“gd mad yang ae oe sou yn ee sm a B+ESIt | e+aul | CAMEL e-gclt Fs ost Stat 4a ra aNeL e-goct tor ost 6east = ca oe 1-3 sc 568 ost oleae? I-81 T= 399 e-aust ee oratsy carl C~aer9 oraost yz o ose optass | toa re y-are wo ost G+amt cea es Case Engel we « rogeate | Gretel opeaet — t- ae e-aar6 ost a sxpoqyoenat vomit cy ry al mi br can) Ta a To) a abe ‘aunsaag ———cwopuny, ——Kyseosi4 Ag sede ‘oryme —pruauty — sleusq ayes ot atev& s+ acre S+asce lage S491 s-aise ow ost e+e te = f-ase €-g0R ow ut Dearly s-aet Q-asct saat 9% S+a989 9-a 07 z-aet ot-aere ome bre Stact ora 08 Q-a6y 9-359 SF wt Ssasst tag se Saat c= sere EF st Seaie1 0+ 61 9-aur9 s- ame £66 oe i al i i ead (ays uno) siysoaqy ——ysoos, aa snewausy —yueadee noes (Gaun 8@ spIMbry uowHO aang yo sanodeag WeNBSU aTeUIRONEGY sb atgvs @ort zeanez s-ac1 s-sre T+gort Ow aeeT sg ort cramer $—aerl §-ael TeaetT | OF mgt Son, ie cracrs $-asyt S-g0rl Fay t~adu99 ome =e bt framty poasol 9-aws t-awe | T~aaES woos eT erauoe p-asrl S—avsT Oat 1 aeT ‘ue oer Traowt 9-aOe Fal 1+a0eT OF TERT 2ors0W wou ont Traeee $391 $—Reet t+ aocr oF at commu ae aw ea) en 5 1 Sasoogy ety se em weg pads in 1S) aves] >uTOqMSOUETY PUNPUUIS Ve SOsET avaiuo.) amos 40 soNodoag yeoysigy aHEUTOHAEY eb atevi & mtn wo Se pe ‘nto sa io ort cramer foaser z-ales €-3807 m0 or eras c-aise taste €-I9T — e+ 3660 (sez t-asty ¢-S601 8 ea aus Frayne bnasei fnascs yo aeeT aoc peau b-aqy toatl pace ‘wep + goErt L-awe |-aert | e~asoe spore vo3 ort etasiet Laat toa ET ABET (prepuns a 7 BeBe Ga (unin) cy EL OL x « ao oupads, wes909 saute, “Spa = aupeds 90g go Saniodang FIBA aEUIROASAY ey aay ©banat Now, many of Wiley textbooks are available with eGrade Plus, 2 powerful online tool that provides a completely Integrated suite of teaching and learning resources in one easy-to-use website. Grade Plus integrates Wiley’s worl renowned content with media, including a multimedia version of the tex, Upan adoption of eGrade Plus you can begin to customize your course withthe resources shown here: See for yourself! Go to enisiiley E= an online demonstration ofthis powerful new softwarejones, Study Mave mediate Feedback When You Practice on Your Own Grade Plus problems link directly to relevant sections of the electronic book content, so that you can review the text while you study and complete homework online, Additional resources include a video library, laboratory problems, review problems with answers, FD and FlowLab support materials, and other problem-solving resources omplety dassignments / Get Selp with Probie _An Assignment area keeps all your assigned work n one location, making it easy For you to stay “on task In addition, many homework problems contain a tink to the relevant section of the multimedia book, pro- viding you with a text explanation to help you con- quer problem-solving obstacles as they arise. You will have access to a variety of resources for building your seenikecemiicecmmagamarinics | | confidence and understanding, Jeack of How You're Doing ‘Personal Gradebook allovs you to view your results frorn past assignments at any timeChick Mo riuiG Mec Fifth Edition optt ciripHANEst METU LIBRARYFi undamentals of Fluid Mechanics Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics Mechanical Engineering‘To Bik and all others who possess the curiosity, i patience, and desie to learn o METU LIBRARY CEE oqo Ett Jeraber We ieee Metis Ednor Temas Hess Meng Mager Jenifer Powe Prdacion Eto Sta Dus Sesioe Designer Dave Suey Proton Manages Sendeess Ingo Asociats Cove tas Hannen Bsus Rese, Is tok wat pee in 12 Tone Roman By OTS Compt ae edie nd Tend y Soe tts Comore. Tae ver ws ped by Leigh Pes Liege. rhe pape in this ok wit tate by a whos ort manage prams Inte ssc yd areig of te Umber, Sse yl arvesting piles ‘hr tthe ber of es ead ear ds ot need th aon of EW Ft, “took fe rid ca eh ie pgs: © Conia © 2006 Tn Wey Son, AB ight ese No pr ofthis puicton may te edocs i a rel tem or tenet ay fom or by a ‘Geom econ han! psecopyrerecrig suming or tei ee 2 pete nde ‘SLonons i oI fe 195 Ute Sues Cyt Ae wer he pir wee erin of fh Panerai hough yen of th apepsinn peony feo he Capit hee Eater 2 Rescwool vive Dever MA 0123, (78) 73040, (78) 6-80. Regs Fie tr ponkaon sna bested oth Prien Dezrmen a Wiley & So, fe LE ie Ser Hcehoe, BF GMORD-SUA, (201 TA (D1) 18608. To re ea or enonerarce al -00-CALL-NILEY (255940, Manion Bre, Yong, Dol FE, OK, Theda H Pandement of Pai Mecha, Pith Eaton Ison 0415822 Po inthe Ue State of Asie 98763432About the Authors ‘Bmuce B, Munson, Professor Emeritus of Engineering Mechanics at Iowa State University, ‘ecived his BS. and M.S. degrees from Purdue University and his PhD. degree from the ‘Aerospace Engineering and Mechanics Department of the University of Minnesots in 1970, Prior to joining the Towa State University facaty in 1974, Dr. Munson was on the mechanical engineering faulty of Duke University from 1970 to 1974. From 196 to 1966, Ine worked as an engineerin the jet engine fael contol depariment of Bendix Aerospace Corporation, Sout Bend, Indiana Dz Monson's main professions activity has been in te are of fluid mechanics edu- cation and research, He has been responsible forthe development of many fluid mechanics courses for studies in civil engineering, mechanical engineering, engineering scicnee, and ‘griafra enginesting and iste recipient of an Iowa State University Supetior Engineee- ing Teacher Award and the Lowa Stave University Alumni Association Faculty Cttion, He has sithored and coauthored many theoretical and experimental technical papers ‘on hydrodynamic stability low Reynolds ruber flow, secondary flow, and the applications ‘of viscous incompressible flow. He is a member of The American Society of Mechanical Enis and Te Ameren Physi] Sty 27 Younis Angon Marston Distinguished Professor Emeritus in Engineering, received ‘is BS. degesin metal eaginerng his MS, end Pp. depec in heres and pied rmechanis from Iowa Sate Uiverst, and has taughe both undergraduate and graduate courses in fd mechanice at Lowa State for many yen, In addition to being named a Distinguished Pro- fessor inthe College of Enginsoring, Dr. Young has slzo recived the Standacd Oil Foundation ‘Quesanding Teacher Award and the Towa State University Alumni Association Faculty Citation, He has been engage in Aid mechanics research for more han 35 years, wid special intesess in similitae sv modeling andthe interdscipsinary id of biomedical uid mechanics. Dr Young ‘has contiboted to many tochncal publicuons aris te athor ar coauthor of two textbooks on applied mechanics. He is Fellow of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ‘Tea HL, Oblsh, Associate Dean of Engineering and past Char of Mechanical Engincering at lowa State Universiy, has taught fluid mechanics courses there since 1957. He received his undergraduate and graduste degrees at Tova State From 1965 to 1967, Dr, Okish secved asa U.S, Army officer with duty assigoments at ‘the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Lewis Research Cener, Cleveland, Ohio, where he pasticipated i rocket nozale heat transfer researc, and atthe Combined Tnlligence Center, Saigon, Republi of South Vietnam, where he studied seasonal river flooding problems. Professor Okishi is active in reseach on turbomachinery fluid dynamics. He and his _redate stents and other colleagues have writen a numberof joural articles based on their studies. Some of these projeets have involved significant collaboration with government and indus nboratory researchers with two technical papers winning the ASME Melville Medal ‘Dt Okish has received several awards for eaching. He has developed undergraduate and ‘raduate courses in classical fluid dynamics as well asthe uid dynumies of turbomachins. He isa Tieensed professional engineer. His profesional reciety activities incluge bav- ing been char of the board of directors of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) International Cas Tutine Insitute end char ofthe Engineering Research Council ‘oF the American Society for Engineering Eduestion. He is Fellow of The American Society (of Mechanical Engineers and the past editor ofthe Jowal of Turbomachinery vi| { I a “This book is intended for junior and senior engineering stants who ace interested in leraing Some fandamenta axpeots of fluid mechanics, We developed this texto be wed as first cous ‘The principles considered are classical snd have been well-established for many yeas. How ‘ver fluid mechanics edition has improved with expeiene inthe elasroom,ané we have troueht to bear inthis book cur on ideas about the teaching ofthis intresting and important tubjeo This fifth eition has been prepare after several years of experience bythe author us ing the previous editions fornoductory courses in fuid mechanics, On the basis ofthis expe- lence, along with suagestons from reviewers, colleagues, and students, we have made a ni ber of changes in this edition, The change (listed below, and inated by the word ew in (esciptons in hs preoce) ae made to clarify, update, and expand cerxn ideas and concepts ‘New to This Edition ‘ebaits ~The electronic assets for this book (including videos, teb problems, and much more!) can be accessed onthe website fortis Bock. Access is fee-of-dharge with the re {station code included inthe front of every new book Finkle is the bews--60 short news stories lluatrate some ofthe current, important, and novel ways that fluid mechanics affects our lives, diet Businplag-~-Maay of te example problems have been extended ty illustrat whet happens if one or more of tbe parameters is changed. This gives the user better fel for some ofthe basic principles invo}ed. ‘Shnple Figures—-To help students beuer understand and visualize some ofthe basi con ‘cept, act of simple figures of the type shown inthe left margin has been added inthe ma fin at appropriate locatios throughout the text. Engl Engineering System of Unite—This system of units (pounds, pounds mass, fet seconds) i used in the discussion of compressible flow in Chapter LL. This usage is stan dard practice forthe topic. ‘Chapler Susamary aad Study Golds—This section atthe end of each chapter cont & tuiet summary of the key concepts and principles introduced inthe chapter, along with a tist of important tems with which the student should be fair Humenurt Deobsms--Approximately 30% new homework problems have been added for this edition, including new problems based on the “Fluids In the News" topics and simple CCED problems tha ean be solved using FlowLab. Compututional Fluid Dynamics (FDI—Owing othe growing importance of CRD in e- ‘inccring design and analysis, material on this subject is included in Appendix A, Materia ‘Rlated to using FlowLab, 2 CFD software package, is included in Appendices I,J, and K, Key Features Examples, (One of our sms is to represent id mechanics ait ally is—an exiting and useful spine. “To this end, we ince analyses of mumerous creryday examples of flaidflow phenomena to ‘hich students and fcolty eam easily late, In the fifth eiton 165 examples are presented thatV9.5 Sting practi Preface x provide detailed solutions toa vaviety of problems. A new feature ofthis edition i he fact that Imany of the examples have Boe extended to ilastrate what happens if one or moze of the pa rarer s changed. This gives the user a beter fee for some ofthe base principles invalved et to this edition i a set of 6D short "Fue in the News" stories tat Mustaes some of the Curent, imporent, an novel ways that fluid mechanics affets our ives. Many ofthese stories Ihe homework problems associated with them. Als, to lp the student better visualize and understand some ofthe basic concep, & se of ve spl figures of the type show in the Tee margin has been aed inthe margin t appropiate locations throughout the text Videos ‘There ate 80 video segments illustrating many interesting and practical applications of real ‘world Maid pitenomena. Bach video sepment is identified at the appropriate {ocation inthe text material by an jcon of the type shown inthe left margin. There are approximately 160, hhomewtoré problems that are directly related to the topics in the videos. Homework Problems ‘A generous set of more than 1350 homework problems (approximately 30% vet this tition) sresses the practical pplication of principles. The Following types of problems are ineladeds(1)"stancer problems, (2) computer problems, (3 discussion problems, (4) supply ‘your-onn-data problems, (5) review problems with solutions (6) problems based onthe "uids in the News" topic, (7) problems tased on the fuid video, (8) Excel based lab ‘problems, and (9) 2” simple CRD problems to be solved using PlowLeb. Lab Problens-—There ae 30 extended, nbortoy ype problems that involv actual experimental Gata for simple experiments of the type that are often found in the laboratory portion of many intodctory fluid mechanic courses. The data for these problents ae provided in Excel frm Review Probiens—There is & set of 186 rovow problems covering most ofthe main topics inthe book. Complete, detailed solutions to these problems canbe found in the Student Solution ‘Manuol ard Sudy Guide for Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, by Munson, etal. (© 2005, Jobn Wiley and Sons, Ine) Well-Paced Concept and Problem-Solving Development Since thi is an inroductory text, we have designed the preseniation of material to allow for the gradual development of stent confidence in fuld mechanics problem solving. Each m= portant concept or notion i considred in terms of simple and essyto-understand circumstances before more complicated features are intoduced. Exch page contsins a brief summary (ahigh- Tigh sentence that serves to prepare o remind the reader abou an importa concep discussed ‘on that page, The entre page must til be read to understand the material—the summary sen= tences merely reinforce the consprehension A new Chapter Summary and Stuy Gude section hus been added athe end of each chapter. in this section a brief summary ofthe key concepis ‘and principles itoduced in the chapter is included along with listing of iaportant terms with ‘which the stadent shouldbe familia These terms are highlighted inthe text Systems of Units “Two systems of units continue 1 be used throughout most of the text the British Gravitae tional System (pounds, shugs, eet, and seconds), and the International System of Units (newions, kilograms, meters, and sccondk). About one-half of the examples and homework problems are in each set of tnits, ew to this edition isthe use of the English Engineering ‘System of Unis (pounds, pounds mass, feet, seconds) in the discussion of compressible flow in Chapter {1 This usage is standard prctice for the topic.x Preface ‘Topical Organization Inte first four chapters he students made aware of some Fundamental aspects of fakd mo: tion, inclading important uid properties, regimes of flow, pressor variation in fuids at ‘est and in motion, Hid kinematics, and methods of flow desenpton and analysis. The Beinoull equation is introduced fn Chapter 3 to draw attention, early on 0 some ofthe in teresting effects of Fvid motion en tke dsiebution of pressure in a flow field, We betiove that his timely consideration of elementary fluid dynamics increases stent enthusiasm foc the more complicated material that follows. In Chapter 4 we convey the essential elements of Kinematics, including Eulerian and Lagrangian matbemstial descriptions of flow phe nomena, and indicate the vial relationship between the tvo views, For teachers who wish to ‘consider kinematics in detil before the material on elementary fhid dynamics, Chapters 3 and 4 canbe itrchanged without loss of continuity. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 expand onthe basic analysis methods generally used solve or to begin solving uid mechanics protiems. Emphasis is placed on understanding how flow fhecomena are decribed matherntcaliy and on when and ew to use infnitesimal and Finite control volumes. The effet of fi fietion on pressure and velocity distributions are sho considered in some dtl, A formal course in thermodynamics isnot rquied 0 un ‘ertand the various potions ofthe text fat conser some elementary aspects of the ther tmodynamics of tad flow. Chapter 7 featoes the advantges of vsing dimensional analysis tnd smilie for organizing txt ata and For planning experiments and the basic techniques involved. ‘Owing to the growing importance of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in engi- neering design ond analysis, exe material on this subject is inclded in Appendix A. This toatrial may be omitted without ery fos of continuity to the rest of the text. This intto- ductory CFD overview inclues examples and problems of various interesting How situations that are to be solved using FlowLab software, (Chapters 8 through 12 offer students opportunites for the futher application of the sriacipes Teamed eany inthe text. Also, where eppropcate, addtional important notions Sich a boundary layers, ranston from laminar to trbulnt flo, turbulence modeling and flow separation are introduced. Practialconcems such a8 pipe flow, open-channel fo, ow measurement, drag and Ii, the effees of compressibility, and the fuid mechanics funde- rmentls associated with turbomacines are inciuded. ‘Students who study thi text ad who solve a representative st ofthe exercises pro vied should acquire a useful knowledge ofthe fundamentals of fluid mechanics, Faculty ‘sho use this text are provided with numerous topics to select from in ordet to meet the objectives of their own courses, More material is included than can be reasonably covered inne term. Al are reminded of the fine election of supplementary material. We have cited throughout the text the ales and books thet ave available for enrichment Student and Instructor Resources Student Soliton Manuel end Study Guile, by Munson, et al. (© 2006 Job Wiley and ‘Sons, Ina.)—This short paperback book is available as a supplement forthe tent. I provides {etaled solutions tothe Review Problems and a concise overview ofthe essential points of most of the main sections of the text, along with appropriate equations, illustrations, and worked extmpies. This supplement is avaiable through your locel bookstore, or you may parchase it on the Wiley website at wwwsviley comycollegeiaanson. Student Companion Site—The student section of the book website at wwrwiley-com/ ‘ollegefmunson contains the assets listed below. Access is free-of-charge with te registra- tion code included inthe front of every new Book,Prface xi Video Library CFD Drive Cavity Example Review Problems with Answers FlowLab Tutorial and User's Guide Lab Problems FlowLab Problems CComprekersive Table of Conversion Factors Instructor Companion Site—The instructor section of the book website at www.vileycom! collegefmranson contains the assets inthe Student Companion Site, as well as te following, Which are avaiable ony to professors wo adopt this book for classroom use: 1 lneructor Solutions Manuel, contining complete, deale soluons 10 al of the prob ins in the text. 1 Figures from the text, appropriate for use in lctare slides. ‘These instructor materials are pussword- protected. Visit the Instructor Companion Site ko reg- ister for a password. owL.ab®—In cooperation with Wiley, Fuent, Inc is offering to instructors who adopt this test the option to hae FlowLab software instlled inher deparimect ab free of charge. FlowLab isa CFD package that allows stents to solve fluid dynamics problems without requising along training period, This software insoduces CFD technology to undergraduates wn uses CFD to ‘excite students about fui dynamics an leaming more about transport phenomena ofall kinds ‘To eam more about FlowLab, and how to have it installed in your deparement, visit tbe In- strucor Companion Ste at wwrwile.comfellegefmurson Grade Piuy—Instructors have the option to adopt the eGrade Plus course management too) Along with this text for the following addtional resources: = Your own customizable course website, populated withthe textbook resources. «All ofthe resources that are on the Stident and Instructor Companion Sites (Videos, Review Problems, Lab Problems, ei.) wil also bein the student and intrecor sec tions of your eGrade Plus website, so everything willbe in one location, 15 The entre text in a searchable and linked HTML format. For example, the chapter summary Key words in the online text liak directly to where those concepts are explained in the chapter, for an easy-to-use study tol 18 The Suident Solution Manta! and Study Guide in eloionic format 1 Online reading and homework assignments, to help you track your students’ progres. For more information sbout eGrade Pius, visit www.wiley-comgcollegeegradeplis, Acknowledgments ‘We express our thanks t the many colleagues who have helped inthe development ofthis tex, including Dr. Bruce Reichert for help with Chapter 11 and Profescor Patrik Kavanagh of Iowa State University fo help with Chapter 12. We appreciate the effrt and cooperation of oar new collaborator, Prof. Wade Huebsch of West Virginia University, for conubuting the CFD material, homework problems, and other items fo this aew edition. We wish to ex ress our gratitude tothe many persons wh supplied the photographs used throughout the ‘exc and othe many persons who provided suggestions for this and previous ditions through reviews and surveys, Firally, we thank our familie for deircontiaved encouragement dur- ing the writing of thie fith eton, ‘Working with students over the years has taught us much about fluid mechanics educs- tion, We have tied in earaest to draw from this expetience forthe benefit of users ofthis book, Obviously we are stil learning and we welcome any suggestions and comments from you. BRUCE R. MUNSON Donato F. Youxe ‘Tweooone H. Oxnsta_ Featured i in this Book HLUIDS INTHE NEWS |= > 8 “Throughout the book are many bref news storie invovingcumen,sometines novel, applications of faid phenomens. Many of these stories have homework ables associated with them > Spusimie on acre SUMMARY SENTENCES SS A brief sumizary sentence is given on each age to prepare or remind the reader about an important concept discussed on that page ‘ELI vipeos A set of videos illustrating int testing and practical applications Of fluid phenomena is provided fin Grade Plus are on the book website. Amicon inthe smacgin identifies cach video. Approximately 160 homme ‘work problems are tie tothe vides. Semmes Ge [Samii BOXED EQUATIONS Important equations so boxed 2 help the ser dotify them, (CHAPTER SUMMARY AND. ‘STUDY GUIDE aa ome cere aoe ‘Atte end of each chapter isa brie sum Fe mary of key concepts and principles in Kain apennsceeernie st teodace in the chapter along with key AE canteen trem, tems involved. xiFeatured in this Book Gow ss CEE EXAMPLE PROBLEMS {A set of example problems provides the ~<—itndent derailed solutions and comments {or interesting, real-world situations. oon ‘REVIEW PROBLEMS [In eGrade Plus and on the book web site are nearly 200 Review Problems ‘covering most ofthe main topes in the book. Complete, detailed solu- tions to these problems ae found in Grade Plus or in the supplement ‘Student Solution Maual and Study Guide for Fundamencals of Fluid Mechanies, by Munson, el (© 2005 John Wiley and Sons, ne), ae ae LAB EROBLEMS In Grade Plus and on the book website isa set of lab problems in Excel format iwolving actual data for experiments of the type found in many introductory uid rmechanies labs.xiv Featured in this Book s N MANUAL AND STUDY GUI | <——— A bret poperback book ted Student Solution Manual and Swudy Guide for Fundcmentels of Fluid Mechanics, bY ‘Munson el. (@ 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Ine), avai able, It contains desiled solutions to the Review Problems and a study guide with 2 brief summary and semple prob- Jems with solutions for most major sections ofthe book. | generous set of homework prcbiems atthe end of each Se eudtanea Chapter stresses the practical applications of uid mechanics neon Haat Principles. Over 1350 home: 7 ~ frock problems are included, QE I~ ‘i oe Go (CED BlowLab cn << For those who wish t become faitar with he a tuasie concepts of computational fd dynamics, a 5 ‘pew! overview t0 CFD is provided in Appendices {A end 1 In addition, she se of FlowLab software tol tl ee gd to solve intresting flow problems is described in eee ees Appendices J and K.3 “1a 1s 6 18 110 un 2a 22 23 24 226 ontents Some Characteristics of Fluids Dimensions, Dimersional Homogeneity, and Units 124 Systems of Units ‘Analysis of Fluid Betavior Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 141 Density 1:82. Specific Weight 1.43 Specie Gravity Ides Gas Law Viscosity Compresibilty of Fluids 1741 Bulk Modulus 1.72 Compression and Expansion of Gases 1.73 Speed of Sound ‘Vapor Pressure Surface Tension ‘A Brief Look Back in History (Chapter Summary and Study Guide References Review Problems Problems Pressure at 2 Point Basic Equation for Pressure Field Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 23.1 Incompressble Fluid 23.2. Compressible Fivid ‘Slandaré Atmosphere ‘Measurement of Presse ‘Manometry 2641 Piczometer Tube 262. U-Tube Manometer 263. Inclined-Tube Manometer SSBNSEURE SBGEEE SS oue 2.7. Mechanical and Electronic Pressure Measuring Devices 28 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 29° Pressure Prien 2.10 Hydrostatic Force on s Curved Surface 2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 2.1 Archimedes’ Principle 2112 Subilty 22 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion © 2112.1 Linear Metion © 2122 Rigid-Body Rotation 2.13 Chapler Summary and Smdy Guide References Review Problems Problems EMENTARY FLUID. HICS—THE BERNOLLL JATION 3.1 Newton's Second Law 32. F = ma along a Streamline 33. P= ma Normal ta Streamline 34° Physical Inerpretation 55. Stati, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Teal Pressure 5.6 Examples of Use ofthe Bernoulli Equation 361 Free Jes 3.62 Confined Flows 3.63 Flowrate Measurement 39 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line 38 Restrictions on Use ofthe ‘Bernoulli Equation 38.1 Compressibility Effects 382 Unsteady Effects 383 Rotational Etfects 384 Other Restrictions 39. Chapeer Summary and Study Guide 94 9s 101 10 107 12 ua 4 Rt 15 128 1s BI Bs Bt Be xvxvi Contents References 135, Review Problems 15 Problems 05, a FLUID KINEMATICS ¥ 150 4. The Velocity Feld 151 ALA Bulerian and Lagrangin Flow Descriptions 153, 41.2 One, Two, and Theo: Dimensional Flows 154 4.13 Steady and Unsteady Flows 155, 414 Sueaminss, Streaklines, ad Patines 136 42. The Acceleration Field 159, AA The Material Desivative 160 422 Unsteady Effects 162 423 Convective Effects 163 4424 Sueamline Coordinates 166 43. Conta Volume and Syer Repeesations 168 444 “The Reynolds Transport Theorem 76, 44.1 Derivation of he Reynolds “Transport Theorem 1 4.42 Physical Interpretation 7 443 Relationship to Material Derivative 178 444. Steady Effects 8 445 Unsteady Effects 9 44.6 Moving Cont Volumes 180 447. Selection of « Contol Volume 182 45 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 183 References 184 Review Problems ise Problems 184 5 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME. ANALYSIS a 192 5.1 Conservation of Mass —The Continuity Eqution 133, Sih Derivation of the Continuity Equation 193 5.12. Fixed, Nondeforming Conta! Volume ws 5.13. Moving, Nondeferming onal Volume 200 5.14 Deforming Control Volume 23 52. Newton's Second Law—The Linear Momentum sed Momeni-of- Momentum Equations 205 Derivation ofthe Linear ‘Momentum Equation “Application of the Lineat ‘Momentuin Equation Dervatlon ofthe Moment-of ‘Momenturn Equation Application of the Momentof- ‘Momentum Bquetion First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation 53,1 Derivation ofthe Energy Equation 53.2 Applicaton ofthe Energy Bquation ‘Comparison ofthe Energy Equation with the Bemoul Equation Application ofthe Energy Equation to Neruniform Flows Combination ofthe Energy nuttion and the Moment-of- Momentum Equation Second Law of Thermodynamics Irreversible Flow 54.1. Semiinfinitesimal Coneat Volume Statement of the Energy Equation ‘Semi-infiitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics Combination of the Equations ofthe Firs and Second Laws of Thermodynamics ‘Application of the Loss Frm ‘of the Energy Equation ‘Chapter Summary and Study Guide References Review Problems Problems 6 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW vel 523 524 33 533 sad 535 542 543 54a 35 Fluid Element Kinematics G.L-1 Velocity and Acceeration Fields Revisited 6.4.2 Linear Metion and Deformation 6.13 Angular Motion and Deformation Conservation of Mass 621. Differentsh Form of Continuity Equation 62 208 206 am mm 9 n9 236 od 246 27 248 249 231 282 22 272 3 24 2s 276 219 29622 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates 282 623 The Steam Punction 232 63. Conservation of Linear Momentum 285 {63.1 Description of Fores Acting, ‘on the Differential Element 286 632 Equations of Motion 289 64 aviseid Flow 239 64.1 Euler's Equations of Motion 290 642. The Bemoulli Equation 290 643. Ieotational Flow 292 644 The Bemoulli Equation for Ireotatonal Flow 204 GAS The Velocity Potential 295 65. Some Basic, Plane Potential Flows 297 65.1 Uniform Flow 299 652. Source and Sink 300 653 Vorox Sot 654 Doubiet 305 156 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential, Flows 307 66.1 Source in Uniform Sucam—Hall Body sor 662. Rankine Ovals air 663 Flow around a Cirevlar Cylinder 312 67 Other Aspects of Poteaial Flow Analysis 318 58 Viscous Flow 319 68.1. Suess-Deformation Relationships 319 682 The Naiver-Stokes Equations 320 69° Some Simple Solutions for Viscous, Tncompressible Fluids ma 69.1 Steady, Laminar Flow between Fined Parallel Petes mm 692 Couette Flow 34 693. Steady, Laminar Flow in Grcalar Tubes 307 694 Steady, Axel, Laminae Flow jn an Anoulas 39 610 Otver Aspects of Differential Analysis 332 6.10.1 Namerieat Methods 332 6.1L Chapter Summary and Study Guide 333 References 34 Review Problems 3x4 Problems 3 SIMILITUDE, DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, AND MODELING 346 74 Dimensional Analysis aT 72 Buckingham Pi Theorem 9 Contents 73. Determination of Pi Terms 74 Some Additional Comments [About Dimensional Analysis TALL. Selection of Variables 742. Determination of Reference Dimensions 743. Uniqueness of Pt Terms 15. Determination of Pi Terms by Inspection 116 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics 7.4 Comelation of Experimental Data 7.7.) Problems with One Pi Term 77.2. Problems with Two oF More PiTems 78 Modeling and Simitinde 78.1 Theory of Models 78.2 Model Scales 783. Practical Aspects of Using Models 719 Some Typisal Model Studios 7.9.1. Flow though Closed Conduits 7.9.2 Flaw around Immersed Bodies 7.933 Flow with a Foe Surface 7.40-Similitude Based on Governing Differential Equations 7.1 Chapter Summary and Suudy Guide References Review Problems Problems Q 8 VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES 8.1 General Charactdstics of Pipe Flow 8.1.1 Laminar or Tutulent Flow 8.112. Entrance Region and Pally Developed Fiow 8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress 82. Fully Developed Laminar Flow 82.1 From F = ma Appliod to 2 Fluid Element 8.22. From the Navier-Stokes Eauations 8.23 From Dimensional Analysis 824 Enerey Considerations 83. Fully Developed Turbulent Flow 83.1 Transition from Laminar to “Turbulent Flow 8.32. Turbulen Shear Stress xvii 350 355 356 357 358 360 361 365 3665 367 369 ery ara 316 316 378 382 386 359 390 301 391 401 son 405 405 407 408 43 aia 416 418 48 420xvill Contents 83 Turtnlent Velocity Profile 834 Turbulence Modeling 835 Chaos and Turbulence Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow 84.1 Major Losses 842. Minor Losses 843. Nonciccalar Conduits Pipe Flow Examples BSL Single Fipes 85.2 Malkiple Pipe Systems Pipe Flowrate Measurement B.A Pipe Flowrate Meters 8.62. Volume Flow Meters Chapter Summary and Study Guide References Review Problems Problems aa as 86 87 oO FLOW OVER IMMERSED BODIES 9.1 General External Flow Charterites 9.11 Lift and Drag Concepts 9.12. Characteristics of Flow Past an Object Boundary Layer Charactercios 92.1 Boundary Layer Structure and ‘Thickness on a Fat Plate PrandtlBlasius Boundary Layer Solution Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for a Flt Pate “Transition from Laminar to ‘Torbulent Flow “Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow ects of Pressure Gradient Momentart-Lategral Boundary Layer Equation with Nonzero Pressure Gradient 92 paz 923 924 928 926 927 93 Drag 93. 932 933 Lit 94.1 Surface Pressure Distibtion 942. Circulation Chapter Summary and Study Cuide References Review Problems Problems Friction Drag Pressure Drag Drag Coefficient Daa and Beamples oA 9s 483 46 485 489 393 3 aor 501 sor 509 53 317 318 319 522 535, 333 345 9 350 331 551 O 1G OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW 10,1 General Characterisies of Open: Channel Flow Surface Waves 102.1 Wave Specs 10.2.2 Froude Number Etects nergy Considerations 101 Specific Enesgy 10.32 Channel Depth Variations Uniform Depth Chane! Flow 1041 Unifoom Flow Approximations 1042 The Chezy and Mining Equations 104.3 Uniform Depth Examples Gradually Varied Flos 10.5.1 Clasiiation of Surface Shapes 10.5.2 Examples of Gradually ‘Varied Flows, Repialy Varied Flow 10.6. The Bydraulic urap 106.2 Sharp-Crested Weirs 10.6.3 Broad-Crested Weirs 102 103 lot 10s 106 10.64 Undeeftow Gates 10:7 Chapter Suramary and Study Guide References Review Problems Problems i] COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 11 Ideal Gas Relationships 42 413 a ‘Mech Number and Speed of Sound Categorie of Compressible Flow Taentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 114.1 Effect of Variations in Flow (Cress Sectional Aree 11.42 Converging-Diveyging Duct Flow 1143 Constant Area Duet Flow [Nonisentropi Flow of an Ideal Gas 1151 Adiabatic Constant-Azea Duct Flow with Fiction (Fanno Flow) 1152 Frictioness Constant-Area ct Flow sith Heat Transfer (Rayleigh Flow) 11.83 Normal Shock Waves ‘Analogy between Compressible ‘and Open-Channe! Flows ‘Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow us ls ua 614 as 620 os 9 63 646 67 oa118 Chapter Summary and Sway Guide or References 618 Review Problems 619 Problems 619 TURBOMACHINES 684 12.1 Ieeduction 685 122 Basie Energy Considerations 687 12.3 Basic Angelar Momentum Considerations 690, 124 The Centrifugal Pump oa 124.1 Theoretical Considerations 64 12.42 Pump Performance (Charsctrstis, 68 1243 Net Posive Suction Head (NPSE) 100 1244 System Charactrsties and Purp Selection 02 125 Dimensionless Parameters and Simaianity Lave 106 125.1 Special Pump Sealing Laws 09 1252 Specific Speed 10 1233 Svetion Specific Speed mt 126 Axial-Flow and Mised-Flow Pumps TLL 129 Fane nie 128 Turbines ns 1281 Impulse Turbines nt 1282 Reaction Tubines mt 129 Compressible Flow Turbomachines aa 129.1 Compressors ne 1282 Compeesible Flow Turbines 732 12.80 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 735 References 735 Review Problems 736 Problems 76 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS AND FLOWLAB 745 B PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 759 Cc PROPERTIES OF THE U.S. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE 764 Contents xix D COMPRESSIBLE FLOW DATA FOR AN IDEAL GAS 766 oy £ COMPREHENSIVE TABLE OF CONVERSION FACTORS See book web site, www.wiley.com/ college/munson, for this material. CF-T F VIDEO LIBRARY See book web site, ww.wiley.com/ ollege/munson, for this material. F+] G REVIEW PROBLEMS ‘See book web site, www. wiley.cora/ College/munson, for this material. ReT LABORATORY PROBLEMS See book web site, www.wiley.com/ college/munson, for this material. — L-T CFD DRIVEN CAVITY EXAMPLE See book web site, wirw.wlley.com/ college/munson, for this material. CFD- FLOWLAB TUTORIAL AND USER'S GUIDE See book web site, wwn.wiley.com/ ‘college/munson, for this material, FL-T FLOWLAB PROBLEMS See book web site, www.wiley.cor/ ‘ollege/munson, for this material. FLP-1 ANSWERS: ANS-1 INDEX HWFundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Fifth EditionPld mechani ts fomcered wih the behavior of gules fend gases errest (nd motion be “The treshup ofa id et nto drops funtion of fd properties such st Gest, viseosy, aod surface tension [Repited ih permission fiom American Insite of ysis Ret 6) andthe American Asscialion for he Advarcemeat of Sclece (Ref. 7)] Fluid mechanics is that discipline within the broad fed of applied mechanics conceened with the behavior of liquide and gases at ret or in moti. This Meld of mechanics obviously encompasses a vast stay of problems that may vary from the study of Blood low inthe ‘apillties (which are ony afew microns in diameter) to the flow of crude oil across Alaska siametes pipe, Fluid mechanics principles ace needed 1 ex plain why airplanes ote mage streamlined sith smooth surfaces forthe most efficent ight, ‘heres golf balls are made with rough surfaces (dimpled) to increase their efficiency. Nu merous interesting questions can bo answered by using relatively simple fluid mechanics ies. For example: How can a rocket generate thrast without having any arto push against in outer space? ‘Why can't you hear a sopersoic airplane unt thas gone past you? low ean a river flow dovnateam with significant velocity even though te slope of the surfoce isso small that it coald aot be detected with an oedinary level? How can information obtained from model airplanes be used to design the real thing? ‘Why does a steam of water froma faucet sometimes appear t have a smooth surface, bot sometimes a rough surface? low much greater gas mileage can be obtained by improved aerodyeamic design of cats and tucks? “The lst of applications end questions goes on and on—but you gt the point; fui mechanics is. very important, practicel subject. I is very likely that during your career as an engineer 12 Chapter 1G Introduction Ll__ Some Characteristics of Fluids Afi. chs Yate ora Jor contouousy hen ated on by ‘ecring eses of ny magnitude you wll be involved inthe analyes and design of systems that require good understanding 23f fled mechanics eis hoped that this introductory tex will provide a sound foundation of the fundamental aspects of fuid mechanics ‘One ofthe fis questions we need to explore is, What isa Quid? Or we might ask, What is the difference between solid anda fluid? We have genera, vagoe ides ofthe difference, [A oli i "hard and not esily deformed, whereas a fluid i “soft” and is easily deformed {we can readily move through at). Although quite descriptive, these caval observations of the differences between solids and fluids are not very satisfactory from a scientific oF tngineering pont of view. A closer look atthe molecular stractire of materials reveals tat satterthat we cornmonly think ofa asolid (see, concrete, ta )has densely spaced motecules ‘pith lage intermolecular cohesive fares that allow the solid co maintain ts shape, and to hot be eal deformed. However, fr matter that we ormally thnk of a5 aliquid (water, ol, fe) the molecules are spaced farther apart, the intermolecular foroes are smaller thw For olds, and the molecules have more freedom of movement. Ths, igus can be easly ‘deformed (but not eaily compresed) and can be poured into containers of forced through & tube, Gases (air oxygen, te} have even greater molecular spacing and freedom of motion ‘ith negligible cohesive intermolecular foes and as a consequence ae easily deformed fad ‘ompresse) and will completely fil de volume of any container in which they are place ‘Although the differences tetweensoli¢s and fluids canbe explained qualitatively on the bass of molecular actu, 2 more specific distinction is based on how they deform ender the tution ofan exterel oad Specifically «fluid dened os a subsamce tht deforms cominuotsly then acted an by a shearing sites of any magnitude. A seating sess (force per unit aes) is Created whenever a tangential force scion a surface. When common solids such as ste) ‘tier metals are acted cn by a hearing stoss they will initially deform (sually very small ‘deformation, bu hey wil not continuously deform (Gow). However, common fiids such as ‘wate oi, ad aie satisfy the definition of a id-—that is they wil flow when acted on by & ‘hoarng sues. Some ateils, sich a sles, tar, put, tootipaste, and soon, ae not easly ‘hssfed since they wil behave a a slid the applied shearing stress is small, but fhe stress ‘ceeds some evitcal vale the substance wil lwThe sty of such mateasisealled rheology Gnd does not fall within the province of classical fluid mechanics. Thus, all he fuids we will ‘be concerned with in his text wil confre to the definition ofa fi siven previously. “Although the moleclar structure of fuid is important in distinguishing one fd from nots its not possible t study the betavir of individual molecules when trying wo describe the behavior of usa res rin motion. Rather, we characterize the behavior by considering the average, or macroscopic, vlue of the quantity of interest, where the average i evaluated Dera sonal volume containing a large aumber of molecales. Thus, when we say thet the Sclcity a certain point ina fluid is #0 mic, we are rally indicating the average velocity (Of the molecules in small volume surrounding the point The volume is smal compared wit the physial dimensions of the system of intrest, bat large compared with the average distance between molecules, I this ¢ reasonable way to deszibe the behavior of faid? The anewer fe generally yes since the spacing between molecules is tpiclly very small. For gases at hotmal presses ee temperatures, the spacing ison te order of 10° mm, and for Tigi i ig on the ovder of 1077 mmm. The number of meclecules per exbic millimeter is on the order of To for gases and 10 for liquids, Is thus clear thatthe number of molecules in very tiny volume is huge and the idea of using average values taken over this volome ia certsily easonable. We thas assume that all the fluid charocteristios we are interested in (pressure, ‘locity, te) vary continuously throughout the fuid—that is, we reat he fluid as continu,Plu toes ries can be de serbed quately etonnses cera asi quanties sick a enh, Time, and ma 12 Dimensions; Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units ‘This concept wil certainly be valid fo all the circumstances considered inthis tex. One ates of fhid mechanics for which the continuum concept breaks Gown isin the study of rarefied tgses such a would be encountered at very high alludes, In this cas tb spacing between air molecules can become large and the continuum) concep is no longer acceptable. ‘Since in our study of uid mechanies we wil be dealing widha vavety of full characteristics, itis necessary to develop a system for describing these charactristies both qualitatively and ra Seal wer wer Suess #? mir? Serfacetesion a or ‘Teragectre ° o Tine r T Torque a wer? Vatsity om ur Viscosity (yams) nor weir isco hema ert ert Yorome e o werk a anda check of the dimensions reveals thatthe constant mst have the dimensions of ZT“? ifthe equation is to be dimensionally homogeneous, Actully, Eq. 1.2 i8 a special form of te well-nonn equation from physics for freely falling bodies, ge idee as) in which g is the aceleati of gravity. Equation 1.3 is dimensionslly homogeneous and ‘alld in any system of wnits, For z = 32.2 Ys the equation reduces to Bg. 1.2 and this Bg 12s valid only forte system of units sing feet and seconds. Equations that ae restricted tovapartcular system of units canbe denoted as restricted homogencous equations 3s opposedae ‘ow, Q. ef gu though sn orice Iocated inthe side of a sank a= 00 avis Soweto. “The gimensions of te vaious tems in the equation are Q'= volumeftine = DT"! A= aren 13,g = aiteration of ity = LT and = helght = J “These em, when subrule ito the equation, yl he mensional forms wry =fesnvaxer') 1 ler fom hie rau thatthe equation is dimeasbonaly emogeascus (bot es of the forma have tbe same men sos of DT") and the aumbers (61 ane V3} are dimen. Sones. If we were Bog to usc this weitionhip opetedly we ‘night be gtd oily ty epacngg with stardaed algo 32.21 and sewing te formal as [Exams 1.1 [ne eS Dimensions, Diensional Homnogenelty, and Units 5 ‘where she area of te orice is the acceleration of gar= ig, and she Beg of Ue gud above he oie. faves ‘the dimensional homogeneity ofthis Formals ‘A quekeheck ofthe diensions reveals hae Br soe") and thereto, he equation expressed as Fa, 1 can ony be d= regionally coect he number 490 bas the dimensions of OT, Whenever 8 sumer apeatng in an equation o fx hilar dimesions, t means tet te specie vale ofthe umber will depend bn te system of anit sed, Thi, For Ihe ete being ceived with fot and scons sed a ut, the atnber 490 at at of 7s, Boutin twill cay give the ‘comet value or On fs) when Ais expressed in socare fet tin feat Ths, Eq. Ls anit ornegencousguation, ‘wheres the nginal eqn i a gecral homogeneous eq tion that woud be vali for ny consistent system of anit A. ik check of he dimensions ofthe vagus es in an equa tom sa wef practice and wl often be helpful io elninating ‘rors—tht a8 noted previously al physically meaningful ‘equations mnt be dimensionally homogecous. We have ery s nonenmeryo* | | a ! General homges ‘ous equctions are Yel nay te fut: Iriefyallded to unis ini exanpt, and ths import oc ge ssavi (willbe considered in mor deal inthe next secon. to equations valid in any eystom of units, which are general homogenous equations, The preceding discussion indicates one rater elementary, but important, use of the concept of ‘imensions: the determination of one aspect of the generlity of a given equation simply based on a consideration ofthe dimension of the vargus terms in the equation. The concept of cimensions slso forms the bass forthe powerful tool of dimensional analysis, whic ‘considered in deal in Chapter 7, 1.2.1 Systems of Units In ation tothe qualitative descripon of the various quantities of interet itis generally necessary to bave a quantitative measure of any given quantity, For example if we measure the ‘width ofthis page in the book and say that it 10 unis wide, he lament has no meaning ‘ofl the wit of length ie defined. Af we indicate thatthe unit of length is a meter, and define the meters ome standard length, nitsystem forlength hasbeen established and a numerical value canbe elven tothe page width). In addition to length, aunt must be established for each ofthe remaining basic quantities (force, mass, time, and temperature). There are several systems ‘of units in use and we shall consider tvee systems that are commonly used in engineering. British Gravitational (BG) System. In tye BG system the unit of length is the foot (the time ani isthe second (9), the force uit isthe pound (lb), and the temperture© chapter + fntrodution Two seta of sets that are dey ace nom [inching are the Braish Grove onal (86) Sytem fd the era onal Stee (St. nit isthe degree Favenbeit (*F) or the absolute temperature units the degree Rankine (°R), ‘where oR =F + 459.67 ‘The mass unit, called the slug, is defined from Newton's second law (force = mass * acedleration) a8 1b = (Vslug)( 2/2) “this elation iniates that a 1b forse sting ona mas of 1 sag wil ve he mass an scceleaton of U2. “The weight (which isthe force due co gravity, 4) of «sas, is gen by the xuaton w= mg and in BG units we) = (sags) (08) 2.174 fe? (Commonly approximate Sinoe the earh’s standard gravity Is taken 38 32.2?) it follows that @ mast of | slug weighs 322 Ib under standard gravity. vlog ox ny ine Ui Ste te omen seen atc tpt eek oe erence ty eng ne nen elegy pet vee ce tana tx usa Se Soe eo tom cb nee oe re Sine wc ettan es EiGnate rst Sct miagh oy wes Tosrtunc pico ge | Spkeriecmaegung rayon ase Freeh comnsion proposed tat ew univer gt eit fall # enter (mete) be defined os the distance of one- (quar of the eat’ meridian (got ole wo the eqto) ites by 10 lion. although contoversil. the meter was ac cepted in 1799 te standard, With the development of evened technology, tb length of meter was redefined in {9a asthe dance raveled by light a vacuum dung the tine interval of 199,792 58s.The fot is now defined 25 (03048 mses. Our sme ales and yardticks indeed have anlucigning history. International System (SE. 1s 1960 the Eleventh General Conference on Weights ‘and Mecsires the international organization responsible for maintaining precise rifom ‘Standards of measurement, formally adopted the Intemational System of Units asthe inter- totcnal standaed. This system, commonly termed SI, has been widely adopted worldwide tnd is widely used (although certainly not exclasively) in the United States, It is expected that the fongierm tend will be forall countries to accep SI as the aeepted standard and itis imperative thet engineering stadeats become familiar with this system. In SI the unit ‘of length isthe meter (m). the ee units ie second () the mass unit io te klograty (ke) fod the ternperture unit i the Kelvin (K), Note tha tere is no degree symbol used when txpresing# temperature in kevin units. The Kelvin temperature sale isan absolute scale ne is related tothe Celsius (centigrade) scale (°C) through the relationship K=cC +2735 [Although the Celsis scale is not in itself part of St temperatures in degrees Celsius when using SI units, “The force unit, called the newton (N} is defined from Newn's second io as IN = (Legit my?) it ie common practice to specifyle mechanics i ser important to lings between weigh and mass. 41.