MC LC

CHNG 1 :

TNG QUAN.............................................................................2

1. Gii thiu...........................................................................................................2
2. L do chn ti tiu lun...............................................................................2
3. Mc tiu ca tiu lun.......................................................................................2
4. Gii hn tiu lun..............................................................................................2
5. Tm tt ni dung...............................................................................................2
CHNG 2 AI CNG V NH S..............................................................4
2.1 Gii thiu nh s................................................................................................4
2.2 im nh (Pixel).................................................................................................4
2.3 phn gii ca nh.........................................................................................5
2.4

Quan h gia cc im nh...........................................................................5

CHNG 3 : C BN V X L NH S TRONG MATLAB.....................9

3.1 Gii thiu............................................................................................................9
3.2 Cc hm x l c bn.....................................................................................12
3.2.1 c v ghi d liu nh..................................................................................12
CHNG 4 : THUT TON SVM.....................................................................21
4.1 GII THIU...................................................................................................21
4.2 SUPPORT VECTOR CLASSIFIER - SVC..................................................21
CHNG 5 : XY DNG CHNG TRNH NHN DNG KHUN MT
................................................................................................................................. 29
5.1 S khi........................................................................................................29
5.2 Xy dng chng trnh nhn dng...............................................................30
5.2.1 Xy dng chng trnh hun luyn............................................................30
5.2.2 Xy dng chng trnh kim tra.................................................................30

CHNG 1 :

TNG QUAN

1. Gii thiu
Vi khoa hc pht trin nh hin nay th nhu cu ca con ngi i hi ngy
mt cao hn, hon thin hn. c bit l k thut in t, mt trong nhng
ngnh p ng c nhu cu rt ln ca con ngi, hin nay a s cc thit b
ng dng u c mt cng ngh in t. Mt trong nhng ng dng ca k
thut in t l X L nh.
X l nh c ng dng rt rng ri trong cuc sng. Trong dn dng th
c cc thit b nh ti vi, my nh, in thoi, my ghi hnh ; Trong y t c cc
thit b siu m, x-quang, my chp ct lp, my ni soi; Trong an ninh quc
phng th c camera, nhn dng vn tay,nhn dng khun mt . . .
Nhn dng khun mt l mt vn rt kh khn. Nhn dng khun mt c
hai hng : Th nht l nhn dng u l khun mt v u khng phi l
khun mt, th hai l nhn dng khun mt ca mt ngi vi nhiu ngi
khc nhau.
2. L do chn ti tiu lun
Nhn dng khun mt rt cn thit cho chng ta ngy nay. Chng ta c th
s dng nhn dng khun mt trong vn an ninh nh nhn bit tn tui v
hnh vi gy ra ca ti phm phng, chng ta cng c th s dng nhn
dng khun trong vn qun l nhn s ca mt t chc no ,Chng ta
cng c th s dng nhn dng khun mt bo mt dung c nhn nh
my tnh, in thoi, t hay vn phng lm vic . . . V vy vic nhn dng
khun mt c th lm gim thi gian v m bo c tnh an ninh bo mt tt.
Phng php nhn dng SVM l mt phng php phn loi d s dng v
hiu qu cng cao.
3. Mc tiu ca tiu lun
Xy dng c s l thuyt v X L NH , v thut ton SVM.
Vit chng trnh nhn dng khun mt bng phng php SVM
M phng chng trnh trn Matlab.
4. Gii hn tiu lun
Ch tm hiu v phng php nhn dng khun mt bng SVM nn khng so
snh c vi kt qu ca cc phng php nhn dng khun mt khc.
C s d liu ch mang tnh cht m phng, tng trng
Nhn dng khun mt da trn cc mu khun mt c trong d liu phn
bit cc khun mt vi nhau.
5. Tm tt ni dung
Ni dung gm c :
Phn 1 : Ni v tng quan ca tiu lun, gii thiu qua v nhn dng , l do
ti sao li la chn ti tiu lun ny v mc ch ca tiu lun l lm g?
Phn 2 : Gii thiu v c s l thuyt :
- Gii thiu v X L NH , mt s khi nim v cch chuyn i
nh.

Gii thiu cc lnh v mt s ng dng ca Matlab trong vn

X L NH
- Gii thiu v thut ton SVM , cc trng hp phn loi ca
SVM
Phn 3 : Xy dng chng trnh nhn dng vi thut ton SVM. a nh d
liu hun vo, ri trch c trng PCA sau hun luyn qua thut ton SVM.
Sau khi hun luyn xong , xy dng chng trnh x l nh cn nhn dng ri
a vo nhn dng bng SVM

CHNG 2 AI CNG V NH S

2.1 Gii thiu nh s

nh s l tp hp cc im nh (hay cn gi l pixel) vi mc xm ph hp dng
m t nh gn vi nh tht. nh c biu din nh mt ma trn hai chiu c
WxH, hai thng s ny cho bit thng tin v rng v chiu cao nh. Gi tr ca mi
phn t ca ma trn I [i, j] biu din cho mc xm hay cng nh ti v tr ca
phn t .

a) H trc ta trong Image

Processing Toolbox

b) Ma trn biu din nh s

Hnh 2.1: Biu din nh s

C th chia ra lm 3 loi khc nhau:
nh en trng : Mi im nh c biu din bi mt bit. Cng nh I ch
c th l mt trong hai gi tr I [/, y] G [0,1]. ng vi gi tr 0 l cc im
en, cn vi gi tr 1 l im trng.
nh xm : Mi im nh c biu din bng cc mc chi khc nhau,thng
th nh ny c biu din bng 256 mc chi hay l 8 bit cho mi im nh.
nh mu : Mi im nh chia ra thnh tn hiu chi v tn hiu mu. Tn hiu
mu gm ba mu ring bit: (Red-R), lc (Green-G) v lam (Blue-B).
biu din cho ba mu ring r cn 24-bit, 24-bit ny c chia thnh ba khong
8- bit. Mi khong ny biu din cho cng sng ca mt trong cc mu
chnh.
2.2 im nh (Pixel)

