Environmental Geology of Limestone in Malaysia

TAN Boon-Kong
Geology Programme, Faculty of Science & Technology,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

Abstract
This paper provides an overview of the engineering geology of
limestone. Limestone is of rather wide occurrence in Malaysia. It is interesting in
view of the unique landforms and karstic features that are encountered in limestone
terrains, e.g. steep, subvertical limestone cliffs rising abruptly and majestically above
the ground surface and highly variable and pinnacled subterranean limestone bedrock.
The karstic features and associated engineering geological problems of both the
limestone hills and the bedrock are discussed in the paper. Rockfalls, sinkholes,
cavities, etc. are some of the common engineering geological problems associated
with limestone terrains. Some local case studies are provided as illustrations. Finally
the rock mechanical properties of limestone is discussed at the end of the paper. Key
words: engineering geology, limestone, Malaysia
1

Introduction

Limestone is a sedimentary rock consisting mainly of the mineral calcite (calcium

carbonate, CaCO3). The other common mineral in limestone is dolomite [CaMg
(CO3):]. Common impurities in limestone include chert (microcrystalline,
cryptocrystalline quartz or amorphous silica, SiO2), clay, organic matter and iron
oxides. Limestone is unique since it is soluble in even slightly acidic waters, such as
carbonic acid formed from the dissolution of carbon dioxide in water. The end results
of the solution of limestone are a host of karstic features, such as cavities, caves,
solution slots, pinnacled bedrock, stalactites/stalagmites, basal notches and overhangs
in limestone cliffs. In addition, residual soils left over in the dissolution of limestone
are so-called terra rossa or residual red clays mantling the limestone bedrock. These
are accumulations of the insoluble residues or impurities of the limestone, comprising
silica, organic matter, clays, iron oxides, etc.
Limestone is metamorphosed into marble, i.e. a metamorphic rock consisting
predominantly of fine to coarse-grained recrystallised calcite and dolomite. Due to
recrystallisation, the crystals have interlocking or sutured boundaries forming a
mosaic, hence increasing the density and strength of the rock. Many of the
limestone formations in Malaysia have actually been metamorphosed into marble.
For example, the limestone formations in the Klang Valley (K.L. area) and the Kinta
Valley (Ipoh area) are strictly all marble. However, marble also shows the same
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solution features and behaviour as in limestone. This paper thus includes limestone
and marble, and for ease of presentation, they will be jointly referred to as limestone.
Limestone is of rather wide occurrence in Malaysia. In Peninsular Malaysia, the
major occurrences are in the Klang Valley, the Kinta Valley, Kedah-Perlis (including
the Langkawi Islands), Kelantan (Gua Musang area), and Pahang. In these
aforementioned areas, limestone occurs as majestic, precipitous cliffs as well as
extensive bedrock formations. No limestone hills occur in the southern regions of
Peninsular Malaysia (Johor, Melaka), and at one time it was thought that limestone
does not occur at all in the southern region of Peninsular Malaysia. However, in
recent site investigations, boreholes, mostly associated with various engineering
construction projects, have encountered limestone bedrock in some parts of Johor as
well as parts of Singapore Island. For example, the Tangkak vegetable farm area is
underlain by extensive limestone bedrock, as revealed by boreholes drilled for the
North-South Expressway in the Tangkak area. The Second Link Crossing joining
Johor to Singapore is also underlain by extensive limestone bedrock. Similarly, the
Tuas region and others in Singapore Island also have limestone bedrock.
Sabah and Sarawak have extensive limestone formations occurring in the forms of
numerous limestone hills and bedrock. The examples are the famous Mulu Caves and
the Niah Caves of Sarawak, which are of world fame in terms of cave formations and
exploration (speleology). They are also of geo-touristic value. The formations of
limestone hills and their associated cave systems have been the subject of numerous
studies. The interested reader is referred to Bulletin 6 by Wilford (1964) on the
geology of the Sarawak and Sabah caves. The memoir by Ingham and Bradford (1960)
also provides interesting reading on the geology of the limestone hills (including Gua
Tempurung) and bedrock in the Kinta Valley. Similarly, the memoir by Jones (1978)
discusses the limestone formations in Kedah-Perlis and the Langkawi Islands.
2 Limestone Hills
2.1 General karsttic features
Limestone hills are characteristically steep-sided, with subvertical to overhanging
cliffs. The base of limestone hills also often exhibit deep horizontal notches or
undercuts due to dissolution by streams, groundwater or swamp water. Though they
might appear massive when viewed from the side, most limestone hills are actually
"riddled" with numerous caverns and cave systems. The interior of file limestone hill
mass may also be pock- marked with deep hollows or solution sinkholes or dolines,
locally called "wangs". These are visible from the ak or from aerial photographs, e.g.
Wang Pisang of Gunung Rapat, Ipoh. The famous cave systems include the Batu
Caves (K.L.), the Gua Tempurung and Sam Poh Tong in Ipoh, the Mulu and Niah
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Caves in Sarawak, etc.

