 HkPU Pshx. mh 5A G, _
zv Au Aa] Hk Puz yshU PnUQk.
uP : l= 2m, N = 5 1000 _P I = 5A, B = ?

130

N
.I
l
4 10 7 5000 5
B =
2
B = 1.57 x 10-2 T

B = o nI = o

w :

3.9

10-4 T Puz ysh Psh Pu zxh 30o Pnzv B

xP J 5 105 ms-1 Pzv C[SQx G, xP x
\k \U PnUQkP. ( xPx 2e |mh

Pshx)
uP :

B = 10-4 T, q = 2e, v = 5 105 ms-1, = 300, F = ?

w :

= Bqv sin
= B(2e) v sin 30o
=10-4 2 1.6 10-19 5 105

1
2

= 8 10-18N

3.10 XY uzv im P 104 ms-1 Pzv \zukQx. Z

v\ \k Puz ysh v 10-3 T. xP C[S
mh u BzvU PnUQk. (im {
3.32 10-27 kg mh 1.6 x 10-19C)
uP : v = 104 ms1, B = 103T, m = 3.32 1027 kg
e = 1.6 x 10-19C, r = ?

w :

mv 2
r
mv
3.32 1027 104
r=
=
= 2.08 101
Be
103 1.6 1019
r = 0.208m

Bev =

3.11 \Um jUP S \[SzuP 0.5 T Puz ysh

Psh Pu \zukQx. mhP kUPz
u A AvsnU PnUQkP. (mh
{ = 1.67 10-27 kg)
uP : B = 0.5 T, mp = 1.67 10-27 kg, q= 1.6 10-19C, = ?
Bq

w : = 2 m
p
0.5 1.6 1019
= 0.763 107= 7.63 106 Hz
2 3.14 1.67 1027
= 7.63 MHz
=

131

3.12

5A mh 50 cm } J Phzv 2 10-3 T Puz

ysh Psh Pu zvSa \[SzuP UPkQx.

Phzv x \k \ G?
uP : l= 50 cm = 510-1m, I= 5A, B = 210-3T ; = 90o, F = ?
F = BIl sin

w :

= 2 10-3 5 5 10-1 sin 900

F = 5 10-3 N

3.13 P 10 cm Ch 5 m } C PhzvP CnP

UPmk. Csi J A mh, J
v\ x 3.6 10-4 N Pa] \ \mh,
Phzv mh[PU PnUQkP.
uP : I1 = I2= I, l= 5m, a =10-1 m, F = 3.610-4N, I = ?
F

w :

o I1I 2l
2 a
2 107 I 2l
=
a
=

F .a
3.6 104 101
=
= 36
2 10 7 l
2 107 5
= 6A

I2 =
I

3.14 J 10 m }h, mh A, B, C G
PhzvP hzv Pmhmk UPmk. B x
\k uS \U PnUQkP.
w : A US B US Ch
Pa] \ Hk.
F1 Chx |UQ \k.

F1 = 24

10-5

F2

F1

2 107 I1I 2l
2107 3 410
F1 =
=
a
101

4A

5A

3A
10 cm

B , C PhzvPh Pa] \

10 cm

CUS.
F2 x Pa \k.
F2 =

2 107 I1I 2l
2107 4510
=
a
101
132

F2 = 40 10-5 N
F2 F1 = 16 10-5 N
F2 F1 = 16 10-5 N.

Phzv B Bx Phzv CI |UQ 16 10-5 N \h Pk.

3.15 20 cm 10 cm Psh Pa _ 100 _PU
Pskx. 5 10-3 T Puz ysh Psh Pu zv
u[PhkQx. 1mA mhzvS 150 PU Pmi,
Pa _ u[Phmh P US \ U
PnUQk.
n = 100, A = 20 cm 10 cm = 2 10-1 10-1 m2

uP :

B = 5 10-3 T, = 150, I = 1mA = 10-3A, C = ?

= 150 =

w :

180

15 =

12

rad

nBIA = C

C =

102 5 10-3 10-3 2 10-1 10-1

nBIA
=

12

C = 3.82 10-5 N m rad-1

3.16 20 uh Psh Pmh J 50 mA mhzvS

PU PkUS. Cu (i) 20 A AUS AmhP,
(ii) 120 V AUS m mhP G ?
uP :

G = 20 ; Ig = 50 x 10-3 A ; I = 20 A, S = ?
V = 120 V, R = ?

w :

Ig
1
20 50 10-3
(i) S = G . I-I =
=
-3
20 - 0.05
g
20 - 50 10

S = 0.05

Pmhh 0.05
CnUP sk.

Psh uh UP Cn

V
(ii) R = I G
g

133

120
20 = 2400-20 = 2380
50 10-3

R = 2380
uh
CnUP sk.

2380

Pmhh

uh

Cn

3.17 J Pmhh 12 uh UP Cn CnUP

kx, Pmk P 50 Px 10 PPU SQx.
P mh uh G?
uP : 1 = 50 P, g = 10 P, S = 12, G = ?
I 1

w :

Ig g

UP Cn zu \.
G. Ig = S (I-Ig)
G =

S (I - Ig )
Ig

12 (50 - 10)
10

G = 48

3.18 m Aq GUm 0.5

B Psh u
iUS 1016
_P HkzxQx. mh u
CUPzv GUm Puz vz vU PnUQkP.
uP : r = 0.5 = 0.5x10-10 m, n = 1016 s-1
w : mh u Pu vzv l = i.A
i =

e
= e.n
T

...(1)

...(2)

A = r2

...(3)

\k (2), (3) I \k (1) vh,

l = e.n. r2
= 1.6 10-19 1016 3.14 (0.5 10-10)2
= 1.256 10-23

l = 1.256 10-23 A m2

134

u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP
PnUSP vP. C, h Sv Gu J
Ax PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk
Svx mk, h x iUPhU Ti
UPUS PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

3.1

v
I2
t
R
(c) H = VIt

(b) H = V2 Rt

(a) H =

3.2

(d) H = IR2t

`h CP {U kzukQx. H Ax
(a) Su uh Gs Pshx.
(b) Su ES{ Pshx.
(c) AvP uh Gs Pshx.
(d) AvP Phzx Gs Pshx.

3.3

mh \v i SnP Gua \ux?

(a) mh E mh.
(b) mh |.
(c) \v {.
(d) mh mh.

3.4

J mh S\v { 20oC. v
{ 270oC G mk {x

3.5

(a) 520oC

(b) 540oC

(c) 500oC

(d) 510oC

m &\m v \k
o Idl

(a) dB =

4 r
JJJG G
o Idl r

(c) dB =
4
r2

3.6

o Idl sin

(b) dB =
4
r2
JJJG G
o Idl r

(d) dB =
4
r3

EmSzv Psh FhPzv D |Phzv J

mh x J Pu Ahzv ....... BS.
o I
o I
(a)
(b)
4 a
2 a
I
I
(c)
(d)
4 a
2 a
135

3.7

3.8

3.9

hm Pmh, Smh mhzvS P 30o.

Pa _ uzv 900 v Au mhzvS
Hk P
(a) 300

(b) 600

(c) 900

(d) 00

\Um kUPk mh xP _UPU

P Gua \uu?
(a) Puz ysh

(b) xP mh

(c) xP v\P

(d) xP {

^ Pu zv UPmh \PU Pa _ x
\k v \ P CUP,
(a) _UP GsoUP AvPP CUP sk
(b) _UP GsoUP SP CUP sk
(c) _ u Pu zvS \[SzuP CUP sk
(d) _ SP CUP sk

3.10 C[S
_
Pmh
Pa
_
u[Ph
&sPU PU P kzuU Pn
(a) Phzx v AvP
(b) uhGs AvP
(c) KS Pn PUP v \ AvP
(d) KS Pn PUP v \ S

3.11 \u[P J uh PU S
(a) C[S _ Pmh
(b) 0 1A Amh
(c) 010 A Amh
(d) m mh

3.12 G uh Psh Pmhh S uh Psh Cnzuh

CnUPkQx. C uh Ra G
T Gx \x?
(a) G Bx S&I hU S.
(b) S Bx Ra&I hU S. B, G h AvP
(c) Ra Bx G, S&I hU S
(d) S Bx G, Ra&I hU S
136

3.13 ]u m mh s.
(a) _ uh
(b) _ vS GUS Ch Smh uh
(c) G h AvPP B D v h Su uh
(d) D h

3.14 vU TP.
3.15 v {US \u .
3.16 i SnP .
3.17 : u\ SnP.
3.18 m&\m vU TP.
3.19 mh }sh, |, D Phzv J
Hk Puz ysh vP P P.
3.20 mh Pa _ Aa] x Hk
Puz yshUP uh P.
3.21 hm P mh uzx, A, CUP BQ
.
3.22 B _ vU TP.
3.23 B _vU kzv a_ Hk Puz
ysh v P.
3.24 B & .
3.25 Pu zv mh Phzv x \k
\ P P.
3.26 C[S _ Pmh uzx, A, C[S u
BQ .
3.27 J Pmh G (i) AmhP
?

(ii)

m mhP

PnUSP
3.28 J mh S \v { 20oC, mk
{ 600oC. S \v { 20oC G, mk
{U PsP.
3.29 }sh |UPhzv 10A mh x Avx
10 cm u Puz yshU PnUQk.
137

3.30 100 _P, 20 cm B Psh Pa _ ,

5A mh Qx. Pa _ Aa] x Au
zvx 20 cm u Puz ysh vU
PnUQkP.
3.31 _P GsoUP 2 : 3 : 5 G Quzv E hm
PmhP uhn CnUPmk mh
\zukx 30o, 45o, 60o PP HkQ.
Pa_P B[P QuzuU PnUQk.
m
} 2 uh
Psh | Phzv
12V zu Psh Ph CnUPkQx. CU Phzv
x 5 10-3 T Puz ysh Psh Puzv \[SzuP

3.32 1

UPk x Au x \k \U PnUQk.
3.33 25 cm B, 50 _P Psh Pa _ 6A
mh Qx. 10-3 T Puz ysh Psh Pu zv
CUPa _ u[PhkQx. Pa _ uzvS
k \[SzxUPk Pu zxh 600
Pnzv
Au, _ Hk v \U PnUQkP.
3.34 \Um jUPUS \[SzuP 0.5 T Puz ysh Psh
^ Pu \zukQx. imP kUPz u
v\ zuzv A|zvU PnUQk. (im
{ 3.3 10-27 kg mh 1.6 10-19C).
3.35 500 _P, 6 10-4 m2SUS Psh \PU Pa
_ 10-4 T Puz ysh Psh B Pu zv
u[PhkQx. u[Phmh P US\
5 10-10 N m /degree G 10o P Hkzx
mhzvU PnUQk.
3.36 Csk Cn D PhzvP J A
mh \zukQx. PhzvPUQh u 20 cm.
KS }zvS PPh \k Pa] \ 4.9 10-5 N
G mhzvU PnUQkP.
3.37 3m } Psh a_ 4000 _P E. _ zv
Aa] x 8 10-3 T Puz ysh EshUPz u
mhzuU PnUQk.
3.38 J Pmh uh 100 . Czxh UP Cn 1
uh CnUPkQx. zu mhzv G Sv
P mh a \?
138

3.39 J Pmh uh 40 . Cx 2 mA mhzvS

PU PkUS. Cu 0 x 20V
zuzv AUS m mhP G ?
3.40 J Pmh AP 50 P E. Au
mh En ~m 0.1 m A/division P mh uh
40 . Czxh 0.1 uh UP Cn CnUPmh,
AUPk mh v G?

hP
3.1

(c)

3.2

(c)

3.3

(c)

3.4

(a)

3.5

3.6

(d)

3.7

(d)

3.8

(c)

3.9

(a)

3.10 (d)

3.12

(c)

3.13 (d)

3.11 (c)
o

3.28

560 C

3.30

5.55 10

3.32

3 10

3.34

2.6 10

3.36

-5

3.29

2 10

3.31

6 : 3 3 : 5

3.33

5.1 10

3.35

0.166 m A

7 A

3.37

4.77 A

3.38

1/101

3.39

9960 uhP

3.40

2 A

-4

-2

N
-7

139

-2

Nm

(d)

4. Puz ysh v\ mh
1820 B Bsi Qi Jhm G, mh
Phzva _ Pu ES Gua \u
\x Pmi. Au Cu uP Puzv
yshmh US \ EUSuP ]P
Pmh.

4.1 Puz ysh

Jhm \u u UP Lh \u
\x Pmi. J Phzvh uh Psh Pu zu
u AUPhzv PUQh US \
yskuP UQ. Cx Puz ysh G
AUPmhx. Puz ysh Pskix Ezv
J m] Hkzvx.

4.1.1 Pu
Pu B& UPmh
h uh Psh Pu
(), hmh (A)
Phx \ Pu\ PkP
GsoUP
G
UP
kQx (h 4.1). Gx Pu
zv v\US, S
mh SzxUPmiS Ch
E Pn G,
= B . A

^
n

h 4.1 Pu

= BA cos

4.1.2 yshmh US \ mh & Puz

ysh
J hmh _h uh Psh Pu zv Hk
x Aa_ J US \ EQx. Cx yshmh
US \ G Au hmh u mh
yshmh mh G AUPkQ. J hmh
140

_h uh Psh Pu
zv [P Hk x
US \ yshk {P
Puz ysh GkQx.
Lh

\uP
\uu Puz ysh
Pskizu.

G
C

N
h 4.2 E C G
Ei Pa _, Phmh
u PP _PP _
S
EUPmhuS. Cx EnUP
h 4.2 Puz
G G P mhh uhP
ysh
CnUPmkx.
NS
G
\mhU Pu Au h Pa _ |UQ CUS
zx , RP |PzukQx. Cvx Lh RPq
iP zu.

(i) Pa _US PuzvS Ch J CUP E

u P mh E S P Ah. Cx _
yshmh mh uU PmkQx.
(ii) P mh Hk P Pn |zvS {PU Tix
(momentary). Cu P Pa _US, PuzvS Ch

\UP E mk }iUS.
(iii) Puzu, Pa _ |UQ Pa _ mk
S |Pzv mh v\ Qx.
(iv) Puzu PP |Pzv P AvPP, Puzu
xP |Pzv P SP CUS.
(v) Puzv P , Aux u Pa _

|UQ CUS zx |Pzv Au iP u kQ.

B mh Gv v\ Qx.
Lh, Puz ysh \u P \x
Pmi.
C1 C2 G C Pa _P JUP AQ
UPmku h 4.3 PmkQx. C1 G Pa_ Bt G
Pzxh \ K uh Rh P CnUPmkx.
C2 G Pa _ G G EnUP P mhh CnUPmk
141

C1 US AQ UPmkx. K G \ Azx x C2G

_h CnUPmk P mh Pn| UPzuU Pmk.

Cx C2 G _ mh yshkuU SUQx. Cx G
{PQx G, mh C1 P z x[Q _ u J u
v Ah EQx. Cu C1 G _h uh
Psh
Pu
C
C
AvPUQx. G C2
G Pa _h
uh
Psh
P u
AvPUQx. Cx C2
G
C
mhzuz
K
ysi, P mh
()
Rh
P HhU PnP
Bt
h 4.3 Puz ysh
AQx (h 4.3).
1

K G \ Azuku {zv, P mh E
S Gvv\ P Ah. Cx C2 sk mh
yshkuU PmkQx. Cx G {PQx G, C1 C
mh vx _US S x C1 C uh
Psh Pu S, G C2 C uh Psh Pu

SQx. Cx P mh Gv v\ P Aha \Qx.

4.1.3 Puz ysh Lh vP

Puz ysh ux BP Aih Lh
RUPsh Csk vP {.

u v
J hmh _k uh Psh Pu x
Au _ US \ yshkQx. Pu zv {Px
PsiUS mk yshmh US \ }iUS.