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 7 @ TABLE 1.2 Prefs for $1 Unis Factor by Which Unit Is Matted Preis Symbat ro ier wo ‘es wo regs @ lo Wo eco 0 ea ech mili eo fem eae otacegerzad ‘Thus, 9 JAN force acti on a 1-kg mass wil give the mass an acelecation of I ys! Standard ravi in SLs 9.807 mys commonly appcoimated as 9.81 m/s?) so that Lg mass weighs 9.81 N under standard gravity. Now that weight and mass ae diferent, both qualitatively and ‘quancatvely! The unit of work in Sis the joule (, whichis the work done when the pout of ‘pplication of @ JN force is displaced through aJ-m distance inthe direction of afore. Thus, [= 1Nem ‘The unit of power isthe watt (W) defined as a joule per second. Thus, IW = 1yfs=1N-mys Pefises for forming muliples and factions of ST wos are given in Table (2. For example, the notation KN would be read as “klonewtons” and stands for 10°N. Similetly, mm would be read as “millimeters” and stands for 10"? m, The centimeter isnot an accepted ‘anit of length in the SI system, so for most problems in Muid mechanics in which St units ate used, lengts will be expressed in millimeters or meters. English Engineering (EE) System. In the EE system units for force and mass ate defined independenty; thus special care must be exereised when using this sys in conjunction with Newon's Secon lav. Te basic unit of mas isthe pound mass bm), andthe ‘tani of force i the pound (D The unit of length is the foo (8), he unto ime she second (6, sand the absolute temperature seale is the degree Rankine (°R). To make the equation expressing Newton's second law dimensionally homogeneous we write it as peat 14) 7 an ‘where gi a constant of proportionality which allows us to define units for both force and ‘mass. For the BG system only the force unit was prescribed and the mass unit defined in a8 Choper 1 Introduetion When sling prod Fema is mportant ste of ents, (ea don't nic BO ‘ond Sluts. consistent manner such that ge = 1. Similaly, for S the mass unit was pressibed and the fovoe unit defined in a consistent manner such that ge = 1. Por the EE system, e 1-1 force is defined es that force ovhich gives a1 Tom a standard acceleration of gravity whichis taken fs 32 178 f/# Thus, for Eq, J to be bots oumerically and dimensionally carect _ (utomis2.174 809) 1 7 so that (10omys2.174 09) ar a ‘With the BE sytem weight and mass are related through the equation et % were gis the loca ezlecation of gravity. Under condton of ta gratis (s = 8) the tgh in pounds and he ruse in pound mis are mucin 1b force gives a mass of | Ibm an acceleration of 32,174 fi/s? and a mass of t slug an acceleration of 1/3 fallow hae {slug = 32.174 1bm In this text we wil! primarily use the BG system and ST for units. Toe BE system is sed very sparingly, and only in those instances where convention dictates its use, such #8 {or the compressible flow material in Chapter 11. Approximately one-half the problems and amples ere given in BG units and one-half in SI units. We cannot overemphasize the importance of paying close attention to units when solving problems. It is very easy to imnroduce huge error into problem solutions through the use of incoreet unis. Gt inthe habit of using a consisten system of units throaghoat a given olution, It really makes 09 Gifereace wbich system you use as long as you are consistent for example, don’t mix slugs lind newtons, I problem data are epecified in ST unis, then ase SE units throughout the Solution, Tf the data are specified in BG units, then use BG units thooghout he solution, ables 1.3 and 14 provide conversion factors for some quaatities that are commonly acountored in Ovid mechanics. For convenient reference these tables are reproduved on fhe inside ofthe back cover. Note that in these tales (and others) the numbers are expressed by using compute exponential nolaion, Por example, the number 5.154 + 2s equivalent to 5.158% 10° in scientific notation, ané the number 2832E ~ 2 is equivalent to 2.832 % 10°2, More extensive tables of conversion factors for a large variety of unit ystems ean be found in Appendix E. TABLE 1.3 Conversion Factors from BG and EE Unis to SH Unit (See Inside of ack coven! a TABLE 1-4 Conversion Factors from SI Uaits to BG and BE Units - . (See fuse of back cover)[EXAMPLE 1.2 A to of wate ving a oa mas of 36K eon the oor ‘ofan elevater Determine the fre in neon) that the tn ‘A free boy diagram of the tan show in Fg, 1.2 where ‘Wise weight ofthe tank and wal, and F, 6 the eaton of the floor on the tank. Appioton of Newt's second aw of ‘motion this body gives Drona f ' i | | | y= ma o where we have taken upward atthe posivediecton. Since W = mgs Ea, | ca be en ab Fp mle +6) o Before subsiutng any somber into Ea, we must decide on aystem of wits and en be sre al of he at ap expesied fn these wit Since we want in newions we wil se SI wis | soit | Fy seng(981 ae + cr ey0.008 m7) i = 0g mi 5 Since IN = 1g follows, { Fy" 430N —(downvacd on for) (4n3) ae ‘Unite and spac travel A NASA epaceca the Mars Climate Orbit wa lnuchod in Devmber 198 0 study the rian geography and weather pastes. The spaceraft was sated to begin iting Mars on September 23, 1998, However, NASA | cic toet communication withthe spcesrat ear that day | ands believed tha he spacecraft boke apart er overheated | besase ft came two closet the surface of Mas Errante 13 Analysis of Fld Behavior exe onthe Floor when the elevator is aeeering pad TRUE, Boiron ee b h “The cretion i ommvad since the fore shown on he fee= ‘ody digram ste foros ofthe oor or che ants tat he fore the tank exerts om the floor is equal in magnitude but ‘opposite in dection 'As you workehough large vay of pcklems io histex, ‘you il iad that uit play an easnta len aiviaga a teal anever. Be careful Tie eat to mi unite and catee large vor, athe above example the elevate aclaation ad been tas 7! ie mt and g exposed in ST ats, we woul ave calculated the force a 605 Mand the ashe Would ‘nave been 41S 09 lags! "reo within 3 miles of the sac athe than the etd 93 miles, The subsequent investignton reveled tha the eons ‘were duetoa simple mix-ap ines. One tar contig the Orster used SI ants wheess tothe team ev BO units This coy experience ates the importance of using = consent system of wits. Analysis of Fluid Behavior ‘The study of uid mechanics involves the same fondamental laws you have encountered in physics and ther mechanics courses. These laws inclode Newton's lews of motion, conservation of mass, ad the first and second laws of thermodynamics, Thus, there ae strong similarities between the general approach 0 fluid mechanics and to rigid-body and deformable-body solid mechanic. This is indeed helpful since many of the concepts and40 chapter 1 Introduction 14 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight ‘The denn ofa fui i dered es fismass pert volume tecinigues of analysis use in iid mechanics wil be ones you have encountered before in other courses. ‘The brood subject of fluid mechanics can bo genecally subvided ito fluid sais, in soe the fad a at sot, and fled dynamic, fa which the Hal 4s moving. th the following Thapters we will consider boh of these areas in deta. Before we can proceed, hoveyes Sint be necessary w define and discuss certain fluid properties tat are tsinately related to quid behavior [ts obvious tet different fuids can have grossly different characteristics For esample, gases are light end compressible, whereas liquids are hesvy (by comparison) res eatvely incompressible. syrup flows stowly from acontane, but water flows reply “Then poured fom te same conta. To quay these difeenees cet fuié properties ween et Tn the fllowing several sections the properties that play an important ole inthe analysis of fui behavior re considered. 14.1 Density “The density ofa fui, designated by the Greck symbol (io), is defined a its mass per an aetame, Density is typically used so characterize the mass of a ud system. Tn the BG System p bes units of sags/f? and in SU dk units ace ka/m™ “rhe value of density can vary widely between different fluids, but for Tiguids. ‘vviations in pressure and temperature generally have only a small effect on the vale of The mal change in the density of water with arge variations in temperature slatted Foi. Tables 15 and tit values of density for several common liquids The density ae vscies at 60°F is 1.94 slugy/ft of 999 kg/m’. The large difference between those two hives itustrtes the smportance oF paying attention to units! Unlike tigaids dhe density Sra gs is stony ifluened by both pressure and temperate, andthe eifeence wil be disused in the next section “The specific volume, vs the volume per unit ass and is therefore the reciprocal of se density —that is, as ‘This progeny isnot commonly used in fluid mechanics but is used in therrodynartics 2 FEGURE 44 Danity of mater a a fneon of ermpertieSpecie weight is weigh pera ol. tone: speci gra lings the ratio of {ui densi tthe density of waterat ‘sonra tempera Ideal Gas Law LS Teal Gaetew 11 8 TABLE 1.5 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Liguds (BG Units) TABLE 1.6 Approximate Physial Properties of Some Common Liquids (I Unis) 142 Specie Weight “The specific weight ofa fui, designated bythe Greek symbol y (gamma) is defined as its weight per unit volume, Thus, specific weight i related to density through the equation 708 06 where gis the local acceleration of gravity. Just as density is use to characterize the mass ofa fui system, the specific weighs used to characterize the weight of the system. Inthe BG system, hor one of b/d in SI th units are N/. Under conditions of standard savity (g = 32.174 8/8 = 9.807 m/s"), water at 60 °F has specific weight of 624 If nd 9.80 Nin. Tables 1.5 and 1.6 list values of specific weight for several common liquids {based on standard gravity), More complete tables for water canbe found in Appendic B (abies Bt and 32) 143 Specific Gravity ‘The specific gravity of fui, designated as SG, is defined asthe ratio ofthe density ofthe fluid tothe density of water at some specified temperature. Usualy the specified temperstre js tken as 4 °C (9.2 °B), and at this temperature the density of water is 1.94 slugs or 1000 ke/m?. Tn equation form, specific gravity is expressed as -—2 Paoowe and since it isthe rato of deste, the value of SG does not depend on the system of units used. For example, the specific sravity of mercury a¢20 °C 13.55 andthe density of mercury can ths be readily calculated in ether BG or ST units through te use of Bq 1.7 a8, eng = (13 55X94 stgs/t) = 26.3 slugs/t? an Pg = (1553)(100 kein") = 13.6 10°? {tis clear that density, specific weight, and specific gravity ae all interrelated, and from a knowledge of any one of the thee the others ean be ealealated Gases are highly compresibe in comparison to liquid, with changes in gas density drecly ‘elated to changes in prestare and temperature through the equation p> RT as)42 chapter 1 1 Introduction where p isthe absolute pressure, p the density, Tthe abso temperatur” and is sa TEER Epon 18 iG commen femed the idea! ox perfect gs lav, ox he equation of Same fr an ies! gas Ie is known to closely approximate the behavior of ret gases under formal conditions wea the gases ae not approaching liquefaction recur tna Tidal cet i defined asthe normal fore pet unit aca exerted on 2 pve surface (el ot imaginary) ines in a Mid ands crested by the borbaniment of Taree olth the Mid molecules. Fom the definition, pressure bes de dimension of Fe and in BG uns isexprssed ot Ib/ (psf) oti. (pi) and in SK nits as N/a, TnSI,1 N/u? defined asa pascal, abbreviated es Pa, and pressures are commonly specified Faarcdan The premure im the ideal get law aust be expresied as an absolnte pressure, the det gas lw bec prestares ‘and enperaires ‘ms be used Jedote (abs), which mead that itis measured relative to absote zero pressuce (8 pressure tha wold only oocat ina perfect vacuum), Standand sea-level atmospbecic pressure (by {Rtevetional agreement is 14.096 psi abs) or 101.33 kPa (abs). For most ealelations these ‘peaures canbe rougded to 14.7 ps and 10! kPa, respectively. In engineering is eommon | compe ara hat «ohne of 88 Wien hee eer 7H ane anc re | AsbMceamara ean rue of 0p eerine seis 47 ps). 1 Sty a al i eh oo et ioe that tot he presse and temperature wee changed © bola als. “Toe weight, oft aris equal © SW = pe (volume) | "= (0102 tugs YS22 He KORA) i = 026 ag ft | sottatsince 1 = 1 stag? w= 027616 am GFIGURE ELS Rc tere is ote | Freie deniy cnt bso om ideal geo. 18) By peng te xeon owas vues he et | emeseess sore. cess sn in Fig, B.3 ae ood Now ht \ hate goes ressutedoesnctouble he amount far | Ahetan bt doubling th alu resus does Ths, aca | tbe stages eso 00 ps dss ot conan ce | ona the amount os a en the ge reas Os i (90M /in? + 147 Bin’ 4d inf) { “Tiba ag. RTO + A5OFR] i ovnrstuss/ i? tas | 1 ae FETT en um se nin at nse fh16 Viscosity 13 ly TABLE 1.7 ‘Approsimate Physica! Properties of Some Common Gates at Standard Atmospheric Pressure @e ua) TABLE 1.8 “Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Gases at Standard Atmospherle Pressure (shunts) eo (See nee of font cover) practice to measare pressure relative to the local atmospheric pressure, and when measured inthis fashion iis called gage pressure. Thus, the absolute pressure can be obained fom the gage pressure by adding the value of the atmosphere pressure. For example, a pressure ‘of 30 psi (gage) a ate is equal to 44.7 psi (abs) 2t standard atmospheric presse. Pressure isa patiulorly importa fui characteristic and it wil be discussed more fully in the next chapter. ‘The ges constant, R, which eppeats in Eq 1.8, depends on the particular gas and is elated to the molecular weight of the gat. Values of the gas constant for several common gases ave ited in Pies 1.7 and 3.5. Also in these tables the gas density and specific weight fate given for standard atmarpherie pressre and gravity and forth temperature listed. Moce Complete tables for ar at tanderd atmospheric preseure canbe found in Appendix B (Tables Bo and Ba), Viscosity “The properties of density and specific weight are measures ofthe “heaviness” ofa ud. It is clear, however, tht these properties are not sufficient 10 unigusly characterize how fuids behave since wo fluid (such as water and of) can have approximately the same valve of density bit behave quite diferealy when flowing. There is apparently some additional prop: erty that is needed to describe the “fuiity” of the fui, ‘To determine this addtional property, consider a hypothetical experiment in which 2 material t placed between two very wide parallel plates os shown In Fig 1.2a, The bottom plate i rigidly fixed, but the upper plate is fce to move. Ifa sli, such as see, were placed ‘between the two plates and loaded withthe force Pax showa, the top late would be dxplaced hid moon car tneough some small distance, de assuming the solid was mechanically atached the plates. conse searing Tye vertical ine AB woud be rtatet though ie smal angle, 89, tthe new position AB VL Vacous fide FIGURE 42 der ‘main of materi placed ben rat pats) Fees acing on operate14 caper 12 Nostip condition eat is, even though hey may be moving avays "ack othe slid boundaries at cain them. Intrduetion HRLG@URE 19 Renmorota hue asad tee to paral ate. “We note that o css the appli force, Px shearng sess, r, woul be developed athe JHnteteilftesfoce, and for equiibeinm ro cecur P= 1A were Ais the effetive uppeY Mie mea ig. 120) t's well nn ta for ease sls, eh tel desma anger placement 9 (aie te seating stn, is proportional to the shearing sess thats developed inthe material “nat happens i thesis replaced with aud suc as water? We woold immediately tice 1 major alferene, When the force P is spied t0 the upper plat, it will move TGnuruewsiy witha velocity (fie the iil transient motion hs des out) a usted Sethe 1. Tis behavior consistent withthe definition ofa uid—that i if 2 shering eis apoied oa Oui it wil defor cootauousy, A closer inspection ofthe Aud motion fetveen te two plates would evel tat the lid in contact with the uper plate moves with Trop veloiy, UJ, and the fad in contact with the Botom fied plte has ze velocity. ‘Poe mud beteen th to plates moves wih velocity = u(y) tht would be found 0 vay Tica. = Diy, a seated in Fig, 13. Thos, a veloc gedit, duly, i developed iene lid between the plates. In this particular ease the velocygrciet is & constant since vdfdy = Urb, bai mene complex flow sats this would nt be te. The experimental ‘Soverution thatthe Hid “sticks” to the solid boundaries isa very important one in hid speStunes and is soul efered to a8 the no-slip condition, Al uid, both ligne att 28s, satisfy this condition. Ina aml time increment, 6, an imaginary vetcal line AB in the ful woulé rotate through an angle, 38, shat sao ap~ 56 = 22 Since Ba = U art follows that us 8B ‘We note that in this case, is a function not only ofthe foreeP which governs U) but aso bf time, Thus iis not reasonable to aterpt ro relat the shearing tes, , to OB 28 js done Sav sols, ator, we consider the rate st which 8@ ischanging and efine the rate of shearing stain, 7,48 vnunet which inthis instance is equal toV3 Copitry tbe Dynamic wscoy, (sth lid property thar tage shear ingress on id 16 Vicasty 15 ‘A continuation ofthis expeiment would eval tha asthe searing ses, xs increased by increasing, P(ecall that t= P/A). the rate of shearing sain is increased in det proporion-—thst rat vai «ft “his ties hat for common Aid sch water ol sis, abe shang ses te of shag alo grin) canbe ele th lon of foen ayy ‘where the constant of proportionality is designated by the Greck symbol (mu) and is called the absolute viscosity, dyaanic viseosiy, or simply the viscosity ofthe fluid. fa secordance with Eq, 1.9, plots of r versus da/ay should be linear with the slope equal to the viscosity as ilostated in Fig, 1.4. The actual value of the viscosity depends on the particular fluid, and for a particular Fluid the viscosity is also highly dependent on temperature as ilusteated in Fig. 1.4 with the eo curves for water Fluids for which the shearing stess is linearly related 10 the rate of shearing stan (also referred to a rate oF angular deformation) are designed as Newtonian fluids after t (e:-09 (1682-1727) Fortunately most common fluids, both liguids and gases, are Newtonian. A more general formulation of Eq 1.9 which applies to more complex flows of Newtonian fluids is given in Sector 6.3.4. Fluid for which the shearing sess isnot linearly relate tothe rate of shearing strait are designated as non-Newtonian fluids. Although tore ie a varity of types of noa- [Newtonian fluids, the simplest and most common ace shown in Fig. 1.5. The slope of the shearing stress versus rate of shearing strsin graph is denoted a8 the apparent sicosHy, iy. lens anenres aaceorn, BRIGURS 56 Liner moana ern16 GP ENGU AE 25 _Vesalion of sheving fics wth rate of sain tn fe Several {oper ed nang cre noneNevtlan ‘hee tavotaarasion For Newtonian fits the apparent viscosity isthe same as the viscosity and is independent of shear rae ‘Avia Mk aon wo ai and wae, acter Mid hat ‘seen fora if sBcod. loodis an usual ld con Siting of ed blood cleat are dite shed, about Beas In amet, spend in plasma As you woakd usec, ine ‘ood ie suspensan is mechanical Behaviors tat of nw [Newnan fas density ion slighty higher thn tht o€ ‘ose, bat it typialappatestvicoriy issigiiny higher ‘han ht of water atthe sae expen Isilon te the vaso of bled since ts a non Newtonian fd fd the vaeoity i Taresion ofthe sheae rae. AS te bear rate increas from «lw val the apparent viscosity de ‘esses abd approsshes asymptotically oconstant ave at high shear aes. The “asymptote af he veo of wonnal Blood is 3 to 4 tines the vicosity of water The viscosity of ‘ood i ot eotiney mesrared ike seme Bock! propa ties sch scleral and igjeesis, bt tees some ev= Monee nding tt the vse oF Blood may play aol in the develorment of carliowscular disease. Iris proves tobe tre, visoy cond become sada variable tobe routinely messed (Se Probes 1.92) 2 The varios pes ofnoe Newtonian utd are ds ‘ushed by how their opparent cosy changes vith hear ate, For shear thinning fluids the apparent viscosity decceases with increasing shear eate— the harder the fi is sheared, the less viscous it becomes. Many colloidal suspensions and polymer solutions are shear thinning, For example, latex paint does not dip from the brash because the shear ae is small andthe appavent viscosity is large. However, it flown smoothly ‘nto the wall becense the thin layer of paint between the wall and the beush causes a lage shear rat (large dey) and a small apparent viscosity For shear thickening flue the spparent viscosity inreases with increasing shear rate— the harder the fui is sheered, the more viscous it becomes. Common examples ofthis type of fluid inlude water-cor src mixture and water-sand mixture ("quicksand"). Thus, the slificulty in removing a object rom quicksand increases dramatically asthe sped of moval “The other type of behavior indicated in Fig. 1.$ is that of « Bingham plastic; which is neither a fluid nora soli. Such material can withstand a finite shear stress without motion (thecefore, ti nota fei), ba once the yield stress Is exceeded it lows like a fui (henos, it is not & solid). Toothpaste and mayonasize are common examples of Bingham plastic materials, From Eq, 19 it can be readily deduced that the dimensions of viscosity re FTE" “Thos, in BG units viscosity is given a Ib» 5/f? and in I units as N s/t. Values of viscosityvi Non Newtonlan behavior 16 Visesity 17 at a ns arses + a shy Dynami beni oi ‘some com ds a6 Tenge ¢ ‘etn of trpeatre for several common liquids and gases are liste in ‘Tubes 1.5 trough 1.0. A quick glance at these tables reveals the wide variation in viscosity among fluids. Viscosity is only mildly dependent on pressure and the effect of prossure is usually neglected. However, as previously ‘mentioned, and as iustated in Fig. 1.6, viscosity is very sensitive to temperature. For trample, as the temperature of water changes from 69 to 100 "F the density decreases by Tess then (9 butte viscosity decreases by about 40%, Its thus elear that particular attention rst be given to tompeature when determining viscosity. Figure 1.6 shows in mare detail how the viscosity varies ffom fluid to fluid and how, for a given fluid it varies with temperature, ICs to be noted Stom this figure tht the viscosity of liquids deereases with a inereage in vermperature, whereas for gases an increase in temperature causes an ineresse in viscosity. This difference in the effect of temperature ‘on the viscosity of iguids and gases can agai be traced back to the difference in moleéuter stractare, The liquid molecules ace closely spaced, with song cohesive forces between rlectles, and he resistance to relative motion between adjacent layers of fluid is related te these intermolecular forces. As the temperature increases, these cohesive forces are reduced with a corresponding reduction in resistance to motion. Since viscosity i an index Df this resistance, it follows that the viscosity is reduced by an increase in temperature. Ia gates, however, the molecules ar widely spaced end intermolecala forces negligible. In this case resistance to relative motion arses duc to the exchange of momentum of gas molecules between adjacent layers. AS molecules are tansported by random motion from18 chapter 11 Imreduction cosine very sensitive temper ‘region of low bulk velocity to mix with molectles in & region of higher bolk velocity (nd vice vers) there ls an effective momentam exchange which resists the relative motion between the layers, Ar the temperature of the gas increases, the random molecular activity Sncreases with a corresponding increase in viscosity “The effec of teraperaure cn viscosity can be closely approximated using vo empiric foxraulas. For goses the Sutherland equation can be expressed a5 —4 Tas a0, where C and $ ate empirical constants, and 7's absolute temperature. Thus, ifthe viscosity ‘Renown at two femperatures, Cond § can be determined, Or if more than two viscosities fre Know the data canbe correlated with Ea |.1Oby using some type of curve-fting scheme. For liguids an empirical equation tat has been wsed i sD aan where D and Bare constants and T is absolute temperature. Tis equation s often refered qo as Andrade's squotion. AS ws the case for gases the visosity mast be Known a east for two temperatares 0 the two constants ean be determined. A more detited disevssion of the effect of temperature on fluids cn be Found in Ref [A dimsesionless combination of variables that Is important in the stody of iecous flow dough pipes is called che Ronols nanber, Re, defined a pYD/n. where pis the fd denny, Vibe meta ud velocity, D he pie diameter, 0d Sour (ta) The id dent etd om ps ty 1 p= SG prere = 091 (1000 g/t?) = 910 kg | eon te ttn eRe ant | ew BHD _ ION 8125 m0" n/m) f O38N alae 135¢ee meV Hosevs singe | N= 1 kgm i follows thatthe Restos | rambo nites, Re = 156 asi | me vale ny dines quanty does ct eps the ‘pre of un sed ial shes tht make ute guy ce | presen consent set of uit, To hack hs we wl a | cate te Reyeos number wing BG unis 1) We fist comer all he SU les of he varies 89 feng in the Reyece ambee 9 BO rales by wsng te | oovesion factor em Tble (4. Tus, Ne the fluid viscosity. A Newton fad having a viscosity of 38 N s/n? ands specific gravity of 091 flows thosgh & ‘25-mundiretr pipe wth velo of 26 Ys. Detenine te tale ofthe Reynolds umber sing) Stunts, nd) BG uns (010 kg/a? (1.940 x 107) = LTT sagt? (26 m/9f3.281) = 853s 1025281) = 820 > 10°F (038 sy2.089 X 10°) Db x 10° Ib: oA andthe yale ofthe Reynolds umber is (6.77 agi Y8 53 8/5 {8.20 107 1) 794% 107 1b s/t = 156 sus fyb = 156 since 1b = 1 slug AY. The values fom pat) ad par (8) tae the same, a8 expected, Dimensionless quaiics ply 3 Fimportet ole eid mechanics andthe sgncnce ofthe Reynolds pombe as well ater inprtant diensinless ombinatons wll be dsested acetal Caper 7.1 shuld te noted that in se Reynoles umber eis atu the ratio duip ai igor, an this is tho property at is defines ‘the kineae sco. (See page 19) Re (ans)16 Viscosity 19 (/PXOMPLE ‘The velstydstibrion ote flow of 2 Newoiaa Mig Teton ive wie pps oF E13) gen by tection | tl-Gl /, where V is the mean veloity The fui has 2 vscasy of O04 Ib -s/R?, When Ym 2f/s and = 0.2 in. determine (e) the shearing ses acing onthe boty wall, and () the | shoning ses ating on plane patel tthe walls an pass | Ing trough the catenin. } Gorurion For this typeof parle flow the shearing sues is obtained Thissress creates a dag on he wal. Since the veloiy dsut | fom Bg, 15, bation fs ymmenicl, he shearing sess along the upper wal ‘i ‘tou have the sive magnitude and ection. i roe (by Along the mipane where y= 0 ic follows from Bq, 2 | 7 ia | as ite lity non x= isin se 5 gees nt me al pi by enig | BEY pason ray. Forte ance gn * anda sing ss ae o i Toe (Ans) lw ‘Along th totam wall» = fs that rom Bq, 2) From Eq. 2 wesce that the velocity gradient (and therefore | the sheing ars vas ry wih prt | 4 trample vs from O