im nh (Pixel) l mt phn t ca nh s ti to (x, y) vi xm hoc mu

nht nh. Kch thc v khong cch gia cc i m nh c chn thch hp sao
cho mt ngi cm nhn s lin tc v khng gian v mc xm hoc mu ca nh s
gn nh nh tht. Mi phn t trong ma trn c gi l mt phn t nh.
2.3 phn gii ca nh
nh ngha: phn gii (Resolution) ca nh l mt im nh c n
nh trn mt nh s c hin th.
Theo nh ngha, khong cch gia cc im nh phi c chn sao cho mt
ngi vn thy c s lin tc ca nh. Vic la chn khong cch thch hp to nn
mt mt phn b, chnh l phn gii v c phn b theo trc x v y trong
khng gian hai chiu.
V d: phn gii ca nh trn mn hnh CGA l mt li gm 320 im
chiu dc x 200 im nh chiu ngang (320x200). Do , mt mn hnh CGA12
(320x200) ta nhn thy hnh nh mn hn mn hnh CGA17 (320x200). Bi v cng
mt phn gii nhng din tch mn hnh rng hn th mn km hn.
2.4 Quan h gia cc im nh
Gi s mt nh s c biu din bng hm f(x, y). Tp con cc im nh l M, cp
im nh c quan h vi nhau k hiu l s, t. C mt s cc khi nim nh sau:
o Cc ln cn ca im nh (Image Neighbors)
Gi s c im nh s ti to (x, y). t c 4 im ln cn gn nht theo chiu dc v
ngang
{(x-1, y); (x, y-1); (x, y+1); (x+1, )} = N4(s)
(1.1)
trong : s 1 l gi tr logic; N4(s) tp 4 im ln cn ca s.

Hnh 2.2: Ln cn cc i m nh ca ta
(x,y)

Cc ln cn cho: Cc im ln cn cho Ns(s)

Ns(s) = { (x+1, y+1); (x+1, y-1); (x-1, y+1); (x-1, y-1)}
(1.2)
Tp kt hp: N8(s) = N4(s) + Ns(s) l tp hp 8 ln cn ca im nh s.
Ch : Nu (x, y) nm bin (mp) nh; mt s im s nm ngoi nh.
o Cc mi lin kt im nh

Cc mi lin kt c s dng xc nh gii hn (Boundaries) ca i tng vt

th hoc xc nh vng trong mt nh. Mt lin kt c c trng bi tnh lin k
gia cc im v mc xm ca chng.
Gi s G l tp cc gi tr mc xm. Mt nh c cc gi tr cng sng t thang
mc xm t 32 n 64 c m t nh sau :
G={32, 33, ... , 63, 64}
(1.3)
C 3 loi lin kt:
Lin kt 4: Hai im nh s v t c ni l lin kt 4 vi cc gi tr cng
sng G nu t nm trong mt cc ln cn ca s, tc t thuc N4(s)
Lin kt 8: Hai im nh p v q nm trong mt cc ln cn 8 ca p, tc q thuc
N8(p)
Lin kt m (lin kt hn hp): Hai im nh s v t vi cc gi tr cng sng
G c nu l lin kt m nu:
t thuc N4(s) hoc t thuc Ns(s)
1. Khong cch gia cc im nh
nh ngha. Khong cch D(s, t) gia hai im nh s to (x, y), t to (u,
v) l hm khong cch (Distance) hoc Metric nu:
D(s,t) 0 (Vi D(s,t)=0 khi v ch khi s=t)
D(s,t) = D(s,t)
(2.1.5)
D(s,z) D(s,t) + D(s,z); z l mt im nh khc.
Khong cch Euclide: Khong cch Euclide gia hai im nh p(x, y) v q(s, t)
c nh ngha nh sau:
De(p, q) = [(x - s)2 + (y -1)2]1/2
(1.4)
Khong cch khi: Khong cch D4(p, q) c gi l khong cch khi th
(City- Block Distance) v c xc nh nh sau:
D4(p,q) = |x -s |+ |y -t |
(1.5)
Gi tr khong cch gia cc im nh r : gi tr bn knh r gia im nh t tm im
nh n tm im nh q khc. V d: Mn hnh CGA 12 (12*2,54cm =
30,48cm=304,8mm) phn gii 320*200; t l 4/3 (Chiu di/Chiu rng). Theo
nh l Pitago v tam gic vung, ng cho s ly t l 5 phn (5/4/3: ng
cho/chiu di/chiu rng mn hnh); khi di tht l (305/244/183) chiu rng
mn hnh 183mm ng vi mn hnh CGA 200 im nh theo chiu dc. Nh vy,
khong cch im nh ln cn ca CGA 12 l ~ 1mm.
Khong cch D8(p, q) cn gi l khong cch bn c (Chess-Board Distance) gia
im nh p, q c xc nh nh sau:
D8(p,q) = max (\ x-s \ , \ y-t \)
2. Mu sc v chuyn i mu
Mu sc
Mt ngi c th phn bit c vi chc mu nhng ch c th cm nhn c
hng ngn mu. Ba thuc tnh ca mt mu l: Sc (Hue), thun khit
(Saturation), v sng hay chi (Itensity).
Trong x l nh v ha, m hnh mu l mt ch s k thut ca mt h ta mu
3 chiu vi tp cc mu nh thnh phn c th trng thy c trong h thng ta
mu thuc mt gam mu c trng. V d nh m hnh mu RGB (Red, Green, Blue):
l mt n v tp cc mu thnh phn sp xp theo hnh lp phng ca h trc ta
cc.

Mc ch ca m hnh mu l cho php cc ch s k thut quy c ca mt s loi

mu sc thch hp vi cc mu sc ca mt s gam mu khc. Chng ta c th nhn
thy trong m hnh mu ny, khng gian mu l mt tp hp nh hn ca khng gian
cc mu c th nhn thy c, v vy mt m hnh mu khng th c s dng
nh r tt c c th nhn thy. Sau y, ta xem xt mt s m hnh hay c s dng
nht.
M hnh mu RGB (Red, Green, Bule)
Mu , lc, lam (RGB) c s dng ph bin nht. Nhng mu gc RGB c
thm vo nhng mu gc khc iu to nn s ng gp ring ca tng mu gc
c thm cng nhau mang li kt qu. Tp hp mu nh thnh phn sp xp theo
khi lp phng n v. ng cho chnh ca khi lp phng vi s cn bng v s
lng tng mu gc tng ng vi cc mc xm, vi en l (0,0,0) v trng
(1,1,1).