Csh v
hmh _ yshmh US \ Gs v, _h
uh Psh Pu uzvS |zuP CUS.
Pa _h uh Psh Pu zv uhUP v 1
G t PzvS Ax 2 uP Psh Pu
u =

2 1
t

142

Lh vi, yshmh US \ Gsv,

e

2 1
t

dt G Pzv Hk Pu d G, Psh

\mh e

d
G Gu.
dt

4.1.4 v
A u H.F. G 1835 B Bsi, J
_ yshmh mhzv v\U Sk G
vU Pskizu.
J _ yshmh mhzv v\, Gx Au
EUPU PnP Cu Pu zu GvUS P
A.
J Pa_ N _PU PsiuP, J _h
uh Psk Pu G Psh Gu J Pnzv
Pa _k uh Psh zu Pu N BS.

e =

N (2 1 )
d
Nd
(N), e =
=
t
dt
dt

B A
v

Aih
S

E i uizu Amh x
_mk uU Pa _ C P
EnUP P mhh CnUPkQ.
h 4.4 Pmi J \mh Pu Pa _
|UQ |PzukQx. Pa _ Pu
h Qx.
Cu P Puzu, mk \US
GvP |Pzu \ six. \mh
Puzu Pa _ mk S | |Pzx
x Pa _ Pu uP
Qx. Cx Puzu |Pzu Pa] \US
GvP

\
sk.
Pu
|Pzukx Pa _h uh Psh
Pu\U PkP GsoUP Qx. Cu
143

h 4.4
v

Pu u Pa _ ysh mhzu EshUSQx.

vi yshmh mhzv v\ Gx Pu
C[Su GvUS P CUS. G, Puzu |Pzu
\k P kQx. Cu Pa
_ BP nQx. CuS P, Pa _
yshmh mhzv v\, Puzv CUPzvS Eu P
CUS Pu P |PvUS. BP, Pa
_k uh Psh Pu zv AvPUS. G,
yshmh mhzv A AvPzvUS. BP, x
\h CUP B EQUS.
B, Cx |h Cu {P BS. G, yshmh
mhzv v\ Gx Au EUPU PnP Cu \
GvUPU Ti P A. CP B A v
Aih v UP C.

4.1.5 L[ xP v
x P BPmi , |k BQ
JUP \[SzuP zxU Psk, BPmi
Puzv v\, Phzv C[S v\ SuPU
Psh |kx yshmh mhzv v\U SUS
Gu L[ xP vS. Cx v G
AUPkQx.

4.2 u ysh
J Pa _ mhzv Hkx
AUPa _ J Gv US\ yshk {P u
ysh Gk.
h 4.5 C Pmi Pa _ J P Bt \
K Eh uh Cn CnUPkQx. \ Azuk
x Pa _
mh, Au vS
AvPUQx. AuS H Pa _k
uh Psh Pu AvPUQx.
G yshmh mh Pa
_ Qx.

vi,
yshmh
mhx, Pzvx
mhzvS Gv v\ x,
144

K
( )

Bt

h 4.5 u ysh

Pa _ mh AvPu GvUQx. \ Azuku

{zv Pa _ mh _US S. G Pa
_h uh Psh Pu S. vi,
yshmh mhx, Pzvx mhzvS
Gv v\ x, Pa _ mh Su GvUQx.

4.2.1 u ysh Gs
I G mh J Pa _ x Pa _k

uh Psh Pu , mhzvS |UuP CUS.

I

or

= LI

Cv L Gx Qu BS. Cx u { Gs Ax u
ysh Gs GkQx.
I = 1A G = L 1 Ax L = G, KS mh

J Pa _ x, AUPa _k uh
Psh Pu, AUPa _ u ysh Gs GkQx.
Puz ysh vPi
d
d
dI
= (LI ) Ax e = L
e =

dt
dt
dt
dI
= 1 A s1 G, L = e BS
dt

Pa _ J mh J |iUS J B G
uzv x AUPa _ yshk Gv US \
Gsn Aa_ u ysh GsoSa \ BS. u
ysh Gso AS henry (H) BS.
Pa _ J mh J iUS J B
G uzv x, AUP yshk Gv US \
1 m G A, Aa_ uysh Gs 1 G
UPkQx.

4.2.2 }sh a_ u ysh Gs

l G }zu A G SUS Psh N _PU
Psh J a_U Px. Cv I G mh uPU
P. a_ Gu J Pu B G

J _UP Pu = B J _
B,

B=

oNI
l

145

J _UP Pu =

o NIA
l

G, a_k uh Psh Pu ()
Gx
J _ Pu zu _P GsoUP
BQ UPU QhUS vS.
o NIA
=

N
l
N2IA
Aux, = o
...(1)
l
L Gx a_ u ysh Gs G
= LI

...(2)

\kP (1) (2)x

o N2IA

LI =

L =

Pa _ EP G Pu EmSv Psh
{kQx G
L=

2
l

BS.

4.2.3 J ysih (Inductor) uh Psh B

Pa _ J mh x Au u {
mh a] GvUS. G, Pa _ mhzu {
[P \h sk. e Gx yshmh US
\ G
e = L

dI
dt

dt G P Ch \mh ] dw G
dw

= e.I dt
= L

dI
I.dt
dt

mh _x vUS (Io) AvPUP \k

w = dw =

Io

I dI

146

Cu x _ {P \zx UPkQx.
_ \UPmh B
Io

= L IdI =
0

1
L I o2
2

\mi E GvUS v Aihx.

G, Gsn ysi \UPmh B

1
L Io2BS.
2

4.2.4 ysh
JUP APP E C Pa _P, J _h
uh Psh Pu x _ Pu
. Cu Cshx _ US
\ yshk. J _
G
mhzv

Hkx
_ US\ yshk
S
{P ysh Gk.
h 4.6& P S G
JUP AP UPmk Pa
P
P mh
_P BS. P G _ K G \
P Pzxh CnUPmkx.
+ ( )
S G Pa _ G G P mhh
K
h 4.6
CnUPmkx. K G \ Azx
ysh
x P G _ mh
_x vUS AvPUS. mh AvPUS x
Ph Cnu Pu AvPUS. G S Eh Cnu
Pu AvPUS. Cu S C US \ yshk.
Cx P mh P Hk. vi S C
yshk mh, P C mhzvS GvP x P
C mh zvS AvPu uukzx. K G
\ Azuku {zv P mh zvx _
|UQ S. Cu P Ph uh Psh Pu
S. vi S C yshk mhzv v\x P
mh Su GvUS P A. G P C
mh Su uukzx.

4.2.5 ysh Gs
IP Gx P G _ mh G, s Gx P G
_ mhzv S G _k uhh Pu
147

G Psh

s IP Ax s = M IP

Cv M Gx Qu BS. Cx { Gs Ax
ysh Gs G AUPkQx.
IP = 1A, G M = s

G, _ J KS mh x
_ yshk Pu Gsn A _PUS Ch
E ysh GsoSa \S. Gu J Pnzv S G
_ yshk US \ es G, Puz ysh
vPi,
ds
dI P
d
es =

dt

M =

dt

(MIP) = M

dt

es
dI P
dt

dI P
= 1 A s1, G, M = es G A.
dt

G, _ J mh J |iUS J B
G uzv x, _ yshk GvUS
\ Gsn A _P ysh GsoSa \ .
ysh Gso AS henry BS.
J _ mh J |iUS J B G
uzv x _ yshk Gv US\
J m G, A _PUQh E ysh
Gs J BS.
C Pa _PUQh E ysh Gs
a \xx.
(i) _ n, i, _P GsoUP EPP

k Pu EmSv BQa \ux.

(ii) Pa _P JUP G AQ E Gua

\ux.
P S G C _P Aa_P h 4.7a C Pmi
JUP |USzuP Au P G _ mh
x S G _h uh Psh Pu SP

CUS. G A _PUS Ch E ysh

148

P
P

S
S

S
(a)

(c)

(b)

h 4.7 ysh
Gs SuP CUS.
Csk _P J x Aa\U PsiUS zx P
_ mhzua \zx x S _h uh Psh
Pu AvPP CUS (h 4.7b). G, C _PUS Ch
E ysh Gs AvPP CUS.
Csk Pa _P u EPzv x _mi,
(h 4.7c) ysh Gs P AvPS.

4.2.6 C }sh a_P ysh

h 4.8C Pmi S1
S2 G l } C a_P BS.
S2 G a_ S1 G a_ x P
|UPP _mkx.
S2

N1 N2 G S1

S1
S2

h 4.8 C }sh
a_P
ysh

G a_P E _P
GsoUPPS. C a_P J SUS A Psh
G, A Jh J P |UPP _mk G
Px. S1 G a_ I1 G hzv
Aa_ Gu J ES Pu B1 GU Psh
B1

= o N 1 I1
l

...(1)

S2 & J _h uh Psh Pu B1A BS.

N2 _PU Psh S2 G a_h uh Psh zu

Pu
2

= B1AN2

B1 v \k (1)x vk \,
2

= o 1 I 1 A N2
l

149

o N 1N 2 AI 1

...(2)

l
= MI1

B 2

...(3)

Cv M Gx S1 S2 G a_PUQh E
ysh Gs BS.
\kP (2) (3)x
o N 1N 2 AI 1
MI1
M

o N 1N 2 A
l

EP G Pu EmSv Psh {kQx

G
M

N1N 2 A
l

4.3 yshmh US \ EUS P

yshmh US \UP \k
e =

d
d
=
(NBA cos ) Gx uuu.
dt
dt

G, (i) Puz ysh (B) u , (ii) _ EhUQ

(A) u (iii) Puzu zx _
v\ A () u yshmh UP \
.

4.3.1 Puz ysh u US \z

ysku
J Puzu Pa _ |UQ Ax Pa _mk
Qa \ |Pzxu Puz ysh . Cu
Pa _ yshmh US\ EUPkQx.
AQ E Pa _ mhzu u J
_h uh Psh Puz ysh . Au Aa_
yshmh US \ ES.

dB

e = NA cos
dt

4.3.2 _ Eh[Q u US
\z ysku
PQRS
G Phzv h 4.9 Pmi izv
UPmkx. L1 M1 Gx l }h | PhzvS. Cx PQ
150

B
L1

L2
P

l
M1

dx

M2

h 4.9 u US
\ yshku
RS G [P x UPmkx. B G ^ Pu
Phzv uzvS SzuPa \kQx. Phzv hmh
L1QRM1 BS. L1M1 G | Phzv dt P A dx u
|PQx G Phzv EhUS v L2QRM2 BS. Phzv
EhUS L2L1M1M2 G A ku Phzvh uh
Psh Pu Qx. G Phzv yshmh US
\ EUPkQx (h 4.9).
k, dA = L2L1M1M2

dA = l dx

Pu , d = B.dA = Bl dx
B e =

e =

d
dt
Bldx
= Bl v
dt

Cv v Gx | Phzv |P v\P BS.

4.3.3 Puzv _ v\ () u
US \z ysku
PQRS Gx N _P A SUS Psh \P
i Pa _ BS. Cx B G ^ Pu zv UPmkx
(h 4.10). CuU Pa _, PuzvS \[SzuP Au
Aa\ G Pnzv\Pzxh g_P _kQx.
uhUPzv Pa _ \[Szu { Ex GU Psh
_ SzxUPk Puzxh Hkzx Pn _ BS. t G
151

Pzv _x (=t) Pn _kQx. Ax _h

uh Psh Pu G
= NBA cos

yshmh US \, e =

d
d
= NBA
cos (t)
dt
dt

e = NBA sin t

...(1)

yshmh US \ v Eo = NAB
G yshmh US \ e = Eo sin t GU
Sh.
P t I zx yshk US \ e x \ A

izv Qx. Au Avs =

_P / i BS.
2

(i) t = 0 G {, _ u, B G PuzvS SzuP

Ex. G e = 0.
t = /2 G {, _ u, B G PuzvS
CnP Ex G e = Eo.
(ii)

e
O

+E0
3_
_
2

_
2

-E0

h 4.10 v\ u US
\ yshku
152

(iii) t = G {, _ u, B G PuzvS
\[Pnzv Ex G e = 0.
(iv) t = 3/2 G { _ u sk PuzvS
CnP Ex. G e = Eo.
(v) t = 2 G {, _ } sk B G PuzvS
\[SzuP Ex. G e = 0.

_ P R G uh P a _h CnUPk
x Aa_ mh \ PhP A.

4.4 AC (h) J Pmh (single phase)

Cv B P Eu P ac S.
P A u {S h G u u
iUPmhx.

uzx
Pa _ J ^ Puzv _k x Av
US \ yshk G Puz ysh uzxzv
Aih \kQx.
AC UQ P[P

(i) _ _
_ _ Gx uPkP B u EP Ax
zv x AvP GsoUP Ph uU P
_mh \P i Pa _ BS. u EP, Pa _
P Puzu AvPuk _ _ u[SuS
EuQx.

(ii) U Pu
v Su h
J { Puzv
u
Pu
EUPkQx.
AvP
v
Psh h Puzv

u
Pu
EUPkQx. _ _x
PuzvS
SzuP
Au
Aa\
Pu
PUS
Ch _Qx.
153

v
AkUS B

B1
2

R1
R2

h 4.11 AC h

(iii) | [P
_ _ Csk P R1 R2 G Csk Eh
EP [Ph CnUPmk. Cu [P __
_a \ Aa_z ushk zu mku _ _h \x
| [P _Q.

(iv) yPP
B1 B2 G Csk |Qz uh EPz uPkP

Ax P yPP BS. AP, | [Ph

Azumh { Cu Ah Cn HkzxQ.
yPP, _ _ ES mhzu | [P P
a_ \ EuQ.

\ u
Puzu zx Pa _ v\ x
AUPa _k uh Psh Pu Qx. Au, Pa
_ US\ yshkQx. yshmh mhzv
v\ L[ x P vx A.
_ _ ABCD uhUPzv \[Szu { Ex GU
Px. Cx Chg_P _kQx. _ AB G Sv
R|UQ DC G Sv |UQ |P (h 4.11). L[
x P vi AB G zv yshk mh B x
A US, CD yshmh mh D x CUS . G
Pa _ mh DCBA G v\ . a_
mh B1 x B2US .
_ _ _kx, _ AB |UQ
DC R|UQ |P. Cx, _ _ mh ABCD G
v\ . a_ mh B2 x B1US . _
_] uh x a_

mh,
_
J Aa _US u
v\ U Psh CUS.
G yshmh mh
CP A (h
4.12). _ _ J i
_]P iUS _P /
|i Avs Psh v\
mh EUPk.

t
sin
e=E 0

154

3
__
2

_
2

3
2

7__
2

5__
2

h 4.12 \ A izv
US \ u

Gu J Pnzv yshmh US \ e = Eo sin t

US \ v Eo = NBA
Cv N Gx _ E _P GsoUP
A Gx _ Eh[S
B Gx Pu
Gx _ Pnzv\PS.

4.4.1 AC (Alternator) Pmh

J Pmh J J __U PsiUS. J
_ _P kzv, Ax Pmh
(Polyphase alternator) Gk. Pmh , Gzu _P
Ax Pmh[P PsiUQ Azu zu A
i[Pz uUS. Pmh A H
_P, J Aa_h u Pmh[PUS H \ Pn A
\x CUS zumiUS. Su \, AvP vh
(efficiency), AvP A Khzvx ChzvS
A Pmh P AvP A kzukQ.

Pmh US \ Ezv
Pmh Pa _P EvP Jh
J 120o Pn A \vUS \zx UPmk. Cu
A PuzvS SzuP Au Aa\ _kQx.
J _ uzu | [P, yPP Psh
APU Psk.
J _ 120o Pmh mi
US \ yshkQx. a1 a2, b1 b2
c1 c2 BQ _P J Aa_h
120o Pn A \x CUS
zumk Puzv Chg_P
_kQ (h 4.13a).
a1 a2 G Pa _ AB G {

Ex Av yshk US \
_S. Cx |zv\ AvPUPz
uh[S. Au \zv b1 b2 G _
a1 a2US 120o u[Q CUS. G, Cv
yshmh US \ Gvzv\
v |UQ . , c1 c2 G _
155

N
c2

b2

a1

a2
b1

c1
S

h 4.13 a 3 Pmh ac

_h
240o
Pn A u[Q emf
Ea a
Eb b
Ec c
CUS. G, Cv
yshmh
US
\
|zv\
O
2
3
t
vU Phx Sx
PsiUS. CP
120
120
120
Pa _P
yshk
US
h 4.13 b 3 Pmh US \
\P
Gsn
\P J Avsn PshuP CUS. _P
yshmh US \P
Ec c

a1 a2

e
= Eo sin t
a1 a2
= Eo sin (t 2/3)
e
b1 b2
e
= Eo sin (t 4/3)
c1 c2
a1 a2, b1 b2 c1 c2 G Pa

_P yshmh US \P
Pmh kP h 4.13b h 4.13c.
BQ Pmhmk.

4.5 _ mh[P

240
120
Eb b
1

Ea1a2

h 4.13 c _
_UQh
Pn Cha]

EPU Pmi J
Puzv
C[S
x Ax {P
E
EPU
Pmi
\ Pu

x
EPU
S
N
Pmi
mh
yshkQx Gu 1895
B
Bsi
Pm
h 4.14 _ mh
G Psh. EPU
Phzv ysh k Cu mh, _ P Ax }a_
(eddies or whirl pool) hmh u Qx. G,
CP mh _ m h G AUPkQx. _
mhzv v\ vU Psk Ax P.
mhzumk Phzv Ax EPzuPk, Puzv (h 4.14)
PUQh A x uPmiS _ mh
156

EQx. C mhzv v\x, Gv \h

Phzv CUPzu GvUS P A. G Phzvx
Qmhzumh Av {US xk. EPzuPmi xP
Hkzv Au Pu zv Aa \u _
mhzv SUPk. Au P uPk
Puzv uh A. EPU PmiUSvP
uPkP kzxu _ mhzuU SUP.