ate cose ofthe chanel an Teal atthe mals. or he more ger ve he se ee eee ‘con icone donate of ec i « () = SoeamBen Sean) GaioKi Rai) = L8A thf in diesion of low) (As) ‘Quite often viscosity appears in Maid Flow problems combined with the density in the form x ‘This ratio is called the kinematic viscosity and is denoted with the Greek symbol » (ot) The Kinematic isco dimensions of kinematic viscosity are 12/7, and the BG units are f'/s and SI units are m/s, ie defind the is of hea Values of kinematic visosiy for some common liquids and gases are given in Tables 1. Solu viscoriy —Uisough 1.8. More extensive tables giving both the dynamic and kinematic viscosities for Uefa densiy, water and air can be found in Appendix B (Ts 2.1 t2ro0¢ Bal), and graphs showing the variation in both dynamic and kinemati viscosity with temperature fr a variety of fuids sa also provided in Appendix B (Fig. 5.1 and 2-220 ‘Chapter 4 ct Tatroduction Although inthis text we are primaily using BG and SI unit often expressed inthe metre <éynamic viscosity is CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system with anits of ‘ye eu This combination i calla poise, abbreviated P. Inthe COS systm nematic 10 3 ‘yigat amperes. The Mach mantr san importa i (550 ie KS280 1/0) _ ny, ‘i pra te lyfe ow oa 1.8 Vapor Wwe ‘A lg boll when the prea i re faced tthe por Geshe) ih sped wile fuer disused in Pressure Tei common observation tha igus such as water and gasoline will evaporate if they are ‘imply pltced in container open to the atmosphere. Evaporation takes place beonuse some Tigoid molecules a the surface have sufficient momentum to overcome te intermolecular cohesive forces and escape into the atmosphere If he container is closed with 9 small sir space left above the surface and this space evacuated to form a vacuum, a pressure will ‘develop in the space as 2 result ofthe vapor that is formed by the escaping molecules. When tn equiliviam condition ie etched so thatthe number of molecules leaving the surface is ‘quel tothe number entering, the vapor i sid to be situated and the pressure thatthe vapor ‘cxers on the liquid sufice is termed the vapor pressure, # Similarly, if the ead of ‘completely quid-illed container is moved as shown in he fgute io the margin without leting any sir into the container, the space between the liquid and the end becomes filled with vapor ata pressure equal to the vapor pressure ‘Since the development ofa vapor pressure closely associated with molecular activity, the vale of vapor pressure for a pariclat liquid depends on temperature. Values of vapor pressure for water et various temperatures canbe foand in Appendix B(Waies 8.2 an8 8.2), tnd the values of vapor pressure for several common liquids t room temperatures are given in Tabies 1. end 16, ‘oiling, whichis the formation of vapor bubbles within a Nuid mass is initiated when the ebsolute pressure inthe fluid reaches the vapor pressure. As commonly observed in the kitchen, water at standard atmospheric pressure will boil when the temperature reaches 210 °F (100°C)—that is, the vapor pressure of water at 212 °F ig 14.7 psi (abs). However, if we attrpt to boil water ata higher elevation, say 10,000 ft above sea level, where the atmosphere presure ie 10.1 psi (abs), We find that boiling wll start when tbe temperate is about 193 °F At this teperatare the vapor preseure of wate is 10.1 ps (bs). Thus, boiling ‘can be Induced ata given pressure acing on the hid by raising the temperature, or at & ven fuid temperature by lowering te pressure. ‘An important reason for ou interest in vapor pressure and boiling les inthe common ‘observation that in Flowing fluids i is possible to develop very low pressure de tothe uid motion, and ifthe pressure is lowered to the vapor pressre, boiling will occu. For example,24 capt Introduetlon this phenomenon may oeeur inflow through the inegular, narowed passages ofa valve oF Leight Sip Wie ees oe ong i hy a vg lng ie eon emablerie Bec pare ee en ele wi Sica ey 0 tay ii pmsl eanoge The maton nd set cape vr bls ina wing ak ‘xd |S avn san nora Nid fl peomenon © be gen eer aetna weehy cou Chapters 3 and 7 inet 19 Surface Tension ‘As the interface between # liquid and a gas, or between two immiscible Tiga, forces Gevelop in the liquid surface which eause the surface fo behave as i it were a "skin" or “fnembrane” stetcted ver the fluid mass. Although sucha skin i nt actully resent, this conceptual analogy allows ae to explain several commonly observed phenomena. For ‘ample, steel aeedle ora razr blade wil float on water if placed gently onthe surface because the tension developed in the hypothetical skin supports i. Small droplets of mercury tll form ino spheres when placed on & smooth surface because the cobesive forees inthe furface tend told all the molecules fogetherina compact shape Similac, discrete droplets ‘vill for froma liquid jet (See the phorogtaph atthe beginning of Chapter 1) “These warcus types of surface phenomena are due to the unbalsnoed cobesive forces seting om the Liguid moleeles athe ud surface, Molecules in the interior of the uid mass fre sumounded by molecules that ae attracted to each other equally, However, molecules fiong the surface are subjected to a net force toward te interior The appareat physical ‘consequence of this unbalanced force along the surface isto creat the hypothetical skin or tnombtane. A tensile force may be considered to be acting inthe plane of te surface along, ty line inthe surface The intensity of the molecular attraction per uit Feng along aay fine in the sunface is called the surface fension and is designated by the Greek symbat {Gigm), For a given liquid the surface tension depends on temperature as wel asthe, other Fuld ir ie in contact with atthe interface. The dimensions of surface tension are FL‘ with BG unis of Ibyf and ST units of N/m. Values of surface tension for some common liquids Vi. Plating rozor lode (in ontact with i) are given in Tables &.5 006 1.6 and in Appendix B (Tables But and B2) for weter at various temperatres. The value of the surface tension decresses a5 the vemperaare increases. “The pressure inside a op of fd can be calculated using the free-body diagram in vig, 17, Ifthe spatial drop i cu in balf (as shown) the force developed around the ©d8e “Walking on water Water sridere re insects commonly found {an pon rivers ed Tele tha appear f wal” 08 wae. ‘pled enh of a wae ater is ont 0 ing and ty am ‘Cover 100 bod length in one scbed Tha ong been e0g- ized tatitissrfae tension that keep the water ide om ‘nking below the surface. Wat as bee puzaing is how they prope themselves at sucha high peed? They can't pire the ‘ater arace or they would sik. A tex of mathemati {ed enpinsers from the Massachass Intute of Technology {GAIT applied convevonal few visualization rexiques and Highspeed video to examine in detail che movement ofthe ‘wt ies Thy foun ht ih stoke ofthe inset gt res dines on te sure with underwater sing or Aes sin to pol fora ts the eared mstion ne vores hat popls the terse frou, To fo {her subcaite th explanation be MIT team bia work ing mocel of water te, called Roster, which cress Stn ples and underatr vrs ast moves aos 2 etre. Woseboen erate, uch she wate ser, to intresting wo dominated By suc tension {Geo eotlem 194) 51 CNCaptry ation in smal es which Ivlves a ligu- (gare nerfoce, caused by sur- foceesion. 1D Surface Tanslon 25 set 7 yO URE LY Pore ating on oneal of aul op Ave to surface tension is Zo. This force must be balanced by the pressure difference, Ap, ‘between the internal pressure, and the external pressure, p, acting over the circular ara, ‘rR. Thus, eRe = Apwkt p= Di ae azn Ik is apparent from this result thatthe pressure inside the drop is greater than the pressure surrounding the drop. (Would the peessureon the inside of «bubble of water be the same a5 ‘hat onthe inside of a drop of water ofthe same diameter and ac the same tempecetae?) ‘Among common phenomens associated with surface tension isthe rise (or fl) of a liquid in capillay-tabe. IF 2 small open tbe is inserted into water, the water level inthe ‘abe will rise above the water level ouside the tube as is ustrated in Fig. 18a. In this situation we ave lquid-gas-solld interface. For the case illustrated there is an atraction (adhesion) between the wall ofthe tube snd liquid molecules which is stong enough to ‘overcome the mutual attraction (cobesion ofthe molecules and pall them up the wall Hence, the liquid i std to we the slid sueace “The height, fh, s governed by the value ofthe sunfae tension, cy the tube radius, R, tho specific weight ofthe liquid, 7, and the angle of contact, 8, betweed the fhid and tube From the fiee-body diagram of Fig. 8b wo sce thatthe vertical force due to the surface tension is equal ro 2eRe cosd and the weight is RH and these two forces must balance for equilibrium. Thus, yah ren by the relationship 2 cost) a aR 2088 so hat the height i 123) He T -\f a ii ‘Saas « o « os 22 1.2 eto apy actin in sl bes a se of ‘alow for 3 iid that wets the tbe (4) Erbe agra fo clcang ‘night 6) Depron of elma ors nomen geld26 chapter © Introduction “The angle of contact is « fanetion of both the liquid and the surface For water in contact with clean glass @-~ O° Is eles fmm Bq. 1-22 that the height is inversely proportional te the tube radius, and therefore the rise of & iguid in a tbe as a resulr of capillary action becomes increasingly pronounced asthe tube radius is decrease, Tf adhesion of molecules 10 the solid surace is weak compared to the cohesion between molecule, the liquid will not wet the surface and the Level in a tube placed in & onweting Tguid will actually be depressed as shown in Fig. 1.8. Mercury is @ good xample of 2 nonvetting liquid when it isin contact with a glass tube, For nonweaing Suroce tension ef fetsplay roe it ‘ny fad mechan lex proses aso td with gud= es ula rligatd-gessclid Inerfoce @= 130" Tiguide the angle of eontact is greater than 90°, and for mercury in contact with clean glass ‘Surface tension effects play a role in many fluid mechanies problems including the movernent of liquids through soil end other porous media, flow of thin films, formation of drops and bubbles, and the breakup of liquid jets, Surface phenomena associsted with Tiquidgas ligid-Liqud, and liguid-gas-solid interfaces are exceedingly complex, and « ‘mote deiiled and rigorous diseassion of them is beyond the scope of this text, Fortunately, in many fli mechanies problems, surface phenomena, as characterized by surface teorion ae not important, since inetial, gravitational, aad viscous Frees ere much more dominant Pressres ae sometimes determined by messing the height | otacotume of Bi faa vereal tobe What diameter of len | le ong seed so hh eof wr a 20°C ina | From ea L22 ' oso | oe | soa i esas t ae {or aes 29°C (rn Tale 32, = 00728 N/m aa | MSM Salas = etabarsnerh = i i 2(0.0728 N/m) [82789 10° Naw". en) (10 m/e) =a. | and the mainismum requieed tube diameter, Dis Daa agtm= vote ts | ysepesting the clcolaons for varius values of the cap | nay ise te resus shown in Fg ELB ae obtained. Noe tube duet capillary ston (a opposed t pres in ewe) Istesstban k= 10s0m? hates the lone capita) ses decreased the diet of the be rst lien increased. Tec is always some milly effet, bur i ean be minimized by using & lege ‘ough diameter tube wo mriqune ae10 ‘A BHet Look Back in History 27 NS eae Spreading of el spi With the large afc in ol ankers ‘hoe guerra in he prevention of and respons il spill. As evidenced bythe famous Exzos Velde i ein Prince Wilt Sos n 1989, lpi ean create disastrous ‘euvtoamenal problems Is not string tat mich aeo | on given to the rate at which an ol spl spreads, When | sled, most ois tend to spread horizontally ino a smooth thd sligery sue, called slick. There are magy faces ‘ho sae of the pi win poud end dein, and the pays cal properties ofthe ail Those popes inl sure fen sion, specie gray, and wisest. The higher the sutace ‘eason the ore ily sil wil remain in place. Since the specific gravity of eis less than one i Moat ontop of ‘he water, bat the spect praviy of nol ea neeas the lighter subsances within the oil evaporate. The higher the ‘scosiy ofthe of the grater the tendeey ty In ene plac. ‘which influence de ability of ano sick to spread including 10 A Brief Look Back in History [Before proceeding with oar study of fuid mechenies, we should panse for a moment to ‘consider the history of this important engineeing scenes. Asis trv ofall besie scientific ‘and engincesing disciplines, their acualbegincings are oaly faintly visible through the haze (of early antiquity. But, we know that ineest in uid behavior dates back to the ancient civibzations. Through necessity thee was 4 practical concern aboa the manner in whieh spears and arows could be propelled through the atin the development of water soppy and ‘nrgation systems, and in the design of boats and ships. These developments were of course Dbased on tial and eitor procedures without any knowledge of mathematics or mechanics iowever, it was the accumulation of such empirical knowledge that formed the bass for father evelopment during the emergence of the ancient Greek civilization snd the subsoquet rise ofthe Roman Empire. Some ofthe earliest writings tat pestain to moder Mud mechanics ae those of Archimedes (287-212 ac) e Greek mathematician and inventor wha fist expressed the principles of hyérostatcs and flotation. Elcborate wate supply systeme were bull by the Romans during the period from the fourth sentry .c through the early Christian Some ofthe erst veins hr per taint moder fd mechanics con be troced back he cin Grek ci (tant Banas” —petiod, and Sextae Sus Fontins (4.0. 40-109) a Roman engineer, described ese systems Eire in dei However, far the next 1000 years daring de Mle Ages (lo refered w as the ‘Dac Ages), there appears to have been Hite added to frther understanding of uid bebsvion, Beginning with the Renaissance period (about the fifteenth century) a rather continuous series of contributions began that forms the Basis of what we consider to be the science of ‘uid mechanics, Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) desribed through sketches and writings many ‘ferent ypes of flow phenomens. The work of Galileo Galile (15641642) marked the beginning of experimental mochanics.Fllowing the carly Renaissance period and during the seventcenth and eighteenth centuries, numerous significant contibuions were made. These Include theoretical and mathematical advances associated withthe famous nantes of Newton, "Bernoul, Euler, and d Alembert. Experimenta aspects of fluid mechanics were alto advanced during his prog, bur unfortunately the ww different approsches, theoretical and experimental, developed along separate pats. Hydrodynamics was the term associated withthe theoretical or mathematical study of idealized, fretioness suid behavior, with the term Aydraulies being used to describe the applied or experimental aspects of real uid behavior, pariculaly he bebavioe of wate. Further contributions and refinements were made to Both theoretical Inydrodynamics and expesmental hydraulics during the aineteenth ceatary, with dhe general Aiffeental equations describing fluid metions that are wed in modern uid mechanics being developed in this period. Experimecal hydraulics became more ofa Science, snd many ofthe resols of experiments performed daring the nineteenth century ace sill used toda. ‘At the begining ofthe twentieth century bot te fields of theoretical hydrodynamics and experimental hydraulics were highly developed, and atempts were being made co unify the two. In 1904 a classic paper vas presented by a German professor, Ludwig Prandtl28 chapter 15 Introduction Te ek history af asd mechani is {fescnaing, ond ‘many ofthe conr: batons of he loners in the field freed bs he scceeding hepters (1875-1953), who introduced the concept of @ “uid boundary layer” which laid the foundation forthe unification of the theoretical and experimental aspect of fluid mechanics. ‘Prandtl’ idea was that for flew next to a solid boundary a thin fluid layer (ooundary layer) Aevelops in which frition is very important, but outside this layer ¢e fd behaves very ‘mu Ike afitioness fai, This relatively simple concept provided the nevessary impetus {or the resolation of the conflict between the hydrodynamicists and the bydzouicss,Prendt is generally accepted as the founder of modem fluid mechanics ‘Ako, ding the fist decade ofthe cventieth century powered light was fit suosess- fully demonstrated with the subsequent vastly itereased interest in aerodynamics, Because the fesignov aircraft required a degre of uoderstanding of Quid flaw and an ability o make accurate predictions ofthe eect of ar ow on bodies, the eld of aerodynamics provided a great stimulus For the many rapid development infu mechanics that tonk place during the twentieth cntary. ’As we proceed with our study of the fundamentals of fuidrechanies, we will enti ‘note the contribution of many ofthe pioneers in the field. Table 1.9 provides a chrono logical isting of some of these contributors and reveals the long journey that makes up the history of fd mechanics. This list is certainly not comprebonsive with regard to all of rhe pst conibuters, bat includes those who are meatione in this text. AS mention is made in Sueceeding chapters of the various individual listed in Table 1.9, a quick glance at this table will reveal where they fit into the historical chain. TABLE 1.9 ancannenDss (7-2 cnery pcp wo ex vest head Esch eleneniay princes of bcyaney ition; proposed jt prpuion se ation Lona a (117-178) ocr sennsreoIHs (40 40-103) Fintexlined lof presen uid Rows, Gacauasue Raman meds water fue basic quate of ion and se. Sviaton filed Bera here node concept of {aonanD do VO (1452-1519) chin lc fee Expressed eomonng pce of comteity, ASHE (Sesre nd sth rary be ow Sait Row eaLenenee (M7178) Sfenonean sapped dodges fo yaruie Oigsted ation of wey and scleraon tachi Somponent erent exresin ef ont, ‘CaLtup0 ease (564-168) ‘pad of eo estan teat Indirectly stimulated experimental hydraulics; ‘soniform maton, fied Aislin coeep of 200m. grows! 78-18) led sinianyparanatto preicing _EVANGELISYA TORRICELLI (1608-1647) vo " ‘Related barometric height to weight of a ae ee frome, nope ad oom of gd ae inezwrenens on othe tie aid to escony opangasatTisTa van (146-1822) SLaISe Pascnt (162-1662) Ferd etn su ms Fly tied pnp of bomete, ‘atc pint atone Rjusticprens anys aeomssy, STARDOM, BRAC NEWTON (1642-1727) oussannts amin ie (E8160 ‘Beplored vroas eects ffi reitace— —— * ‘neti viscous, and wave; discovered jet pssst ions custo toUs cacy 79-1857) existe pn il oe tener 0 (195-17 ste pa aan eagultea et indewe war emanate say of ‘aly tug ponies rinzmnout! agrmii wict Lam HACEX De DeRNOULLE (0-17) egrmasse Exgeimente ad vee on many pace of fad ‘motion coming name "byaeodyoarie devised ‘manometry tesnige and api pitive {Conducted eign studies of ressace in acd teanstion tween lamina ad turbulent loa,1.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide LAL Chapter Summary and Stady Guite 29 TABLE 1.9(cominued) sea01 Lous PoraTOHLAe “JON FHLLIAN STRUPE, LORD RAVE Performed rtiulou tess oa re (ise2-1919) ‘trovgh eal tibes, Investigated hyérodynaics of babble ols, abide ‘wave tion, inti Liar ow HEAL PALABERE GASPARD DARCY Gams ese) stapes and dynamic salary. Performed extensive eon fitation and pie VINNY STHOUILAL (1850-1922) ues iafiated opemshonne Sudes camiedTew3gaed the phnoeenon of singing wires” uty Basin RDGAR BUCKINGHAM (1867~1960) UL RISB (1906-671) ‘Stole neres i the Used Stats athe incorporate bys neni om oxginering we of nena nla tmectanie, Bote on original experinent ‘ows T2 SHER T1951) eevorny fr flow patems. oniensional Enghaszed he se of te icles of Coeficiente aod reisisce equations smilie id flow sos and fermulted a \sile2ayereovbe (1810-187) ait ity pares Developed many towingankeciqus, in [-UBWIG PRANDT(1875-1953) osltr crdon of tana bone _Tnodurd corey of the Bouyer and is Gjerverbane fomtnedl open sei, vel insted beth aero praet- Ey tai matic ‘owas 816-1897) BEANNNMEGCIBEG L857) | EW FERRY OODY 1680-1953) Proposed several formulas fer operstannel rove arylation i te fd of ysis. ressees faacioen aaa of eoneltng pipe Soren cana TOKES(RI9W1903) featured och iy wee Derived analytically variou ow raonsties —rreopon vor KARI AI(I681-1963) ‘anging fro wave mechanics wo viscous ‘One of he cogrize leader of teatieth yesitance-parulry tat forthe sling of ee cea spheres ‘Sonne to one andestanding of sce ERNST MACiE(1838-1916) ‘sean, etlence, an wk phenome Oneof the pioneers inthe field of supersonic P/U RICHAMD HBRICH BLASTUS serodyoamies (93-1070) ‘esnontvs RPYNO.05( 1842-1912) ‘One of Fant’ stucents who provided an Deseied orignal experiments nny flés— says ston to the boundary layer ‘anton river model saa, pe ‘ails, Ale, demons ta pip seistance flstnoe-—and deviaed two prameters for 38 led to he Reynolds name. viscous flow; apd tations of motion of 2 ‘eco ip ean conditions of tut lo. Its, of couse, impossible to summarize the tich history of fluid mechanics in a few paragragts, Only abriet glimpse is provided, and we hope it will str your interest. References 2 toate good starting points for further study, and in particular Ref. 2 provides an excellent, broed, easily read history. Try it—you might even enjoy it! ‘This introductory chapter discussed several fundamental agpecs of fluid mechanics. Methods for describing fluid characteristics both quantitatively and qualitatively are considered, For ‘quantitative description, wits are required, and inthis text, 180 system of units are used the British Gravitational (BG) system (pounds, sug, fet, and seconds) end the International (Sb System (newnons, ilograms, meters, and seconds. For the qualitative description the concept of dimensions is iniraduced in which basic dimensions such as length, L, time, T, tnd mess, M, fe used to provide a description of various quantities of interest. The use of dimensions i helpful in checking the generality of equations, as well as cerving asthe basis fer the powerfl too! of dimensional analysis discussed in detail in Chapter 7,30 cneper 1 Introduction ‘Voricus importent fd properties are defined, including Mud density speciic weighs speci gravis, viscosity, bulk modula, sped of sound, vapox pressure, and surface tension ‘Pe ideal gas la is introduced to relate pressure, teraperature, and density in common gases, long witha beet discussion ofthe compression and expansion of gases. The distinction between absolute and gage pressire ie itroduced and this important idea is explored more Tully in Chapter 2 fit “The fllowing checklist provides a study guide fr ths chaptes, When you stad of ais the entre chapor and end-of-chaptr exercises has been completed you should te able to fa adaane tx write out meanings of the terms Fisted hese inthe margin and understnd each of the oaogentous ‘Riad concepts. These tern ae particularly important and are st in talle and bold density type inthe tex. Specie weight 12 determine the dimensions of common physical quantities. seat gevy fa determine whather an eqation is a general or restricted homogencous equation, eet gas ta bean prose sage renare tse both BG and SI systems of unis. Calculate the density, specific weight, or specific gravity of a fluid from a knowledge fonlip contin ‘of any to of the three aon veri ivan eleoate the density, pressure, or temperature of an Heal gas (with a given gas con tani ricosty ‘stant from & knowledge of any two ofthe thre. Nevionan fis a relate the picsaure and density of @ gas as It is compressed or expanded wing nostesconton ld Ege bidane 13 ean so 1 we the concept of viscosity fo calculate the shearing sess in simple oid lows. speed 0nd calculate the speed of sound in lads using Ba, 1.19 for iguids and £2, 1.20 For gases ope prsare 1 determine whether boiling or cavitation will occur in a liquid using the concept of trfuceossion ‘vapor pressure 1 use the concept of surface tension to solve simple problems involving liguid-gas or liquid-soid-gas imerfaces, Tr Raid, RC, Prauente, JM, and Sherwood, T. Ky The Properties of Gaves ond Lis rd Ed, MoGraw til New York, 197, 2. Rouse, Hand ioe, History of Hydra, ova Use of Hyer Reser, Towa Cy. 1957, Doves, New York, 1983, 4, Tohty,©. Ay Hinory and Philorophy of Fhdnechories,G. 1, Fouls Co. Lt Oxford shi, Great Briain, 1971 4. Rome, Hydrate te United Stes 1776-1976, lows inane of Haale Resear, Towa City, lowe, 1976. 