Hnh2.3. M hnh mu RGB

Mc xm ca nh
Mt im nh (pixel) c hai c trng c bn l v tr (x, y) ca im nh v xm
ca n. Di y chng ta xem xt mt s khi nim v thut ng thng dng trong
x l nh.
nh ngha:
Mc xm ca im nh l cng sng ca n c gn bng gi tr s ti im .
Cc thang gi tr mc xm thng thng: 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 ( Mc 256 l mc ph
dng. K thut my tnh dng 1 byte (8 bit) biu din mc xm, mc xm dng 1
byte biu din: 28=256 mc, tc l t 0 n 255).
nh en trng: l nh c hai mu en, trng (khng cha mu khc) vi mc
xm cc im nh c th khc nhau.
nh nh phn: nh ch c 2 mc en trng phn bit tc dng 1 bit m t 21
mc khc nhau. Ni cch khc,mi im nh ca nh nh phn ch c th l 0
hoc 1.

 nh mu: trong khun kh l thuyt ba mu (R, G, B) to nn th gii mu,

ngi ta thng dng 3 byte m t mc mu, 8x3=24 khi cc gi tr mu:
28x3 = 224~ 16,7 triu mu.
Chuyn i mu
H ta mu do CIE quy nh nh mt h quy chiu v trn thc t khng th biu
din ht cc mu. Ty thuc vo cc ng dng khc nhau ngi ta a ra thm mt s
h ta khc nh NTSC, CMY, YIQ... ph hp vi yu cu hin th mu sc. Vic
chuyn i gia cc khng gian biu din mu thc hin theo nguyn tc sau:
Px = AxPx*
(1.6)
trong :
Px: khng gian biu din mu ban u,
Px*: khng gian biu din mu mi,
A : ma trn php bin i.
nh dng trong tiu lun ny l kiu nh xm. Mc xm l kt qu ca s m
ha tng ng mt cng sng ca im nh vi mt tr s. Gi tr ca n ph
thuc vo mc lng t ha nh, nh cc nh dng lm c s d liu ly 8 bit
m ha nh (ng vi 256 mc xm, trong mc xm 0 l mu en, mc xm 255
l mu trng).
Khi chuyn i t nh mu RGB sang nh xm c th dng cng thc sau:
grayscale = 1R + 2G + 3B , cc h s ai ln lt l: 1 = 0,2989; 2 = 0,5870;
3=0,1140.

CHNG 3 : C BN V X L NH S TRONG MATLAB

3.1 Gii thiu
Khng ch l mt cng c c lc trong x l tn hiu ni chung, Matlab cn l phn
mm rt mnh c s dng trong x l nh. Hu ht cc thut ton v nh v x l
nh u c th hin trong cc hm ca Matlab nh cc hm xut, nhp nh, cc
php bin i nh, lc nh, nng cao cht lng nh.... Phn mm Matlab l cha kha
mang li s thnh cng trong vic thc hin gii thut x l nh. Cu lnh Matlab gn
vi cc thut ng m t k thut, cu lnh ngn gn v c th tra cu nhanh trong mc
help. Trong Matlab c nhiu Toolbox h tr chuyn su. Vi bi ton nhn dng hnh
nh, cc Toolbox thng c s dng gm:
Image Processing Toolbox
Wavelet Toolbox
Statistics Toolbox
Neural Network Toolbox
Image Acqusition Toolbox
Cc kiu hnh nh trong Matlab
Image Processing Toolbox ca Matlab h tr bn kiu biu din hnh nh c bn gm:
nh ch s (indexed images), nh sng (intensity images), nh nh phn (binary
images), nh RGB (RGB images)
nh ch s:
Vi cch biu din ny, mi nh s c biu din bi hai ma trn, mt ma trn d
liu nh X v mt ma trn mu (cn gi l bn mu) map. Ma trn d liu c th
thuc kiu uint8, uint16 hoc double. Ma trn mu l mt ma trn kch thc m x 3
gm cc phn t kiu double c gi tr trong khong [0,1]
Mi hng ca ma trn xc nh cc thnh phn red, green, blue ca mt mu trong
tng s m mu c s dng trong nh. Gi tr ca mt phn t trong ma trn d liu
cho bit mu ca im nh l mu nm hng no trong ma trn mu. Nu ma trn
thuc kiu double, gi tr 1 s tng ng vi hng th nht trong bng mu, gi tr th
2 tng ng vi bng mu hng th hai,... Nu ma trn d liu thuc kiu uint8
hoc uint16, gi tr 0 ng vi hng 1, gi tr 1 ng vi hng 2.

Hnh 3.1: Biu din nh bng phng php ch s

nh biu din theo sng:
Mi nh c biu din bi mt ma trn hai chiu, trong gi tr ca mi phn t
cho bit sng (hay mc xm) ca im . Ma trn ny c th thuc mt trong cc
kiu uint8, uint16 hoc double. Trong , gi tr nh nht (0) ng vi mu en cn gi
tr ln nht ( 255 hoc 65535 hoc 1 ty kiu d liu) ng vi mu trng. Nh vy,
nh biu din theo kiu ny cn gi l nh trng en hoc nh gray scale.

Hnh 3.2: Biu din nh theo sng

nh nh phn:
nh nh phn cng c biu din bi ma trn hai chiu nhng thuc kiu logical, c
ngha l mi im nh ch c th nhn mt trong hai gi tr 0 (en) hoc 1 (trng).

10

Hnh 3.3: nh nh phn

nh RGB:
nh RGB cn gi l nh truecolor do tnh trung thc ca n. nh ny c biu
din bi mt ma trn ba chiu kch thc m x n x 3, vi m x n l kch thc nh theo
pixels. Ma trn ny nh ngha cc thnh phn mu red, blue, green cho mi im nh

Hnh 3.4: Biu din nh RGB

11

3.2 Cc hm x l c bn
3.2.1 c v ghi d liu nh
o Hm imread c cc file nh vi bt k cc nh dng nh bit hin nay v
lu li di dng mt ma trn biu din nh trong Matlab. C php :
f= imread(filename.fmt)
o Hm imwrite cho php lu mt nh biu din bng mt ma trn trong Matlab
thnh mt file nh di mt trong cc nh dng bit. C php :
imwrite(f,filename.fmt)
o Hm imfinfo dng xem cc thng s ca mt file nh no . C
php: imfinfo(filename.fmt). V d:hm imfinfo('peppers.png') thc hin
trong Matlab cho cc thng tin sau:
Filename: [1x64 char]
FileModDate: '02-Apr-2013 15:55:52'
FileSize: 287677
Format: 'png'
FormatVersion: []
Width: 512
Height: 384
BitDepth: 24
ColorType: 'truecolor'
FormatSignature: [137 80 78 71 13 10 26 10]
Colormap: []
Histogram: []
InterlaceType: 'none'
Transparency: 'none'
SimpleTransparencyData: []
BackgroundColor: []
RenderingIntent: []
Chromaticities: []
Gamma: []
XResolution: []
YResolution: []
ResolutionUnit: []
XOffset: []
YOffset: []
OffsetUnit: []
SignificantBits: []
ImageModTime: '16 Jul 2002 16:46:41 +0000'
Title: []
Author: []