_ mhzv P
(i) A P mh (Dead beat galvanometer)

J P mh mhzua \zv Pa_

Av {US uS |k{ PU Psk
A. Pa_ EhiP Av {US Psk uPP
PU _x J EPa \mhzv x _kQx. Cx,
Pa_ P Ah x EPa \mhzv _ mh[P
ES. Cua _ mh[P, Pa _ Au
GvUS. Cx Pa_ Hzu EhiP \{ Aha \.
Pa _ AP EhiP { ku Cu P mh
A P mh GkQx.
(ii) ysh E (Induction furnace)

ysh E, E {x _ mh[P
Hkzxu EUPkQx. kzuh si
AvP Avs Psh Ch Puzv UPkQx.
G A _ mh EQx.
mhzv EP ESQx.
(iii) ysh mhP (Induction motors)

_ (rotor) GUPk EP E _Q Puzv

UPkx Av _ mh[P EUPkQ. _
mh, uhUPzv EUS _ PuzvS Ch
E \UPzu SUP Qx. Pu uhx _Psh
Cu EP E uhx _kQx. CP mh
]P kQx.
(iv) Puz uhP (Electro magnetic brakes)

C si \UP[Ph J Eh EP E
CnUPmkx. C si CUPzv Ex \UPzxh
E \x _. uh \kzxx
Pu
EUPmk
E
_
mh[P
EUPkQ. Cu _ mh[P E CUPzu
157

GvUS. G, C si K {US Qx.

(v) P Pmk P (Speedometer)

P Pmk P, Pu J Pzv PzvS H

_Qx. _P (hair springs) Eu J Smh
{ UPmk A E Pu _Qx.
Puzv
_]
E
_
mh[P
EUPkQ. Cu mh[P _ Puzv CUPzu
GvUQ. Cu, E x J v \ Hmk Pzv
PzvS H J Smh Pn AS vQx. Eh
zumk S, Sk \ A P x |Px
Pzv PzuU Pmk.

4.6 (Transformer)
Su v\ zuzu AvP v\ zuP,
AvP v\ zuzu Su v\ zuP
Eu \u GkQx. Cx, J _x
_US Qx. x Puz ysh uzxzv
Aih \kQx.
u EPzv x _mh Jh J
uh A u xna _P E (h 4.15). _
mh[PU SUP uPkP B u EP
kzukQx. v\ Ek zu ua_US
ukQx. ua_ uhx hx Psh CUS
mh, k Puzu ua _ EshUS. Cx
xna _ Pu zu Hkzx. Cu xna _
US\ yshkQx.
u
EP ES G

EP

u xna _P

yshk US \P
G, NP NS G
u xna
_P
E
_P
xa_
GsoUP G P.
ua_
u

xna
h 4.15
_Ph
J
A
Pu uh Psku Csk _P _ JP
yshk US \ \P CUP sk.
158

P
s
Aux N = N
P
s

Ax

Es N s
=
EP N p

(1)

J | US (ideal transformer) Ek v
k v \.
Ep Ip = Es Is

Cv Ip Is G u xna _P
mh[P BS.
E

s
P
Aux E = I
P
s

...(2)

\kP (1) (2) x

Es N s I P
=
=
EP N p I S = k

Cv k Gx Qu GkQx.
[H US k > 1; CUS US k < 1]
H Es > Ep Gx Is < Ip G A GuU
SUS. G H , mhzuU Su
zuzu AvPUQx. Cx B A v Aih
Axx. Cx CUS mhzu AvPu
zuzuU SUQx.

v
v Gx k vUS Ek
vUS E uP G UPkQx.
=

k v
Es I s
= E I
Ek v
P P

v CP Hx Cu J | US v
= 1 (Aux 100 %).

B, |h v CP
Hku Au v Gx Jh SP CUS.
159

 Hk v CP
(1) uUP C
Ek v\ mh, C EPzu vz v
PuUSu, Puzu CUPa \u Hk v
C uUP C Gk. Su uUP CU Psk
EP[P kzv CzuP v CU SUP.
mh ]UP j P EP[P kzv
uUP CU SUP.

(2) u C
u xna _P mh
Hkzx. G, ]x B, B i
CUPkQx. Su A uh Psh ui PP
kzxu CzuP CU SUP.

(3) _ mh C (C C)
k Pu, EPzv _ mhzu HkzxQx.
Cu, B C i HkQx. GLQ P EP
h G EPU P EUPmh uPkP
EPzu Au Cu CU SUP.

(4) C
ua _ ES Pu x, U P]
PnP, xna _h uh Pv. Cx B C
HkzxQx. TkP EPzu kzx CzuP
CU SUP.
Psh CPh, EPzv AvP PnP Hk J
B C HkzxQx.

4.6.1 }sh uS v Au
JxUS Ch[P Ax Ezv {[P
EzvS v, kP u\P EPzvPP
SvPUS AkQx. }sh uS v A
A Phzx P B \ CnUS
PP AUPkQ. Cu CnU PP v CP
HkQ.
R G uh Eh P mh I G,
ShzuUP A I2R G v BP nQx.
G, kzx k v, uUPmh
160

CnU P

H
Ezv {

CUS
xn {

h 4.16 }sh uS v Au
v h PUSP CUS. B v E
zuzv A v C Po\PU SUP Gu
RUPq Csk {PP A (h 4.16).

{P (i) 11,000 W v 220 V, zuzv AkQx

G
B

P = VI
P
I =
V

11, 000
= 50A
220

R Gx CnU P uh G, v C = I2R =
502R = 2500 R watts

{P (ii) 11,000 W
AkQx G

v 22,000 V ;

zuzv

11,000
P
=
= 0.5 A
22,000
V
v C = I2R = (0.5)2 R = (0.25) R watts

I =

G, E zuzv v A BP
v C HkuU Po\P SUP Gx uQx.
11,000 W v, 220 V zuzv A sk
CnU P mh u[S 50A BP CUPsk.
B 22,000 V zuzv A x Auv 0.5 A. G
AvP mhzu (50A) Gkzxa\ ui PP EP
kzu sk. Cx, v AuP \ AvPkzx.

Cuz ui PPz u[P P[P G

sk. Cx \ AvPUS. CuS P v AvP
zuzv A EPkzuk PPUS Su
mh u[S \Uv Cu x. ui PPUS
vP PP kzu. Cx v AuS BS
\ Po\PU SUS.
161

GkzxUPmhP, 400MW v, 15,000 V A |

E Ezv {zv Ezv \kQx. Cx
AkuS uP 230,000 V BP H
EzukQx. Cu v \ Qi (Grid) J SvP
A PP AkQx. Cu \ Qm |mi
SvP CnUQx. |P[PUS CUS PU
Psk zux 110,000 V BP SUPkQx. sk,
vx P 11,000 V BP SUPkQx.
mhPUS (user) [PkuS AP uUS
H 230 V Ax 440 V AUS zu SUPmk
[PkQx.

4.7. v\ mh
Puzv _ Pa _, v\ US \,
G v\ mhzu EUS. _ yshk
US \ Gsv v\ Pzu zx
UPsh Cu Cx v\ US \ G
AUPkQx. v\ US\ P kzv
UPU Ti P \vUS H Su zuP Ax
AvP zuP U P C Gx Cu ]
A\S. yshmh US \ Avsn, _ _
_] Pzu u AUP i. Cx Pu
{ E AvsP |UP[PUPP |
kzvU P \zvQx. GkzxUPmhP, Cv kPUS
50 Hz Avs Psh v [PkQx. J Pm]UP
\PP A 100 KHz u 100 MHz AvsP Psh
v\ mh u. H kP PnP
|kP v\ mhzu kzxQ.

4.7.1 v\ mhzu Aku

v\ mh Pzu zx uhx UPsh
Cu, J a _UP \\ v _S. G Cu
v\ mhzv v Ah kQx.

v\ mhzv RMS v
v\ mhx J uhUQ J P
Smh | x EUS B, Au |zv
Au uh EUS u |mhzv v, v\
mhzv v rms v GkQx.
162

 v \
mhzv rms v
Gx
v\
mhzv

v G AUP
kQx.
Cu
Irms
Ax
I
G
Sh.

I02

+I0
Irms
0

-I0

sin t

i=Io

G
v\ mh G
h 4.17 I, I2, Irms Pzua \x
uh
R
P
ku.
x (dt) G ]
P A uh EUS
dH = i2 R dt

J a _US uh ES zu
H =

2
i R dt =

(I

2
o

sin2 t ) R dt

I o 2R T
1 cos 2 t )

dt
cos 2 t .dt
dt

= 2

O
2

0
O

= Io

2R

I o 2R
I o 2R
sin 2 t
t
=
=

2
2
2 0

H =

sin 4

T 2

T =

I o 2RT
2

Cu x, Au uhUQ (R) Au Pzv (T)

mhzv v EUS zvSa \.
Aux, H = I2rms RT

I2rms RT =
Irms =

Io
2

I o 2RT
2
= 0.707 I0

Cu
Erms =

Eo
2

GU PnUQh.

163

v\ mhzv rms v, v\ mhzv

v 0.707 h[PP CUS. P, Cx v
70.7 % CUS GU T.

4.7.2 uhUQ mk Eh AC _
R uhh uhUQh J v\ US

\ CnUPmkx GU P. Gu J Pnzv
\kzuk US \
e = Eo sin t

...(1)

t G Pzv, _ mh i G R G
uhUQ, SUP zu k e = i R

zu k, \zuk US \USa \.
R

e,i

e=E0 sin t
(a)

eR

(c)

(b)

h 4.18 uhUQ Eh AC _
G, iR = Eo sin t
i=

Eo
sin t
R

i = Io sin t

Cv Io =

...(2)

E0
Gx _ v\ mhzv v
R

BS.
uhUQ
CnUPmh
_

Pn|
mhzu
\k
(2)
PmkQx.
zu

mhzvP \kP (1) (2) x zu,

mh J Pmhzv E Gx Qx (h 4.18b).
164

h 4.18c, mhzvS zuzvS E uhU

Pmk PmhhS. (Phasor diagram)

4.7.3 ysi (Inductor) mk Eh AC _

J v\ US \zv US \, L G
u ysh Gs Eh y ysiUS ukQx GU P.
UPoUPzuUP AUS Su uh PsiUS ysi,
uPkP B C EPzv x _miUS. ysiUS
v\ US \ AUPku \zuk zuzu
GvUPUTi u ysh US \, Av EUPkQx.
GkzxUPmk Aha _ (choke coil).
Gu J Pnzv \zuk US \
e = Eo sin t

...(1)

ysh US \ e = L .

di
dt

Cv L Gx Pa _ u ysh Gs BS. J |
ysiUS
yshmh
US
\,
\kzuk
zuzvS \P GvP CUS.
G e = e
di

Eo sin t = L
dt

Eo sin t =L

di
dt

e=E0 sin t

Eo
sin t dt
L

di =

(a)
e

i =

Eo
L

Eo
L

=
i =

sin

t dt

cos t

e,i

C[P uP Pn,

E o cos t
L

Eo

sin (t
)
L
2

(b)

h 4.19 ysi _
165

i = Io . sin (t

Cv Io =

Eo
.
L

...(2)

C[S L Gx Pa_ u uh BS. Cx ysi

G AUPkQx. Cu AS Ohm BS.
\kP (1) (2)x, y ysi mk E ac
_, mh zuzu h /2 Pmh A
u[Q CUS Gx uQx. Aux ysiUS
SUP E zu, mhzuU Pmi /2
Pmh A UQ CUS. Cx h 4.19b C E
hzv Pmhmkx.
h 4.19c, L mk Eh ac _U SUS
Pmhh (Phasor Diagram) BS.

ysi

h 4.19c
Pmhh

XL = L = 2 L, Cv Gx \zuk a.c zuzv

Avs BS. |v\ mhzvS = 0; XL = 0 CP y
ysi |v\ mhzvS _ uh PkUS. B a.c.
_ Pa _ Avsn zx AvPUS.

4.7.4 uUQ mk E _
v\ US \, C G uUSz v Eh
uUQ SUP CnUPkQx (h 4.20a). Cu uUQ u
J v\ Gvz v\ AhQx.
Gu J Pnzv, \kzuk US \
e = Eo sin t
Y

...(1)
e

e,i

90
e=E0 sin t

(a)

(b)

h 4.20 uUQ _
166

(c)

ec

Gu J Pnzv, uUQ SUP E zu k

\kzuk US \USa \.
e = q/C, Cv q Gx uUQ E mh.

B i =
i =

dq
d
=
(Ce)
dt dt
d
(C Eo sin t) = CEo. cos t
dt

Eo

i = (1/C ) sin t + 2

i = Io sin t +
2

Io =

Cv

...(2)

Eo
1/
( C )

= XC Gx uUQ u uh BS. Cx uUQ

C
GkQx. Cu AS K.

uUQ mk E J a.c. _ mhx

zuzuh /2 G Pmh A v CUS G \kP (1)
(2)x uQx. Ax zu mhzuh /2 G
Pmh A u[Q Ex G T. Cx h 4.20b C
PkP P Pmhmkx.
h 4.20c, uUQ C mk Eh J a.c. _ Pmh h
(Phasor diagram) BS.

XC =

1
1
=
C 2 C

Cv Gx a.c. zv Avs BS. |mh _

= 0

XC =

G, JuUQ |v\ mhzvS i (infinity)

uhz u. uUQ a.c. zuzv
AvsqUS Gvz uP CUS. uUQ Au
uUSz vUS GvzuP CUS.
167

4.7.5 uhUQ, ysi uUQ BQ uh

Cn
R G uh uhUQ, L G ysh Gs Psh
ysi C G uUSz v Psh uUQ BQk e
G US \h v\ US \ uh
Cn CnUPkuPU P h (4.21a).

VL

VL-VC

VR
I

VL

VC

B
90

e=E0 sin t
h 4.21a RLC uh _

90

VC

VR

h 4.21b.
zu Pmh h

_ mh I GU P.
uhUS SUP E zu k VR = I R
(Cx I-h J Pmhzv CUS)
ysiUS SUP E zuk VL = I XL
(I-I h VL&Bx /2 Pmh v CUS)
uUQUS SUP E zu k VC = I XC
(I-I h VC&Bx /2 Pmh u[Q CUS)
EPUS SUP E zu kP
h 4.21b&C E zu Pmhhzv (voltage phasor)
Pmhmkx.
VL VC G JUP

XL
Pmh mi E. _
{z u EhuPU Pv VL
VC C uS (VL VC) G XL-XC
A. \kzuk zu
VR, VL VC BQ Uh
O
TkuP A.
180o

OB2 = OA2 + AB2 ;

B
Z

XL-XC

XC
h 4.22 v h

V2 = VR2 + (VL VC)2

168

V =

VR 2 + (VL VC )

V =

(IR )2 (IX L IXC )2

= I R 2 + (X L XC )2
V
= Z = R 2 + (X L X C )2
I

R 2 + ( X L X C )2 Gx uhUQ, ysi uUQ

BQ \|u A uS Gv (effective opposition) BS.

Cx v Gk. , Cx Z G SUPkQx. Cu AS
BS. C vP h 4.22 E v hzv
SUPmk.
zuzvS, mhzvS Ch E Pmh Pn
(phase angle) I RUPq \mi Pn.
tan =

VL VC I XL I XC
=
VR
IR

tan =

X L XC
uS
=
R
uh
X L XC

= tan1
R

Io sin (t + ) Gx Gu J Pnzv _

mhS.
RLC

_ uh Jzv\ Ax zu Jzv\
Gu J Pnzv uh RLC _ mh
I =

V
=
Z

V
2

R + (X L X C )

R2 + (L

)2

Pn Avso J Smh vS ysi

uUQ JUP \P CUS.
169

L =

, G v ]P , Ax Z = R G
C
A. Aux I, Vh J Pmhzv CUS. Gu J Smh
AvsqUS _ (o) v ]P, mh
P Au Smh Avs _ Jzv\
Avs Gk. mhzu AvUS CzuP _P
uh Jzv\a _ Ax Ha _ G AUPkQx.

Jzv\ { _ mh

Io =

V
R

_ v, _ uhUQ uhUSa \ BS.

Aux Z = R. G, _ mh .
L =

= 2 o =
o =

1
LC

1
2 LC

Ha _ (Acceptor circuit)
Ha_ Gk uh Jzv\a _x, mhzvS
Su vz uu AvsPx J
Smh Avsn EhiP uukUP Ax HUP
CQx.
i HP, _ Jzv\ Avs, HP si
\P Avsqh C\ (tune) \kQx. UPP
uUQ uUSz v u u Avs
Eh \P HPkQx.

