1 INTRODUCTION

The Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is becoming a very popular technology.

Wireless networking which is comprised on a number of numerous sensors and they
are interlinked or connected with each other for performing the same function
collectively or cooperatively for the sake of checking and balancing the
environmental factors. This type of networking is called as Wireless Sensor
Networking. A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) consists of a group of selforganizing, lightweight sensor nodes that are used to cooperatively monitor physical
or environmental conditions. Commonly monitored parameters include temperature,
sound, humidity, vibration, pressure and motion. Each sensor node in a WSN is
equipped with a radio transmitter, several sensors, a battery unit and a microcontroller.

Fig.1.1 Wireless Sensor Network

Because of the size and cost constraints on sensor nodes, they are limited by
energy, bandwidth, memory and other resources. Any protocol design for WSNs
needs to consider the limitations of sensor nodes carefully. This thesis proposes a new
Three Hop-Reliability Model (3H-RM) for reliable data delivery protocol that aims to
provide high reliability with minimal delay and overhead.

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1.1 Motivation
The design of a data transport protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks is focused
on providing End-to-End Reliability, Mitigating Congestion, and achieving fairness in
bandwidth allocation. The reliability issue in the data transport protocol usually
involves loss recovery, congestion control, or both. Most of the reliable data transport
protocols either use a retransmission-based loss recovery approach or a redundant
data transmission method (sending multiple copies of a data packet into the network).

Fig.1.2 Architecture of Wireless Sensor Network

Full reliability (100% reliable data delivery) is provided unless there are

unavoidable packet drops due to buffer overflow.

Recovery from packet loss can be achieved with low system overhead and

reduced communication cost and delay compared to conventional protocols.

Lost packets can be recovered as quickly as possible, while at the same time

not interfering with normal data transmission.

A specified level of robustness can be provided.
The protocol is robust to node failure and route changes.
Fresh data has higher priority in the network and is able to be sent as soon as
possible.

1.2 Wireless Sensor Network Overview

WSNs have generated tremendous interest among researchers these years
because of their potential usage in a wide variety of applications. Sensor nodes are
inexpensive portable devices with limited processing power and energy resources.
Sensor nodes can be used to collect information from the environment, locally process
this data and transmit the sensed data back to the user.
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Sensor nodes consist of five main components

Computing Unit
Communication Unit
Sensing Unit
Memory Unit
Power supply Unit

Power Unit
Battery

MemoryUnit
Processing
Sensor
DAC
Sensing Unit

Microcontroller

Radio
Communication Unit

Microprocessor

Fig. 1.3 Sensor Node Structure

The computing unit consists of a microprocessor. The microprocessor is
responsible for managing the communication protocols, processing collected data
from the on-board sensors, and performing the power management. Each sensor node
has a single communication unit that is able to transmit and receive packets. This unit
combines the functionality of both transmitter and receiver. The communication
frequencies of the sensor nodes are between 433 MHz (in some early generations of
sensor nodes) and 2.4 GHz (the most commonly used frequency). The communication
unit has four operational states: transmit, receive, idle and sleep. A sensing unit is
usually a sensor board that consists of one or more sensors. Sensors must have
extremely low power consumption. Some commonly used sensors are temperature
sensor, humidity sensor, light sensor, barometer, 2-axis accelerometer, microphone,

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and GPS receiver. There are two types of memory units based on different needs for
storage in a sensor node.
There is also typically flash memory available where users can store their own
applications and data. The power unit provides power to other four units described
above. In the MicaZ mote, for example, it consists of two AA batteries, either
rechargeable or non-rechargeable. Although all sensing, computing and
communication operations consume energy, data communication requires more
energy than sensing and computing.

1.3 Applications of WSN

1.3.1 Area Monitoring:
The WSN is deployed over a region where some phenomenon is to be
monitored. A military example is the use of sensors detects enemy intrusion;
a civilian example is the geo-fencing of gas or oil pipelines.
1.3.2 Environmental/Earth Monitoring:
It has evolved to cover many applications of WSNs to earth science
research. This includes sensing volcanoes, oceans, glaciers, forests etc. Some

of the major areas are listed below:

Air Quality Monitoring:
The degree of pollution in the air has to be measured frequently in order to
safeguard people and the environment from any kind of damages due to air
pollution. In dangerous surroundings, real time monitoring of harmful gases is
an important process because the weather can change rapidly changing key
quality parameters.