12

Description: 'Zesty peppers'

Copyright: 'Copyright The MathWorks, Inc.'
CreationTime: []
Software: []
Disclaimer: []
Warning: []
Source: []
Comment: []
OtherText: []
Cc hm hin th hnh nh trong Matlab
phc v chc nng hin th hnh nh, Matlab cung cp hai hm c bn l image v
imagesc. Ngoi ra, trong Image Processing Toolbox cng c hai hm hin th nh
khc l imview v imshow
Hm image hin th hnh nh biu din bi ma trn c kch thc MxN ln trc
ta hin hnh.
Hm imgesc c chc nng tng t hm image, ngoi tr vic d liu nh s
c co gin (scale) s dng ton b bn mu hin hnh.
Hm imview cho php hin th hnh nh trn mt ca s ring, nn Java, gi l
Image Viewer. Image viewer cung cp cc cng c cho php d tm v xc nh gi tr
cc pixel mt cch linh hot. S dng hm ny khi ta cn kho st bc nh v cn cc
thng tin v pixel.
Hm imshow cng to mt i tng ha thuc loi image v hin th nh
trn mt figure. Hm imshow s t ng thit lp cc gi tr ca cc i tng image,
axes v figure th hin hnh nh. S dng hm ny trong cc trng hp ta cn li
dng cc cng c ch gii v cc h tr in n c sn trong figure.
Chuyn i gia cc kiu d liu, kiu nh
Chuyn i gia cc kiu d liu nh:
Matlab cung cp sn cc hm thc hin chuyn kiu cho cc ma trn biu din nh,
bao gm : im2double, im2uint8 v im2uintl6.
Tuy nhin, khi thc hin chuyn kiu gia cc d liu nh cn lu mt s iu sau:
Khi chuyn t mt kiu d liu dng nhiu bit sang mt kiu d liu dng t bit
hn th mt s thng tin chi tit v bc nh ban u s b mt.
Khng phi lc no cng c th chuyn i kiu d liu i vi kiu nh
indexed, v cc gi tr ca ma trn nh xc nh mt a ch trong bn mu ch
khng phi l gi tr mu, do khng th lng t ha c.
Chuyn i gia cc kiu nh:
C mt s thao tc x l nh trong Matlab ch thc hin c trn kiu nh ny m
khng thc hin c trn mt kiu nh khc. V vy, trong Matlab c mt s hm
cho php ngi s dng chuyn i qua li gia cc kiu nh cho tin x l.
Hm dither : to nh nh phn t nh trng en hoc to nh indexed t nh
RGB v ma trn mu map.

13

Hm gray2ind : chuyn i nh nh phn hoc nh intensity (nh biu din theo

sng) thnh nh indexed.
Hm grayslice : chuyn i nh trng en thnh nh indexed bng cch ly
ngng.
Hm im2bw : chuyn i cc loi nh trng en, nh indexed, nh RGB thnh
nh nh phn bng cch ly ngng.
Hm ind2gray : chuyn i nh indexed vi ma trn mu map thnh nh trng
en
Hm ind2rgb : chuyn i nh indexed vi ma trn mu map thnh nh RGB
Hm rgb2gray : chuyn i nh RGB thnh nh trng en.
Hm rgb2ind : chuyn nh RGB thnh nh indexed
Nng cao cht lng nh
Nng cao cht lng nh s l qu trnh x l trn nh ban u to ra kt qu l
mt bc nh tt hn xt theo mt tiu ch c th. V d nh x l nng cao cht
lng ca nh chp X-quang s khc vi vic nng cao cht lng ca nh chp ca
mt v tinh a tnh.
C nhiu phng php nhm tng cng cht lng ca nh, nhng tp trung vo hai
nhnh chnh l x l nh trong min khng gian v x l nh trong min tn s. Trong
min khng gian, nh c x l trc tip trn cc pixels. Min tn s s dng bin
i Fourier x l.
Trong chng ny ta ch tp trung tm hiu phng php x l nh trong min khng
gian.
Min khng gian l tp hp cc pixels trong mt bc nh. Chng ta s tin
hnh x l trc tip trn cc pixels ny. Qu trnh x l ny c th c m t thng
qua biu thc sau:
G (x,y)=T[f(x,y)]
(2.1)
Vi f(x,y) l nh gc, g(x,y) l nh sau x l, v T l php ton bin i, da trn cc
im nh xung quanh (x,y).

Hnh 3.5.

14

Cc im nh xung quanh c th c cc kch c khc nhau, c th l dng vung hoc

ch nht, trong im nh cn x l v tr trung tm. Trn hnh l mt khung c
kch thc 3x3. Ty mc ch c th m ta dng cc php bin i khc nhau.
Php bin i mc xm
Trong php bin i ny, gi tr g(x,y) ch ph thuc vo gi tr ca f(x,y), v T tr
thnh hm bin i mc xm. Ta c biu thc n gin sau:
s =T(r)

(2.2)

Vi r l mc xm ban u ti (x,y), s l mc xm sau bin i ti (x,y). V d: Xt hai

php bin i mc xm sau:

Hnh 3.6
Vi hnh th nht, php bin i cho ta nh sau x l c tng phn cao hn so vi
nh ban u. Cc gi tr mc xm r < m qua php bin i c nn li gn mc 0 (ti
hn), tng t vi cc gi tr r > m nhng c nn li gn mc 1 (sng hn) lm nh
sau x l c tng phn cao. Php bin i hnh b nhm bin 1 nh grayscale
thnh 1 nh nh phn. Ta xt mc ngng m, vi r < m c xt thnh mc 0, v r >
m xt thnh mc 1.
Mt s php bin i mc xm c bn:
nh m bn
Vi 1 nh c cc gi tr mc xm nm trong khong [0,L-1], ta c:
S = L-1-r
(2.3)
Ta s dng php bin i ny trong trng hp mun lm ni bt cc chi tit c mu
sng trong mt vng ti, c bit vi cc bc nh c vng ti ln.