5, Gabrecth, Ge Hyueaeles and Hydric Reward Historic Review A, A. Bats’, Rotem, Nateinds, 1987 6 Bremen tf. SHLX.D. Eager, J, and Nagel, SR, Pies of Fad, Wo, 7, No 9, 1985 4. Shi, XD, Brenner, MP, and Nope, S.R, Scene, Vol 265, 1994 Review Problems Garo append G fora set of view rolems ih anawee, Stay Ged for Fundamental ef Fd Mechanis, by Musson, Beaed tins can be found in Sade Sutin Memua and esl, (© 2005 Sohn Wiley a Sons, Te)weiner rath oes of hong in ha or thom on es mike are ringong id pie the ncumty dash. Tere & shee peabiane ‘Verify the amsisiony, i both te FLT ad MLT ystems, ofthe following qantas which appear ia Table > (vol tine, steleaton, (ess, (@)oment of neta Care), td) work, < sermine the dinensins, i bob dhe PLP syster ad ALT sytem, fora he prea offre anes vole, he proct of press tines ass divided by aca, and) moment ha force vied by veloc. Verify the dimensions, in both he FLT system andthe MET ete, ofthe flowing anes whieh appear a Tabb: {Gh acceleration, (8) sme, (2) Monee of foe, (2) volume, sd (er 1 IF Pig a fre anda length, what are te dimensions Go ‘he FLT system) f(a Pe, (0) eP/ae, and) JP 5 Mp isa pressive Va velo, and p a fd density, what tre the dimengions {inthe MLT system of (2) pip.) PV, and (6) pf? Ls. Y fe a voi, € a feng, aad» & aid popety ovine Srvenione of LT", whch of the flow cone atone dinenierless @) Vee.) Yelm (Wr, caver 5 Deering te dimensions of the cosfciente A and B ‘leh appear in ths dimerstmaly homegeneoas equation 5, tt a pe Seats oc<0 ‘whores eng ni ime 2 The volume ne of flow, , through # pipe conning lowly moving gud i given by is uation aktSy Bit suber Ris the pie radius, Np he pressure drop along tho pip, nfo propery cole visoniy (FLT) and Ete ong ot Pipe, What are the cimension ofthe constant n/8? Would you Elnvify thi equation az 2 general homogeneous equation? Explain, an Probems St 1.9 Accoudng to formation found ine old hyrlies bok, ‘heebegy los pe nit weight of fd flowing droogh x nocd ‘coated tos hose sin be eimited by the formals v f= (dot w O09KDIAI V7 ‘here isthe enersy les pr unit weight, D he hose diameter, {the nozle ip diameter, De a eleity tn he hose and {he aeelratlon of rary Do you think ths equation i valid Say syste of wn? Explain, 1.10 The presturelfference, Ap, arose a paral Blockage ia sn atery (alld strana) 6 approximate bythe equation show Vis he blood veloc, he oad viscosity (FL"N), Dithe blod dency (41-7), the sry dame, te ae of ‘hetmodsnetel artery. ant, the area of be sepsis Deere {Wecimersionso the const’ Zand Would hs equation be ‘aid ny yes nis? 1A, Assure that he speed of sung, na fd depends on tm lotic module, Ey with dimanslane FL andthe Pt ens p, nthe forme» (8yP(p} I is fo bea dimen ‘only homogeneous equation, What ae th values fr @ ae D7 e your est consist he standard formula fr the syed of sound? (See Ba. 19) 5.13. Jormala for esting the vlume rat of flow, 0, ver the ply of dn = CVI aH + VI)" whore C & a cost, ¢ the acceleration of gravity, B the “play with, the depth of ono pening ove he pila, fd ¥ Be veloety of wate Jas upszeam of te dam. Would ‘his equation be vad in anysystem of uss? Expat HA Clu an example of resulted homogenous equation Example [AL Assume th ts ot anda stanaphaie peso ftstanaredslmosperie peste ales of the appear inthe Suerand eatin (69.10) 2 C= L488 x IO gins KN) and S= HOAK. Use Those vals to predit the viacosty ofa ar 10°C and 90°C ‘and compare wih ales given in Table Baia Appeal B. 1.5) Use the vale of viscosity of se given i Tble BA at terpeatre af 0,2, $0, 60,80, and 100°C to detain the onsnes Cand S hich sppeseio the Sutera equsticn (Ea TID, Compare your reels with the vlvs given fn Fodlem: a9. (tar Rete he equation i the fore ae st The viscoriy of a id plays a very ipovtnt ste la Getemiaing how a ud ows (See Video V1) The ae of the rico depends aot only onthe spose Md bt also on the fad temperate. Some experiments abow dat when & Tigi eode he cio of conta diving presutifoced ‘ath alow veloc, ¥, troup + seal hanna ike the ‘los is ghien bythe equation V= Yj tts equation K |Sa.censtant fora given tbe and pressure ands the dai ‘scsi, Fora pores gud fiers tne viscosity ive by Andrade’ equation (Eq LIL) witn = 5% 10°" s/t ‘and B= 4000. By What percentage wil be velocity neve i te liquid temperate i nara from 40 "Fo [00 °F? ‘Asrame aoe faces remain constant. 1.52 Ue the val ofthe viscosity of water give in Table BZ mwemperstares of 0,20, 40,60 80,and 100 °C todeermine34 chapter + 2 Introdution the constants a0 # which appear in Andrade’, equation iq, bi1). Caleulae he value Of the viscosity a 30°C ond Compa wh these given i Tble B2. (fou: Reve the ‘uation inthe Form war bem ‘and plo ny versus 1/7. From the lope and intercept of hi Sines B and D san be obined. IF a nonisear euresiting postam savalable the constants exe be obexned diet feat Eq ll without esting te equation) 1.£3 Fors parallel plate armagereto thre shown in Fig [ied found ht Wen the dance beea plates 62 nt, asheaing ste of 150 Pa deyelops athe pee pale when is piled sta veloc of nfs Determine dhe ico of fhidbetwech th plates, Expees you aasir io St unk, [As shown in Ydeo V4.2 the “o-ipcondtion means tid -ttcke” to eli sorte. Tas ste for bath ned and moving succes, Let tv byes of ik be dragged Slog by the notion ofan oper plte a shown Sa Fig. PLS “The ovtom pats sadonsry. The op Mui puts a shear sexs. nite upper plas an the lower aid pus a shear test. on the bottom lie Determine the rao af these two shear 4 rua? 002 jesaa wane an bea BeiGuRe Pree 1.55 Theie ae many fide that exhibit aonewtonan ‘havior ee erecting Video V8) For a given fd te Sisaction beween Newtonian and oe-Nestonian behaviors tually tased on messwernens of seat stess and rae of fetrgg sin, Assome tht the viscosity of bled isto be Aereined by messuerents of shear tess, rand rate of Stearag sai, obained from a sell blood sample lend i agile vieometr Based onthe data given bo {seine if te Blood isa Newnonnn oF non-Newionian Explin how you seve a your ensues, in?) _|008] 0.06] 0.12 | 0.181 030) 052] 1.12] 2.10 ‘aay 6°) Va a5tas0 1128122514501 900125 F450 1.56 The sed shows ia Fig, PISS dides slong 00 th bovzontl layer of wate betteen the ee andthe anders. ovzontl foe tht te water pts 08 the tuners sequal t UD To whan the sles Sped is 50, The laze of bah unnecsn cnt with fe water f 0.68 andthe viscosity lfthe water 4.5 10" Be/t, Determice the thickness of the water yor ander the eunnes. Arun linea velocity taibtion inthe ater layer PlauaAR PiBe SA 2S milan saft is pled though a cynical tering 0 showe Ia Fig. PIS? The hlbicnt that His the Dis. gop bersen the shaft el Henin a oil having 3 Knoratie wiscsity of 8D 10" Vea 2 specifi gravity ff DOK. Deere te ore P reauied co pull the shalt a & Seocity of 3 mvs. Assure the velocity dsubaton inthe gap inline 08m aFi@UuAE PLT 1.58 A Nestoian fi having a sect gravity of 0.92 and Kinane wteosty of 4 10" ins Hows past a Hed Surface. Due tthe nosip contin, te vlc a the Ce Enface is zero (as shown In Video V2), andthe velocity ofl rer the sutface shown in Fg, PLSB. Determine the Fiegniade and dveton of the shearing sess developed on the plate Expos your anawer interns cf U and with Ua Bexpreseed to nts of motes par second ead meters, mapas. wht BFIGURE Pes1.59 A lye of water flows dow ietined fed surface sith the veloc profile shown ve Fig. P38. Deteine the Imagrtide and dection ofthe searing sess chat the ware ‘exerts on he fixed sree for = 2 mye apd = Om 1.0) Sandu air lows pax « At srice and elsity rneasceents ner he ice inset th folowing dab bton at fae atone Sc Hor ter rear t ‘etal Went ser en velocity palit 10 the surface, (a) Assume the velsiy sition sf the Form =cyt cy od oie a standard cre fiting wobgue to etemine the ontante C; and CB) Make te ofthe este of par) ‘etertine the rngitice ofthe sheaag sess a he wall (= Oana ay = 005 1.91. Theviseosy of igus canbe measured through he wse ofa rlaing extnder viscometer ofthe ype Dated it Fs. PEGI, to this device de outer eplinder i Hed and he inne ‘yin i rotated wilh an angular velocity, The torque ‘eguiadte develop smeared sth scsi iseaeleted fiom tees to mpezareents. Develop an equation clang, 98 8 igs Problems — 35 ms, € Ry sd By Neglect end effets and sume the elo ition nthe 2p i ines. 1.62, The space between 190 bing eoneeiiceinders 1S ted with slyerin (isnay = 8.5% 10 bf) THe ines elinder hs ada of 3 ad the gp with between ‘linge, Determine the org andthe power regi to rate the ier eyinder 3180 cea. The ote esnder ie feed Assume the velocity dstubucion athe gapto be nese, 163A conical body rotates ata constant angular velocity of 600 rpm ine container a shown in Fig. PLOS. A vvitorm ‘goin gap tesween te cone and te comin i ed wat cl that hs a viscosity of 101 Tb s/t Determine the torque ‘eqied to rue he cone, neo tt aan yon ant Suge Pies EGE The following twrqueanguar velocity dra were buined wit e roaing linger viscometer of the p= ‘esrb in Problem 185 ough to)_| 13. | 260 | 395 | 527 | 649 | 785 Daglar “asiy(aare) 11a | 201 301 aol sal 60 For this viscometer R= 250in, Rim 245i, £50 Miko of hse ee ara tarde ere program to determine the vic ofthe ie bbe isomete 165A 12n-diameter circular plate is placed over a fned oto ple witha O.L-In- gap between the evo pies ed with ghyein gs shown in Fig, P1465. Determine he orate Tequied fo rtate the citar plate lowly at 2pm, Assume That de volcitydistibtin i the gap is linewe od that the shor stress onthe edge of herring pate noglibe Peting ete ZL) ne Seiaume pues 11.66 Voice shock sborters dnp out etlitions cased ty rad rougese. Devel how a temperature change may sMlet he operation ofa shock absorber36 chap © Fntroduction 1.6? Bximate the intense in pessre (in pa eguted 10 decease aunt volume of merry by 0.1%, 1.68. At volume of wate is contained ina igi cotiner Enso the change in the value of the water hen a pon spplias a pessre of 35 MPa. 1.6 Calculate the speed of sound in m/s for (a) gas, (a) merry ae fe) senvater 1.90 Air i enconed by 2g eyndr conning 2 piston. A presse gage othe te cylider icicatsan na reading rps. Determine te feuding on the gage when he piston fs eompesed the ato one-third is orgnal vole, Ame the compestion prozess to be icthecmal end the local ttnogphae preset be 127 ps LIL Often the assumption ib mado thet the lw of crn Fh con be considered a ncompresibie low ithe density of the Maid changes by less tan 25 IF airs flowing trough © (ube such tht the a peessur at nz section 90 ps EEE) Siu a ceensteam Seaton i Is 86 psi (gage) atthe same fernperaie do ou nk thas dhs weal be considered a tncompessibe flow? Support your ansner wi he neestary ‘clans, Astome Sandor aesphetc presi 1.72. Cajbon dioxide st 20°C aed 300 KPa absotte pressure Sands eothermaly ea absole pressure of 165 Deer tain the final Gesly ofthe as. 1.93. Natual gis a 70°F aod sundard mosphere presse F147 pl ab) i compressed teauopcaly ton new bse ‘presto 70 pi Delernin the Gal density and temperature ore Bs 74 Compare the itentopi tk eotuls of air t 101 KPa (as) itm a of eter a he sane pressure. 75 Develop a computer program for calculating the final fgige pressure of gehen te nal gage pressure el ant {eal Wolomes, atmosphere pressor, and the type of proses {Gsohernal or setepe) ane specied Use BO units, Check. your progr agains the resus obtained for Problem 1.70. 176 A brat dimensionless parser concerned with very high-speed flow isthe Mec amber Seine se where Vid wc speod ofthe object such san airplane or projectile, aad ls te ape of toon he Ma surromding the object. For {project traveinga 00 ph roogh i 250°F aed nda "toupric presse vat steve of te Mach number? 77 tetitinestypsaly ly atlades betwee aprosintely to 4000 fe Make ue of tha dat in Appeaix to show on ap how the sped of sound varies over ns rng. LF What a tud flows trough a sharp bee, lov press ray develop in localized rerion ofthe bend. Exim the him bsolte pressure (a pi) that ean develop without ‘using cavatcn if fe Maid is water 160°. 1.79 Eximate the minima sbolue presse (in seal) ha Sum be developed athe inlet a «pump to avoid caitaon if the Mu is eatbonteratloide 220°C. 1.80 When water st 70°C flows togh a comerging ection Of pin, the peste reduced nthe dcction of flow Esiate ‘hemitiounabsofute pes that can cevelopwidout casing ‘Chitation, Expese your sbsver in oth BO abd ST units. La At wha stooupbesispesare wit wate olla 35 %C? Expres your arser in bath Stand BG uns 1.82 Sel droplets ofcatoo tetrachloride a 68°F are formed With a spay ner Ifthe average damese ofthe dope is 20 yan wei the difference in pretee beeen the isi td ease of the dope? 1.83. T2em-iameter je of water discharges vertically ito the amasiere, Due to sfce tension the pressure inside the {fs wl be slghly bigher an the sunounding stnoepheri Wess, Deermine tis difference in presse LL Aa sho ie Vicso VES, sree tron forces can be hongenongh allow adoabieelge sel 225 bade ost fr unter but a sngleedge bade wl sink ASSuDe that the frlace tension foes ac at an angle 6 elatve tothe woter furfoe a shown lu Fig PI84, (a) The mas of the doble~ edge blae is 68 % 10" Kg, ae he ttl length of i sides {9 206 rn, Detenine the value of eeqied to maintain ulti betwen the Blade weight and de resultant surace tension fesse (b) The mse of the singleadge blade i TEL % 10" kg, and the toa leah of is sides i 154 ra, kplan why this blade sinks. Suppor your answer wit he eecessaryealeuatns, 7 st aFiguee mH 4.85 To aassue the water depth ia lege open tank with pues wll en open vtcal lass tbe i atch tthe ile tee tok. The ight of he water ecm inte abe i hen Shed ab 4 mensre ofthe depth of war inthe nk. () For ‘tio water det nthe unk of 3M ke use f a. 2 (with 6's 0" to determine the pent enor duet cpllaty the Ginwetr of te gse tbe i chuged. Ame 9 wate temperstre of 80 F Show you ents on 8 graph of percent ‘suo ers tobe diame, D,nche range. in. © D-< 10 {by lfyou wae the erro beeen 1%, whats the smallest tube diameter alowed? 1.86 Under the right conditions is posible due 0 sete tension fo have metal objects oat on wate, (See Video V5) Conse lacing stot gt of sal dates sea vwe= 450 Tht) rod on a surfacs of water What is the Inexim iameter tha the ra can have befor i wil sine? [Rsuie tha the surface tenon fores sc voreally upward Noe: A standard paperclip haa dame of 0.036in Pacily Ufa a pper lip amd se you can gett atom wate Do the est of tis expeciment suppor your analysis? [LAT An open clean glass ube, having a diameter of 3 am, fs inseced vet int dish ofmercury at 20" How fr wi the column of mercary ia the tbe be depresied? 1.86 Aa open clean gas te (= Ci nse vetaly io epan of ner What tbe daower is needed if the water level ia the tbe btw one tobe diamecer (ne co sface tenon)?1.9 “The cil ie ins abe depend on the cleanliness ‘of beth the Mid andthe tbo, Type, vals of ae ess than thore pdt) by By 1.22 using ales of © and 8 fr ‘lean ean tex Som beasurentoat af the Reg, ht ‘shich a rater columns a vera! open nae of einer ‘Gare pen teow The water sy ap wae ala weoperature of (0"F and no particu effort wat made ocean the glass tbe. Fi acive to these data and esate the value of he product cr cos. Ii soared that ¢ Has hs valoe given in Table 15, Siu the ale of OY IF is assumed that 8 is egal to, the vas of ia) {03} 025 | 029_f0n5_ oxo} 008 Gin) Poss Panes ose boars Voaai | 0796 1 Lab Problems 1.98. This problem involves he woof Stormer viscometer to Aetrmine hte li va Newtoian ora noo-Neweoien ‘eid To proceed wit his prabim o tote book's web ste, ‘warily conellgemansoe 91 This problem involves the use of capilary be acomer fo determine Ine Kemale viscosy of wate 35 3 function of temperature, To placed wi this robe, 20 the Book's web ste, www wleyeondcolegefmansen. "1 sk dhe laa” Bee 4.9% (See itl ti” Section 1.6) Some measurements ‘on blood sampleat 37°C (98°F) indicate a seating sess 37 Problems of 052 Nin for» comesponding rte of shearing sin of Dove. Dateroune the apparent wisest of the loed and compare f wilh the isco oF Water at che same tome pear. 193 (See “This witer jt ia las” Seton 1.7.1) By what Dpetcent isthe volume Of water decreased if fs pesore 1s Increased tam egavaent wo 3000 stoaphees (4100p)? 1.94 (Seo “Walking on weter” Section 19} (@) The water sor bug shown in Fg. P94 is supported oo the surtice of § pond by surface tension acting along te inerfece between the watr aed the tugs lege. Determine te mizimum leagih of tis imerace nected 10 support the bug. Assume the og tseghe 10°" N andthe srfae tension force seis wees upwards (b) Repeat pat (a) if surface tension were 0 support a petson weighing 730Ri 241 Pressure at a Pe “There ave no shear Ing sesses present, Ina fluid rest, Sonny Orie Pie An mage of hance Alen viewed via stelit:Akbough there is cons ‘rble motion etd sturre to hasrcae, Ie pressure Yaron in the vereal ection is epprox+ aed by the pesste-deph relationship fra Sa ud, (Vile ar infare image pio @ NOAA stele wings technique Gevelopes at NASAOSPC) Patograph counesy ofA. F Haske, Ref 7) In this chapter we will consider an important class of problems in wich the Mui is either at rest or moving in such a manaer that there 8 no relative metion between adjacent particles Thoth instances there wil be no shearing stresses in the uid, nd tho ony orcs tha develop on the sarfces of the particles willbe due tothe pressure, Thus, our principal concem isto investigate pressure and lis variation throughout @ uid and the effect of pressure on sb merged susfaces. The absence of shearing suesses grail simplifies the analysis and, a5 we ‘will see, allows us to obtain relatively simple solutions to many important practical problems, int ‘As we briefly discussed in Chapter 1, the term pressure ie used 1 indicate the normal force per unit ara at given point acting on a given plane within the fiié mass of meres. A ‘qestion that immestitely arises is how the pressure st «point varies with the orientation oF the plane pussig through the point. To answer tis question, consider the ffee-body dggram, itasirated in Fig. 2.1, that was obtcined by removing a sal ianguler wedge of Mud from some arbitrary locaton within a fluid mas. Since we ae considering the situation in which there are no shearing stresses, the only external forces acting on the wedge are due tothe pressure and the WeighCFOF Tmplicty the forces in the x direction are ne shown, and the ‘axis is taten as the vertical axis so the weight acts in the negative z direction. Alhough we are primarily interested ‘take the analysis as general as possible, we will low the Fld clement io Have adzelecated motion. The assumption of zero shearing stressesThe pressure ara poitin afd et ress idepondent of decsion. 2A Presaue ata Point 39 cf ores onan array wedgeshaped cement Will til be valid so long asthe uid element moves asa ig body that i, there is no rel: live motion between adjacent elemenss 7 “The eqiations of motion (Newton's second lav, F reqeetnely BA ~ 5585 0, sraKine = y va] in the y and z dictions ae, Delp. beby ~ dete es GO = 9 eee whe py py and pare the average pressures onthe fies, and ae the fd specie sreght an Geni, especively, andy te acceleration, Notas pressre mu be ilps by an apropos toca the force genrtd by the psn fllons from th geometry tat Bouh> ace wane so thatthe eatin of motion canbe rowriten as ay Pe Pe 18 % P= on DE Since we are realy interested in what i happening ats pint we take the Limit a 3,3, and Be approach 2x0 (ile maintaining he angle 8), and it llows that Bah BAD or p= p, =p The angle @ was abiarity chosen s0 we can conclude hat the presur a 4 point i «fluid a rex or in motion, independent of direction a lng as there are no ‘hearing stresses presen This important eeu i known as Pascal’ law named in honor of > Fasc (1623-1662), a French mathematician who made iraportantcontbaton® in the field oF hydeostacs. In Chapier 6 it wil be shown that foe moving Hide in which there is elaive motion between parle (6 that shearing sts develop) the normal ses aa point, which conesponds wo pres in Aus at et isnt oecesaly te sae in alld tectios. In such eases the pressure is defined asthe average of any three mately perpen- Aicule normal stots at he poi.40 chapter 2 es Fra States | oad The pressure may uy across a fad antite Basic Equation for Pressure Field Although we have answered the question of how the pressure a 2 point varies with des tion, we are ow faved with an equally important question-—how does the pressure in atvid in which there are no shearing esses vary from point to poet? To answer this question ‘consider «small rectangular element of fluid removed from some arbitrary position within the mass of fluid of interest a llusrated in Fig. 22. There are two tyes of forces acting on tis element surface forces due to the pressure, and a body force equal to the weight of the element. Other posible types of body Fores, such as those duc to mageetic fields, will ot be conskdered in this xt. I ve let the pressure a the center of the element be designated at p, then the average pressure on the vats feces can be expressed intcms of p/andits derivatives as shown in Fig. 22. We are actully sing a Taylor series expansion of the pressure atthe element cen- 1erto approximate the pressures ashor distance away and neglecting higher ord terms that will vanish as we let 3, and bz approach 2ez0. For simplicity the surface Forces in the x direction te not shown, The resultant surface free in the y direction is wale BB)un- BE oe Similarly, for the x and zdiretios the resliant surface forces are a ap pF = Barby de a= Bose 8 8y 8% (e+ ds) ‘Sorfce and body frees ating 0 sel id‘he elton sur. ee fre ting 00 ‘sel fad ele ‘nent depends only nthe presawe frien f thre are ho shearing sasses presen 22° Basie Equation for Presure Field 44 “The resaltant surface forge acting on the element can be expressed in vector form as orf + ork iy 2 00) an,» (254 2522 i)oe 2 = (214 Bi Bmore ay where i,j, and & are the unit wetors slong the coordinate axes shown js Fig. 22. The group fof term in parentheses in Eq. 2. represents in vector form the prestuee gridit and ean be writen 35 where 5, Us, 0, apie Dine and the symbol V isthe gradient or “de! vector operator. Ths, the cesutent surface force per unit Volume can be expresied as Bays” YP Since the axis is vical, the weigh ofthe element i Sk = ~y dy ack where the negative sign indicates thatthe force dve tothe weight is downward Gin the neg- ative z direction). Newton's second law, applied t0 the fluid element, can be expressed 2s ya where 2 BP represents the resultant force acting onthe element, ai the acceleration ofthe clement, end dm isthe element mas, which can be writen as p 3x Sy Be, It follows that SOF = oF, — 5k = Sma oma Be 8y 8 1 Bxby Belk ~ pBeby en and, eer, Vp ~ yk = pa (22) [Equation 2.2 is the general equation of motion fora fluid in which there are no sheating stresses. We wil use this equation in Section 2.12 when we consider the pressure distbution in a moving fluid, For de present, however, we will resrict our attention tothe special case of a fli at rest.42 chap 24 Fla States 23. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest For igus oF gases tre he pressure ‘adi nthe ve fiat rection at fy patina fs depends only onthe ‘pectic weightoF thee th poise Fora fiid at rest a = Oand Bg, 22 seduces to vp + yk or in component fom Bog ® ‘ ay oe ‘hose equations show tate pressure dot ot depend on or. Ta we move om aa aes onal plane (an) pane pall wo the x-y plan) he presure does aa rcp depen only on the at oF Eqs 23 canbe writen 8 he oriaty Sere eqtton ea te i ja" 7] ‘equation 24 isthe fundamental equation for Fics at res and can be used to deter rine how presse changes with elevation. This equation indicates thatthe pressive gadi- in the vera! direction is negative; thot is, te pressure dectesses as we move upward dha Raid at reat. There is no requirement thet y be a constant. Ths, its valid for fluids veith constant apecific weight such as ligids, as well as uids whose specific weight may vary with levavon, such a ator otber gases. However, to proceed withthe imegration of Eq) 2 it is necessary to stipulate how the speciic weight varies with 2 234 Incompressible Fiuid Since the specifi weight is equal tothe product of fluid deasity and acceleration of gravity (Gr pad, changes in ac caused either by e change ip oF g, For most engineering aP- ‘licadons the vation in gis nealigible, so our main concem i with the posible vation ithe floc denaity, In general, a fluid with constant density is called an incompressible fd For fiuids the variation in density is usually negligible, even over large vertical distares, colton the assumption of coustaa speific weight when dealing with iguds is @ good one. For this instance, Eq, 2.4 can be diecly integrated ye 7 & apo nal to yield ro ie 8) pi- = a2) es) where p and py are pressures atthe vertical elevations z and zs is lustated in Fig. 23. ‘Equation 2.5 can be writen in the compat form Pim pa ve 26) pis rht pe enEast 43 orem DFIGURE 28 Naatn tr esr yarn in fi ate th free mtn =9 ‘where fis the distance, z»~ zy, which isthe depth of fluid measored downward fom the ication of > Ti gps of peje dstouon scommony ale ods db. ‘ion, and Bq, 2.7 ae ‘alidep Te pres repoipeseble iat re ih depth t “hold up aia Ti can also be observed from Eq, 26 thet the pressure difference between vo points «can be specified by the distance since hy s1a% Dine he 7 In this case scaled the pressure head ais interpreted asthe height of a columa of fluid sine of specie weighty required to give a pressure difference p, ~ py. Foc example, pressure di ference of 10 psi canbe specified in terms of pressure head as 23.1 fof water (y = 62.4 Ib), or 518 mm of Hg (y = [33 KN/m’). As Masrated by the gue inthe magn, a 23.1-fall ston column of water with cross-sectional area of 1 in? weighs 10 Ib Giraffes blood presure A gia’ long neck allows it w ‘srt upto Sm above ihe ground. Ian ao lower ishead (fk at ground ve. Thus, ithe cirealtry system there is 8 Signicant ldo pres eet ve to this elevation ‘hang. To maintain Dood to ts heed throught thi change in clevtion, th raf must matin a relatively igh bleed pressre at her level—approimatsly we and Ralf times | tat humans. To prevent rope of bleed veel in the [ bigt-pessne ower eg region, giraffes havea tight seat of ‘hick skin ovr thir fower ibs which sets ike aa eli ‘undage inexact the same way adobe gaits of Abe pe Jot. I addon, valves inthe uppee neck provet acklow It tte heed when the galore ished to ground level iraleo thought that bloc vesrelsn he gies Hidney have ‘special mechani to prevent ngs change in Skin ate won blod presse inceacs or decreasoe with its bead ‘movereat (See Prelom 2106) 5 When one works with liquids there is often a fee surface, as is iustrated ia Fig. 23, snd its convenient to use this surface asa reference plane. The reference pressure py would correspond tothe pressure acting on te fee surface (which would frequendly be atmospheric pressure) and thus if we let py = py in Eq, 2.7 i follows thatthe pressure pat any depth h blow the free surface is given by the equation p= rh Pa a3) Asis demonstrated by Eq, 2.7 or 2.8, the pressure in a homogeneous, incompressible ‘vid at ret depends on the depth of te fluid relative to some reference plane, end it i not44 capt 2 Pid States el tee ro aa LL, ariaun ola i esuaier of sivary shape suit influenced by the size or shape ofthe tank or contsiner in which the fis is hed. Thus, in Fig. 24 the pressure is the same a all ponis along the line A even though the container tray have the very iegula shape shown inthe igure. The actual value ofthe pressure along AB depends only on the depth, hte surface pressure, rp, andthe specific weight 7, ofthe Tiguid inthe containe. A ¢ | Beceuse ofa tok i etured gasoline storage tank, water bas | Secpod io the depth how in Fig E21 f the pei gr | Joy of the psoline 1s. SG ~ 0.68, detrei he peste athe [elite inerice and athe bot ofthe tank: Express {he pees fn itso B/F oan as a pees eas 8 feet of wate: Souston. Since we ave dealing wit guide ares the pressure dist ton wl be hydrosti,atd therefore the pressure variation ‘i be fon fom the equation p=rh+p ole, ten the peste a te interes i= SCruah * Py = (068/624 1H/KI7 8) + = 721 + pp he) 1 we measure the presareelatve to atmosphere pressure (gage peste it follows hat pp = ©, ane here | | | ‘With pconesponing othe presse atthe fe sue of ie | { | | p= PLY (ams 221 wit A : aim ERIE = Satin? (8) | ba. Lib i f= Bia = use (ans) is note ta a rectangular cour of vate 1.6 all ad 1 in erose section weighs 72 fA. simular ola with « ross set igh 3.0 ‘We can now apply the sare relationship o determine the presse a the nk boom: cats, Pam thclno * Pr = (onaieyt 3) + TLE = 908 sos. in TE pe, Sot Fe” 2 bite tans) = 631M/n? cus) sate (Ane) “obese thatif we wih to express these press in es of abwaune poste, we aU! fave 0 al the Jal s005 [here prense [in appropriate wits) to the previous results. Fhe dacssion of gage and absolute pressure Is veo 8 Sees 25,The wonsicon of resur tirough but astationary Pid the prine- ple wpon which many hydra des ‘ee ae based ihe specie weigh of aid tavleeercnty ‘are me from oi pont, the res ilr0| longer very tinanty ath epi 23. Presure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 45 Boots Fahy ELET@ URE 28 Tromamison of td resute “The roquired equality of pressores at equal elevations throughout a system is important for the operation of hydraulic jacks, ifs, and presses, aswell as hydranlic controls on ara and othe types of heavy machinery, The fundamental ides behind sach devices and systems is demonstrated in Fig, 25. piston located atone end ofa closed system filed wth a ligy ‘id, such as of ean be used to change the pressure throughout the system, and thus transmit fn applied Force F, toa second piston where the ceslting fauce is F, Since the pressure p ‘sctng onthe faces ofboth pistons isthe same (he effect of elevation changes i wally neg Tigible for this type of hydkaic devi), it follows that Fy = (Ay/A,)F). The piston area Ay ‘ean be made mich lager than A, ane therefore a lage mechanical advange can be devel ‘oped thats, a small force applied a the smaller piston can be used to develop a large force alte large piston, The applied force could bo efeated manually through some type of me chanical device, soch as # hydrelic jack, or though compressed air ating directly onthe surface ofthe igh, as is done in hydraulic its commonly found in service stains 23.2 Compressible Fluid ‘We narmally hink of gases such a ait oxygen, and mitogen as being compresile ids since the deny ofthe gs can change significanly with changes in pressure an temper “tg, Thus although Eq 2.4 applies aa pont in gu, its ncessary to conse the poss ie variation in before the equation can be imegratod. However, os was discussed in CChaper I, the spciic weighs of common gases ace small when compared with those of Inu, For example te epi weigh of aia sea leve! and 60 “Fs 00763 yt, wheres ‘speci weight of water under the sure conionsis 624 Ib. Since the specie weights of gates a comparatively small follows from Eq 24 that the prescre gradient in the ‘esta direction Is comespontngly small and exer over distances of several hundred eet, the pressure will remain essentially constant fora gas. This means we can neglect the fle tf cleaton changes onthe peste in gsr a tanks, pipes, an so fh in which the di tances involved ae smal For those situation a which the variation in highs are large, on the otder of thoa- sands of fest tention mst be given f the variation inthe specific weight A is desrbed in Ciapter 1, tho equation of state fr an del (or pee) gs is p= okt wer p is the absolute pressure, isthe gas constant, and Tis the absolute temperature ‘This eleionship canbe combined with Eg, 24 10 give ee a RE and by spurting vaibles [Fone eae eo)AG Chapter 28 Fad States were g and are assumes tbe constant over the elevation change from z, tos, Although the acceleration of gravity, , does vary with elevation, the vaziatonis ver sual (ee Tubies Coy na C22 in Appendix C), and gis asuelly assumed constant at some average value for the range of elevation involved. otore completing the integration, one must specify the nature ofthe variation of tem- perature with elevation. For example, i we assume thatthe temperature has « constant value Fe over the range ¢ 0% (Hothermal conitions) i then follows from Bg. 2.9 that He ~ 2) my oe 2 2| 2.0) “This equation provides the desied pressure-elevation relationship for an isothermal Tyet For nonthermal conditions a simler procedure canbe followed ifthe temperture-clevation relationship is known, a is discussed in the following section, 7 PRAMPL! | epee sie aig innen ect ta emp o59% Compa ek i ey Seas ee aticriasnekhersponmasy 2:06, suming te artobeincmpresiewihy = OOTS ta 4 Eviate the ratio of the pressure atthe top of the building to 14:7 ps (abs)(values for rat standard conditton). TRetmenure ns base asaming te sr fo Be a8 conn Sousries ———_— Eee For the assumed fcthermal conditions, and teaing al as tempera and the constant specie welght rls ae lar | compresuibie id, Eq, 2 10can te apie to yield tely mine ‘We ue dha for both eels on the presse deneases by Fa ew|-H8 59] tess than 3% we go fom ground level othe tp of thi all m * {Shing eon ot ue ey large reso erence o (grea tt al) Sipps {280 fre ole ff Ug a Tas elt 8 Tg We yslug. RIGS + ACOYD “Rppor's the eaier statement the the chaages in pressures in air = dus) 294 ober pases def levton sangs ae vey seal even fo (4 alances of undeds of fst Thos, the presse diflereaces 1 te irs ete as an icomprstible Hud we em apply ecween the rop end bottom of orzo pipe carrying #3, Ba 25 Intis ease fovin a gis rage tank, se negligible ice the distances in valved ae very sal panama x) x 7 omnes ne K12508)_ Gear reise nsie) =P © [ove tat there i ite difference beween the to rast Sine the prestue difference between te ovr and 2p oft Dailding isa ollows tat the vation in ul density Seal and, therfre he compressible i a incomes ile aidan yield ese the sme real. Byrepeat= ing the cleulations for various vales of the eight, the | results shown in Fig, E22 are crane, Note that een foe & |_| Soni ce dienes teen Beene RLU RS Eee2.4 __ Standard Atmosphere he ourvdand -moxphere is aide lied represent tio of ret ‘condone fear scamosphere 24 Standard Amosphere 47 ‘An important spplication of Bq 2.9 relates to the variation in pressure inthe earths atmos phere. Ideally, we would like to have measurements of pressure versus altitude over the Specific range forthe specific conditions (lemperature, reference pressre) fr which the pres- sure isto be determined. However, this ype of information is usualy not available. Thus, a “standard atmosphere” hap been determined that can be sed inthe design of airecat,mis> siles, and spacecra, and in comparing their perfomance under standard conditions, The concep af standard atmosphere was fist developed inthe 1920, and sie that time many hationel and international committees and organizations have pursued the development of such a standard, The currently accepted standard atmosphere is based on a report published in 1962 aud updated in 1976 (see Refs. I and 2), defining the so-called U.S. standard ‘abmosphere, which is an idealized representation of middle latitude, year-round mean con Gitions ofthe earth's atmosphere, Several important properties for standard atmospheric con- Gltions at sea level ere iste in Table 2.1, and Fig. 2.6 shows the temperature profile forthe US, standard atmosphere, Asis shown in tis gue the temperature decreases with altede Inthe region nearest the earth's surface (roposphery), then becomes essentially constant in the next layer (tatogphere, and subsequently sts fo increase inthe next layer. 2 TABLE 2.1 Properties of US. Standard Atmosphere at Sea Level” Property Units Tempemure,T 28815 (13°C), 3B -R IO) Presr,p 10133 KPa (sh) aui6a ini (abs) (14856 ton ats) Denti, 9 1205 kgf? (0.002377 sags? Specie wei. 12014 Ni? ones wt 1789 10"FN s/n? 3.737 10"? sl? “cia | | faces ict £20] : 4 i + Loimipez2640) i ‘p= 10133000 | ie cl Vantin of temperate vith “o> Mitten toe US standard meson.AB chapter 201 Fluid Statice Presar is desi nated a ether ab sale pressure or age pressure Since the temperstare variation is represented by a series of linear segments, i is pos sible to intgeate Eq, 2.9 to obtain the corzesponding pressure variation. For exam, in the Ttopospheres which extends to an alituée of about 11 km (-36,000f), the emperture var atign is of the form r re Be ew ‘where Ty is the teraperaure at sea love (¢ = 0) and the lapse rave (the rate of change Drtemperatore wih elevation), Forte standard etmsphere in the troposphere, = 0.00650 K/m o¢ 0.00357 °R/8, ‘Equation 2.11 used with Eg. 2.9 yields sahece py is the abolute pressure at 2 = 0. With ps, Ty and g obtained from Table 2.1, and Whit he gas constant R= 286.9 J/kg K o¢ (716M Ibfslug:°R, the pressure variation throughout the topasphere can be determined from Eg. 2.12. This ealeulatio shows that a the futer edge ofthe woposphere, where the temperture is —56.5 °C, the absolute pressure is fdbout 23 KPa (33 psa) Iti 10 be noted that moder jetiers cruise at approximately this l- titade, Poseurs at othe aitudes are shown in Fig. 2.6, and tabuled values fr temperstre, fuceleration of gravity, pressure, dnsity, and vseosity forthe U.S. standard atmosphere are fren in Toes Cn C2 mn Append C _Measurement of Pressure eee _ ‘Since pressure is a very important characerstic of lad Field ti not surprising that na- morous devices and techniques ace sed i is measurement. As is noted briefly in Chapter the preseue a a point withie a fluid mace will be designated as either an absolute pressure re gage pressure. Absolute pressure is measured eeatve toa perfect vacuum (ebsolae ero resets, whereas gage presse is neasared relative othe local atmospheric pressure. Thus, page peesuve of zero coresponds toa pressre that sequal othe local atmosphere pres- fur. Absolute pressures are aways possve, but gage pressures cam be either positive ot nea tive depending on whether the pressuze is above atmospheric pressuee (a postive val) oF below atmoephece: pressure (4 negative valus). A negative gage pressure is also refered to ta suction or acum pressure. For example, 10 psi (es) could be expressed es ~4.7 9 {page) ifthe local atmosphere preteure is 147 pi, of ateratvey 47 psi suction or 47 psi acu, The eoneept of gage and absolute essure i illustrated graphically in Fig, 27 for ‘wo typical pressures located at points 1 and 2, smart 6 SRE im poag ere eriouae 2 bite ee peesure Graphical able25 Mewurement of Presure 49 In addition to the reference used forthe pressure measurement, the units used © ex press the value are obviously of importance, As is described in Section 1.5, pressure is a fore per unitate, andthe wits inthe BG system are 1b o Ibn, commonly abbrevi- sated psf or pi, respectively. Inthe SI system the units are N/m this combination is called the pascal sed vuiten ap Pa (1 N/m? = 1 Pa) As noted earlier, pressure cap also be ex- ‘pressed asthe height of & coldmn of liquid. Then, the units will refer the height of the column Gina ft, mm, m, ete) and in addition, the Liquid in the column must be specified (HO. Fig, ete) Por example, standard aumospheric pressure can be expressed as 760 mm Hg (abs) Jn his tex, pressures willbe assumed tobe gage pressures unless specifically desig: hated absolute. For example, 10 psi or 100 kPa would be gage pressures, whereas LO psa ‘oF 100 KPa (abs) vould refer to absolute pressures. Iis to be noted that pressure differences fe independent ofthe reference, so that no special notation is quired inthis case. “The messurement of stmespheric pressure is usually accomplished with # mercury barometer which in its simplest Form consists of glass tube closed at one end with the ‘open end immersed in a container of mercury as shown in Fig. 28. The tobe i intially filed ‘vith mereary Gverted with ts open end up) and then earned upside down (open end down) ‘vith the open end inthe container of mezeory The column of mezcury will come to an equi> librium position where its weight plus the foros due to the vapor pressure (which develops in the space above the coluna) balances the force due to the atmospheric pressure. Thus, A bavometer it ned pherle pressure. Paw = A Page a3) wwhece 7 is the specific weight of mercury. For most prectical parposes the contribution of| the vapor pressure can be neglected since itis very small [For mercury, yy = 0.000023 toy. (ab) at a temperature of 68 °F] s0 that Pyq ™ yh. It is conventional to specify at mosphere pressure in terms ofthe eight, in auimeters or inehes of mercury. Note that if water were used instesd of mercury, the height of the column would have tobe approxir rately 34 f rather than 299 in, of mercury for an atmospheric pressure of 147 gsia! The concept ofthe meccury barometer i an old one, with the invention of this device atsibuted to Evangelista Torvicell in aboat 1644. | south iets aenge emp ct10 Candas { its depth of) m For a aromatic pests of 598 mn Hg, Sounon_—__ ooo aise eens =o ia tee us pets aoe ee folute pressure, py il be te Toe! barometiepessue ex resid ina consent sytem of unit that is Prat and for ny = (3318/0? > 998 mm = 050 m eee te absotte presse (a pszl) athe deepest gt of thelske 5 = (0598 [158 RIV?) = 19.3 N/a? From ahi 3.2, Yo = 9.804 KN? at 10°C: and eerefore (p= (9308 N/e?Y0m) + 79.5 KN © W2bNin! + 7851 = 472 Ps eb) const “This simple example ilrtes the need for close aterton to ‘ns nite wen the eleltion of presse: that i, be stro ‘ke a content unit yelem, snd be careful ot oad pres. reheat a pressure Pa50 Chapter? es Fluid States SB EL@URE 2.5. Merey rome ‘Weather, barometers and bars One ofthe ost importa incteatts of wether condos is cimospherc pressure. {gnc fling ot ow pressure indicate bed weather: ing Sr high press, pood weather. Duiog the evening TV teat tpt in the United States, atmospheric presse i vena o many inches (commonly sound in) This vale Fs actualy the eight of the mercury column jn a mercy barometer jose os level. To deermire the cue acs: hore presure at gril loan, the elevation relative {Baca evel most be kaw, Aner wi sed by et2r0}- ‘wotherrepring i 1914 38 defied as 10" W/n The det Fron of abr is probably elated pte fact hat standard ses- Jove pressure is 10133 > LO Wf that is, oly slighty Terger than one bat, For tical Neher pate “Seaivel souvent” simoseic pressure remains clase t ene Bar However fr extee wether conditions assorated wit or tidocs, brticenes, x iphoons, dsmatic changes can oct, ‘Tee owes ctmoaperi resnie eter recorded was assorted wath typtocn, Typhoon Tip nthe Paitic Ocean on Octo ter 12 199. The vale war 0870 bas 5.8. Hp). (See Pblem 2107) 1 ia lndicte atop presse is the ba, ist wed in 'A sandard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns in vertical or Marometerase Manometrs tae ‘gained bes. Psst easing vies sed ons tehqu e cale manometer, Fhe : reer icin! ecu bot sa exam fone ype of manonetbt here are many ete cog ‘aw colem? ations posible, depending onthe pricular application. Thvee common spe of anomie. ter ince the piezomeer tbe, the U-tube manometer, andthe incined-ube manometer i 2.61 Piezometer Tube i “The simples tye of manometer consists ofa vera ube, open a the to, snd ach > | the container in which the presi is desied as ustraed in Fig. 29. Since monomers i involve columns of fds a rest, the Fundamental equation deserbing tee use is Ea, 28 | . parkhn sohich gives he pressure at any elevation within « homogeneous Chi ints ofa refer | cae pan th verendivance beeen pal Rember St flaTodeermine press sve oma monomer spy ‘se heft that he prewar te i ola wil sory hostile 26 Manometcy 51 gricuns SPeromete rest pressure will increase as we move downward and will decrease as we move upward, “Application of this equation o the piezometex ube of Fig. 29 indicates thatthe pressure ps cen be determined by a measurement af fy through the relationship bash wine 1 ste specie weight ofthe liquid inthe container. Note that since the tube is open Atte top. the presse p ean be set equal 9 zero (We are now using gage pressure), with the height ky measored from the meniscus at the upper surface to point (1). Since point (1) and point A within Ui container axe atthe same elevation, py = 21 “Although the piezometer tbe isa very simple an accurate pressore measuring devie, i ‘ns several disadvantages. Ii only suitable if he pressure in the container is greater than at- mosphere pressure (oterwiee ar would be sucked into the system). an the pressure tobe mea ‘Sued must be relatively stall so the requied height ofthe column is reasonable, Also, the iid inthe consiner in ich the pressive 1 be measured must bea igi eather than gs, 2.62 U-Tube Manometer ‘To overcome the difficulties noted previously, anather type of manometer which is widely sed consists of a tube formed into the shape of e U as is shown in Fig. 2.10. The fluid in the manometer is called the gege fluid. To find the pressure py in terms ofthe various col> tum heights, we start at one end of the system and work our Way around to the other end, ‘imply etlizing Bq. 2.8 Th, forthe Utube manometer shown in Fig. 210, we will stat ft point and work arcund to the open end. The pressure at points A and (I) are the same, ‘and as ve move from point (1) to (2) the prsauce will nerease by y/, The pressure at point (2); equal to the pressure a point (3), since the pressres at equal elevations in 2 contin fous mass of fluid at rest musi be the same. Now that we could not simply “jump across" From point (1) to @ point atthe seme elevation inthe right-hand tube since these woald not by poins within the same continuous mass of fluid. With the pressure at point (3) specified prt KOTUPHANES? a: METU LIBRARY EL FL@QURE 2:0 Simple Utabe macuaeicr52 crept 2. Fi States we now move tothe open end where th pressure is zero, As we move vertically upward the pressure decreases by an amount ys. In equation form tese various steps can be expressed as Pat 7h, = Yih = 0 and, therefore the pressure p, ean be writton ia toms of the column heights as The contin of petcalmarh ally negligible: : inc the weight of the gerissoanal stays Eg. 2.14 becomes Pa = vaba— h a1) ‘A major advantage of the U-tube manometer lies in the fact thatthe gage uid canbe dif- erent from the Maid in te container in which the pressure isto be determined. For exam- pl, the fad in Ain Fig, 2.10 can be eines alguid ora gas. IFA does contin a ga, the ‘contribution ofthe gas cama, 7fy, if slmest always n eo that pg = and inthis Da= rahe “Thus, fora given pressure the height, hy, i governed by the specific welght, yo, of the gage ‘ai wed in the manometer the pressure, is large, then a heavy gage fluid, such a mer- ‘uty, can be used and « reasonable column height (aot too long) can sill be maintained, 2. Blood pre AMPLE 2.4 (Ra (& A clon nk conn compete aol Sy 0.0) i shown in Fig E24, A Use nuncnee ang ery (soy = 136) coumced wo th tam svn. For col Sourion Following the gezeral pocede of tating atone ead ofthe manometer assem and working rou to te other, we ll area he sioiiatface in the wale and posse ete open ond wher the pressure is 2. The pressure a evel (I) Pe= Bact Yall + i) “This pressure is equal t the presi at level 2, seca tese two pots ar the sae elation na hesogencons Midst rex Ae we move from lve (2) the epan end the presse rust decrease by Zyl aod atthe open end the presse it 2x0, Thus, the ratomser equation can be expressed as Par * tal 8) ~ Hubs = 0 Pac + (SGaikrnhs + 4) ~ (Engrs = 8 Fore vs gn a= ~(09362.4 0/0) + asoyrennn( 2) \ oe Altematively, if the pressure py is sia, a lighter gage Mud, such as water, ean be used 50 that a relatively Large coluraa height (hich is easily read) can be achieved. ihn hy = 35 in. hy Bin, and Ay = Bin, deeming doe rare eng (np of be ae ariquRe ees sothat, pum 440 Since the spocifc weight of the aie above tbe oie meh tole th th speci weight ofthe ol the gape should ead the pressure we have calclated; thts, 40 wit iain ans) es = 3.05 pet26 Manometry 53 BELG URS 229% Dire “The Ustube manometer is also widely used to measure the diference in pressure between ‘wo containers o wo points in a given system, Consider @ manometer connected beiween con tainers A and B28 is shown in Fig 211, The diference in pressure between A and B can be ieee found by again tating atone end of he system and working sound tothe ober end, For ox. Sropotes ample, at the pressure is py, which is equal to p, and as we move to point (2) the pressure increases by 7h," The pressuze a pis equal 1 ps, an as we move upwant to pont (4) the ‘pressure decreases by 9, Similarly, as we continue to move upward from point () (5) the ressre decreases by. 7s Finally, ps = py since they are a equal elevations, Thus, Pato ~ ya Monometer ar of en aed ensure the difernce it ‘Yohy = Pe and the pressuve diference is Pao Pa= rah + aha ~ Yi ‘When the time comes to substtate in numbers, be sure to use a consistent system of units? ‘Capilrty defo surface tension athe various Mud nterfaces in the manometer it ust- ally notconsideted, sce for a simple U-tube with a meniscus in each leg, the capillary effects ‘cancel asaming the surface tensions and tbe diameters ae the same at each meniscus) or ‘we ean make the capillary cise negligible by using relatively large bore tnbes (with diameters ‘of about 05 i. of lage) Two common gage fluids are water and mercury, Both give a wel- ‘efined meniscus (a very impetant charactetstic fr a gege uid) xed ave well-known prop- tetis. Of course, the gage fluid rust be immiscible wit respect to the other ud in contact ‘with i For highly scoarste measurements, special atertion should be given to temperature Since the various specitic weighs of the fluids in the manomitr wil vary wih temperature, / EXAMPLS 2.5 Ea 4s wil be daeussed in Chapter, he volume rat of Now, 2. ‘trough pips ca be determine by mens of flow rz l- catedin he pipe a illseted in Fig. £25. The noel rests 2 | presse drop, ~ Pm slong th gge which is elated to the | fo dough he equation Q = Vp, = By whee Kis a o0- "tent depending on the pigs and aozle sie, Te reas drop iefrequetly menrres with edilfretal Usube manometer of "ope ilstraed 6} Determine an equation for py ~ pein GFIquas ses54 chapter 2 Fuld States we ofthe gage ayy and the vasious heights indestd | pest hie Roving id ee Souumion. (2) Ato he Matin he pipes moving, he in the | olunns fthe masometer ae a ret that the prose var- ition inthe manomeie bes ishydrettie. I estar a pois ‘Nard move vertalyupaard to eel (1) he presse wil de- | cust antl beoguato e pese ena. ‘We ean now move Fou [29 (4) whee the pres as bees fuer doce by Yan Te pressures at evel) an (3) | equal end as we move fo (0B the pres wil inreaze [ bynihy + A) as, equation Form (0) For 7) = 9801N/m yg = ISSR, hy = 0m, a y= 03m wha he was of the pressure dep, 4 ~ Pa? {sta be noted hate nly cola height of inpartanse is the diferent reading, Te eferenst manometer could te placed 0-5 or 50 m stove the pipe (h= 05m or 1 = 50 cyanate vue of hy wou emai te same. Rela thely lige vale forthe diferent reading fy can be ob- tained fos pressure dterences, pa Pte diteence between yan 38 al (b) The specific valve of the pressure dhop forthe data sivenis em rhe ass ly) = A Pa> pam hos 9) 2.63 Inclined-Tube Manometer “Fo mensute small presse changes, # manometer ofthe type shown in Fig. 2.12 s frequently used. One leg ofthe manometer is inclined at an angle 8, and the differential reading is measured along the inclined nbe, The difference in pressure p, ~ py can be expressed as a iy — ula si8 8 ~ 99hs = Po Pa Po = ela sind + 75s ~ Thy eas) where itis 6 be noted te pressure diference between points (1) and (2) is due to the vertical distance berween he points, which ean be expressed as € sin 8. Thus, for relatively smal n- tls the diferential reading long the inclined tbe can be made large even for sell pressure ‘ferences. The inlined tube manometer is often used to measure stall differences in gas pressures so tha if pipes A and B contain a gas chen Ihetined ube ‘maroitrs canbe tad to meine mal pasar df Fernoee acura Pam pa vals sin Panos yt a16, BRSGURE 292 lide