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Fig. 1.4 Applications of WSN

Interior Monitoring:
Observing the gas levels at vulnerable areas needs the usage of high-end,
sophisticated equipment, capable to satisfy industrial regulations. Wireless
internal monitoring solutions facilitate keep tabs on large areas as well as
ensure the precise gas concentration degree.

Exterior Monitoring:
External air quality monitoring needs the use of precise wireless sensors, rain
and wind resistant solutions as well as energy reaping methods to assure
extensive liberty to machine that likely to have tough access.

Air Pollution Monitoring:

Wireless sensor networks have been deployed in several cities (Stockholm,
London and Brisbane) to monitor the concentration of dangerous gases for
citizens. These can take advantage of the ad hoc wireless links rather than
wired installations, which also make them more mobile for testing readings in
different areas.

Forest Fire Detection:

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A network of Sensor Nodes can be installed in a forest to detect when a fire

has started. The nodes can be equipped with sensors to measure temperature,

humidity and gases which are produced by fire in the trees or vegetation.
Landslide Detection:
A landslide detection system makes use of a wireless sensor network to detect
the slight movements of soil and changes in various parameters that may occur
before or during a landslide. Through the data gathered it may be possible to

know the occurrence of landslides long before it actually happens.

Water Quality Monitoring:
Water quality monitoring involves analyzing water properties in dams, rivers,

lakes & oceans, as well as underground water reserves.

Natural Disaster Prevention:
Wireless sensor networks can effectively act to prevent the consequences of
natural disasters, like floods. Wireless nodes have successfully been deployed
in rivers where changes of the water levels have to be monitored in real time.

1.3.3 Industrial Monitoring

Machine Health Monitoring:

Wireless sensor networks have been developed for machinery condition-based
maintenance (CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and enable new
functionality. In wired systems, the installation of enough sensors is often
limited by the cost of wiring. Previously inaccessible locations, rotating
machinery, hazardous or restricted areas, and mobile assets can now be
reached with wireless sensors.

Data Logging:
Wireless sensor networks are also used for the collection of data for
monitoring of environmental information, this can be as simple as the
monitoring of the temperature in a fridge to the level of water in overflow
tanks in nuclear power plants. The statistical information can then be used to
show how systems have been working. The advantage of WSNs over
conventional loggers is the "live" data feed is possible.

Industrial Sense and Control Applications:

In recent research a vast number of wireless sensor network communication
protocols have been developed. While previous research was primarily
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focused on power awareness, more recent research have begun to consider a

wider range of aspects, such as wireless link reliability, real-time capabilities,
or quality-of-service. These new aspects are considered as an enabler for
future applications in industrial and related wireless sense and control
applications, and partially replacing or enhancing conventional wire-based
networks by WSN techniques

Water/Waste Water Monitoring:

Monitoring the quality and level of water includes many activities such as
checking the quality of underground or surface water and ensuring a countrys
water infrastructure for the benefit of both human and animal.

1.3.4 Agriculture
Using wireless sensor networks within the agricultural industry are
increasingly common using a wireless network frees the farmer from the
maintenance of wiring in a difficult environment. Gravity feed water systems
can be monitored using pressure transmitters to monitor water tank levels,
pumps can be controlled using wireless I/O devices and water use can be
measured and wirelessly transmitted back to a central control center for
billing. Irrigation automation enables more efficient water use and reduces

waste.
Passive Localization and Tracking:
The application of WSN to the passive localization and tracking of noncooperative targets (i.e., people not wearing any tag) has been proposed by
exploiting the pervasive and low-cost nature of such technology and the
properties of the wireless links which are established in a meshed WSN
infrastructure.