15

Hnh 3.7: nh gc v nh m bn
Php bin i log
Biu thc:
S = c*log(1+r)

(2.4)

Cc gi tr r mc thp di hp qua php bin i s to ra di rng hn, trong

khi cc gi tr r mc cao s nn li thnh 1 di hp ng ra. Php bin i ny
nhm mc ch tng chi tit ha vng ti.

Hnh 3.8: nh trc v sau khi dng bin i log

Bin i theo quy tc ly tha

Biu thc:

s =c.r

(2.5)

Vi <1, php bin i tng t vi hm log, nhng gi tr ca n c

th thay i c, trong khi hm log l c nh. Vi php bin i ny, cc gi tr
mc thp di hp qua php bin i s to ra di rng hn, trong khi cc gi tr
mc cao s nn li thnh 1 di hp ng ra.

16

Vi =1, php bin i l mt hm tuyn tnh gia ng vo v ng ra. c

bit khi c =1, nh ra v nh vo l ging nhau.
Vi >1, ta c php bin i ngc so vi hm log

Hnh 3.9: nh bin i mc xm ca cc gi tr khc nhau

Ta thy < 1 lm tng tng phn ca hnh nh.
Hm imadjust l mt hm c bn trong Image Processing Toolbox ca Matlab dng
bin i mc xm ca nh ( tm hiu thm chc nng ca hm ny ta dng help
imadjust trong Matlab).
Lc nh
Lc nh khng gian:
Nhiu thng xut hin trn nh do nhiu nguyn nhn khc nhau. gim nhiu v
nng cao cht lng nh ta s dng nhng phng php lc khc nhau, ph hp vi
mi loi nhiu c th.
Lc khng gian (spatial filtering) cng l mt qu trnh x l trn cc im nh, da
trn mt php ton vi cc im nh xung quanh. Phng php lc nh bao gm cc
bc: (1) xc nh im nh trung tm (x,y); (2) thc hin cc php ton vi cc im
xung quanh (x,y); (3) kt qua ta c p ng ca qu trnh lc ti (x,y); (4) lp li
cc bc trn vi tt c cc im nh khc.
Lc tuyn tnh:
Lc tuyn tnh l phng php lc trong mc xm mi pixel ca nh mi l t hp
tuyn tnh ca cc mc xm ca cc pixels ln cn,tc l mi pixel ln cn s c
nhn vi mt h s tng ng ri c cng li c p ng ti im nh trung
tm. Nu vng ln cn coa kch thc mxn th ta c m*n h s tng. Trong
Matlab,cc h s ny c sp xp trong mt ma trn kch thc mxn gi l b lc.
C ch lc c thc hin bng cch di chuyn tm ca mt n qua ln lt tng im
nh v thc hin tnh tng cc tch mc xm cc im nh xung quanh vi h s b
lc. Kch thc b lc l l, kch thc nh nht l 3x3. Trong matlab hm lc tuyn
tnh l imfilter

17

Lc phi tuyn:
Cng nh lc tuyn tnh, lc phi tuyn s dng mt ca s lc v trt qua cc
pixels ca nh gc. Tuy nhin nu lc tuyn tnh da theo vic ly tng c trng s
cc pixels ln cn th lc phi tuyn s thc hin mt php ton phi tuyn vi cc
pixels . V d, gn gi tr ti mi pixel bng gi tr ln nht ca cc pixel
ln cn l mt php ton phi tuyn.
Matlab cung cp cho ta 2 hm nlfilter v colfilt thc hin lc phi tuyn mt cch
tng qut. Hm nlfilter thc hin trc tip trn ma trn 2 chiu, trong khi hm
colfilt lc theo tng ct. Hm colfilt i hi nhiu b nh hn nlfilter, nhng tc
thc thi li nhanh hn ng k. Cc ng dng thng i hi tc cao nn hm
Lc nh trong min tn s:
Lc nh trong min tn s c thc hin thng qua bin i Fourier. Bin i Fourier
ng vai tr quan trng trong x l nh, c kh nng linh hot cao trong thit k v
tin hnh cc phng php lc trong vic nng cao cht lng nh, phc hi nh, nn
nh. Trong phn ny tao s tp trung vo cc b lc nng cao cht lng nh.
Bin i Fourier ri rc 2 chiu (2-D Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
Gi s ta c mt nh kch thc MxN c m t bi hm 2 chiu f(x,y), DFT ca f l
F(u,v) c cho bi biu thc:
M 1 N 1

F ( u , v )=

2 j

f (x , y)e

(uxM + uyN )

x=0 y=0

(2.6)

Vi u=0,1,2,,M-1 v v=0,1,2,,N-1. Kt qu ta c h trc hai chiu trong

min tn s vi hai bin u,v. Cc gi tr F(u,v) to thnh hnh ch nht kch thc
MN, cng kch thc vi nh gc.
Bin i Fourier ngc
1
F ( u , v )=
MN

M1 N1

f ( x , y )e

2 j

( uxM + uyN )

(2.7)

x=0 y=0

Trong Matlab bt u vi gi tr 1 trong ma trn, F(1,1) v f(1,1) s tng ng vi

F(0,0) v f(0,0) trong biu thc trn. F(0,0) gi l thnh phn hng s hoc thnh
phn 1 chiu(DC) ca bin i Fourier, F(0,0) bng MN ln tng gi tr f(x,y)
Ta nhn thy f(x,y) l s thc, cn F(u,v) li l s phc.
Ph bin :
F ( u , v )=|R (u , v )+ jI ( u , v )|=[R 2 ( u , v ) + I 2 ( u , v )] 1/ 2

18

(2.8)

V pha
( u , v )=tan 1

I (u , v )
R (u , v )

(2.9)

Mt ph cng sut
F ( u , v )2
P(u , v )

(2.10)

Trong min tn s quan tm n F ( u , v ) v P (u , v )

Vi x,y l thc ta c |F((u,v)| = |F(-u,-v)|

(2.11)

F((u,v) tun hon nn ta c

F ( u , v )=F ( u+ M , v )=F ( u , v + N )=F ( u+ M , v+ N )

(2.12)

Bin i ngc cng cho ta f(x,y) tun hon

f ( x , y ) =f ( x+ M , y )=f ( x , y + N )=F ( x + M , y+ N )

(2.13)

Do tnh cht i xng qua im (0,0) v tun hon ca , ta c th dch (0,0) v v tr

trung tm tc l v tr (M/2,N/2) ca ph. Ta c:
f (x , y)e

j2(

M
Vi u0= 2

u0 x v 0 y
+
)
M
N

(2.14)

=F ( uu0 , vv 0 )

u x v y
N
j2(
+
)
v
=
M
N
0
v
;
e
=(1)( x+ y)
2
0

1
MN

M 1 N1

Do nhn f(x,y) vi

(1)

F ( uu0 , vv 0 )=

2 j

f ( x , y ) (1)( x+ y) e

( uxM + uyN )

x=0 y=0

(x+ y)

(2.15)

th F(0,0) s dch n v tr trung tm.