Limestone hills are of all sizes and heights. They are actually the remnants of the
limestone formation which has been degraded/dissolved, and the collapse of the
limestone cliffs contributes to the reduction in the size of the limestone hills. In a
previous survey of the limestone hills in the Kinta Valley, for example, some 40
limestone hills of various sizes have been recorded (Tan, 1988). While some
limestone hills are "massive" and spatially extensive, e.g.G. Rapat, G. Tempuruing G. Rajah massif, others appear as slender, needle-like limestone hill pinnacles, the
notable example being the so-called Tambun Tower (Tan, 1998a).
Intersecting or criss-crossing the limestone hills are various geologic structures or
fractures such as joints and faults, and together with the intrinsic bedding planes of
the limestone, these geologic structures control the stability of the cliffs, the
formations and orientations of caves and cave systems and other dissolution features.

2.2 Rockfalls
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Rockfalls and rockslides are major engineering geologic problems associated

with limestone hills. The steep-subvertical and often overhanging limestone cliffs are
potentially hazardous in terms of rock slope stability, and numerous major incidences
of rockfalls have been investigated and documented by the Geological Survey
Department in the past (e.g. Shu et al., 1981; Shu and Lai, 1980). In the survey of
limestone hills in the Kinta Valley area, numerous minor occurrences of rockfalls and
potential rockfall sites were also documented by me (Tan, 1988), in addition to the
major ones previously documented by the Geosurvey. Besides structural control by
joints, faults and bedding planes, other significant contributing factors to rockfalls
include blasting operations in nearby quarries (vibrations and gas expansions into
fracture planes).
2.3 Rockfall hazards zonation--the Tambun Hills
An investigation into the potential rockfall hazards in the limestone hills of the
Tambun area has been conducted recently (Tan, 1998b). The objectives of the study

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were to identify and categorise the various limestone cliffs into various hazards zones,
so as to aid in the planning of development and construction around these hitlls. The
methodology adopted involved ranking the various cliff faces in terms of stability by
considering both the geological structures and the solution features. A 3-zone
classification scheme was used to denote stable/low hazard, moderately
stable/moderate hazard, and unstable/high hazard zones, producing a hazard zonation
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map for planning purposes. Some typical results of the study are shown in Table 1
and Fig. 1.Details can also be referred to in Tan (1998b).
Among other things, one of the conclusions of the study was that the
north-south-trending bedding planes of the limestone hills in the Tambun area are the
major structural features controlling the morphology and the stability of the cliff faces.
The so-called Tambun Tower is one good example.