Q- Po
Jzv\a _ uukUS v Ax Tzv Gx
uUPo (Quality factor) Ax Q Po AhkQx.
uh Jzv\a _ Q Pox Pa _ Ax
uUQ SUP E zu miS, \zuk
zuzvS E uP G UPkQx.
Q =

L Ax C C SUP E zu
\zuk zu

L US SUP E zu = I oL
170

...(1)
(2)

Cv o
Jzv\ x v\ mhzv Pn
Avs BS.
Jzv\x \kzumh zux R- SUP
Hk zuU SS. H, L- SUP Hk zuU
S. C- SUP Hk zuUS JUP \P
180o Pmh mi CUS. G A J J \ \x
P. R- SUP E zu k mk CUS.
\zuk zu = IR

...(3)

(2) (3)x \kP \k (1)C vk \,

Q =
Q =

I o L
oL
=
IR
R
1

L
R
LC

Q
Gx
C
AvsPUS 10 u 100
vP Psh J Gs
BS. AvP Q v Psh
_P
PU
SP
Avs a_US \PP
HS. Su Q v _P
}sh
Avs
a_US
\PP HS.

1 L
R C

o =

LC

Q-iux
R-_
Q-AvP
(R-S)
I
Q-S
(R-AvP)

G, AvP Q v
Frequency
Psh _P TP
h 4.23 Avsna \x
C\ \. Su
Q
mh
v
Psh
_P
umh Jzv\ US. AvP ysh Gsq, Su
uh Psh Pa _ kzv Q Po AvPUP
C.
0

mh Avs Pk AvP uh vPUS \

umhP CUS. uh v Su Ax P TP
. h 4.23 Pmhmk u Pk Avs Env
Pk G AUPkQx.

4.7.6 A.C _ v
a.c _ mh, US \ Pzua \x
uhx . G J Smh Pnzv vU PnUQmk,
171

J a _US \\ v PnUQhkQx. G, Gu J Pnzv

AC _ v Gx, AUPnzv US \US, _
mhzvS E UP G UPkQx.
Gu J Pnzv, US \ mhzu
RUPsh Gu.
e = Eo sin t
i = Io sin (t + )

Cv Gx a.c. _ US \US mhzvS

E Pmh k BS. J a _ kzuk \\ v
T

Pav =

ie

dt

dt

[I

sin(t + )Eo sin t ] dt

Cua _UP,
Pav =
Pav =

Eo I o
cos
2

Eo
2

Io
2

.cos = Erms I rms cos

Pav = u v v Po

Cv u v = Erms Irms, v Po = cos

J ac _ \\ v, _ Eszv G AUP
kQx.

Aha _ (choke coil)

Aha _ Gx Su uhU Psh J Pa _
BS. Cx ac _ mhzuU Pmkkzu kQx.
mhzuU Pmkkzu uhUQ kzv
PnP B C Hk. CuSP y ysi
mh x B C Hkx C.

A
u EPzv x, Phmh
uU P AvP GsoUP _ miUS.
_ mhzuU SuPP
uPkP B EP kzukQx
(h 4.24).
172

h 4.24 Aha
_

\k u
Pa _ { XL = L
J | ysi, mh zuzu h

G Pmh A u[Q CUS.

J a _US Aha _ kzx \\ v,

Pav = Erms Irms cos /2 = 0

C |h L G ysh Gs Psh Aha

_ r G ] uh US. G, Cx ysi
uh r E uh Cn Au J AP Puk. Cu
{ J a _US Aha _ GkzxU P v
Pav = E

rms Irms

Pav = Erms Irms

r

Cv

r 2 + 2 L2

cos
r
r 2 + 2 L2

...(1)

Gx v Po BS.

\k (1)x nS \\ v, uh Hk v
C I2R I h PU SP CuU Pn.

h 4.24a A.F Aha _

h 4.24b R.F Aha _
Su Avs _P kzuk Aha _
u EPzuu u Cu ysh Gs AvPP
CUS. CP Aha _P \n Avs (AF) Aha
_P GkQ. i AvsPUS P EP Aha
_P kzukQ. H CUS Su ysh Gs
xuP Ex. C i Avs (RF) Ax E Avs
(HF) Aha _P G AUPkQ. C P H
_P kQ (h 4.24a h 4.24b).
v\ mh[P \k J USP (fluorescent
tubes) Aha _P kQ.

173

wUPmh PnUSP
4.1

200 _P, 0.04 m2 SUS Psk Pa _

\ Pu 0.02 |i 0.1 Wb m2 x
0.04 Wb m2 BP Qx G Av yshk US
\U PnUQkP.
uP : N = 200, A = 0.04 m2, B1 = 0.1 Wb m2,
w :

4.2

B2 = 0.04 Wb m2, t = 0.02 s, e = ?

d
d
= ( )
e =
dt
dt
(B 2 B1 )
d
dB
e =
(NBA) = NA .
= NA.
dt
dt
dt
(0.04 0.1)
e = 200 4 102
0.02
e = 24 V

J zv CUP PUQh E y 20.48 m.

Cx hUS |UQ 40 ms1 G Pzv UQx. Pu zv
\[SzxU T Ahzv 2 105 T G, CUP
PUQh yshk US \U PnUQkP.
uP : l = 20.48 m; v = 40 ms1; B = 2 105T; e = ?
e
=Blv
= 2 105 20.48 40

w :

e
4.3

= - 0.0164 volt

1 m } 0.05 m mh Psh a_ 500 _PU

Pskx. Pa _ 2 A mh Qx G
(i) Pa _ u ysh Gs (ii) Pa _k
uh Psh Pu BQU PnUQkP.
uP : l = 1 m; d = 0.05 m;

r = 0.025 m;

N = 500 ; I = 2A ;

(i) L = ? (ii) = ?

w : : (i) L =

o N 2 A
l

o N 2 r 2
l

4 107 (5 102 )2 3.14(0.025)2

= 0.616 103
1
L = 0.616 mH
=

174

(ii) Pu = LI
= 0.616 103 2 = 1.232 103

4.4

= 1.232

m Wb

J _ 4A mh 0.5 S Pzv 8A BP x
_ 50 mV US \ yshkQx G,
A _PUQh E ysh GsnU
PnUQkP.
uP : I1 = 4A; I2 = 8A; dt = 0.5s;

e = 50 mV = 50 103V, M = ?

w :

4.5

e = M .

dI
dt

50 103
e
e
= 84
= 6.25 103
=

dI
I 2 I1

0.5
dt
dt

M =

M = 6.25

mH

J v\ mh 10,000 _P, 100 cm2

Pskx. 3.6 102 T A ^
Puzv Pa _x 140 rpm G Pnzv\ Pzv
_Qx. yshk US \ vU PsP.
uP : N = 10,000

A = 102 cm2 = 102 m2,

rpm Gx J {hzvP _]P GsoUP

rps Gx J i _]P GsoUP
= 140 rpm =

140
rps,
60

B = 3.6 102T

Eo = ?

w : Eo = NAB = NAB 2
= 104 102 3.6 102 2
Eo = 52.75

4.6

7
3

25 _]PU Psh \ Ai mhzv rms v

30A G AuP \mh GxP.

uP : = 25 Hz,

Irms = 30A

175

w :

= Io sin t

2 sin 2t

= Irms
i = 30

2 sin2 25 t

i = 42.42 sin 157 t

4.7

1000

Hz

Avs Psh v\ mh _
CnUPmk uUQ uUSz v 2 F. \kzu
k US \ rms v 10 V, G _
uS mhzuU PsP.
uP : C = 2F, = 1000 Hz, Eeff = 10V

w :

1
1
=
C C 2 v

Xc =
Xc =

1
6

2 10

Irms =

E eff
XC

2 103
=

= 79.6

10
7 9 .6

Irms = 0.126 A

4.8

J Pa _, 250 V, 50 Hz zu zxh CnUPk

x, Au 2.5 A mh 400 W v kzvU
PQx, G _ u ysh Gsn v
Po PnUQkP.
uP : Erms = 250 V. = 50 Hz; Irms = 2.5A; P = 400 W;
L = ?, cos = ?

w : v P = Erms Irms cos

cos

= E
rms I rms
400
250 2.5
= 0.64

=
cos

250

rms
=
v Z = I
2.5 = 100
rms

Pmhhzvx

176

XL
Z

sin =

XL = Z . sin = Z (1 cos2 )
= 100 [1 (0.64)2]

XL = 76.8

B XL = L = L 2

4.9

XL
76.8
=
2 v 2 50

L =

L = 0.244 H

J \ 50 V, DC zxh CnUPk x 20 W
v kzvU PQx. Ax 250 V, 50 Hz v\
US \ zxh E uUQh CnUPkQx.
\ Au A mhzu GkzxU P uUQ
uUSz v G CUP sk GuU PnUQkP.
uP : P = 20 W; V = 50 V; = 50 Hz; C= ?
w : P = VI
I =

P 20
=
= 0.4 A
V 50

uh R =

v, Z =
Z =

50
V
=
= 125
0.4
I

V 250
=
= 625
I
0.4

1
R2 +

Z2

= R2 +

1
2 2 2

4 C
1

2 Z 2 R 2

177

1
R2 +

2C

C =

1
2

2 50 (625) (125)

1
2 50 612.37

C = 5.198 F

4.10 e = 310 sin 314 t G \mi SUPk AC zu

24 uhUQ 0.1 H ysi 25 F uUQ
BQh uh Cn CnUPkQx. zuzv
v, rms zu, Avs, _ , _
v mhzv PmhU Pn BQ
PnUQkP.
uP : R = 24 , L = 0.1 H, C = 25 106F

w :

e = 310 sin 314 t

... (1)

e = Eo sin t

... (2)

\k (1) \k (2) BQ Jh
Eo = 310 V
Erms =

Eo
2

310
2

= 219.2 V

t = 314 t
2 = 314
=

314
= 50 Hz
2 3.14

1
1
= L.2v
C
C .2 v
1
= 0.1 2 50
6
25 10 2 50
= 31.4 127.4 = 96

= XL XC = L

XL XC = 96

XC XL = 96
Z =

R 2 + ( XC X L )

242 + 962

576 + 9216

= 98.9
178

tan =

XC X L
R

127.4 31.4
=

24

tan =

96
= 4
24

= 76o

uUQ AvPP Cu mh, US

\ h 76o Pmh A va \.

uvk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP
PnUSP vP. C, h Sv Gu J
Ax PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk
Svx mk, h x iUPhU Ti
UPUS PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

4.1

4.2

Puz ysh kzuhux

(a)

(b) A `h

(c) AC

(d) Aha _

0.5 m2 10 _P Psh J Pa _ u
0.2 Wb/m2 PuzvS SzuP Ex Pa _

Pu...

4.3

4.4

(a) 100 Wb

(b) 10 Wb

(c) 1 Wb

(d) _

v ................................. v Aihx
(a) mh A

(b) A

(c) Eu A

(d) B A

|UPhzv u ysh Gs......

(a) _

(b) i

(c) P AvP

(d) P ]x

179

4.5

4.6

4.7

G AQ Ci Gu

(a) Vs A1

(b) Wb A1

(c) s

(d) Azx

J Pa _ mh iUS 40 As1 G uzv

x, yshk US \ 12 V G, Pa _
u ysh Gs........
(a) 0.3 H

(b) 0.003 H

(c) 30 H

(d) 4.8 H

5A DC mh EUS Au A

EUS v\ mhzv A.......

(a) 50 A rms mh
(b) 5 A mh
(c) 5A rms mh
(d) Psh Gx C

4.8

\kx
(a) AC mk
(b) DC mk
(c) AC DC
(d) DCI Pmi AC vh \k

4.9

Pa _ Cx a_US mhzu a \
v\ E
(a) UPu

(b) mh

(c) | VU

(d) yP

4.10 J

v\

\kzuk US \
e = Eo sin (t + 2), I = Io sin (t /2) G mhzuh ..........
G Pmh A va \.
/

(a) /2

(b) /4

(c)

(d) 0

4.11 RUPsh Gu kzv Ezu ix?

(a) Ek mh

(b) Ek zu

(c) Ek v

(d) Azu

180

4.12 AmkU PP Hk v C Gx SP
CUS?
(a) zu SP mh AvPP Ex
(b) zu mh Csk AvPP Ex
(c) zu AvPP mh SP Ex
(d) zu mh CskSP E x

4.13 |v\ mhzu u AvUPu P Gx?

(a) uh

(b) uUQ

(c) ysi

(d) Psh Azx

4.14 J AC _
(a) mhzv \\ v _
(b) mh[P Cia \\ v _
(c) \\ v C _
(d) rms mhzv v, mhzv Ea\ v
2 h[S

4.15 Puz ysh G G?

4.16 Puz ysh Lh vPU TP.
4.17 u ysh Gs Gu . Au AS x?
4.18 u ysh Gso AP .
4.19 ysh Gs Gu .
4.20 u ysh |h TP.
4.21 L[ x P vU TP.
4.22 v\ mhzv rms () v G G?
4.23 yshmh US \ uUS P ?
4.24 Pmh AC G G?
4.25 ysi G G?
4.26 v\ mh G G? Au \mh GxP.
4.27 uUQ G G?
4.28 H CUS PUQh E kP GxP.
181

4.29 LCR _ Jzv\ Avs G G?

4.30 v Po Gu .
4.31 DC Amh v\ mhzu Ahx. H?
4.32 v\ mhzv rms vUP \mh P.
4.33 uUPo Gu .
4.34 J uUQ DC I ukUS. B AC I AvUS. USP.
4.35 RLC uh _ zuzv Avsn AvPzu
mhzv v GS?
4.36 vU TP. v J \u
USP. Cx B A v Aih Ex
Gu .
4.37 u ysh Gs ysh Gs BQ
kzxP.
4.38 J }sh a_ u ysh GsoP \mh
P.
4.39 Csk }sh a_US Ch ysh .
Au ysh GsoP \mh P.
4.40 J _ Eh[S u US \
yshk uzu USP.
4.41 Pu zv v\ zx JPa _ v\ A
u Av US \ ysk
Pzv UP[Ph .
4.42 _ mh[P G G? A kPz uP.
A G SUPkQ?
4.43 }sh uS v G vh Ak \ i
Gu .
4.44 v\ US \ \kzuk uhUQ mk
Eh J ac _ mhzvP \mh P.
zuzvS mhzvS E Pmhz uhU PsP.
4.45 y ysi mk Eh J
mhzvP \mhz u.
182

v\ _
zu

mhzvS Ch E Pmhz uhU PsP.

4.46 v\ US\ \ kzuk, uUQ mk
Eh J _ mhzvP \mh P.
mhzvS zuzvS E Pmhz uhU PsP.
4.47 J AC _ \\ vUP \mhz u.
4.48 Aha _ (choke coil) uzx, A \k
u BQ .
4.49 ac zu dc zuzuU Pmi Gu P
]uuP, Gu P Sk EhuP Ex Gu
B \P.
4.50 J Pmh AC uzx, A \
uzu .
4.51 Pmh AC uzx, A \
uzu .
4.52 uzxzu . Au A \
uzu USP.
4.53 v\ US\ J uh Cn E
uhUQ (R) ysi (L) uUQ (C) BQh
CnUPmkx. Uh h v h
BQU Psk (i) uS zu (ii) v
(iii) mh zu Ch Pmhz uh
BQUP \kP .