Vic dch v tr nh vy cho ta quan st ph mt cch d dng hn v thc hin lc

nh mt cch trc quan. T y khi ni n gi tr DC, ta xem im v tr trung
tm ca ph.

19

Hnh 3.10: nh khi thc hin qua cc b lc c bn

20

CHNG 4 : THUT TON SVM

4.1 GII THIU
Support Vector Machine (SVM) l phng php mnh v chnh xc nht trong s
cc thut ton ni bt lnh vc khai thc d liu. SVM bao gm hai ni dung chnh
l: support vector classifier (SVC), b phn lp da theo h tr v support vector
regressor (SVR), b hi quy da theo vector h tr. c pht trin u tin bi
Vapnik vo nhng nm 1990, SVM c nn tng l thuyt c xy dng trn nn
mng l thuyt xc sut thng k. N yu cu s lng mu hun luyn khng nhiu
v thng khng nhy cm vi s chiu ca d liu. Trong nhng thp nin qua, SVM
pht trin nhanh chng c v l thuyt ln thc nghim.
4.2 SUPPORT VECTOR CLASSIFIER - SVC
PHN LP NH PHN VI SVC
Xt mt v d ca bi ton phn lp nh hnh v, ta phi tm mt ng thng
sao cho bn tri n ton l cc im , bn phi n ton l cc im xanh. Bi ton
m dng ng thng phn chia ny c gi l phn lp tuyn tnh (linear
classification).

Hnh 1. Minh ha phn tch tuyn tnh

T
Hm tuyn tnh phn bit hai lp nh sau: ( yx )=w x+ b

(1)

Trong :
wR

l vector trng s hay vector chun ca siu phng phn cch, T l k hiu

chuyn v.

bR

l lch

Lu rng, nu khng gian l 2 chiu th ng phn cch l ng thng, nhng

trong khng gian a chiu th gi l siu phng.

21

Tp d liu u vo gm N mu input vector {x1, x2,...,xn}, vi cc gi tr nhn

tng ng l {t1,,tn} trong

t {1,1}

Gi s tp d liu c th phn tch

tuyn tnh hon ton, ngha l cc mu u c phn ng lp bi ng phn cch.

Khi , gi tr tham s w v b theo (1) lun tn ti v tha
im c nhn

t=+1

y ( x 1 ) <0 cho nhng im c

y ( x 1 ) >0

cho nhng

t=1 , v th m

t i y ( xi ) >0 cho mi im d liu hun luyn.

tm ng phn cch, SVC thng qua khi nim gi l l, ng bin (margin).

L l khong cch nh nht gia im d liu gn nht n mt im bt k trn
ng phn cch, hnh 2
Theo SVC, ng phn cch tt nht l ng c margin ln nht. iu ny c
ngha l tn ti rt nhiu ng phn cch xoay theo cc phng khc nhau, v khi
phng php s chn ra ng phn cch m c margin ln nht.
Khong cch t im d liu n ng phn cch nh sau:
|w|
y ( x )

r=

(2)

Khng mt tnh tng qut, Vapnik xp x bi ton thnh:

wT x i+ b 1 nu t i =+1
wT x i +b 1 nu t i =1

(3)

Cc im d liu lm cho du = xy ra trong biu thc trn c gi l cc vector

h tr (support vector). Chng cng chnh l cc im d liu gn ng phn cch
ti u nht. Theo , khong cch t cc support vector n mt phn cch ti u s
l:

|w| nu t =+1
1
1
|w| nu t =1

|
|
w =
y ( x )

r =

Khi , l phn cch gia hai lp l

22

(4)

|w|

=2 r =

(5)

tm c ng phn cch ti u, SVC c gng cc i theo w v b:

|w|
2
max w, b

(6)

w
( T x i +b ) 1 i=1, ,n
ti

Tng ng vi
2

|w|
1
minw , b
2

(7)

w
( T x i +b ) 1 i=1, ,n
ti

y c xem l bi ton c s. gii quyt bi ton ny, ngi ta dng phng

php nhn t Lagrange (Lagrange multiplier). Hm Lagrange tng ng cho (7) l:
t

w
( T x i +b )1

i
n
1
L ( w , b , )= wT w
2
i=1

(8)

Ly o hm L theo hai bin w v b, ta c

L (w , b , )
=0
w
L
L (w , b , )
=0
b

Suyra:

23

(9)

w= i t i x i
i=1

i ti=0

(10)

i=1

Th vo hm Lagrange, thu c:
n

max W ( )= i i j t i t j x Ti x j
i=1

(11)

i=1 j=1

i t i=0
i=1

i 1i=1, , n

iu kin b sung Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) l:

t

w
( T x i +b )1
i

(12)

Theo , ch nhng support vector (xi, yi) mi c i tng ng khc khng, nhng
im d liu cn li c i bng 0. Support vector chnh l ci m ta quan tm trong
qu trnh hun luyn ca SVM. Vic phn lp cho mt im d liu mi s ch ph
thuc vo cc support vector.
Bi ton kp (dual problem) (11) l lp bi ton ti u quy hoch bc 2 li (convex
quadratic programming optimization) tiu biu. Trong nhiu trng hp, n c th t
ti u ton cc khi p dng cc thut ton ti u ph hp, v d SMO (sequential
minimal optimization). Chi tit SMO s c trnh by phn sau.
Sau khi tm c cc nhn t Lagrange ti u i th chng ta c th tnh w v b ti u
theo cng thc bn di. Lu vi b th ch cn ly mt vector h tr dng (tc t =
+1) l c, nhng m bo tnh n nh ca b, chng ta c th tnh bng cch ly
gi tr trung bnh da trn cc support vector.
n

w = i t i x i

(13)