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3 Limestone Bedrock
Limestone bedrock is perhaps even more important from the view-point of
engineering constructions such as buildings and roads. The various bedrock features
affect the construction works directly; they can also affect structures sited in
limestone terrains in the future (long term effects) many years after the completion of
the project.
3.1 Pinnacled bedrock surface
The highly variable and pinnacled limestone bedrock surface and its associated
problems are now well known and well documented (e.g. Tan and Batchelor, 1981;
Ting, 1985; Chan, 1986; Tan, 1987). Exposures in old mine pits provide the best
opportunity to observe the myriad forms of limestone pinnacles and troughs. The
Bandar Sunway/Sunway Lagoon area exhibits some classic examples of limestone
pinnacles, arches, etc.

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It is interesting to note the generally deep depths to limestone bedrock in the Kuala
Lumpur area as compared to those in the Ipoh area, as revealed by a study of borehole
data in the two regions (Fig.2, Tan, 1993). Depths to bedrock are around 20 m in the
Ipoh area, as compared to 30-50 m in the K.L. region. Overhangs in the limestone
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pinnacles would be harder to detect as it involves coring through the "nose" of the
overhang. They are critical since the overhangs are underlain by soft sediments or
soils. Mitchell (1985) provides a good example of the limestone pinnacle overhang at
the Pan Pacific Hotel site in K.L.
3.2 Linear trenches in bedrock
Long, linear trenches can sometimes be observed traversing limestone bedrock
surfaces. Such trenches are the results of dissolution of limestone along major joints
or faults. The interesting thing about the long, linear trenches is that they are often the
sites of numerous sinkholes "popping up" along the trenches. To look at it in
another way, the localities of several sinkholes in an area are often aligned along
definite lines corresponding to the trends of major joints or faults dissecting the
bedrock. Once again, exposures in old or operating mine pits or bedrock quarries
provide the best opportunity to view these long, linear trenches. As the widths of the
trenches are often limited, say, a couple of metres only, the sinkholes appearing along
the trenches thus have small diameters of a couple of metres only -- a common
observation with regard to the diameters of sinkholes. At the intersection of two
trenches, however, the sinkholes that develop would be of larger diameter than usual,
say 5-10 m.
3.3 Cavities in limestone bedrock
Cavities in the limestone bedrock are of major concern to foundation engineers.
They occur at various depths, i.e. in multi-levels, and are of various sizes/thicknesses.
A survey of cavity sizes based on borehole data in the Ipoh area showed that they are
mostly < 3 m in thickness (Table 2, Tan, 1988). Ting (1985) and Ting et al. (1993)
also concluded that the most common cavity size is < 1m. In any case, occasional
large cavities >3 m can still be encountered at a particular site.
Thus, the detection and determination of the detailed configuration of the cavities
and cavity system at a particular construction site are major efforts in a site
investigation programme, in particular where high-rise buildings are being planned
and constructed. Three dimensional physical models have been used to depict and
decipher the intricate nature and extent of the cavities and the bedrock profile.
A recent high-rise project in the K.L. area witnessed the tremendous efforts put in
to detect the cavities in the limestone bedrock by employing > 100 boreholes on a
close-grid boring pattern. Numerous cavities, some at multi-levels, were detected
through those efforts. The number of boreholes for high-rise buildings underlain by
limestone bedrock are in the order of 100's, e.g. the Petronas Twin Towers have ~400
deep boreholes (Tarique Azam, 1996).
The formation of cavities in the limestone bedrock is related to the fluctuations of
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the groundwater level. Cavities are developed mostly within the zone of groundwater
level fluctuation, and it is reasonable to expect that deeper down below the zone of
active groundwater fluctuation, cavity formation would be limited. The exposures at
the Bandar Sunway Quarry (bedrock) seem to support such an idea that below a
certain depth the limestone bedrock is massive (although jointed) without cavities or
other solution features. Nearer the surface, large cavities, solution arches, pinnacles
etc. are observed.
For the K.L. region, it would be reasonable to postulate that below a certain
Reduced Level (RiL), the limestone bedrock would not contain any cavities. The
determination of this R.L. would require a meticulous compilation of all borehole
data in limestone in the K.L. region--something that has not been attempted to date!
Fig. 3 illustrates the development of cavities/caves in relation to limestone hills as
suggested by Wilford (1964), which is perhaps also applicable to limestone bedrock.