PnUSP
4.54 100 uh 100 _P Psh Pa _ J
100 uhh P mhh uhP CnUPmk
J Pu zv UPkQx. Pa _h uh Psh
Pu 0.1 |i 103 Wb x 2 104 Wb US Qx
G yshmh US \, mhzu
PnUQkP.
4.55 uh JUP P \mh Csk
ush[P J mmhh CnUPkQ.
Cx 180 Km/hr Pzv KkuP, Puzv
\[SzxU T 0.2 104 Wb/m2 G, ush[P
183

1m Chz u E G Psk m mh E

S Pmk AU PnUQkP.
4.56 P EPzuU Psh a_ J 4 cm mhzu 60 cm
}zu 4000 _P Pskx. a_ 5A
mh uPU Psk Av \UPmh BU
PnUQkP.
4.57 5cm mh, 100cm } Psh C E x 3000
_P J AkUQ E _mk. Cshx AkUQ
P PP u AkUQ x Au zvS AQ 100
_PP _mk. Csk _PUS Ch
ysh GsnU PnUQkP. (EPzv J Pu
EmSv = 500)
4.58 J n, [P P }sh P EPzuU Psh
Pa _ 100 V DC zu zxh Cnzx Av
mh 1.5A G v \Q. Au Pa _ 100V, 50 Hz
a.c. zxh CnUPk x mh 1 A G SQx.
Pa _ ysh Gs BQ
PnUQkP.
4.59 e = 100 sin 200 t G US \h 0.1F uUQ
v 500 uh uhP Cnzu _ v
PoU PnUQkP.
4.60 J ua _ 400 _P xna _ 2000
_P E. xna _x1100 V A 12.1 KW
v GkUPkQx. ua _ uh 0.2
xna _ uh 2 v 90%
GU Psk (i) ua _ Hk B C
(ii) xna _ Hk B C BQU
PnUQkP.
4.61 50 , uh 0.5 H { 5 F uUQ BQ,
e = 311 sin (314t). G US \h v\ US
\ zxh uhP CnUPmk G RUPsh
PnUQkP.
(i) v\ mhzv Avs
(ii) zu
184

(iii) {zv
(iv) uUQ
(v) v

4.62 800 KHz u 1200 KHz |kUP Eh J mhUS

C\ \UTiuP i H J Ex. LC _
ysh Gs 200 H G uUQ uUSv
|kUP (range) x?
4.63 J v 80%, Cx 4 KW, 100 V Ek vh
CnUPkQx. xna _ zu 240 VG u
xna _P mh[P PnUQkP.
4.64 US J 80 V, 10A DC \hU Tix. Cx
100 V, 50 Hz v\ mhzxh CnUPk x Au
10A mhzu GkzxU P Azxh CnUP si
Aha _ (choke) ysh GsnU PnUQkP.

hP
4.1

(b)

4.2

(c)

4.3

(d)

4.4

(a)

4.5

4.6

(a)

4.7

(c)

4.8

(a)

4.9

(d)

4.10 (c)

4.11 (c)

4.12(c)

4.13 (b)

4.14 (a)

4.54 0.8 V 4 mA

4.55 1 mV

4.56 0.52575 J

4.57 0.37 H

4.58 74.54 0.237 H

4.59 0.0314

4.60 220V, (i) 747 W

4.61 (i) 50 Hz

(d)

(ii) 242 W

(ii) 311 V (iii) 157 (iv) 636.9 (v) 482.5

4.62 87.9 pF x198 pF

4.63 40 A, 13.3 A
4.64 0.019 H
185

C x | _

\ \v\P [Ph
KL., MA., Ph.D., D.Sc., L.L.D., F.R.S.

186

\v\P [Ph 1888B Bsk | H |

u|mi E va] u. Ah uu v
C.\v\P I J B]. u uu \Pmizv C
P ou [Ph A[P u
i izu. A 1904 B Bsk \ E {U P
uh BA mh i ]z uSvh izu. [Ph u
xP mh i Au P uhu. 1907B Bsk
MA mhi u G h[P \u
vsP u S ua] .
1907 B Bsk {vzx u Gv Av uh
. 1907 B Bsk uzv PPzu E PnUSz x
u AP ux UPz xUQ. A {vzx
AP ou v AP | uzx P
|[P C BU Th[P Pzu. u mi J Sv
BU ThP Qhzu PU Psk EUPmh
PP zxU Psk BP Psh. 1917 B Bsk
uzv A_ o xx PPzu PU PPzv C
]Pa \u. 1929 B Bsk B[Q A\[P AUS "\'
mh `mix. B A u US "\' mhzu
kzu .
A Pskizu "C ' u\P PskiUPmhu,
Hzu H BskPP uhx h \u B
BS.
1921 B Bsi PhU Pzv, A u u IS
Ph n \uxu Cu BP x[Q. BPh }x
mh AQ } { C PzuU Pux. A sk
Cv vh P, }, UPmi Sm J
Fk FhP[P UTP Hk Ja]u Pzv
\u C BP Psh. ] C \u
\u ]u Jx kQ Jx mhx GuU
Pmix. Cx v PskiUP Szux. Ja]u
BP PshUPP, Ah [Pk
C PskizuUP CUS 1930 B Bsk i\
u 10 B uv | _ [Pmhx.
1933 B Bsi [P E Cv A
u~mU PP G {zv u Cv CUS|P o
\u. 1943 B Bsk "C {' G Ba] BPzu
{. ux Ba]P 82 B x uhx |hzv. Ax
n Ax Ba]PUS zux.

187

5. Pu AP, A J
Lh Puz ysh {Px Pzu zx J
Hk Pu k, Au J zu
EUS G UQx. U, 1865 CP J Jzu A
(symmetry in nature) Ex G _miU Pmi. Aux Pzu
zx J Hk k Au
Puzu EUS. CuS Pzu zx J zv (
Ax Pu) Hk k zu EUS GuS.
JUP \[SzuP Hk Pu kP Pu
kP (space) EUS G i U
P Smh Pzx P \ux. CzuP kP,
AP sPU Psk FhPzv (Material Medium)
Eu Q. CS Pu AP G .

5.1.1 Pu AP (Electromagnetic waves)

U Ti,
k U S U P m h
mh[P
Pu
Pva] [P BS.

Y
B

Pu AP
X
Hk Pu
UhP JUP
E
E
Z
B
B
\[SzuP
Auk
mk
Csk
h 5.1 Pu AP
CUP
v\US
SzuP
A. Cu kP, AP sPU Psk
FhPz v Eu (Free space) Q. Cu Pu
AP SUPPS.

h 5.1 Pmii k (E) Y v\, Pu

Z v\ A x +X
v\P
k (B)
Pmhk.
188

5.1.2 Pu AP ]P (Characteristics of
electromagnetic waves)

(i) kUSUPmh mh[P Pu AP EQ.

(ii) C uS FhP u.

(iii) Pu AP Hk (E) Pu (B) UhP

JUP \[SzuP Auk mk CUP v\US SzuP

A. G Pu AP SUPP BS.

(iv) E B kP ] vP J Pzv

Q.
(v) C hzv (vaccum) Ax 3108 m s1

v\Pzv \Q. CuP uh c =

. ( hzv
o

o o

EmSv (permeability) o & hzv kv (permittivity).

(vi) Pu A B, Pu UhP
\P [Qhmkx.
(vii) Pu AP mh Au, A z

u, Puzu P Ahv.

5.1.3 m B (Hertz experiment)

1888 Pu AP
Cu ux B
m Ev \u. A
mh, Pu AP
k
G
Aihz
uzxzv
B
Aux.
A mhzv CUP
B PnP Cu A B
HkQx.

A
ysk _

S1
S2
En
B

h 5.2 m B

B A h 5.2 Pmhmkx. Cv A B G
C EPz uPkP JUP 60 cm u UPkQ.
Cu EPz uPkP, S1 S2 G UPmh C EPU
P[Ph ui uUP Psk CnUPmk. ysk
_ J , E zu hx C P[PUS
Ch E ] ChUS AUP kQx.
Ezu mi PnP S1 S2US Ch ]
189

Sv E P AUP Ahx uPkPUQh J US

{P P \Qx. S1 S2 US Ch HkQx.
E Avs Pu AP ES. Cu B 5 107
Hz Avs Psh Pu AP m EUQ.
A B G uPkP Su uUS v (C) Eh
uUQP, CnU PP, Su u ysh Gs (L) Eh
ysiP \kQ. uPkPUQh mh[P
Ax, E Avs v
=

1
2 LC

A}

BS.

Avs
Hz

PvP

22

1A

X-PvP

1 nm

Fu
1

Psq J

APa
]
Apa
]
1 cm
1m

U AP
TV. FM

i AP
1 km

vmh J

vmh

}sh AP

h 5.3 Pu {
190

10
1021
20
10
19
10
1018
17
10
1016
15
10
14
10
1013
12
10
11
10
10
10
9
10
108
7
10
6
10
105
4
10
103

5.1.4 Pu { (Electromagnetic spectrum)

m, Pu AP EUQU PmiS, P
Qa]P (excitation) P, A} SvP Pu
AP uUPmh.
A}[P
Ax
AvsPU
Psk
P
Pkzumh Pu AP Pu { Gk.
Pu { AP |kUP Psh A}[P Ax
AvsPU Pshx. Pu {P Azx
PP, xn PP, Qa] {USz uUP
A}zv H \ PkUPmk. Azx Pu
AP J v\Pzv \Q. Pu AP
CsP, Au A}zu zx A. B Qa]
{ u zx Ax. ] { \P J x
xx, A P Eu SUQx.
Amhn 5.1 Pu { Ah[Q
Pu AP [P, A} Avs |kUP[P
PkUPmkx.
Amhn 5.1
(uS Eu)
.
Gs

1.

PvP

2.

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

[P

A} |kUP

PvUPz u[P
AqUP
AqUP \Px
X-PvP AvP
GUmP
EPzu
ukUPk x
Fu
UPzv
(UV)
AqUP
UTP
Psq
s_h { vh
J
, J USP
APa] P
UTP
U
GUm PP
AP
(hU S)
i
Phzx PP
Avs mh[P kUS
AP
u

(m)
1014 1010

Avs
|kUP (Hz)
3 1022 3x 1018

1 10103 108 3 1018 1 1016

6 x 10104 107 5 x 1017 8 1014

4 x 107 8 x 107 8 x 1014 4 x 1014
8 x 107 3x 105

4 x 1014 1 1013

103 0.3

3 x 1011 1 x 109

10104

3 x 107 3 x 104

191

5.1.5 Pu AP P
Pu AP ] P PkUPmk.
1. i AP : Cu AP i uUPm]
\vz uhUS kQx. 530 kHz u 1710 kHz
AP AM \, 54 MHz AvP Avs AP
Su A \ kQ.
uUPm] (TV) A |kUP 54 MHz u 890 MHz
FM \ 88 MHz u 108 MHz \P
E Avs (ultra high frequency) \ i AP
kQ.
2. U AP : PU Su A} Eu Cu AP
h \vz uhUS kQ. mk EP
U A \PP, Cu AP ]u k
BS.
3. APa] PvP :
(i) APa] USP h}US ]Qa\US kQ.
(ii) APa] Jh um US

kQx.
(iii) P, Ah (thick fog), k APa]U
PvP EmPv. Cu u E {hkUP
C kQ.
(iv)

APa] EmP
BuS kQ.

{,

UT

PmhP

4. Psq J : Px Ek Ax
GvUPk
Psq
JU
Psk
|a
_
|h UP A iQx. Cu A} |kUP
4000 u 8000 Ex
5. FuU PvP :
(i) UjUP AuS zx EPn[P E
~sq QPU P (sterilization) kQ.
(ii) Cu PU PvP zv[PU Psh, PP
vPU Psh
uh BP[P (Forensic lab)
kQ.
(iii) En P Ph xPUP kQ.
(iv) Aq PmhU Psh kQ.
192

6. X PvP
(i) zxz x | Pskn PP kQ.
(ii) vs[P iP Pmh BuS kQ.

7. PvP :
AqUP Pmh uPPz uQ.
| ]Qa\US kQ.

5.2 {P PP (Types of spectra)

{ UPmh, mhPx
kx, A}[P Eh APP v\P
v\ AhQ. u|UQ GUS
[P sn[P QhUS. CzuP [P {
GQ.
\i B UQ Jmhk x Csk
[P { g\ {Sv QhUQ. Cu \i
k P A}[P 5896 5890. Cx
\izv { G AUPkQx.
Px {P (i) k {
(emission spectra) (ii) EmP { (absorption spectra) G Csk
PPP UP.
(i)

k { (Emission spectrum)

J Jx |iP hk J
{U Psk B x k { .
J J Au ]US H k {
US.
k { SvPP UP. A :
1. uh { 2. { 3. mh {

1. uh { (Continuous spectrum)
uh { Gx Ch C G A}[P
Eh Jmhmh mhS. Cx Fu u ]
{[PU Pshx Cu { J zv { zx
mk A. Jzv u zx Ax.
E { vhP, } P, P
(carbon arc) CUS (electric filament lamp) Cx

uh { .
193

2. {
{ Gx UPmh A }[PU Psh
T PS. { P k ]
PshuS. C uU Psh kQ.

{
AqUP Aux Qa]
H
H H H
Ahu Pmh AqUP (free
atoms)
{
h 5.4 m {
kQ. Aq{
P \i B UQ \i, u\ B
UQ u\. UPU SP E Pmh AqUP
BQx { (h 5.4).

3. mh { (Band spectrum)
C, J TP ]x ]uP |UP Sx
Psh x [PP CUQ
mhP B.
UTPx mh { . Cx k
UT ] zx A. P] Ax
EP \ _h UQ P&h&BU\k, A
|m { UPU S mh
{ PkUQ. Cu mhP P AvP Sv (resolving
power) { U Psk Bx J mh,
T (u) AvP |UPP, |UP
Sx Pnk. AvP A PU PskuU
Pn. mh {U Psk J uzv UT Pmh
A.
(ii) EmP {

J Jx hk Jx K EmP
\zumh {U Psk Bx
EmP { QhUQx. J Au ]US
H EmP { US.
k { EmP { PP
Pshx. C : 1. uh EmP { 2. EmP {
3. mh EmP {.
194

1. uh EmP {
Ju UPmh a\U Psni J a\
snzuz u sn[P EmPx, uh EmP
{ EQx.

2. EmP {

5896 A

5890 A

5896 A

5890 A

h 5.5 \izv k EmP {

P x J \i B P Avzx
Au
{U
Psk
Bx
QhUS
uh{ Csk P P g\ Sv h 5.5
Pmi QhUS.
3. mh EmP { (Band absorption spectrum)
J Ai B Ax }zu { Czu
Ax S (Chlorophyll) Ax ] P P P\P
\zxx uha]P Jmhmh o P
mhP Pnk. \[P uUP mh EmP {
kQx.
5.2.1 L P (Fraunhofer lines)
` { E |US x Ax P PU
PskuU Pn. ` { E Cu P PUS
L P G . ` {, EmP {US
J GkzxUPmhS.
` EmSv J sh (Photosphere) P AvPP
14 106 K { Ex. Cx uh { k.
` Sv { sh (Chromosphere) EmSv Jh
Su v 6000 K { Pskx. u[P C[S
{ E.
Em mix J, ` Sv
x {shzv E u[P ] A}[P
EmPmk, { C P HkQ.
P EmP {a ` {
L Ph Jmk, ` shzv Pnk
u[P PshkQ.
195

5.2.2 Ju (Fluorescence)
J Aq Ax UT A, B EmPx Qa]
Ahx E B mhzua \h. A \hu, A
10&5 |iUSU S PzvS Su B mhzvS
vx AvP A} Pva_P E. Cu A Cx
JuU Pn.
UV Pv ] u[Px kx Psq J k.
kPv UV PvP Au uzv x k mk Ju
ES. k J {h J { k.
5.2.3 {u (Phosphorescence)
] u[P E UTP kQ UV PvP EmPu
Qa] AhQ. C EhiP uh { Ahx
C. Qa]ha \ Pva] {zv S Th
Ju uhQx. C Hk u[Q Ju {u
GQ.
5.3 J PPP (Theories of light)
J u Gu PP J sP UPU
TiuP CUP sk. J, J P B Gu Khzvx
ChzvS sk. J FhP
u.
Bx Csk P K Chzvx ChzvS
Qx. (i) Smh v\Pzv \ ~s xPP Qx.
(ii) A izv Qx. A izv Phzuk x A
FhP |Pv. J C P
T PPP R PkUPmk.

5.3.1 ~sxP PP (Corpuscular Theory)

{mh CUPPi, J JP
~so, { (UPoUPzuUP Pa ] {), uha]P,
m] ~s xPP EQ. C ~so[P Gk.
AzxPP Jizu (homogeneous) FhPzv Gz v\P
J v\Pzxh |UPmi C[SQ.
Cu ~s xPP Pa]P Cv C k
J P }sh PzvS J Eu A {P
C Hkv.
196

J B, C~sxPP CUP BS. Cu ~s

xPP Pso zv xu HkQx.
~sxPP k PnP {[P EshQ.
P PPa \u C D \ vUPh
|UPmk u \Q. Csk FhP[P US uzu
Cu
~sxPP
Ah
x
PkQ
Ax
mhkQ. xPP mhk x Gv, Pk
x J P HkQ.
CUPPi, J v\P AhS FhPzv AvPP
CUS. B LPm UP\ (Focault and Michelson)
BP J v\P, AhS FhPzu h Ah S FhPzv
AvPP CUS G PmkQ. ~sxP PP
SURmk , , u BQ UP
i.

5.3.2 AU PP (Wave theory)

Ti Jx uh FhPzv APP
Qx. PsqUS Pu m]z u v Du G FhP
x {xuPU Pv. J zvx
kP Ai uk, B Azx
UP[P \P PhzxQ.
Cu AP |mhP G Pv. u, J
|UPmk CUPzu AUPP Aih UP
i. B |, [ GP Jx SUPP u
G T S \\mhx. AUPPx ~sxP PP
UQ Aih sP UQx mk, SURmk
, , u BQ vvPP
UQx.
Ti AhS FhPzv J v\P,
AhS FhPzuU Pmi S. CUPzx Pm \u
iPh Jzvux.