i=1

24

b =1w x s cho x s=+1

VN D LIU KHNG PHN TCH TUYN TNH

Vic u cu d liu phi phn tch tuyn tnh hon ton l nghim ngt v khng ph
hp vi cc bi ton thc t, c bit l cc trng hp phn lp phi tuyn phc tp.
Trong khi , cc mu khng phn tch tuyn tnh hon ton dn n vic khng th
gii quyt cc bi ton ti u tm w v b tng ng. gii quyt vn ny, c
hai cch tip cn chnh:
Soft-margin
Th thut Kernel.
SOFT MARGIN
V nhiu l do, do bn cht hoc do sai st trong qu trnh thu thp d liu, tn ti mt
s im thuc lp ny ln ln vo lp kia, iu ny s lm ph v s phn tch tuyn
tnh. Nu ta c tnh phn tch hon ton s lm cho m hnh d on qu khp.
chng li s qu khp, ngi ta m rng SVC n chp nhn mt vi im phn lp
sai. K thut ny gi l soft margin.(hnh)
lm iu ny, mt bin (gi l slack variable) i c thm vo biu thc cn ti
u nhm cho php m hnh phn lp thc hin phn lp sai mc chp nhn c:
n

|w| 2+C i
i=1

1
minw , b
2

(14)

w
( T x i +b ) 1i
ti
i 0 i=1, , n

Tham s C dng cn bng gia phc tp tnh ton v s lng im khng th

phn tch. N c gi l tham s chun ha (regularization parameter). Gi tr C
c th c lng nh thc nghim hoc phn tch d liu.
Cc bin i c thm cho tng im d liu, cho bit s sai lch khi phn lp vi
thc t. C th:

i=0

cho nhng im nm trn l hoc pha trong ca l.

i=t i y (xi )

cho nhng im cn li.

25

Theo , nhng im nm trn ng phn cch

y ( xi ) =0

s c i=1 v nhng

im phn lp sai s c i> 1 . Theo Lagrange ta vit li:

N

i {t i y ( x i )1+ i } i i
i=1

(15)

1
L ( w , b , ) = w T w + i
2
i=1
i=1

Trong i 0 v i 0 l cc nhn t Lagrange

Cc iu kin KKT cn tha l:
i 0
t i y ( xi ) 1+ i 0
t
( i y ( x i )1+ i )=0
i
i 0
i 0
i i =0
vi i=1, , n

Ly o hm (15) theo w, b v i
n

L
=0 w= i t i x i
w
i=1
n

L
=0 i t i=0
b
i=1

L
=0 i =C i
i

Th tt c vo (15) ta c:

26

L()= i
i=1

1
t t xT x
2 i=1 j =1 i j i j i j

(16)

Suy ra cng thc cho bi ton kp vi soft margin nh sau:

n

1
T
max W ( )= i i j t i t j x i x j
2 i=1 j=1
i=1

(17)

i t i=0
i=1

0 i 1 i=1, , n

iu kin KKT tng ng l:

t

T
x
+b
(
)1+ i
i

(18)

i i =0
vi i=1, , n

Nh trc , tp cc im c khng c ng gp g cho vic d on im d liu

mi. Nhng im cn li to thnh cc support vector. Nhng im c v theo (18)
tha:
t i y ( xi ) =1i

Nu i<C

th i >0

, suy ra i=0

(19)

l nhng im nm trn l.

Nhng im c i=C th i=0 , c th l nhng im phn lp ng nm gia l

v ng phn cch nu i 0 hoc c th l phn lp sai nu i> 1
xc nh tham s b, chng ta dng nhng support vector m, tng ng vi
i=0 . Ln na, m bo tnh n nh ca b ta nn tnh theo trung bnh.

TH THUT KERNEL

27

Theo nh l Cover v s phn tch mu, mt bi ton phn lp mu phc tp m

chuyn sang khng gian c s chiu cao bng php chuyn i phi tuyn th c kh
nng phn tch tuyn tnh cao hn khi chuyn sang khng gian c s chiu thp. Nh
vy, ta c th gii quyt vn khng phn tch tuyn tnh bng cch thc hin php
chuyn i phi tuyn d liu u vo sang khng gian c s chiu cao hn (thm ch
l v cng). Tuy nhin, s chuyn i nh vy s lm tng phc tp tnh ton v
xc nh s chiu ph hp l vn khng d dng. Th thut kernel c a ra
gii quyt vn ny. Mu cht ca th thut kernel l xc nh hm kernel ph hp
tnh c tch v hng ca mu d liu sau khi thc hin chuyn i m khng
cn phi quan tm s chiu l bao nhiu.

Hnh2: Bin i t khng gian d liu sang khng gian c trng

Gi : X H l php bin i phi tuyn t khng gian u vo m chiu X vo khng
gian c trng H m cc mu c th phn tch tuyn tnh. Khi ng phn
cch ti u c nh ngha nh sau:
T

w ( x )+ b=0

(20)

Khng mt tnh tng qut, gn b = 0 v cng thc n gin thnh:

w T ( x )=0

(21)

Lm tng t nh phn trn th vector trng s ti u l

w trong khng gian

c trng mi s l:
n

= i t i xi

(22)

i=1

Theo siu phng ti u trong khng gian c trng mi l:

28

x
t ( i) ( x )=0

i i

(23)

i=1

Trong

x
( i) ( x )
T

l tch v hng ca hai vector (x) v (xi). T y, chng ta

c th p dng hm kernel tch v hng.

nh ngha (Kernel tch v hng): Kernel l mt hm K(x, x), sao cho vi mi x, x
thuc X, X l tp con ca khng gian m chiu Rm tha iu kin sau:
T

K ( x , x ' ) = ( x ) ( x ' )

(24)

Trong l php bin i khng gian u vo X sang khng gian c trng H.

Theo , hm xc nh siu phng ti u s thnh:
x
i t i K ( i , x )=0

(25)

i=1

u im ca kernel l c th xy dng ng phn cch ti u m khng phi quan

tm chi tit n dng hm ca php bin i . Nh vy, hm kernel lm cho thut
ton khng nhy cm vi s chiu, trnh c cc tnh ton phc tp khi tnh tch v
hng cng nh thit k b phn lp. nh l Mercer ch ra cc thuc tnh m
hm kernel K(x,x) cn phi c.
nh l Mercer: Cho K(x, x) l mt hm i xng lin tc c nh ngha trn min
gi tr ng a x b v tng t cho x. Hm K(x, x) l kernel nu c th m
rng theo dy nh sau:

K (x , x )= i i (x ) i ( x ')
'

(26)

i=1

Trong , i l h s dng vi mi i. s m rng ni trn l hp l v hi t th

cn iu kin sau:
a

K ( x , x ' ) ( x) ( x ' )dxdx

b

ng vi mi i m

29

(27)