manometer2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure Measuring Devices A Bourton be Presser goge ses ‘holo lati, (nd ewrved tbe 10 eanare pressure 122 Bowron gage 27 Mechanical and Blstrnic Pressure Measuring Devies 85 where the contributions of the gas columns hy andy have een neglected. Zquation 2.16 ‘shows that the differential reading & (for given pressure difference) of tbe inclined tube ‘manometer can be increased over that obtained with a conventional Uctube manometer by the fator Véin 6. Recall tht sin @—>0 as 20. ‘Although mancmeters ate widely used, they ae not well suited for measuring very high pres sures o pessures that are changing rapidly with time. In adltion, they requie the measure- ment of one or more columa height, which, although not particulary eiffel, can be time Consuming, Te overcome some ofthese problems numerous other types of pressure-measuing insimiments have been developed. Mest ofthese make use of the idea tat when a presure acts ban elascsireure the stractee wll deform, and tis deformation canbe related tothe mag- ride ofthe pressure Probably the most familiar device ofthis kind is the Bourdon pressure fnge, whichis sown in Fig, 2.132, The essential mechanical element in this gage isthe hol ow, elastie curved tbe (Bourdon tbe) whieh is eonected 10 the pressure source as shown in Fig, 2120. As te prsture within the tube increases the tbe tends to straighten, ad although the deformation is smal, it cen be tnalsted into the motion of pointer on a dia a itus- trated, Since itis the ditference in pressure betwoen th cusie ofthe tube (atmosphere pres ‘sure) snd the inside of the tube that causes dhe movement of the tube, the Indicated pressure is ‘ge pressure The Bourdon gage must be calibated so that the dial reading can directly indi= at the pressure in sbtable units such a8 pp, or pascal. A zero reading on the gage n= ‘cates that de measured pressure i equal to Uae lea atmospheric pressure. Tis type of Boge ean be sed to measure a negative gage pressure (vacuum) s well as postive presses, "The averoid barometer is another type of mechanical gage thats used for mexsuring mosphere pressure. Since atmospheric pressure is specified as an absolute pressure, the ‘conventional Bourdon gage isnot suitable for this measurement. Te common aneroid bazo- meter cotains a hollow, eloeed elastic element which is evacuated so thatthe pressure inside the clement is near absolute zero, As the external atmospheric pressure changes, the element deflects, and this motion can be translated into the movement ofan attached dial. As with the Bourdon gage, the dial can be calibrated to give atmosphecic pressure directly, with the ‘sual units being millimeters or inches of mercy. For many applications in which pressure measurements are required, the pressure mst be measured with a device that converts the pressure into an electrical oxtpt, For iaun (e)Ligittea oscdon presure gage or veo pressure ean. () tera het of Bourdon gages The "Chapa Bearon tues shnvn o thee, a he “Cate spring Bourdon ae or igh priv of 10D ps ae aor shown on thet. (Phitgrap varteny 9 es estrone)56 chapter 20 Fld States A prescre tas Alcor eomerts presume (lecreal expat griGURE 209 Praca rafacer whic combines 2 ines vane ler ase fame GADD wie Bourdon pe, shee (om yet by perms) ‘example, it may be desirable to continuously monitor a pressure that is changing with time. This sype of pressure measuring device is called pressure sransdacer, and many biffeent designs are used. One possible ype of tcansducer is one in which a Bourdon tube is connected toa linear variable differential ansformer (LVDT}, 3s is fustrated in Fig, 214. The cove of the LVDT is connected to the free end of the Bourdon so that as 2 presure is applied the reslting motion of the end ofthe tabe moves the core through the coil and an output yoltage develops. This voltage is a linear function of the pres fore and ebul be recorded on an oscillograph or digitized for storage or processing om & computer ‘One disadvantage of # pressure transducer using a Bourdon tube asthe elastic sens ing elements that tis limited to the measurement of prestures tha are stati o ony chang- ing slowly (quasistatic) Because ofthe relatively large mas ofthe Bourdon ube it cannot feapond to rapid changes tn pressure, To overcome this difficulty a diferent typeof trans: lfucer i used in which the sensing element isa thin, elastic diapiagin which i in contact with abe lui, As the pressure chenges, the diapheagm deflets, and tis deflection can be fetsed and coaverted into an electrical voltage. One way to accomplish this isto Weate tea gages eiter on the surface of the dlaphragin not in contact wit the flid, or on en Clemeat attached to the éaphragre. These gages con accurately sense the small strtis io~ Guced inthe dlapheagm aad provide an output voltage proportional to pressure. This type Sf transducer is capable of measuring socuracely both small and large pressures, as well as both static end dynamic pressures, For exanype,strain-gage pressure tenacers ofthe (ype Show in Fig, 2-5 are used to measure arterial blood pressure, which i arlaively sal pressure that vavies peiodicaly with « Fandamental frequency of ebout 1 Ha. The rans ‘Sacer is usually connected to the blood vessel by means of 3 liguidfilled, small diameter tube called a pressure catheter Although the strain-gage type of tenadcers cen be designed to have very good frequency response (ap t0spprximately LO kHz), they become less gen sitive atthe higher fequences sine the diaphragm mast be made stiffer to achieve the higher frequency response. As an allernative the diaphragm can be constructed ofa plezo- ‘lecrie crystal to be used a6 both the elastic element and the sensor, When a pressor is Spptied tothe ceytal a voltage develops because of the deformation of the erystal. Tit ‘Voltage is directly related to the applied pressure. Depending on the design, this type of Transducer can be used t0 measure botb very low sed high pressures (up t approimately 100,000 pei) at high fequencies. Adgviona information on pressure wansducers can be fund in Refs. 3,4, and 5V2.3 Hose dam Wen detrdning theresa force on rete eect of ‘norpherc pressure fen cancel. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 28 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 57 oops xem eso as dat en bx) EIU RE BAS (Two dient dad seningage pesretromducers (Specttomed Models PIOEZ and FNL) commonly wed to mesure psig [resures Paste doe ace ed with fd apd conte te ed reel aoagh & eee of eabies (Photograph soortry of Speteare Tn) O) Schematic daar ‘he PEK tonafucer nh he dome renee: Delco Othe aphragm def rstre mare th sion Hea on hh ra age and 7 ascated Bie cna hve been deposited, When a surface is submerged in a fluid forces develop on the surface due tothe fluid. The determination of these forces is important inthe design of storage tanks, chips, dams, and ther hyo structures. For luds a rest we know that the force must be perpendicular to the surface since these ae no shearing stresses present. We also Know thatthe pressure ‘wll vary linearly with dep as chown in Fig, 2.16 if the lod is incompressible. Fora hor- ional surface, such asthe botiom of Higud-filled tank (Fig. 2.160}, the mageitude ofthe resultant force is simply F = pA, where p is te uniform pressure onthe bottom and A is the area ofthe botiom, Forte open tank hown, p = yi. Note tat if atmospheric pressure futon bath sides of the botom, as is ustrated, the wesuiont force on the bottoms sim= ply due to the liquid inthe tak. Since the pressure s constant and uniformly distributed over the bottom, the resultant force acts through the ceauid of the area as shown in Fig. 2.160,88 Chapter 2 Foe States Pre rendtaat force fe waicfuld ona Plane sure i de foe hybosatie presute ditbution onthe sure WI GQ FLQUTE 246 (g) Prosi dasbaion and ratat hydra freon the ‘oto of a spn ak) Prue ration thee of a een en Ie (HITT ‘As shown in Fig. .16b, the pressure on the ends of the takes not uniformly distributed Determination ofthe resultant frce for situations such a his i presented below. For the more general casein which a submerged plane surface is inclined, ois illus tested in Fig. 217, the determination of the resultant force acting on the surface is more in Solved. For the present we wil assume thatthe fluid surface is open to the atmosphere. Let the plane in which the surface lies intersect the free surface at Gand ake an angle with this surface asin Fig. 217."The x-y coordinate system is defined so that Os the origin and is directed along the surface as shown, The tea can ove an arbitrary shape es shows. We “uish to determine the direction, locaton, aad magnitude ofthe resultant force acting on one lcnteat oreo cP EE L@U RE 2:17 Netto fr hyratatic force 08 a8 ined plane sfc of riety shapeThe magnitude of the eat iid {force is uel othe presen the cmt of the ‘vealed by ‘he tal oren. 28 drastic Force on a Pane Serface 59 si ofthis are de to the tigi in cont wtb the ate, At any given dep te fore fing ond (the diferctal aes of Fig. 2.17) i dF = H)44 and is pespeadicnar to the Surface, Thus, the magatne of the resultant free can be fond by summing these dite. tial ores over heen surfce. Sn equation form 7 F, [onays [pmeay O05 where A= sin 9, Por constant and” rears ye an rica 217 bene fet ng [raensca wth y cotati a A eed om as ch pas ere Eton 21 sth eee Fe rind ex sigy (Ape au) wrth el isa om the huis oe tf er. No at Saute fe fee seen of te mpe sd Sods nyo Be ese SUF mie ont ade ep oe Couto ee tlw OS SEPIA Lis inten ate mip fe meat os a oe fonuval ede ne aighciy foto ana Soreaite ental Barun ocala Fae poetry mt a te pupil oe "hs arnt nih ge ht es oe ps ah cen tt ps al css Thy cern, uc en fee ee ectimines ty emma cf omen evox Tia he moment of be ond pa moment dae’ pa ase and, therefore, since Fy ya ‘The imegralin the sumeratce is the second moment af te arc (rment of inertia, fy with respect to an axis formed by the intersection ofthe plane containing the surface and the free sunfce (x axis) Thus, we can write nae ‘Use can now be sade ofthe parallel exis thorem to express, a8 La let AFthy, | =a mete oes WA RA ere is the profuct of inestia with respect to the and y axes, Again using the parallel sis theorem,’ we can write were J the product of inertia with vespect to an orthogonal coordinste system passing through the centoid ofthe aces and formed by a translation ofthe xy coordinate system, IF the submerged eee is symmetticel with respect to an axis passing through the centoid and parallel to either the x ory axes, the resuliant force must Lie slong the line x = xy $iRC2 Joe Fe identically zero inthis case. The point thraugh which the resultant force acts i called the ‘enter of pressure I to be noted from Fg. 2.19 and 2.20 datas y, increases the center ‘Of pressure moves closer to the centroid ofthe ares Since y, = A,/sn the Gistancey. will Increase ifthe depth of submergence, increases, or, fora given dept, the area is rotated to that the angle, 8, decreases, Ceniroial coordinates and moments of inert for some con son areas are given in Fig, 2.8. “Tne Three Gorges Dam The Tee Gorges Dam tang con- situted on Chinn's Yangi= River will comin te wor’s Target hydevelecie powerplant whe in fell operation. The dam is of the concrete gravity type having length of 2309 meters wth 2 height of 185 raters. The main elements of te Frojet include the da, two powe lasts and navigation fa Elites consisting ofa ship lock sd it The power plans wil ‘ontin 26 Francie trbine, each with capoity of 10 Inegnwaits, Te spillway secon, whlch isto eer section tthe dm i 483 meters long vith 25 bowam outlets wed 22 ‘urface siice gues. The maximum dschrge capaciy is 102,500 cube mess per second. After moe than 10 year of -onsteton the dam gates wet fly close, and on Sune To, 2003, te reservoir ad been filled is ier level of. 135 mms. Due tothe large dept of wt ate dam an the huge exten of the storage pool. ipdroate pressure forces have been a major ctor cnsiered by engine. When filed to ts normal po! level of (75 mcs te total esr stor~ ge capucty 393 tilioneobie mete. The projets sched- tet for completion in 2009. (See Preble 2408) £1 ‘arpa wie ave tre pa nein ae te a poke nih age on ae Dah a ey eas pen oe pose meh i ee ret es el Sas mtn md pn fom28 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surtace 61 7 po? Ege Few as s ae me Cerne = ESS oe cau (eseneice cate hy 2S Geomeete propre of some come stapes, (EXaMeLe 2.6 Hi “The 4m-dameter cizculae gate af Fig. E2.6u is lsat in the Inclined wall of a large reservoir contiaing water (7 = 980 N/a, The gate Is mounted ona shaft along its Horizontal diameter Fora water deph of he = 10 m above the shaft determine) he magitae and location ofthe = tultaat fore exerted onthe gate bythe Water and) the mo- ‘nent that would have to be sppieé othe shaft 1 9pen the ee petite aseremmnter oone perro eres Fr = (980 10 Nim KID m\e 9%) = 1250 1P N= 125M Ans)62 chapter 2 Mia statics “To cite the poe (ener of presse) tough whieh Fe es, we ie Eas. 219 003220, Forte corte system shown yO since the a is ‘ral and cen of psu mt erg he Stu ha Toobin wet om M218 me feist om 2 Ted ansia Ka oF) in OF Oden + 1155m= 16m andthe distance long the gt) below he tata the center of esses I= Yo 00865 (ano) ‘We en cael fom this analysis at the force om the gute duet te water nes a magnitude Of 1.23 MN and acts tough ‘pont alo dameser AA ata sce of 00866 tn (long, the guts below the sat. Te frei pespencialr tothe gue tare seston. By epating te clelations for varcus vas ofthe depth tothe cently the rere shown in Fig, E264 ae caine, ie that the pe greases the tance between the c- | | | { = | i | | \ ter of pote and the centcid decree, / (EXAMPLE 2.7 CGR | stag anit tin ener = Lom) | tor iofrshoeei fig Ee Torqaome din, ‘Qitcancarer ae nk, erst end Sowurion. ‘Re was dunked wae tis pon a ova Fe ED Se beste ef aes nave pe ree Steal ton Ex 2 emt oh face Fee yh (640 o/K9 RYV/AAE) = 2590 (ns) [Noe tat his Foreisjadependeat of he tank ng, The elt isthe sae i deans 0.25 25 oF 25 mils ong The <0 Crdint of te center of pressure (CPYis fend from E29, nFiauRe (@) Toe moment segue 10 open the give canbe obtained with th od ofthe feo body dagen of Fg, E26. In hia Uiagram 5 is the weight ofthe ge and O, and ave the onontal and vera etone ofthe atom the gate, We cove sum moments bout the shaft BM-o se, ecto Me False) = (280% 10 (00966) 2107 x10 Nem vith oe ston a illastated, Determine he mages ond Toction ofthe force ofthe seawater on ths ingulr aes. snd trom Fig. 218 _Gueer _ st, e357 36 ota tase ** BaOAR mansion + 9% = 906% +9n (ans)29 Presate Prism 63 Sie om Eq, 220 and fom Fig. 218 sorta _ Sune Gagan “Thus, we conch thatthe center of pressure is 0.027810 ‘height of te 0.0556 ft belom he certo ofthe aes (is point is pcted, we find that i es on the mein line for the aie eutted in Fig, 2.7 Since we xn think of ‘otal res consisting ofemumbe of smal rectangular sips ‘of ae ete id fore on each of hee eal aes a ‘hough center) follows tat the estat al hee poe all ores must le along te median. x FO OmTER Ane) ‘An informative and useful graphic interpretation can be maée forthe force developed by 1 flid cting on a plane ares. Consider the pressre distiation along # vertical wall of a tank of wid 2, which con 1 liquid having a specific weight 7. Since the pressure must vary linearly with dept, we can repceseat the variation as is shown in Fig. 2.194, where the presnure i€ equal to 2e0 at the upper surface and equal 10 yf atthe boom. Tt is apparent = eet Pressure prism for vertical elanguar ae.64 chapter? 5 Pla Sttes The magrinte of the met fad {forces eualto the ole of he pres sn prin ant passes thoughts eid from this diagram thet the average pressure occurs at dhe depth h/2, and therefore he rest. tant force ecting onthe rectangular area A = bits ne Freep A=r(5)4 Which isthe same cesult 36 obtained from Eg, 2.18. The pressure distribution shown in Fip 2.194 apples across the vertical surface so we ean draw the te-dimensional repre: fertation of the pressure distibaton as shown in Fig. 2.19. The base of this “volume” in pressure-area space is the plane surface of intecet, and its altitude at each pont i he res- Shree volume is called the pressure prism, apd its clear that the magnitude of the ‘Roatan force acting onthe surface is equal tothe volume ofthe pressure prism. Thus, for the prism of Fig. 2.196 the Mui force is ex whine Loh where bis the ares of the rectangular surface, A “The resultant force mst passthrough the centroid ofthe pressure prim. For the vol- ‘ume under consideration the centroid is located along the vertical axis of symmety of the surface and ata distance of hi’ abave the base (snes the centeoié ofa triangle is located at $i above ts base) This result can readily be show to be consistent with that obained from ga. 2.19 and 2.20. “This seme graphical approach can be used for plane surfaces that do not extend up to the fluid surface as illustrated in Fig. 2.2Da. In this instance, the cross section of the pres ture prism is trapezoidal, However, the resultant force is still equal in magnitude tothe vole “ume of the pressure prism, and it pases through the centoid of the volome. Specie values ‘au be obiained by decomposing the presse prism into to pars, ABDE and BCD, as shown in Fig 2.206. Thus, Fee Fit he where the components can readily be determined by inspection for rectangular surface. The location of Py ean be determined by saraming moments about soie convenient axis, sch a one passing through A. Tn this insane Fao = Fin + Fad and yj and yy can be determined by inspection hy att f= erigunesee Solera » ‘etal etapa Sorte.Therein aid force cen ona submerged area ‘aed bythe prosure at the fee surfce 29 Presse Prism 65 DEIGURE 22t Frew ‘at along a ince plan te For inclined plane surtsces the pressure prism can stil be develope and the cross sec- tion of the prism will generally be trapezoidal as is shown in Fig. 221. Although itis wsu- ally convenient to measure distances aloog the inclined surface, the pessizes developed flepend on the vertical distencss as istated. ‘The une of prssuce prams for determining the force on submerged plane areas is con- venient if che ara is rectangular so the volume and centroid can be easily determined. How ver, for oer noncetangular shepes, integration would geneally be needed to determine the Volume ae centroid, In these circumstances itis meee convenient to use the equations devel- ‘ped inthe previous section, in which the nocestary integrations have been made and the re- silts prosented in a convenient and compact form that is spplicable to submerged plane ereat of any shape "The effect of atmospheric pressure on a submerged ares as nat yet been consieed, ‘and we may ask how this pressure wail influence the resultant fore, IF we again consider the pressure dstibosion on a plane vertical wall, as is showa in Fig, 2.22a, the pressure varies fiom aero a the surface chat the boom. Since we are seting the surface pressure equal to 2e0, we ae using atmospheric pressure a5 our datum, an thus the pressure used in the determination ofthe fluid force i gage pressure. If we with to include atmospheric pressure, the pressure dstbution willbe as shown in Fig. 2.22, We note that in this case the force ‘on one side of the wall aow consists of Fy a8 a resut of the hydrostatic pressure distibu tion plus the eonebution ofthe atmospheric presute, Pay A. where A s the area ofthe Bt- face, However, if we ae gcing to include the effet of atmospheric preseue on one side of the wall we must realize that this same pressure acts on the outside surface (assuming itis exposed to the atmosphere}, so that an equal and opposie free wil be developed as illustated fn the figure, Thus, we conce thatthe resultant id force on the surface is hat de ony to the gage presiure contebuton of the iguid in contact with the surface—the atmospheric ® » PL QUAS 2.80 ett of anoapheri pret onthe revutnt {bre ating on plone ert al66 chapter 207 Fld States pressure doesnot conebute to this resultant, Of course ifthe surface pressure of the liquid erGiterent from atmospheric pressure (euch as might occur in a closed tank) the resultant force acing on submerged atea, A, will be changed in magnitue from that caused simply by hydrostatic pressure By an amount p,, whete ps the gage pressure at che igud sur face (the ouade surface is assumed to be ( [EXAMPLE 28 ArUcesUN (ere SIC SWI ete aE ‘A pressed ink conti i (SC ~ 0.90) and has aque, ‘Déby 06m plate bod tits side, ai ilstrated in Fig. E2Ae. When ihe pressre gage on Be tp ofthe tank reads Exposed to atmospheric pressure) oe ‘5 kPa, what isthe mapa se Loeaton of the eesoltant owes onthe attached pate? The outside ofthe tank iat atmos: ‘re pesut. oricune ge Gowrie “The presi ssbiton eting onthe inside uric ofthe plete i hoor ia Fg. E28b, The presse a give pint on the plats due toch air presse, p, ute ol sutace andthe rose doe tothe i, whieh vais linearly with deh 8 | “row i the gure. The eta force on the pat (aving 20 tea A is due to the components, Fy and Fy where Fy and Fe fe doe (othe rectangular and triangular porions of he res | sure istbetion, espctvly. Ths, Be tet ahd = [80% 10° Nin? (OMoy.81 % 10? N/m? 2 m)K036 a?) = (090x981 x 10° N/m? = 0934 % 10° 2 [Sa cae] Fell Teo Ne “The magaitade of he restunt ee Fetes Far Ft Ry2 Ba 1ON= 254KN (ARS) “The vera Iocaton of Fy ca be obtained by summing mometts around sn aus through pont Oo that Fayo = F(03m) + Fy02m) _ (24 1OPNO3 m) + (D854 IOINNOZ SAIN = 0296 (ans) “Tas, the force at a itunes of 0.296 m above the bom ofthe pe along the vesicles of symmetry. ‘Nea esr ressue aged’ the ealeaton fhe Free vas gage presse Atmosphere essre does notalet hee {atta fee (rug or loeton) sinc cats on both sides ofthe pate thereby canceling i effet2.10 __Hydrostatie Force on a Curved Surface 24 Pop bate The development of a fcebody di promofa stable vols off con be wsed to deter ‘inthe reson uid fore acing ‘onacurved face 210 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface 67 ‘The equations developed in Section 28 forthe magnitude and location of the resultant force ating ona submerged surece only aply to plane surfaces, However, many surfaces of interest (uch as those assoreted with dams, pipes, and tanks) are nonplant. Although the resltat fui fore canbe determined by integration, as was done forthe plane su. faces, his is genecllyarather tedious process and no simple, general frmulas canbe de veloped. As an alteretve approach we will consider tbe equibium ofthe fd volume cnciosed by the curved surfce of inerest andthe horzontl and veaical projections of this surtace. For example, consider the curved section BC af the open tank of ig, 2280, We wish {fod the resultant Mid force acting on tis section, which bas a uit length pepeadin Jaro the plane ofthe pape. We Sst isolate a volume of uid thats bounded bythe sar face of interes, inthis instance section BC, the horizontal plane sree AB, andthe vert cal plane suace AC. The fee body diagram for this volume is shown in Fig. 2.23. The Iagituse and location of forces and can be determined fom the vlainshis fr plana surfaces, The weigh, Wis simply the pic weight of the Mui ines the erased Yolume and acs through De centr of gravity (CG) ofthe mas of Nid contained within the volume. The forces Fy and Fy represent the components of the Fores tha the tank ex rts onthe fad In ode for this force system tobe in equim, the hosizomtal component Fy must ‘be equal in magnitude and colieat with Fy and the vesticl compeneat Fy equ n mage nitude and collinese with the resltant of the vertical Forces F and‘. Thi follows since the thes forees acting on the fuid mass (Fy, the resultant of and ‘W, andthe resultant force ‘thet the tank exerts on the mass) must form a concurrent force system. That is, from the Drinciples of statics, itis known that when a body is held in equilibrium by thre nonparal- Tel fores they must be concurrent (their Fines of action intersect at @ common point) and coplanar, Thus, yah Fen aw Hydrate free gna red sure68 Chapter 2 Fl States ‘and the magnitude of the resultant is obtained from the equation Fy= VE + PP “The resultant Fy posses through the point O, which can be located by summing moments tout an appropiate axis, The resultant force ofthe uid acting on the curved surface BC {sequal and opposite indirection to that obtained from the fee-body diagram of Fig. 2.235 “The desired Mid force is shown in Fig. 2.23e (Fxou.e 29 REET “The 6sinmeterdsinge conduit of Fig. 2.9 eal fll ot ene atest Determine he ezine and ine of action o He ESsSsSdnsasnHn"auAARRanInnnaaiaes le BrlguURE R290 Seuvri0n ‘Weft icine volume of Paid bounded by the crv Ten BC. the nana ace Aad to vera see AC, shown in Fig. E290. Te volume has length of | The fovens aing onthe vole set brizonal fre, hich | scvonte veestautace aC, te weg, W, a he fideo | fered volun, an he Baza td vere com povets fhe force ofthe conduit wal onthe i, Fy 204 F repens, "Th magnitude of Fi found fom the equation Fy = pedo (62.4 Bo/IO)3 RY HF} = 2811 ant is fore ats 1 are Cs how, The weight Ws = vol oann/e)On/A EA) and acs trough the center of gravis of tie mis of Ei tihich according og. 218isccne 1.27 othe eMC Sevhowa,Therfore, sus eels Fen w= aa Fy =F = 281 restart force that be water exerts on 2:8 es oved section BC ofthe conduit wal andthe magnitude ofthe resalan fre is f= VED = Vani bf + GaTF = 525 “The force the wate ones othe conduit walls oq, bt p= poste in direction to the frees Fy 208 Fy shown in Fig 2 6. Ths, the extant free on he cond wns shown ia