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3.4 Slumped zone

One of the unique features of the limestone bedrock terrain is the occurrence of
the so-called slumped zone or collapsed weak soil zone immediately above the
limestone bedrock surface.
The formation and identification of this slumped zone
has been discussed by Tan and Ch'ng (1986). It has been encountered in numerous
high-rise building sites in K.L. since the early 1980's (e.g. Chan and Hon, 1985; Ting,
1985), and also recently at the K.L.C.C. Petronas Twin Towers site (Tarique Azam,
1996).
Recognition of the presence of the slumped zone is via its very low S.P.T. N
values of ~0 as limestone bedrock surface is approached. Overlying the slumped zone
can be much stiffer soils with N=30-50 or more, such as the residual soils of the
Kenny Hill formation in the K.L. area. Fig. 4 shows some typical examples. In the
K.L. area, the slumped zone often occurs close to the Kenny Hill
formation--Limestone contact zones.
Similar occurrences have been reported in other limestone areas, e.g. Ipoh (Tan,
1988) and Hong Kong (Pascal, 1987).
3.5 Sinkholes
Sinkholes are the main crux of the problem in a limestone bedrock terrain.
The formation or emergence of a sinkhole is usually very sudden and unpredictable,
and as such, its consequences can be catastrophic. Thus, the reporting and
documentation of sinkholes swallowing parts of a road, a house, etc. are too common
indeed. While the inherent karstic features of the limestone bedrock (such as
pinnacled profiles, cavities and linear trenches) all contribute or provide the geologic
settings for the development of sinkholes, other man-made factors or activities
such as dewatering of groundwater level by pumping, dewatering of deep
excavations or basements and open-cast mining can trigger the formation
or emergence of sinkholes. The documented cases of sinkholes in the Kinta and
Klang valleys include the Bt. Merah/Menglembu area in Ipoh (Shu, 1982, 1986;
Chow et al.,1996), Serdang Lama in K.L. (Shu, 1986) etc. The emergence of
sinkholes in the Bt. Merah area continues till today (1999), as reported frequently in
the local press. Similarly, in the recent construction of the K.L.C. C. Petronas Twin
Towers project, several sinkholes also "popped up", including a major one that
damaged a nearby bungalow.
An interesting study on the occurrences of sinkholes (>100 in number) in the
Bau area, Kuching Division in Sarawak was conducted in 1993-1994. Unfortunately,
the results of the study cannot be presented here for the time being
(CONFIDENTIAL!) --perhaps some time in the near future, hopefully?

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For the interested reader and also as a reminder that sinkholes occur world-wide
in limestone areas, the following references provide interesting readings: Beck (1984),
Beck and William (1987) and Beck (1989). For example, the famous Winter Park
sinkhole in central Florida which developed between May 8-13, 1981, had an initial
diameter of -106 m and a depth of 30 m! It destroyed various facilities and utilities,
including a house, several businesses, several cars and a swimming pool and caused
major problems for the city of Winter Park (Jammal, 1984). Fortunately, no personal
injuries were involved.
Various "schematic models" have been presented by different authors to explain
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the formation of sinkholes. Some of these schematics are shown in Figs. 5 and 6,
cited from Taylor et al. (1989) and Chen and Beck (1989) respectively.
4 Rock Mechanical Properties
Some rock mechanical properties based on testing of limestone rock cores in the
laboratory are given in Table 3, cited from Tan and Ch'ng (1987). Additional data are
given in Table 4, cited from Raj (1994).
5 Conclusions
This paper provides an overview of the engineering geology of limestone.
The karstic features and engineering geologic problems associated with
limestone, both limestone hills and bedrock, are now well known. For the case of the
limestone bedrock, the need for adequate S.I. (including number of boreholes) cannot
be over-emphasised to define and map out accurately the myriad forms of solution
features inherent in the limestone bedrock.
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