5.3.3. PuU PP (Electromagnetic theory)

, | Tx Jx Gv B
\, Pu B \ Pu AP
G U {. Pua \P k
P, SUPP uP G UQ. Pu
AP FhP u Gu U UQ.
197

5.3.4. Ssh PP (Quantum theory)

PuU PPx, J G {P UP
C. Ek Ax EmPk Bx uha]P

h 5.6 A Ssh PP
A, SUP Cu, Ssh Gk. B voUPmh
]] ][P h[SPP CUQ G 1900& L[
Pv. CUPzu, 1905& Ij, kzv, JP
G B voUPmh ]] mhP[P G A
LmhP G UQ. J Lmhh uhh
B, E = h . Cv h Gx [ (h = 6.626 1034 J s),
Gx PuU Pva] Avs BS.
G, J Lmh Cmh s x G
{kQx. AvP B Sv, A xPPP Su B
Sv APP \kQ (h 5.6).

5.4 Ja]u (Scattering of light)

u u m G sh UTP Ja]u
U T. shzv UTP ` J
]uh {P Ja]u BS.
Ja]u Aih, UTP EmPu
v\P
kx
BS.
]uh
A,
J
A}zu ]u Hkzx xP A (size) \ux.
Ja]u Ax, Au A}zv |Si vUS Gv
Quzv Ex. Cu Ja]u v (Rayleighs Scattering law)
GQ. G, Su A}[P, }sh A}[P h
AvPP ]u AhQ. sh Ja]u PnP
}{Pz (blue) uUQx. Ja]u vi } { J
] { J h AvPP ]uiUPkQx. Cu Ja]u PnP
198

 }{P Pm]UQx.
|sP h ` Eu x ` JUPvP
shzv }sh uSa \ six. Cv }{
xP ]uiUPkv SP ]uiUPkQ ]U
PvP mk AhQx. G ` Eu,
] {P uUQx.

5.4.1. ih Ja]u (Tyndal Scattering)

JUP J TU P\ (Colloidal) Pa \ x
Au u uP Qx. CuSU Pn TzxP, ux k
Ja ]ua \u BS. TzxPP J ]uiUPk {P
ih Ja]u Gk.

5.4.2. C (Raman effect)

J{ J \ x ]uhQx G
1928&B Bsk \.]..C \u Pshu. ]uhu
J, kQ Avsn mk ] v AvsP
Psiux. Cu C GQ.
C Ahu Avs Psh P C
P GQ. kQ Avsn h S Avs Psh
P hU P (Stokes lines) BS. kQ Avsn h
AvPP Avs Psh P BsmihU PS
(Antistokes lines). AqUP UTP ]uiUPmh J
QhUS Cuz uh P C { Gk.
AqUP Ax UTP x mk ]uhu J
LmhPU Psk C GuP x P i.
kQ J ho B Psh LmhPU PshuPU Px.
1. J Lmh, vzv Aq Ax UT x x
x, kQ Lmh B J Sv, vzv Aq Ax
UT Qa]a \ kQx. Sv ]uhQx. Cu
{ Su Avs Psh P u. C hU
P BS.
2. J Lmh, Qa] { Aq Ax UT
x xx, ]uiUPmh Lmh AvP B Qx.
Cu { AvP Avs Psh P u. C
BsmihU P BS.

199

3. ] {PP, J LmhP, AqUP Ax UTP

x x x LmhP ]uuPU Psh. m]
s Lmh B C H {Pv. Cu
{ hu Avso PnkQx.
o Gx kQ Pva] Avs s Gx v
(sample) UT ]uhu Pva] Avs G Psh
C Cha] Ax C Avs UP uh
= s.

C Cha], kQ J Avsna \ux A.

B, C Hkzx ua \ux.
hU PUS | CP (positive), BsihU
PUS Gv CP (negative) CUS.
hU P \ (intensity) BsihU P
\ h Gx AvPP AQx. h 5.7. P.
hU P Bsi hU P u P
PkUPmh.
J A 0 G Avs Psh Pva_h
x (Interacts) |UQ |Px B mhzvS {Qx.
B mh UTP { B mh A.
Ja]ui UTP B mhzvx
{
{

ho

ho

hAS

hS

3
2
1
0

3
2
1
0

ho

hU

ho

3
2
1
0

Bsi hU

( = 0, 1, 2 .... G Ai{ GUmU mhzv E Av {P BS)

h 5.7 C {
200

{ u B mhzvS v kQ. ] UTP mk

AvP Ax Su B mh[PUS v hU
BihU P EUSQ.

5.4.3 C { P
(i) A Azx P kQ.
(ii) C { Euh UT AP UPmk
u[P PkzukQ.
(iii) u x, C { Psk P
sP AkQ.
(iv) va \UP B kQx.

5.5 AP (wave front)

} P J a \u }
AP
}

Azxz
v\P J v\Pzxh \uU
Pn. } Azx
xPP
AvQ.
h
5.8
Pmhmk Phzv }
S (disturbance)
P E
h 5.8 } AP
Ch[P mh [P UP.
zvx \ u Eu Au mhzv x Azxz
xPP J Pmhzv AvhQ. } Jzu Pmhzv
Avhx PsiUS Azxz xPP CnUS E,
AP Gk. Gu Pnzv ES AP Gx
Jzu Pmhzv Avh Azx xPP CnUS E G
UPkQx.
J Smh u Jx v\ J
s FhPzv (*Isotropic medium) k A P PP
A PS (h 5.9a). Dz u J J v\
J s FhPzv k AP \u AP Gk
(h 5.9b). Jmhmh |US (linear) J
EUSx E i A PS (5.9c).
* FhP J, Jx Azxz v\P \ v\Pzv \
Au v\ J FhP G.
201

Source
J

PvP
Rays
J
Source
(a)

(b)

(c)

h 5.9 AP

5.5.1 uzx
AP u { izuU Psk,
Gu Pnzv A P v { izu A
uzx kQx. Aux, J AP Au FhPzv
a \u USQx.
uzxzv i (i) AP J xP
Au FhPzv J v\Pzv \UTi Csh {
AUSmiP (wavelets) EUS J [PS. (ii) Au
Pnzv Csh { ASmiP E v
APS.
EUQ PP AP h 5.10a&
Pmhmkx. t = 0 G J Smh Pnzv AB Gx
APS. uzxzvi AB C E J xP
JPa \mk Csh { AU SmiP EQ. Cu
A

A1

A1

P
Q

Q
R
B

B1
B

(a)

(b)

h 5.10 uzx
202

B1

Csh { AUSmiP J v\ Pzv (c) FhPzv

\Q. t P Pzx A P v { AuS AB
x P, Q, R _ _ _ _ G P PU Psk ctI BPU
Psk ] mh[P P. C AUSmiP _kPS. ]
mh[P uk EP E mh A1B1 v APS.
J, Dz uu (h 5.10b Pmii) \u
AP A1B1 ES.

5.5.2 \uzv GvUPmh \u AP

XY Gx GvUS uzuU SUS. , Au x
AC \u AP AB SUS. PA, QBC A B
ABUS SzuP AQ. G A kPvP BQ. AN G
SzxUPk mkx. AP, u u uzvS SzuP
Ax (h 5.11 Pmi i).
Q
N

M
B

P
X

D
r

E
Y

h 5.11 \uzv GvUPmh \u AP

uzxzvi AP J
Csh { AUSmi EUS J S.

xP

AP AB C E B G CI Ahx A Cx
Csh { AUSmiP EQ BC u \UPU Tk.
AI P BCI BP Psk mh P. Cx
AS J ukPk CD P. Cu CD G ukPk CUS
AUS Chx uUPmh Csh { AUSmiP
PS.
G CD Gx GvUPmh AP AD
GvU Pv BS.

Gv vP
(i) kQ AP AB, Gv AP CD
Gv u XY BQ J uzv AQ.
203

(ii) kPn i = PAN = 900 NAB = BAC

GvU Pn = r = NAD = 900 DAC = DCA
\[Pn UPn[P ABC ADC&
B =

D = 900

BC =

AD AC xx

Au Csk UPn[P Jzu UPnVP (Congruent)

BAC = DCA

Aux

i = r

kPn GvU Pn \.

5.5.3. \uzv JP Ahu \u AP

h 5.12 Pmii XY
Gx 1 2 G JP
Gs Psh Csk FhP[P, 1
2 I US \u. Cu
C FhP[P J v\
P C1 C2 BS. AB
G \u AP Azuzv
A G Qx. PA
QBC A B
ABUS SzuP P.
G, C kPvP BQ.
uzxUS SzuP NAN1-I P.
A P u u
uzvS SzuP AQ.

N
1

C1

B
i
i

N1

Y
2
C2

h 5.12 \uzv JP
Ahu \u AP

uzxzvi, AP J xP
Csh { ASmiP EUS S. AP B
G CI Ah Pzv Ax k Csh {
AUSmi, AD=C2t G u \US. Cv t Gx, BC
uU PhUP, AUSmi GkzxU P | BS.
BC = C1t AD=C2t= C2

BC
BC
. AI P, C2
&I
C1
C1

BP Psk Csh FhPzv mh J P. Cx

Cu mhSz ukPk CD P. CzukPk C A
204

x mh JP AUSmiPUS EP Auk
mk C u A Azx AUSmiPUS EP
AQx. G CD Gx JS APS. AD P
Ahu PvS.

JP vP
(i) kQ AP AB, JP Ahu AP CD
JP u XY BQP J uzv AQ.
(ii) kPn i = PAN = 900 NAB = BAC
J P Pn r = N1AD = 900 DAC = ACD
sin i BC / AC BC
=
=
=
sin r AD / AC AD

C
BC
= 1 = 12
C2 C2
BC .
C1

12 Gx u FhPzua \u Cshx FhPzv JP

Gs. Cx | v (Snells law) BS.

Aux 12 > 1 G, u FhP Ah Sux (rarer)

C1

Cshx FhP AhSux (denser) . G C > 1. Aux

2
Jx, Ah S FhPzv-, Ah Su FhPzv \uh
AvP v\Pzxh \ GkQx. AU PP
Ai Pm \u iPh Jzvx PUPzuUPx.
T PzxP i FhPzv JP Gs m Gx
m=

hzv J v\P
FhPzv J v\P

Ca
Cm

A Gvu Ax JP Ahu A
Avs v. B, J P Ahu A} Qx.
Aux,

Ca a
a
m = C = =
m
m
m

=
m

C[S a m G P FhPzv J
A}[PS.

205

5.5.4 AU PPi AP Gv
XY

Gx, Ah Su FhPzu (P) AhS

FhPzu US \u. Cu FhP[P AP v\
P[P Ca Cm BS.
J \u AP, Ah S FhPzvx Ah Su
FhPzvS ~Qx GU Px. Au kPv, uzxh Hkzx
kPn i r Gx SPn GP.
sin i (BC / AC ) BC c m t c m
=
=
=
=
sin r ( AD / AC ) AD c a t
ca

RARER

AhS

D
r

r C

i
B

r =90
Y

A
i=C

D
C Y YX

i
B

A
i>C

AhS
DENSER
(a)

(b)

C
B

(c)

h 5.13 AP Gv
cm
< 1 Gu, i < r, Phu AP xy G uzu
ca
mk Qa \Qx. \[Pn UPn ADC |P

A. (i) AD < AC (ii) AD = AC (iii) AD > AC

(i) AD < AC : i ] v Psiu, BC ]uP A.
G AD > BC. B, ACIh SP A (h 5.13a).
AD
, Cx J hU S
AC
Aux r < 900

sin r =

r < 900, GuU Psk, J i vUS J Phu

AP \zv G A.
(ii) AD = AC : i AvPS x r AvPS.
AD = ACG A x, sin r = 1 Ax r = 90o. Aux J
Phu AP Qhx \zv (h 5.13b). Cx S

Pv C FhP[P US uzu \ umka \. Gu kPn

206

vUS S Pn v 90o G AQu AkPn {U

Pn (critical angle) C Gk.
(iii) AD > AC : AD > ACG A x, sin r > 1. Cx
|hUS \zv (h 5.13c). G, kPn v {U
Pnzu h AvPP C Phu AP QhUPx. k
AP xP AP Gv Ahx AhS FhPzv
A. Cu AP Gv GQ.

APGv |h sk (i) J AhS

FhPzvx Ah S FhPzvSa \ sk (ii) k Pn
v Ah S FhPzxUS {U Pnzuh AvPP A
sk. Aux i > c.

5.6 xu uzx
Csk Ax AuS mh AP J[Qnu K
FhPzv \ x, K A u
vUPh, J Au v Hkzx. J
zu Cha] uz u AP Cha]
UhP TkuUSa \S.Cu xu uzx
GQ.
Y
Y2
Y1

Y2
Y

Y1

Y1

h 5.14 xu uzx

Y2 G u Cha]PPU Psh

uS Cha], Y = Y1 + Y2

5.6.1 K [P
\ A}, Jzu Pmh Ax J Pmhmkh Csk
AP kzx J [P K [PS.
Csk uzu J{ J[P J A} Psh
AP k. B, AP J Pmhzv Ax. CP
[P K [P BPx. H, AqUP, Jzu Pmhzv
J AP h ix. CzuP J[P K [P
Gk.
207

5.6.2 Pmh k u k
} J A Pmh 2. G uP Pmh
2
=
BS.

5.6.3 SURmk
S

G Jzu Jmh A,
B
G
Csk
J[P
K
[PPa
\kQ.
Cu
Csk
K
AP
J
FhPzv
\x

P
xx
h
5.15
Pmhmkx.
hzv, AP PkP, uha] Pmi, APkP, kmh

PkP
Pmhmh.
Pk
Pk
Ax APk APk \vUQ
P
AP
Jzu
Pmhzv AQ, Ch
a]
.
G,
AP
h
u. CuP (X)
A
Smh
PmhkQ.
S
CP SURmk
B
BUPU
SURmk

(constructive
interference)
Gk.
J A Pk
h 5.15 SURmk

A
APk
\vUQ P AP Gvv Pmhzv AQ, Cha]
_. G, AP PPz u. Cu P ] mh
O-B SUPmk. Cu P SURmk AU SURmk
(destructive interference) G T. G, XY G v
J \ ] G z u. Aux,
SURmk mhP mh Pmh G AQ.
AP xu PnP Ja \ Hk Q SURmk
Gk.
Aa_ (a) (amplitude) PnP J Smh Ja
\ I G, I a2
a1 a2 G Csk SURk Ahu AP Aa_

G
208

I1 a12 I2 a22
I1 a12
=
I 2 a22

BUPU SURmk S I (a1 + a2)2 AU SURmk

S, I] (a1 a2)2
I
I]

(a1 + a2 )2
(a1 a2 )2

5.6.4 {{zumh SURmk Hh {u

SURmk ] Ja \ {, Pzu
zx {P A AzuP SURmk
{{zumh Ax {u SURmk G.
1) C [P KP CUP sk.
2) C [P PU SPP A sk.
3) uzu, AP mhP uS C [P
JUP P AQ A sk.

5.6.5 [ Cmh a \u
1801& u [ G, u, J SURmk U
Pshx, K B UQ. Cu B h 5.16
Pmhmkx.
J{ J zvx
J S G SQ P
JUP P AQ Ax A
B G Csk PU SQ
P x Qx. Cu P
J AP 0.03 mm
APUS Ch E u
S x
0.3 mm. A B
\u Eu, S x
J AP A B x \ Pmhzv
Q. G, A, B K
[PPa \kQ.

Y
A
P
S

h 5.16 [ Cmh
a \u

uzxzvi, A, Bx kQ AUSmiP
A, B zv Jh xQ. Px
209

_ 1 mh u J v XY AUPmh \ AP Psh
J P, C P v uQ. CP
SURmk P Ax mhP GkQ. Ps (eye-piece)
J SURmk mhP, vUS vP zx UP.
P G , A B x \ u Phx AP J
Pmhzv uhQ. Cu Csk AP BUPU SURmk
Ahu P G mh QhUQx. Cu
mh G.
P J imh, Cu mhP x v ^
\h J Hk. Cvx, mhP, SURmk
HkQ Gx [S.

5.6.6 mh APzvP P
X
P
Dark fringe
Pmh
x

A
d C

O
M

Central

bright
mh
fringe
Bright fringe

mh

D
Y

h 5.17 SURmk mh
A} E A B G C K [PUS Chmh
u d GP. XY G v AB [PUS CnP D u
Ex. A, BUS C BS. v O x A
Bx \ u Ex. h 5.17 Pmi P G O
x x u Axx. A Bx AP P
\vUS x Jzu Pmhzv Ax Pmhzv Ax
C AP u mh zx A.
BPUS \[SzuP AM P.

u k = BP AP
AP = MP

= BP AP = BP MP = BM
210

\[Pn UPn ABM BM = d sin

] vP Au, sin =

u k = .d

\[Pn COP, tan =

OP
x
=
CO D

] vPUS, tan =

u k, =

xd
D

mhP
SURmk z uzxzvi, BUPU SURmk UP
{u. u k = n
xd
D

= n

C[S n = 0,1,2 Gx mhP \U SUS.