Fig, E29e- Ths fre acts tough the point O a the sngle shows, “hn inspection of hie reslt wl show tat th ine of eon ofthe resultant force pests though the centr oth cond. To eavespec this aot a srpiiag ret sine at each pat fn the cured surface ofthe condi th element fre de 10 the pres is normal the urace, end eich fin of ation mvs pas trough te centerf the cont therefore allows that the sulla of thi concurrent ace syste mst leo pss ‘eroagh the centr of concuence ofthe elemental Fores tat makeup the sytem, Ans)DAL Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stabitty 69 Miniotre, exploding pressure vessels Our dll ves aro spesn,impervous hl (pesue vessel whish, when heated ‘safer because of the effort put for by enginesr to design toa proper temper uns to steam, causing he Lee 0 ‘nf, lightweight pressure yessls such a bolle, propane explode and turn self inside ot Nota popconp betes have tacks, and pop bods. Wahou pope design the lare o- the proper properties 10 make them pop Wel Fist, he Kerael “tae presre forces onthe curved snfces of auch corsin- ms be qt closet 13.5% water Wih to litle moist, ‘och cause the vest fo explode with esx conse sot enough stam wll dup eo pop te Keel 00 mich (quences. On heck hard the words more endl place moisture canes th kere! to pop ito a dense sphere ater ‘because of miiatepressrevesscls that ae designe to ex- than the igh fify delicacy expected, Second, t allow the plede under the proper condiions—popcomn kernels. Each pressure fo bulé up the keels must not be cached or | rain of popcor contain a snl mount of Water within the damaged.) ‘This same general approach cen also be used for determining the force on curved surfaces of pressutized, closed tanks. If these tanks contain a gus, the weight of the gas is ‘sual negligibie in comparison with the forces developed by the pressure. Ths the Foxces (euch as F; and F; in Fig, 223) on horizontal and vertical projections of the curved sur face of intrest con simply be expreseed asthe intemal pressure times the appropiate pro- jsted area 211 __ Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 241.1 Archimedes’ Prineiple When a stationary body is completely submerged in a Hid, or floating so that itis only enmamanas Wns sre oa aay carmen oe fecamgene, lly een feign ly ald eet Se ee ete tones rononeae ta oe draw a Goe-body diagram of the parallelepiped wil the body removed as showa ia Fig 2240, Nowe tha the fores Fy, FF, and Fy ace simpy the ars exerted he plane a= faces of the parlletepiped (fo simplicity the forces inthe x direction ae at shown, Wis the weight ofthe shaded fluid volume (parlelepiped minus body), and F the force the body is exerting on sh fi, The ores on tho vertcel surfaces, such es, and Fae all qual and cancel, othe equilibrium equation of interests in thee dteton and ean be ex- pressed as Beko n ew em Ihe specie weight ofthe dis constant, thea Feo Fah ayA where isthe horizontal area ofthe upper (or lower) surface ofthe parallelepiped, and Ea, 2.21 can be writen as Fe = Wb = nd — vl(hy ~ mA ~ ¥]70 chapter 2 Fld States ¥25 Conese Diver Archimedes’ pricl- ‘pester ho he brayant force has 0 magnitude equ 2 the neigh of te fit place by the body ands tdretedvercally pwd Le) GUE 2.84 Baan foe oo eabmerged and axing dies ‘Simplifying, we ative at the deszed expression fr the buoyant force (ew) om cet pce np fe i oa fe Tees PoE ec a etal oct pn ss Sta pacts on re ntact ena easter ne ree ino sate eA v2) = Sk ee ate mses te ba wen wend ih ot nl won eon ct i ng cn ee eho agus Rp sate imap oe ao es momar apn sepa owe Fare = Pay = Fo = Wh ‘and on substitution forthe vious forces y= Hey — rm Hl 22 ‘where Vy is the total volume (fy ~ hy)A. The sight-hand side of Eq. 2.23 is the fist oment ofthe csplaced voiome ¥ with respect tothe xz plane so that ys equal t0 the J evordinate ofthe centroid of the volume ¥. In a similar fashion it ean be shown tht the Coordinate ofthe buoyant free coincides with the x coordinate ofthe centri, Ths, we Conclude thet the buoyant force passes through the centroid ofthe displaced volume 0‘Coneree cannes A slid blckaf eoacetethrown ntoa yond lke wil ebvietly snk Buri bs concrete formed int the shape ofa canoe can be made oat OF cours th ea ten the cance ets the deepen: of the Buoyant force ue tothe diplced vole of wate With the peer desig, this vertical fore ean be made ta alee the weight ofthe ca noe pis passegers—the canoe Hoss. Bach year sace 1988 (esa Nation Concrete Canoe Compton fr unlvesixy Seer 211 Buoyancy, tation, and Stabiity 71 ‘ex. IP's jony sponsored by the Amman Society of Cl Engineers and Maser Bulsers Ine. The cases inst be 90% ones and are pel dergned with be id of a computer by il enginesting sade, Fil seoving depen on Tour components acing & desig pees, business pretention, tnd a cana tet pares the lottion tt Forte 2003 con peston the University of Wiseonsn's tes won with 451, 22 canoe, (See Problem shown in Fig. 2.24e. The point through which the buoyant force acts is calles he center of duoyaney. ‘These same results apply to lating bodies which are only pataly submerged, asi lustated in Fig, 2:24, if the specific weight of the Muid above the ligud surface is very ‘small compared with the liquid in which the body floats. Since the fhid above the surface is usually sit, for practical purposes this condition is susie, In the deviations presented above, the fu is assumed to have a constant specific weigh, 7. I's body is immersed in a fluid in whieh y varies with depth, such asin a fay cred fiid, the magnitude ofthe buoyant force remains equal 1 the weight of the displaced uid. However, the buoysnt force does aot passthrough the centroid of the displaced vol V2 Hyebometer Aspherical uoy tas a diameter of 13m, weahs 8.50 KN, and is anchored tothe seafloor witha cable as shown ia Fg 2.0, Albough te buoy socmaly oats onthe suc, at ‘era ties the war depth nee 0 tat te buoy co | pletely immerse ae saat, For hs conven what isthe Tension ofthe able? Souriow We fist eaw a fe-body diagram of the buoy 35 show in Fig. B210b, sere Fi the buoyant force ating on the buoy, “Wi the weight of he buoy, and Ts the tension in the cable. | For equine it fllowe tht THr ow From Bg, 222 oW a for seawater with y = 10.1 N/m! and ¥ = dY6 then Fe= (101 X 10° N/a)[(x/6)18 mp] = 1.285 IOAN “The esio nthe cable can now be eaeuatd T= 1785 ION ~ 0850 x IN = 938KN (Ars) tne, but rather, it passes through the center of gravity ofthe displaced volume. Noe tate replaed the fest ofthe hystat pressure fowce on me ody bythe buoyant fee, Fa. Avotercotee {tee boy dager ofthe buoy is shown in Fg E2.0e, The nt effect ofthe pressure eres onthe srfce of he buy sequal tothe upd force of magnitude, Fy (te Boyset force) Do ot ala oth he Buoyant fore ar the hyrontate presse sfleza your ealealatons—ase one o the te,2 crater 21 Hid States ne Protecting Venice with Hood gates The sumerous cana of ‘Venice ators station aa resident” concer. Foe fg de to high water is nes in fequney. Eat in the twentith cei St Mark's Squat, low goin ia Venice Foe les han 10 tenes a yea. By the 1980s foning 0 ‘Ged 40 mes a yet, and curently 60 tes ayer is he Sf Th ela shift roan ea evel Toon 0 (Gat changes are considered cota tots roving prob 241.2 Stability position. Conversely, itis in ann svbmerged or coincide. A sma ple, fr the completly sub ‘below the center of buoyancy, ‘couple formed bythe weight. W, beck to its original poston. Th he aabtyofa ody ean ba deter 0 ei tee thats, the body is ina stable al saeet happens ext ass illasated in Fig, 2.26, camirisdiplaced is above the center of buoyancy. Jromiiseguifbrion force will cause the body o overt pasion pletely submerged body with its center of luatable eguilibrvon position or floating bods the stability the location of the eenter of buoyancy lume) may change. ASI shown in Fi the water ean be stable eventhough ‘This is tre since as the body rotates the buoyant fore, Fy qr eee _ UrIGURE 225 Sb of» completly immersed rayne a ily blow cota ‘Another interesting and important problem associated wi concerned with the stability of the bots. As iiasvated is seid tobe in a stable equilibrium position if, Hmoves anew equilibrium position. Stability floating bodies since the centers of buoyancy and grovity don Ht rotaon can result in eter a zestoring or overturning couple. For exam- serge body shown in Fig, 2.25, which has a center of gravity i rotation from its eulibriam position will create a restoring that as long asthe center of gravity falls below the center of buoyancy, er. One proposed soltien ives Dare ballo gates sob ‘pera tries tothe Voice lagoon, When igh ies rete hs ely compressed ai wil space water out ofthe fc, peoducing 2 Pury force tat wil case tem fon tip it place and preven wate from entering he goon. The Te com of lastlaton and anual canterance of hs spe- (Sie sation subj tconiderable debe Some thikeat ‘er, ss col soto shoud be made eval, jth submerged 01 Aloating bods i by the figure inthe margin, a body wen displaced, it eturns to its equine table equilibrium position if, when displaced even slighty), ‘considerations are particularly important for 10: necessarily td the buoyant fore, Fp, which causes the body to rotate fortis coniguration the body is stable. It to be noted this wil always be ibrium postion wth espetto stall cottons. How ‘tthe cence of grevty ofthe completely submerged body he resulting couple formed by the weight and the buoyant turn and move t0 a new eqiltsiam position. Thus a com ty above is center of buoyancy is in an problem is more complicated, since asthe body rotates {which pestes trough tbe centroid ofthe displaced vol- ig 2.27, a floating body such a a barge the ies Low in the center of gravity les above the center of buoyancy shift to passthrough the ceneoid > Sy or Sub comply ered sf eaty shoveV7 Sebi ofa model barge ‘212 Pressure Variation in a Flak with Rigit-Dody Motion — 73. nario oa semis esi ‘sures ume epacea ene vous FE RAF Stony ofa esting body—stble ongarton ofthe newly formed displaced volume snd, a9 iivsuated, combines withthe weight, W, to form a couple which will eause tne body to ret is eriginal equilibrium postion. How: ever, forthe relatively tal, slender body shown in Fig. 2.28, a smal rotational displacement ‘an cae the buoysnt force and the weigh to form an overturning couple as asrated is cleat from these simple examples thatthe determination of the stability of sub- merged of focting bodies can be dificult since the analysis depends in complicated fasion ‘on the particule geometry and weight distribution ofthe body. The problem cen be further ‘complicated by the necostary inclusion of ater types of extemal forces such as those in- ‘ued by wind guts or currents, Stability considerations are obviously of great importance in the dosign of ships, submarines, bathyscaphes, and so forth, and such considerations play 4 significant role in the work of naval srchitecs (ee, for example, Ref. 6, le) “a une “Vee “Gossow “owe ELOY RE 225 subkyete vate oating body unstable contigueaton. ven though lid maybe inmotion, f moves er rigid ‘ay there il be roshearng stresses presen Although in this chapter we have beon primarily concerned with fluids at rest, the general ‘equation of motion (Ba. 22) “Vp yk “vas developed for both fuids at rest end fluids in motion, with the only stipulation being that there were no shearing stesses present. Equation 22 in componeat form, based on ree- tangular eooccnates with the positive z axis being vertically upwacd, can De expressed as ean ‘A general class of problems involving vid motion in which there ere no shearing sSwesses occurs when a mass of fluid endergoesrigid-body mation. For example, if « con ‘ainer of uid aocelerates along a straight pal, tbe fuid will move asa rigid mass after the7A craptoc 2 Fld St ‘he pressure dt ution i fad sasg thas accel- trang along @ eight path snow hydrostatic initial sloshing motion bas died out) with esch panicle having the same acceleration. Since there is no deformation, there will be no shearing stresses and. therefore, Ea. 22 applies Similarly if lid is contained in tank that rotates aboot a fxed axis, the uid will sim ply rotate with te ink asa rigid ody, and again Bq. 22 canbe applied to obtain the pes: Fite distribution throughout the moving Mui. Specie reslls for these two cases rigid-body funform motion and rigi-body rotation) are developed inthe following two sections. Aihough ‘problems relating to fds having sgi-body motion are aot, strictly speaking, “fluid stat~ Fee" problems, they are included inthis chapter because, ab we wil se, de analysand re- suing pressuteelatonships are similar to those fo Huts a rest, 2.12.1 Linear Motion ‘We first consider an open container ofa igud that asain slong. a sah path with com ‘ant aoveertion aa ostated in Fg, 2.29. Sine a, = Oit foiows from the fst of Bes. 2.24 thatthe pressure gradient inthe x ireston is zero (9p/@x = 0). Inthe y and x directions ® y (2.25) nga) 20 “The change in pressure between two closely spaced points located ay, and y + dy. z + a ‘ean be expressed as » ® +e ay?” ae rin terms ofthe results fom Eqs. 225 and 2.26 © dp = ~paydy ~ ple + 0) de aan ‘Along @ line of constant pressure, dp = 0, and therefore from Eq, 2.27 it follows tat the slope ofthis line i given by the relationship 28) ‘Along, a free suface the pressure is constant, so that for the aeceleeting. mass shown in Fig. 229 the free suiace will be inclined if¢, # 0. In ation, al lines of constant pres: sure wil be parallel tothe free surface as illustrated For the special citcumstance in which a, ~ 0,2, #0, which corresponds to the sass oF thd aecelerting in the vercal direction, Bq, 2.28 indicates thatthe fluid surface wll be horizontal. However, from Eq, 2.26 we see that the pressure divtibution is mat Lex BrigunE 220 incr seein of gd ta ese2:2 Presare Variation in a Fuld with Right-Body Motion 75 hnydrosatc, but is given by the equation Be og +0) For his of contr ey hs euatn chs inthe rene wi vay ie wih Soph bet erro dot he cn tos of grant nd he eal ned scsrton pg ¥ rer tm sly he mse wee pe. This, example, he ns ln he baom oiled ni wih esting on he oo of a leat bs cttuaguprrdilbnseed oe at ich xs wen no (ring ths cen weigh vse be mata ht fr fay fling st (care) pee ged all ie cote diets ae ey wich ness [rae bowie sunt mts soe pesieIvaghon ol be a, The prev rough att” org oe ong meng pce Unt (fo Bret asre Tie cn fe uli ena rns no 73) ‘Te re section forthe fel tak of an expen vices shown in Fig, B11, The resangulae ak is vee to the at | oad. During ting ofthe aici teak subjected on ‘consat incr aeration. (9 Determine a expression that | elite, andthe presen) lhe wansdce fora fet ()_ Fees sonsan orzo seelrtion the fel wil move gh body, from Eg 2.28 e slope of the fe sutoce con be expesied | {Sine 30 063 @) Wits te nim secon Oa | SIS ise te tll dot neue | Goumo [on tome ‘whore isthe cep of uel above he transis, and ef = (0ss}62 Ivth[0-f~ (075 Rave] at wns! ss ef Tigidenthe ight side of ts ankcan be fund from he forts OS H.-As wien, p would be gienin ‘equation (8) Toetiitng valu fo (Gyavhen te fel evel aches ‘he renee ca be ound fom the equation osreorn[ | | wonn(2) (a= Since thee is no aesesaton inthe vet, direction, the nd for ada aceeration ofa 5 pretsore slong the all vais bydrottaly az shown by ™™8* ciaiet 1S ey on Noe a te peso in viaooallpers is vt constant inhi ‘xample since on/p = pa, Ths fo example, 2, Ps | Bip 226 Thos the es at te tnedocer i ven by the (eh ™ 0220 5 rlansip76 crap 2 Ful States ‘A fluid contained in (tan hi Ps lng with conzane angular velo fbour an ais ll toute os arise body. 242.2 Rigid-Body Rotation ‘After en inital "start-up" transient, # fluid contained in a tank that zottes with a constant ‘angular velocity © bout an exis as is shown in Fig. 2.30 wil rotate with the tank as asic body. Its known from elementary particle dynamics thatthe acceleration of e fluid parle Tocted ta distance r from the axis of rotation i equa in magnitude to ru and the direction ‘tthe acceleration s toward the axis of coation ass lustated inthe igure, Since the pas (Gf the Duld particles are cicular, tis convenient to use cylindrical polar coordinates r, 0, Ghd, defined in the inset in Fig, 2:30. Tc wil be shown in Chapter 6 that i terme of ylin- ‘ricl coordinates the peessare gradient Vp can be expressed as = 42, vox Pe ze 229) “Thus, in terms ofthis coordinate system 4 a= 420 and from Bq. 2.2 230) ® pra? ore “These results show that fortis typeof rigid-body rotation, the pressure isa function of to vtiables rand 2, end therefore the differential pressure is ® “ae aay Pie apo Fare dp = prot dr — de ean ‘Along a surface of constant pressure, such asthe fee surface, dp = 0, so that fom Bq, 2:31 (osing y = pe) ‘and, therefore, the equation for surfices of constant pressure is + constant ean) FEC URE 2.90 Migittody rain of gu in tan‘212 Pressure Varatfon In a Fluid with Rigid-Boy Motion 77. — SS IN\\ BFIOuRE 2.01 Psu tltitaton i ting gee Thefeeouece ia Tis equation eves hat tet sufces of conan restr are paraolie as istatd in 3 rowan is Fig 2.31. ed Ae tna 231 et = [one fear fa we pole tae i “where the constant of integration canbe expressed in terms of a specified pressure at some atbiteary point rz. The result shows thatthe pressure varies withthe distance from the axis of rotation, but ata fixed radius, che pressure vaties hydrostatcaly inthe vertical di- rection as shown in Fig. 231 (Cmees 212 a ee aaa ees ben sggete that he angular velocity, of rotating : ody or bat cat be measured by ataching an ea einer of — liu sbown a Fig, 2.125 and meassiag with some ype Mspeprbecmngr inte iloet te ced oy» emf] wt tests hae Deere beni teoesy | oer Mcgee ns eet TA Souvrion Th “The height, h, of the free surface above the tank bottom can be , Ser fon Ey 1a ae le at L ween : | ‘Peto yen of lia de sks el eiouew ee vim a7B chapter 2 Fai States “The volume ofthe Mud with he exting tank cane fond ‘nth Wo a of he fferenGal element showe i Fig, £212 ois yada shel tan atsemearinary es ands 1 volume i a¥ = 2erhdr “Te toa volume is, hereore, Siac the volume of te ii he ok rust resin constant (aasoming tar noe pills over the top, it fellows that wnt TOE ah, ie ome Ase) “This inthe elationship we were ooking for. It shows da the ‘Gnnge in depth cool indeed be aed t determine the ol tinal seed although the elionthip Between the change i ep and ped iano linea on, [Rotating mercry mlror isp A eiep miats |e same shapes he paste fe sure of» ipa | rong tank Te gid ior wescope (LMT esis of | pam of id (oly erecy Sesion a tenant r- esi) outing fo pce he oud panto shape of the fe brace tare: Nh recent clog advan, {tis ponte ob evan fe eatin ad the con ‘Sant angulr woiy gets oie igi iar su fhe ree eng for snp we. Conucton othe Ipe LAFT fend sete Une of Bash Clana and Study Guide tas een ben complied. With aiameter of and a= | thon te of ep he or wr 30 ref rset for Frm ick, paliesbped ire Ose ofthe ior ene ‘Heat LNT (compared anormal ls arr elescope) iw cot erage ala advo tht LMT eon Tet en saightep tous oe are my gales spe ee Sea ces of ce ok ey Yt | ey Tenet geen LTS ay tae movable dary mire to allow a larger portion ef He shy 10 be | Pte 2100) In this chapter the pressure variation in a fluid at rest is considered, along with some Fmportant consequences ofthis (ype oF presore variation. It is shown tat for incom presse fluids at rest the pressuze varies linearly with depth, This type of variation t= Commonly refered to as hydrostatic pressure distribution, For comprssibie fuids at rest the pressure distibution will not generally be hydrostatic, but Eg. 2.4 remains valid and tao be used decemine the pressure dstebutin if adltional information about the vris~ tion ofthe specific weight is specified, The distinction between absolute and goge pressure is digcusaod along with a consideration of barometers forthe measurement of atmospheric pressue, Pressure measuring devices ealled manometer, which utilize static Higuid cohumns, ace analyzed in detail, A brief discussion of mechanical aad elecwonie pressure gages #8 lls included, Equations for determining the magnitude and location ofthe resultant fig force acting on a plane sucface in contact with 2 static fluid are developed, A senecal approach for determining the magnitude end location of the resultant fluid force acting th a carved surface in contact with a static fluid is described. For submerged or float- ing bodies the concept of the buoyant force and the use of Archimedes’ principle are reviewedProbleme — 79 sl ‘he long check poe sady ge os hap When sor sy of ene ect epee nt of Super cbs bon sgl! you todo Ie gg ae on mening fhe ems ain fe min an estes of comet git a ne Tse pu prt nd el an od distribution ‘type in the text, faa o Clcane ne pane a saute win an congested it rrpuit eae area vr nos iin composi a tog ease STM to te ete wet seed cxosphere eosotore presen age pretre use the concept ofa hydrostatic pressure distribution to determine pressures from mea- surements using various types of manometes, determine the magnitude, direction, and location of the resultant hydrostatic force acting Desomeer fon a plane surface. anon 1» determine the magnitude, diecton, end location ofthe resultant hydrostatic force sct- ‘Baan pressure ing on a curved surface see * use Archimedes’ principle to caloulate the resultant yrostatic force ating on Moat af bang force revives prneole ing or submerged bodes. analyze, based on Eq. 22, the motion of Muids moving with simple rigi-body linear motion or simple right-bedy rotation. sara begensy References 1. The US. Standard Atmosphere, 1962, US. Goverumest rang Office, Washington, DC, 1962 2. The US. Stondanl Atmosphere, 1976, US. Goverament Prining Ofc, Washington, DC 1996. 4. Benet RP, Fadamentls of Tampere, Pressure, and Flow Measurements, 3 Wiley, New York, 198 4, Daly J. We, Bley, W. Fy and MaCoone!, KG, Instrumentation for Enpncering Measre- rel, od Bi, Wie, Now Yer, 198, 5. Hoimea, JP, Experimental Methods for Engineers, bE, McGraw-Hill, New You, 1983. 1 Comstock, JP, ef, Paneples of Maal Archie, Sosy of Naval Archies 2nd Marine Engineers, New Yor, 196 7. Hsien, A. Biers, Hy, Moms, K. and Dodge J, "Metconologial Date Fes “tn Pesapecive’” Bullen ofthe American Meteorological Soc, Ya. 66, Wo, 7 July 1985 Review Problems {G> to Appenix G fora eto review problems with answers, Stay Gude or Fundamental of Flue echanis, by Munson, Dead sclaionscan be found runt Sorion Manuatand etal (© 2005 fon Wily and Sons, Ine). Problems FHotes Uness otherwise indeetnd ua the values of cid Drapertog found 1 the fer oe he tide of the Font Eovte Probleme dasgnated oi) (e) oe atone pale ekeltor ora eau SS adpveted wth s (aes opened” provlees end eye idea! kg a tha work hes. sated80 ‘chaps 2 Flu States ‘ons must mske varios assumptions and pride the neces: Sry data, There not 2 wu ansver to dese probes ‘Ansyers te the eversrabered problems are ited at tte eu of te book, hess tthe eos det aecompa07 problems cat be obtained throwgh the books web si Sromvilycom/ellegeanansen, The laisype preblems ca soe secesied om is web site 2.1 The ater level in an open staolpipe is 75 ft above te round, What (ste sti presse a » fe hyant tht is Enacted tthe stanpipe a Toate t grown ive? Expres Sour answer in pl en in KP. 12 Blood pressures uty given a rao of the maxima essue(eysoieprsur) to the minisuim presse (sili Flesuc). As shown in Video V2, such preset ae Formerly meesured with a mercuy manomete. A ype Salue for hs ato for human would be 120/70, were die presstes ees enn Hg (a) What would hese presses bein seal? (b) Hf your ca re wa inflated to 120 am 1g would {tbe sli for socal diving? 2.3, An unknown immiscible guid seep ino the toto of en ‘pes il an Some raeasremenslnieate Cat te deph of the wakaow liqad fe 1.5 m and the dep ofthe of (perc Mteght = 3.5 kN) looting on tp 5. mA pesie page nected the boom ofthe ak rads 65 KPa, What ithe posi geavily of te unknown qu? 5 The two open tas shown in Fig, P24 have the same ‘on are, Abt itferent shapes. When the depth, hy of = Tu nthe Oo tats the sere the peste othe bottom ofthe (wo tanks wl be the same in avordance with Eq. 2. Flowever te eigit ofthe gud io cach of the tanks ie {fore How do you secount for is spac pardon? arloure pee 125 Bourdon gages (ee Video V2 and Fg. 213) ae om non wed to resure presen. Wien ach a gage i atached tothe closed water ek of Fig, B28 the gage reads 3p, What [ete abeoke ir presse on (NE tak? Assume snd a mosphere pessie of 14.7 ps 26 Bathyscaphes ar capable of sbmecping fo tet depths in the ocean. Wat i he prssue ata depth of 3 kam, assuming har senvater his 2 constant spose weight of TOL KN? pees your sasuer in pascal ad ps BRIGURE P28 127. orth gen depths that may be enconntered io the ocean the compresinly of seawater may become an inpotart sideration. (2) Aste tat be bulk medals for seawater {Sons and derive elaestipReswee presse and depth tic kes in coun the angen id density wit depth (©) Make use of pct (3) detesmine the pratt a depth GFeton assoming senate aso blk modalasof23 * 10°F Sl a deat of 1080 kai ate surface, Compare this es Suh tat obtsined. by seaming * constant dens of 1030 kgf? 28. The den plug in 8 bat designed to skal propery Soken these 2.005 ps presute apples w it How dep must the water bin dhe tb forthe 0 seal? 29 Two hemispherical sells are bold togetes as shown in'Fig. P29. The resulting sphesieal contains, which weighs ths fil witereury ond soppoed by sabe ss own ‘Foe conier is weed atthe top eight azar syrretically Tnested around the cucumference, wht he vera force tat ‘oh bot mst eaey? arIGURE P20