2 ( x ) dx <

(28)

Din gii nh l Mercer: c im hu ch nht cn ch khi xy dng kernel l bt

k mt tp con hu hn ngu nhin trong khng gian u vo X th ma rn xy
dng tng ng vi hm kernel K(x, x) l ma trn i xng v bn xc nh, cn
gi l ma trn Gram.
K=(K (x i , x ' j ))ni , j=1

K l ma trn bn xc nh nu tt c cc tr ring ca n l khng m. Mt s bi ton,

rng buc iu kin ma trn l xc nh dng, ngha l cc tr ring phi ln hn 0
m bo rng bi ton s hi t v gii php l duy nht. Theo rng buc ni trn th
vic chn hm kernel vn kh phng khong, Cc loi hm kernel c th s dng
nh:
Tuyn tnh:

a thc:

Gaussian:

K ( x , x ' ) =x T x' +c

(29)

ax
( T x ' + c )d
K ( x , x ' ) =
|xx '| 2
2 2
)

'
K ( x , x ) =exp

30

(30)

(31)

CHNG 5 : XY DNG CHNG TRNH NHN DNG KHUN MT

5.1 S khi

NH MU

VECTOR HO NH MU

PHN TCH THNH PHN CHNH ( P

SAI BIT VECTOR NH MU VI VECTOR

TRUNG
KHNG
BNH GIAN C TRNG
NH X

SAI BIT VECTOR NH NHN DNG VI VECTOR TRUNG BNH

HUN LUYN

SVM

NH CN NHN DNG
VECTOR NH
HO X
NH
VO KHNG GIAN C TRNG
NHN DNG

KT QU

Hnh 5.1: S khi nhn dng khun mt bng phng php SVM

31

5.2 Xy dng chng trnh nhn dng

Phn tch thnh phn chnh PCA (Principal Component Analysis)
1. Gii thiu
Phng php phn tch thnh phn chnh l mt trong nhng k thut thnh cng nht
nhn dng v nn nh. PCA l phng php thng k c tn gi khc l phn tch
h s. mc ch ca PCA l gim chiu ca khng gian d liu (bin quan st) thnh
khng gian bin c trng nh hn (bin c lp) cn thit m t cc d liu c li
hn. Trong trng hp ny c s tng qaun nhiu hn vi cc bin quan st.
Nhim v ca PCA c th l d bo, loi b s trng lp, trch xut cc c trng, nn
d liuPCA l k thut phn loi, n c th lm vic trong min tuyn tnh, nhng
ng dng c m hnh tuyn tnh ph hp nh x l tn hiu, x l nh, l thuyt iu
khin h thng, truyn thng .
Nhn dng khun mt l mt trong nhng ng dng , hn na n c th phn chia
thnh nhng lnh vc nh xc minh khun mt, phn loi khun mt, hay l xc nh
gii tnh. Nhng ng dng thit thc nht l theo di mt m ng, ni dung c cha
trong mt video hay nhn dng c nhn (bng li xe), kim sot ra vo. .. tng
chnh ca s dng phng php PCA nhn dng khun mt l biu din mt vc t
im nh mt chiu c xy dng t mt nh 2 chiu bng cc thnh phn c bn
nht trong khng gian c trng. Cn c th gi l php chiu ln khng gian tr
ring. Khng gian tr ring c tnh ton bng cch xc nh cc vc t tr ring
(eigenvector) ca ma trn hip phng sai c ly t tp nh cc khun mt.
Phn tip theo m t thut ton ca phng php PCA. Chi tit v nhn dng khun
mt c trnh by mc 3. Kt qu trnh by trong phn 4. Cui cng l mt vi
nhn xt v so snh phn 5.
2. Thut ton ca PCA
Mt nh 2 D c th biu din dng vc t 1 chiu bng cch ni cc hng (hoc
ct) thnh mt vc t 1 ct di. Ta c M vc t kch thc N (hng ca nh x ct
ca nh) ca mt tp nh mu. pj l gi tr ca cc im nh
xi p1 p2 ... pN , i 1,..., M
T

Gi cc nh trung bnh trung tm l cc vc t nh tr cho vc t nh trung bnh.

Gi m l vc t nh trung bnh
m

1
M

x
i 1

Gi i l vc t nh trung bnh trung tm

32

i xi m

Mc ch ca ta l tm mt tp ei cc c trng ln nht c chiu bi cc vc t

i ln khng gian c trng. Ta mun tm mt tp ca M vc t trc giao vi vc
t ei vi s lng nhiu nht
i

1
M

eiTn

i 1

Vi rng buc trc giao

el T ek lk

iu cho ta thy rng ei v i l cc vc t ring v tr ring ca ma trn hip

phng sai

C AAT
A 1 2 ... M

y
. Ta thy kch thc ca ma trn C l NxN l rt ln. V d mt
nh c kch thc l 64x64 s to ra ma trn hip phng sai c kch thc
4096x4096 do khng th tnh cc vc t ring mt cch trc tip. Theo l thuyt
i s tuyn tnh th vc t ring v tr ring c th tnh thng qua ma trn
di
i
AT A
kch thc MxM. Gi v l vc t ring v tr ring ca
ta c

AT A

AT Ad i i d i

Nhn bn tri 2 v ca (7) ta c

AAT Adi i Adi

C ngha l cc vc t ring
Ad i

ei

v gi tr ring

cn c chun ha bng

ca

AAT

tng ng vi

Adi

ei

Cc vc t ring tng ng vi cc gi tr ring khc 0 ca ma trn hip phng sai

to mt trc giao c bn cho mt khng gian ph m hu ht nh d liu c th
c biu din vi mt lng sai s nh. Cc eigenvector c sp xp t cao xung
thp theo cc eigenvalue. Cc eigenvector kt hp vi cc eigenvalue ln nht phn
nh nhng bin i ln nht ca nh v ngc li.
nh khun mt c chiu vo khng gian M chiu (<<M) bng cch

33

 12 ...M '

i eiT i

y
vi I l nh khung mt th I trong khng gian mi v n l cc
thnh phn c bn. cc vc t ei cng l cc nh v c gi l eigenimages hoc
eigenfaces.
Phng php n gin nht xc nh khun mt nhn dng ng vo trong k
khun mt l tm khong cch Euclit nh nht

10

k k
k

l vc t m t khun mt th k. Nu
thuc lp k.

nh hn mt ngng

Phng php nhn dng th hai s dng mng hun luyn SVM

34

, th khun mt