D
n
d

Cua \k O
uU PkUQx.

nx

mh

P mh
SURmk z uzxzvi, AU SURmk UP
{u, u k = (2n1)

(2n 1)
d
2

C[S n = 1,2,3 Gx P mhP \U SUS.

Cua \k O x nx P mh uU
PkUQx. C, v mhUS C
P mhP, mhP uQ.

mh AP (
)
Csk Akzukzu mh Ax PmhPUS
Chmh u mh AP GkQx.
211

(n+1) n-x mhP uP O-x

, x(n+1), xn BP Cu
D
D
D
(n + 1) n =
d
d
d
D
mh AP, =
d

x(n+1) xn =

Cu C Akzukzu PmhPUS Chmh u

D
G {UP. mhP, P mhP J AP
d

Pshu x CUP C \ u
A.

u AP SURmk mhP {uP

(i) J zvx v u Tk AvPP CUP
sk.
(ii) J A} AvPuP CUP sk.
(iii) Csk J [PUS Ch u PU SP
CUP sk.

5.6.7 HkP sn[P

} uUS Gsn Hk, \U S u
sn[P Pnku | |P A. Hmi
Ru[P GvUPk J SURmk
Csn[P uQ. Jx Hmi x
kx Ami sn[P HkQ. Cu sn[P
Hmi ui,
C
k J kPnzu
M
A
F
zux.

HkP
Hk SURmk

h 5.18 Pmii
^
ui
t

JP Gs Psh
J
FkUTi
k, K K G
C
\uzvS
AhuPU PxP.

K
t

L
B

i
E

r
r

H
D
J
N
G

h 5.18 HkP SURmk

212

J { J J Pv AB, K G Hmi x
mk J Sv BC P Gv J Sv BD P
P AhQx. K Ax D G JUPv J
Sv DE P Gv Ahx J Sv DG P
mh mk Qx. Gv Ahu Pv, EF P
BCUS CnP P ~Qx. EH Pv H Phu , CvP
HJP Qx.
BC EF BQ JUP CnP Au Gv
U PvPS. DG HJ BQ Fk u PvP
JUP CnP AQ. PvP BC EF u[PUS
SURk AhQ. Ax DG HJ SURk AhQ.

Gv Ahu PvP SURmk

E x EM G SzxUPk BC US kQx. Cx BC
EF CS Ch E u k
= (BD+DE)
(BM)
mi
P

P u Gsn, FhPzv u h[SUS \

Gu A.
= (BD + DE) BM

hzvx, BD = DE

= (2 . BD) BM

BM
BE
BM = BE sin i = BE . sin r

BME, sin i =

BM = . BE sin r

1
BE
BL
= 2
BDL, sin r =
BD
BD
BE = 2 (BD) sin r

BM = (2BD) sin2r

= 2BD 2BD sin2r

= 2BD cos2r
DL
t
=
BDL, cos r =
BD BD

= 2t cos r

213

sin i

= sin r

P \ PsiUS J JUPv, AhS FhPzv

GvUPk x ua\ Pmh HkQx. Ax
Tku u k /2 AhQx.
B Hk Gv AhS FhPzv uzv {Pu

u k AvPQx.
zu u k, = 2t cos r +

(i) BUPU SURmk S u k = n,

C[S n = 0,1,2,3 k h PnkQx.

2t cos r +

= n

2t cos r

= (2n1)

(ii) AU SURmk S u k = (2n+1)

C[S n = 0, 1, 2, 3 k PPU PnkQx.

2t cos r +

= (2n+1)

2t cos r = n

kQ J, SzuP C i = 0. G, r = 0 Cx

PmhUP {u
mhUP {u 2t = (2n1)
2

2t = n.

Fk Pv SURmk
DG HJ PvPUP u k, = 2t cos r.
D E Hk Gv P FhPzv |hu Guu
Tku u k HPhx.
G, P {u 2 t cos r = n PUP

{u 2t cos r = (2n 1)
2

5.6.8 {mh [P
kP Hk SURmk J UQ k
{mh [P BS. AvP B J umhU S,
J \u Psni x UPk x ]
AiS, Psniz umi S Ch P k
(air film) J HkQx. uk P mi ui _
214

v Qx. zvx \a \ ui AvPQx.

P k J { J SzuP Jmhh, U
Pa _ P [P J
mh [PP A. Cu {mh [P GQ.
J kzv mhP sn[P J.
(Cu h P Amh PsUPmkx).

\u
{mh [P {mh BP A
h 5.19 Pmhmkx. J { J S,< CnUS _ L1
Sz uzv UPkQx. _ L1 Cx CnP Q
JUPvP 45o \P AUPmh Psniz uPk G Q.
Psniz uPk, J J Sv Gvzx, |SzuP R|UQ,
umhU S L \uU Psni PUS Ch EUPmh.
P mi x a \Qx. P Hmh GvUPmhU
Pvx ~snUQ |UPkQx. U P
PPU Psk [P P [P
AuU Pn.

UP
Pmi uzvx GvUPk J
A J SvUS, Rz uzvx GvUPk J A
SvUS Ch {P SURmk AihPU
Psk {mh [P uu UP. u
M

L1
45
S
G

Air film
Pk

h 5.19 {mh [P
215

Chzv, P mi ui t GP. x P Ahx

mi ~ AUSmi t u \, Psniz umi
Gvzx, sk t u vU Phx, uhUP
Ah.
G, Ax Phu zu u 2t BQx. Csk GvP
J AhS FhPzv Hku, AvPi Pmh k
HkQx Ax Csk AUSmiPUS Ch u k /2
HkQx.

P {ui,

u k = 2t +
= n

2t = (2n1)

C[S n = 1, 2, 3 Gx J A} BS.
PUP {ui
u k = 2t +

C[S

= (2n+1)

2t = n
n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ....

L Psniz uPk P uk Pmi ui

_Qx. G SURmk Hkzx APUS u
k C. G, A h u sk. AhS
Psni GvUPmh Ax Pmh k AhQx.
B PP GvUPmh A Pmh k
Hx Hh. G, O PP A. A
a _ Akzukzu P [P EQ.

5.6.9 nBx P zv BzvP

P

h 5.20& Pmii SOP Gx J umhU

S] SzxSvP C Gx PP
C
Sv P P. R Gx
S
A P
] B G, Psnih _ t
uk O BP P. S P- t
O
Q
T
Gu Pmi uiPU P. \u h 5.20 {mh
BiUS SzuP ST PQ P.
zv B
216

G, ST = AO = PQ = t
rn B Psh n-x P S P P P

\uPU P.
G SA = AP = rn
ON Gx mhzv \[Szx mhP C, |s mkz xsk
vi (Law of segments)
SA. AP = OA. AN
rn2

= t(2Rt)
(2RI Jk x t2 P ]x

rn2 = 2 Rt

BP t2 I UPoUP)
2

2t

rn
R

PUP {ui,
2t

= n
rn 2
= n
R

rn2 = nR

or

rn =

nR

R P Gu, P zv B, Au

\ Ci zvS |Quzv CUS Gx u Qx.

Aux r1 1, r2

2, r3

3, ....

AvPS x Akzukzu [P
|UPQU Psh Gu A.

JUP

5.6.10 {mh [P kP
(i) {mh [P kzv J { J
A}zuU Pn. nBx P zv B (n+m)x
P zv B,
rn2 = nR r2n+m = (n+m) R G,
rn+m2 rn2 = mR

rn +m 2 rn 2
mR

217

rn+m, rn R BQ uu APU Psk J A

}zuU PnUQh.
(ii) {mh [P kzv vzv JP
GsnU PnUQh. P J A} a vzv
J A} m GP. nx P zv B, P rn
G vzv rn G Psh,
rn 2
r n

= nR a
= nR m
=

nR a

[ =

a
]
m

rn 2
r

2
n

5.7
J, APP Q. AQUS A EUPk
J. _P P x | x AhQx. Cx
} x AP, J uh P x Au
Sv Q. uh P AP x \
C Gk. , AP ]
BS. J A A} uh Ah Jzvu
mk A, Ah.
L| G uh A Q Ax
kQ A A}zua \ux G Pmi. J AP
A} AvPP Eu uP, AvPP
HkQx. J A} J AP A}zu h PU
SP Cv Pa ] A J AP
A}zxh Jk x uP Cv J,
PU SP Hk.
J J xo P US x
U Pn. \P sn [P uuU
Pn.

5.7.1 L| L
xP, C PPP UP. (1) L|
(Fresnel diffraction) (2) L
(Fraunhofer diffraction). L| J , v
Hkzx uhx J Smmhz
218

uUS. Cv S Emk AP PP
i Ax E i CUS. L
J , v Hkzx
uhx Dz uUS. Cv S
Emkzuk A P \u A PP CUS.
Hmh PvP JUP CnP CUS. C S
Psk SUPkQx. J { L
A GuPU Pn i.

5.7.2 U Ro
U Ro Gx P AvP GsoUP, \ AP
Psh, Cn, SQ P Au GsoUP JPu
PkP UPmhx AS.
J \u U Ro Gx \u, JS
x F] J PU PkP x AS. uPzv
kzukQ | Ro 1 cm APzvS 6000 PkP
kQ.
J b AP Eh PkP uhPP
J a AP Eh P JS SvPP E. J
Pk J zu AP Ro e Gk. Akzukzu
P Ro zvSa \ Chzu Eh P Jzu
P G AUPkQ.
UP
MN Gx \u U Ro JSv. AB, CD, EF
...... G \AP a Psh P BC, DE ...... G \ AP b
Psh PkP SUQ (h 5.21). Ro , e = a+b GP.
P2

M
A

P1

C
D

E
F

P1
P2

h 5.21 U Ro
219

 A} Psh J { J \u AP, Ro x
SzuP uPU P. PPi, P AB,
CD u E P Csh { [PPa \mk

Csh { AUSmiPz uzxU Ro UPzv

AP, Gz v\P a \Q.
Ro x SzuP J u v\US Pn \vUS v\
, Csh { AUSmiPU
Px. A C G J \i (Pair) Jzu x k
AUSmiPUS Ch u k CG = (a + b) sin . Cu
G \i Jzu Px Ch u k (a + b)
sin G A.
Px , J v\ \Q
AUSmiP, P1 G S Psk SUPkQ.
C SURmk Hkzv, Au Jk J mi,
a \ HkzxQ.
P G h uuP {u
(a + b) sin = m Cv m = 0, 1, 2, 3
u { = 0. G, sin = 0.
(a + b) sin = 0 Cx P {u m = 0 Jzx
AQ. G, kPv v\ \Q G AUSmiP
a \ v O G HkzxQ. Cu _
\ Ax GQ.
(a + b) sin 1 = G, kPvUSU Pn 1 \u v\
A AUSmi u \
QhUQx.
Cx (a + b) sin 2 = 2 G, Csh \
QhUS.
zv C[Q \
[P P1, P2 G P ES.
xP (a + b) sin = m Gx a \UP {u
BS. C[S m Gx J Gs a \ \ Gs BS.
m
sin =
Ax sin = Nm
a +b

Cv N =

1
Gx Ro [P GsoUPS. Cx
a +b

Ro J AS }zv PkP GsoUPS.

220

 kzumh, \
sP Au C[P uha]
{[P Psh [P ES.
Ahu { = 0 sin = 0 BS. G
G vPUS m= 0 G A sin = Nm G \k
{P A. Cu O G G A}[P Jh
J v G AP \ EUS. G
{P Ahu QhUQx.
v AvPUS x (a + b) sin , Fu uh[Q ]

v Phx \u
{ G {[PUP
2

PQx. AvPUS x (a + b) sin G {[PUP

v \u QhUQx. C
Fu uh[Q ] {P US. Cu
{ J C UP[P A.

5.7.3 \u Fk Ro kzv J
{ J A}zuU PsuP B
J { U
Ro kzv {P A}[
Pz xPU Pn.

u
{
B
Pmh
^P
\kQ.
A}
Ahh si K J{ Jzu
CnUQ Jmhh sk.
CnUQ Aa_h x u
|UQ zx | zu UP sk.
2
2
CnUQx kPvPUS SzuP
1
1
\ x Ro UPkQx. u |UQ
J UP |Pzv u
T
T
Direct
Gs \h zu u|UQ Psk,
|Pv
ray
Ax Ps SUSU P x J h 5.22 J {
\ sk. Cu { u|UQ u J
AmhU Szx P sk (h 5.22).
Cx zv UPzv u Gs \
zuU Psk AuP AmhU SzxU P sk.
Csk AkPUS E k 2 G, Au v , u
\ zvP U Pn BS.
221

sin
G \mh kzv J A} Psh
Nm
kQx. C[S N Gx Ro J mh }zv PkP BS.

5.7.4 { P A} Pqu
J { J zvS vP (Source)
UPkQx. A }[P Pva_P
EuPU Psh, Ro AuU Px UPkQx.
G A}[P Psh { QhUQx (h 5.23).
R2

Grating
Ro

Csh
\
Second Order
V2
R1

First
Order
u
\

V1

_
\
Zero
Order
(Central
Maximum)

1
1
2

V1
R1

First Order

u \

V2
R2

Second Order
Csh
\

h 5.23
N v uu S, G PUS A}[P, =

G uh PshkQ.

sin
Nm

5.7.5 SURmk , kP
1.

2.
3.
4.

SURmk
C Csk K [P
Cx E C
A Px u
AU SmiP xu
HkQx.
mhP \Ch Eh.
mhP Azx \
\h.

h
Jk
x C AvP GsoUP
mhP Psh.
222

C J AP

Px
u AU SmiP
xu HkQx.
mhP \Ch A.
\ PP S.
C
S
A
mhP Psh

5.8 u
Gvzu, J P, SURmk , u BQ
sP SU PPUS |mhPUS x . B,
J SUP s u mk UP i.

5.8.1 SUPP u
AB G J P S1 S2G CnP UPmh C
\[Szx P Pa \uPU Px. P B G
J PmhmkuPU P. A izxU
Psk ABUS SzuP R CUQ, P SUPP
Hkzv Ax, S1 P, Cn Avh PhUQx.
S1, S2US CnP CUS x mk AP PhUQ
(h 5.24a). B S2 Bx S1US SzuP A u
A \uz ukzx {zv k. Cu a_ _ v
(h 5.24b)C S2B Sv P A i |P CuU
Pn.

P |Pzv |mhPz uzu, S1,S2

P Gu {u AP A PU Phx \.
C v x
P v\
|m h v
Gu
v
Hkzx
v A
G uQx. B,
P JU P
CnP
Au
{ SU PP
x
vU
Pku A.
Cx u
{P,
Jx A
l (tourmaline)
iPzv

\
x
HkQx.

D
C

S1

(a)

S2

D
C

S1

S2

(b)

h 5.24 SUPP u
(Cv AP)
223

Source
Polarised LightJ
u

Source

u
Polarised LightJ

(a)

J
k
No Light
v

u
J
Polarised Light

(b)

h 5.25 SUPP u (K AP)

J Aa_US CnP mhmh J l iPzv
J \zukQx (h 5.25a).
CiPzvx J, iPzv C {zuU
PsiUS. A iPzua _ \ Gu
Pnkv. B G iPzu A.US CnP .
C iP[P A Aa_PUS CnPa _ Cshx
iP, Bx \ Guu Pnkv.
iP B I mk _, Bx J \ ]x
]uPU Sx BBx AUS SzuP x, J x x
{ k (h 5.25b).
iPzu _ Bx J \ ]x
]uP AvPzx, Csk iP[P CnP CUS x a
\ AhQx.
Cu {Ph CuS \u Cv A Jmk,
J |UP, J AP SUPP u G A.
A G l iPzvx J AP, J
\Q v\US SzuP E J v\ mk AvhQx. Cu
J AP u BS. J AP iPzv Aa_US
CnP J uzv mk AvP Hkzv A, u
J Gk. CP J uzv mk AvP
Hkzx Cu u Gk.
224

5.8.2 u Avzu u z u
J Aa\U
PsiUS
uzv
AvP Hmh Ax
u Avz u G
kQx. u Avz uz
vS SzuP u
J
v\ A u,
u zu G
k.
u
z
uzv Gu Av
Hhx.

S
H

F
Q

h 5.26 u Av u
z u[P

h 5.26 PQRS G u u Avzu EFGH G u

u z u BS.

5.8.3 J AvP SUPku

u Ahu J, G
UP Av Psku A
JUP \[Szu AvPPU
SUP. Cu Cmh AUS
h 5.27 J AvP
Psk PU Psk
Pmh (h 5.27).
JU P, u uzvS Cn AvP Cmh AU
S, u uzvS Szu AvP P Pmh
miUQ.

5.8.4 u UQ S
Ju Jz uQ \u uUQ BS.
Jx uu C G \vUS \u S
Gk. uUQ SP S uUQP
\h C.
J JUPx S P \zukQx. S
_kx \ Cx Cu Au kQ J
u J BS. S 90o _ x QhUQ Ja
\, zvS _US Ch Au Ax u J
BS. S 90o _x JUP a
\ ]a \ (_ v) Psiu Sv u
J Gk.
225

5.8.5 Gv uUP
Gv

u G
EUP. \un J,
J FkUTi Psni A
Ax
}
mk
Gv Ah x u
X
AhQx G
G Pshu. J,
u AhQ A,
J
kPnzua
\ux.

Incident
kP
beam

GvU
Reflected
P
beam

ip

ip
B

C
Y

P
Ahu
Refracted
beam
P

D
XY
G Psniz
uzv, AB G u
h 5.28 Gv
J kQx. h 5.28
uUP
Pmii hzv (u)
uzvS CnP AB AvP AUS Pmhmk.
hzv uzvS SzuP AvP, Gvz uzvS CnP
A. C P SUPmk.

kQ J J Sv BC P Gv Ah
Sv BD P Ph. J S Psk Gvzu Pv
\vUS x Ax Sv uuP AuU Pn.
J Smh kPnzv (PsniUS 57.5o) J kx,
GvUPmh Pv xP u JP CUS.
GvUPmh P Pz u x E
kPnzu uU Pn (ip) GQ.

5.8.6 h v (Brewsters law)

\ hm h G Gvz u[P
Psk uh BP |hzv , uU PnzvS J
P GsoS Ch E G uhU Pshu.
B uU Pnzv JUP kx
GvUS Pv, Phu Pv JUP SzuP A G
Pshmhx.
h 5.28 i, ip +900 + r = 1800
r = 900 ip
226

| vi,

sin i p
sin r

C[S Gx FhPzv (Psni) J P Gs BS.

r C v Cv Dk \
sin i p
sin i p
=
= ;
sin(90 i )
cos i
p

tan ip =

u Pnzv hg\m v Gsn Au FhPzv

JP GsoSa \.

5.8.7 umhkUS
Gv Hk u kzv umhkUS
AUPkQx. \ A J S Psniz umkP
CnP J x J zukQ (h 5.29). C S
Aa_US 32.5o \x CUS. S Aa] \ J {
JUPv \ umhkUQ . Cx kPn 57.5o
BQx. Cx Psni u U Pn BS.
kuzvSa
\[Szu AvP,
J

GvUPk
Cn Fka
\.
u[P
GsoUP AvP,
Gv Ahu u

J
\
AvPS.
umhkUS uUQ
P SP
\k (h 5.29).

h 5.29 umhkUS

5.8.8 Cmh J P
zu G, P\m iPzv u JUPv
x, Ax iPzv C PvPP x \Qx GuU
Pskizu. Cu {P Cmh P Gk (h 5.30a). G J
US Csk [P ES. Cu P {P, Sm, UP
iP[P |h.
227

E
O

(a)

E
O

(b)

h 5.30 Cmh J P
J PQuz xsi mk P\m iPzv P,
Au |UQ C [P u
(h 5.30b). iPzua _ J {P CUS.
Cua _ . { \un (O) Gk. J
P vPUS Emk S PvP, C EQx.
CUPvP \unU PvP G. _ A\un (E)
Gk. J P vPUS Emhu S PvP, C
EQx. CUPvP A\unU PvP G.
Cmh P Hkzx iPzv \unU Pv
v\zxh Gz v\P \Qx. A\unU Pv
v\P v\ Pzxh \Qx.
Cmh P Hkzx iP J UPmh
J, \unU PvUS PP AP A\unU PvUS
}mh (elliptical) A P Hkzx.
iPzv J Smh v\ \unU Pv, A\unU Pv
\ v\Pzv \Q. Czv\ iPzv J Aa_ G
AUQ. Cuz v\ Csk PvUP J P Gs \
v . Cmh JP Czv\ |hx.

5.8.9 iPzv PP
P\m, Sm, I l iP[P J J
J Aa\ u Ka_ iP[P G AUPkQ.
UP, mP (topaz), PUP (selenite) AP|m
(aragonite) iP[P Csk J Aa_UP u
Da_ iP[P G AUPkQ.
228

5.8.10 |UP mhP

|UP G |UP mhPzu izu.
|UP mhPx P\m iPzuU Psk
iUPkQx. APzu h[S } 72o
108o Pn[P Psh P\m iP Csk SvPP, mh
AB P mhmk sk Jh Ph \ G J
Fk ]sm Psk JmhkQx (h 5.31). \i JUS
\unU Pv JP Gs 1.658 A\unU PvUS 1.486.
Ph \ JP Gs 1.550. Cx Csk PvUS JP
Au Ph \ u J uv.
A
E

108

72

h 5.31 |UP mhP

u J Cu |UP mhPzv k
\mh Cmh JP Hmk, \unU PvP A\unU
PvP Qx. \unU Pv Ph \zu ukUPmk AP
Gv Ahu Fk v. CP Ph \
P Fk A\unU Pv u PvP CUS. |UP
mhP u UQP, SP \kQx.

5.8.11 kP
k Gx u J EUP kQx.
u EmPu (selective absorption) G {P Aih
kP iUPkQ. kP PP E.
J k ~so um (S Ah\m)
iP[PU Pskx. J iP Cmh J P
Hkzv \unU Pv EmPx A\unU Pv Fk
\Q. | kP ~so um iP[P
A J Aa_P CnP CUS, |m&\
zx iUPkQ.
\PP kP, BP mh
mix uUPkQ. Cu { iP[P J AvP
Fka \xh u u Jz uQ.
229

5.8.12 kP P
1. BU Th[P u J EUP
uhu J B kQ.
2. kP PU PsniPP kQ.
3. P P[P zuk Jzv PsP
T_uz uUP kP kQ.
4. Gsn Kzv {[P miz u
kzu kQ.
5. k h n |P [P uUP
kQx.
6. CP BP [P Ja \U Pmkkzu
\ PsniPP kzukQ. BP [P J
k {P Akzux _ AUPmku,
u Ja\ E i ^zxU P.
7. zv\ Pn[P x R|UQ GkUPk
Ph, kPU Psk US x Pz uP
u.
8. PoP (calculators) PiP[P E GzxP
GsP, u J Psh v iP k (LCD)
EUPkQ.
9. UTP AP i[P B u
kQx.

5.8.13 J (Optical activity)

Ju J ] P x kx,
Q J u zu, kJ uz uzu
A, ] Pn A vmk AQx. Cu
J (\) GQ. u z uzu vQ Cu
P P J UQ P BS.
G.P.: Sm, \UP iP[P, hh Gsn, \i
Sk u.
J \v Psh P C Pk.
(i) hUm-&_] (x) Gx, zu (source) |USx,
uz u g_Pa _uS. (ii) _] (Chx)
Gx, zu |USx, uzu Chg_Pa _uS.
S G J { J, uUQ P \zukQx.
u J uUQUS SUPP UPmh J S
230

S
No light
J
k
v
S

Optically
J
\v
active
UP

substance

Light
J

kQx

h 5.32 J
A AkQx. Ax Gu J . u
UQUS SUS |k Sm umk UPh,
Sx ]x J Qx. S A& ]x Pn
_ J x { kQx (h 5.32).
Sm P J uuP Au,
uz u ]x Pn _mk Au C{Pa]USU
Pn BS.
J _]x, (i)
iPzv ui, (ii) iPzv Ahzv
Ax P\ Ah, (iii) k J A}
(iv) P\ { PoPa \ux.

5.8.14 _]zv Gs (Specific rotation)

_]z v GsnU Psk J zv Psh
P _] Jh.
J Smh {, J A}zv _]z v Gs
Gx J h]mh } 1cc P\ E 1 g v
Hk _]BS.
J h] mh } v A Ah[Q c G Ah
Psh P\ 1ccUS 1g Hkzv _]U Pn G, A}
G, { t G Psh _]z v Gs

S =
t.c
J J _] |huU Psh Eu P
u Gk.
\unP, \UPx J \v UP S.
uz uzv _] Auu P, \UPU P\
AhzvU PnUQh i.
231

wUPmh PnUSP
5.1

[ Cmh B Csk K [P \P uP
64 : 1. Cu v SURmk mhP uQ.
]a \UP uP PsP.
I

uP : I1 : I2 : : 64 : 1

I]

= ?

I1 a12 64
=
=
I 2 a22
1

w :

a1 8
= ; a = 8a2
a2 1 1

I
I]

(a1 + a 2 )2
(a1 a 2 )2

(9a 2 )2
(7a2 )2

(8a 2 + a 2 )2
(8a 2 a 2 )2

81
49

I : I] : : 81 : 49
5.2

[ Cmh B 6000 A} J kzu

k x QhUS mh AP 2 mm. Cu B, JP
Gs 1.33 Psh vzv Pmh, QhUS mh
AP G?
= 6000 = 6 107 m; = 2mm = 2 103 m

uP :

= 1.33; = ?

w :

D D
= d = d =

2 103
= 1.5 10-3 m Ax 1.5 mm
1.33

232

5.3

, JP Gs 1.33 Psh J \ hzv x

30o Pnzv kQx. GvU Pv { Psk
B 6000 A} Psh Pmh uQx G, \
hzv Pa ] ui G?
uP :

= 1.33; i = 30o; = 6000 = 6 107 m

n = 1 (Pa ] ui); t = ?
=

w :

sin r =

cos r =

sin i
sin r

sini

0.5
sin 30o
=
= 0.3759
1.33
1.33

1 (0.3759)2

= 0.9267

2 t cos r = n
t =

n
1 6 10 7
=
2 cos r 2 1.33 0.9267

6 107
t =
2.465
t = 2.434 107 m

5.4

3 m B J umhU S\x umh Psniz uPmi

x UPmk, J { J JmhkQx. 8x P
zv B 3.6 m m G, J A} G?

uP : R = 3m ; n = 8 ; r8 = 3.6 mm = 3.6 103 m ; = ?

w :

rn =

nR

rn2 = nR
=

5.5

rn 2
(3.6 103 )2
=
= 5400 1010 m (or) 5400
83
nR

{mh B Smh \ E P
zv mh, Cshx zv mhzuh Csk
h[S AvP G, Au zv \ G?
uP : dn = 2d2 ; n = ?

233

w :

dn2 = 4nR

...(1)

d22 = 8R

...(2)

d
n
(1)
n2 =
d2
(2)
2

4d22 n
=
d 22
2

5.6

n = 8.

0.3 mm Chzu Psh C P 4500 A}

J JmhkQx. PUS, vUS Ch

u 1 m. x C E Cshx
mhPUS Chmh u x?
uP :

d = 0.3 mm = 0.3 103 m ; = 4500 = 4.5 107 m,

D = 1 m ; n = 2 ; 2x = ?
D
2x = 2
n
d

w :

2 1 2 4.5 107
0.3 103
3
2x = 6 10 m (or) 6 mm
=

5.7

cm APzv 5000 PkP mh U

Ro x K zv Cx CnP Jx ki
UPkQx. Csh \ 30o Pnzv Hmh
J A} G?
uP : N = 5000 PkP / cm = 5000 102 PkP / m
m = 2 ; = 30o ; = ?

w : sin = Nm
=

sin
Nm

sin 30o
0.5
=
5
5 10 2 5 105 2

= 5 107 m = 5000 .

234

5.8

u 60 cc \UPU P\ 300 mm } Psh

\uU S UPk x 9o _kQx. _]z
v Gs 60o G P\ E \UP A G?
uP : l = 300 mm = 30 cm = 3 decimetre
= 9o ; s = 60o ; v = 60 cc
m = ?

w :

s = l c = l (m /v )
m =
=

.v
l s
9 60
3 60

m = 3 g

u vk
(Cu u vmk Sv, PkUPmk UP PnUSP
vP. C, h Sv Gu J Ax
PnUQ iUP. n, n u vmk Svx
mk, h x iUPhU Ti UPUS
PnUSPUS hUP Bzu \x P sk)

5.1

5.2

Pu AP, B
(a)

zvS Pu zvS J AP
Q.

(b)

C [PUS \[SzuP Q.

(c)

zv Qx.

(d)

Pu zv Qx

Pu AP
(a) SUPP BS.
(b) |mhP BS.
(c) SUPPP Ax |mhPP CUP.
(d) SUPP A; |mhP A.

235

5.3

Psni JP Gs 1.5. ui 10 cm Eh Psniz

uPmi J \uS BS P.
(a) 2 108 s

(b) 2 1010 s

(c) 5 108 s

5.4

(d) 5 1010 s

Pu AP, E Pu B US Ch

E Pmh k

5.5

5.6

5.7

(a) /4

(b) /2

(c)

(d) _

Aq { Gx
(a) y {

(b) k mh {

(c) EmP {

(d) EmP mh {

{mh z uSv, Psniz umkUS umhU

S_US Ch J x } UPmh, z uSv
(a) _[S

(b) h

(c) x

(d) u h _[S

J { JP, hzvx JP Gs Psh

FhPzvS ~Qx. k Phu AP
A}[P uP
(a) : 1

(b) 1 :

(d) 1 : 2

(c)

5.8

5.9

: 1

J J A} |S h[PPU Su Au ]u A
(a) 16 h[S AvPUS

(b) 16 h[S S

(c) 256 h[S AvPUS

(b) 256 h[S S

{mh B m&Bx (m + 4) x P
B[P 5 mm 7 mm G m- v G?
(a) 2

(b) 4

(c) 8

(b) 10

5.10 4000 A} C J{ J APUS Ch E

u k 2 107 m. AS Ch E Pmh k.
(a)
(c)

3
2

(b) 2

(d) /2

236

5.11 [ B, 6000 A} J 3x mh
zv 4x mhh xQx G,
Au J zv A} G?
(a) 4500

(b) 6000

(c) 5000

(d) 4000

5.12 0.005 m APzv 2500 PkP E Ro x 6000

A} Jx |USzuP kQx. Au \
G?
(a) 3

(b) 2

(c) 1

(d) 4

5.13 J ] JU Px kQx.
] JUS vP } J kzv Hkx G?
(a) mhP xk.
(b) Gx x.
(c) SPh TmhP J \.
(d) APh Jmk J .

5.14 60o u PnzvP J P Gs G?

(a) 1.732

(b) 1.414

(c) 1.5

(d) 1.468

5.15 Pu AP G G?
5.16 Pu AP ]PU TP.
5.17 Pu AP [P P GxP.
5.18 k {, EmP { C .
5.19 Ju {u G G?
5.20 ~s xP Lmh & kzx.
5.21 ish Ja]u G G?
5.22 hU
P
EQ?

BihU

5.23 } {zv uU Pn G?
5.24 C Ja ]u USP.

237

5.25 uzxzu USP.

5.26 AU PP kzv AP Gv .
5.27 AP xu uzx x?
5.28 {{zumh SURmk UP {uP ?
5.29 [ Cmh B SURmk Hk mh
APzvP P P.
5.30 Fk hzv J Gvu Hk SURmk
. ] Ja \UP {uP
GxP.
5.31 {mh [P G G? {mh [P
PP AU Pn x?
5.32 L|, L & kzxP.
5.33 \u U RoUP UPzuU TP.
5.34 J SUPPP Qx GuP B .
5.35 u u u J & kzx.
5.36 Lh vU T USP.
5.37 \un JUS A\un JUS Ch E kPz
uP.
5.38 (a) |UP mhP (b) kP U S uP.
5.39 J _] G G? Ax \x PoP ?

PnUSP
5.40 AP Hkzx LC Jzv\a _ J Hh (antenna)
CnUPmkx. _ 400 pF uUQ, 100 H ysi
C, ES Pu A A}zuU PnUQkP.
5.41 [ Cmh a \u, C K [P \
Qu 81 : 1 G, ]a \P Qu G?
5.42 JP Gs 1.33 Eh } x 589 nm A}h J{
J kQx. } J v\P, Avs
A}zuU PnUQkP.

238

5.43 [ \u 6 10 14 Hz Avs Eh J
kzukQx. Akzukzu C mhP [PUS
Chmh u 0.75 mm. 1.5 m u v C,
PUS Chmh uU PnUQkP.
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5.1 (b)

5.2 (a)

5.3 (d)

5.4 (d)

5.5 (a)

5.6 (a)

5.7 (a)

5.8 (c)

5.9 (d)

5.10 (a)

5.11 (a)

5.12 (a)

5.13 (c)

5.14 (a)

5.40 377 m

5.41

25 : 16

5.42 2.26 108 m s1, 5.09 1014 Hz, 4429

5.43 1 mm

5.44

3 mm

5.45 18 107 m

5.46

5.47 5645

5.48

15o

5.49 30o

5.50

0.0833 g/cc

240