Smart Home Monitoring:

Monitoring the activities performed in a smart home is achieved using
wireless sensors embedded within everyday objects forming a WSN. A state
change to objects based on human manipulation is captured by the wireless
sensors network enabling activity-support services.

1.4 Reliability for Wireless Sensor Network

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Packet loss in wireless sensor networks is usually due to the quality of the
wireless channel, sensor failure, and congestion. Most of the applications need
reliable transmission of each packet, and thus packet-level reliability is required.
Almost every transport layer protocol for wireless sensor networks offers
unidirectional reliable message delivery, but bidirectional reliability is also required in
certain applications. Reliability in wireless sensor networks can be realized as packet
reliability, event reliability, end-to-end reliability, hop-by-hop reliability, upstream
reliability and downstream reliability.

1.4.1 Reliability Levels

Packet Reliability
Packet reliability refers to the successful delivery of all the packets to the
destination. In case of packet reliability, it is required that all the packets from the
sensor nodes reach the sink node that can results in wastage of sensors limited energy
resources. Due to noisy communication channels, packet loss may occur and thus, it is
the requirement of packet reliability that every packet is to be acknowledged and each
lost packet is to be retransmitted. This results in increase of communication overhead
with high packet loss rates and creates network congestion.
Event Reliability
Event reliability refers to the successful event detection. This requires the
reliable transfer of event data from each sensing region in a sensor network. However,
in case of event reliability, loss of packet can be tolerated as long as the sink receives
at least one packet from the sensor nodes containing the sensed data of an event. As
compared to packet reliability, it does not require the retransmissions of every lost
packet. This reduces the communication overhead and unnecessary retransmissions of
packets.

1.5 Reliability Direction

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Upstream Reliability
Upstream reliability refers to the communication between the sensor nodes
and sink node, which is mostly unicast/converge cast transmission. All the protocols
except PSFQ and GARUDA offer upstream reliability.
Downstream Reliability
Downstream reliability refers to the communication between the sink node and
sensor nodes, since there is only a single sender (the sink); the data transmission
usually uses broadcasting rather than unicasting. It provides successful delivery of
control packets and queries from sink to sources. Only PSFQ and GARUDA offer
downstream reliability.
Bidirectional Reliability
Bidirectional reliability provides both sensor-to-sink and sink-to-sensor
transport mechanism for wireless sensor networks. It is much more important to use a
single bidirectional protocol, instead of using two unidirectional protocols for the
following reasons: (i) it reduces the complexity and heterogeneity of the network; (ii)
it reduces the energy consumption; (iii) it makes use of piggybacking, for example,
the sensors piggyback the ACK of query messages on their subsequent messages.
None of the protocols except ART protocol satisfies bidirectional reliability.
Loss Detection and Notification
The loss detection and notification stage of the reliability algorithm is used to
detect when a packet has been lost and is thus responsible for initiating any action to
recover the loss. In order to perform this task, Acknowledgment (ACK) is used.

1.6 Reliability
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Reliability is the process of sending packets from source to destination without

any loss of sensed data. Data or Packet which are sending to the appropriate
destination can receives the packet successfully. Reliability is the way of knowing the
quality of the data which are sent by the source node. Reliability is the important one
in each and everything. Everyone needs reliability in their work. So reliability is
playing a vital role today. Without of Reliability we can do anything successfully.
Many applications success is contingent upon the reliable delivery of high-priority
events from many scattered sensors to one or more sink nodes. Reliability can be
measured by the delivery of packets. Through the delivery of packets only we can
easily assume the quality. If there is any packet loss means we are responsible for the
retransmission of packets.
Reliability = the number of packets received by the
Sink node / the number of packets sent to the sink node

1.7 Reliability in WSN

In Wireless Sensor Networks Reliable data Transport is an important topic. A
Reliable delivery of packet is major problem in Wireless Sensor Network. Many
applications in Wireless Sensor Networks requiring all data to be transmitted without
loss. Challenges to achieving reliability on Wireless Sensor Networks can be divided
to three main categories. First problems are related to the wireless communication.
The asymmetry of links makes link quality estimation hard and invalidates many
assumptions made in other environments. Correlated losses due to obstacles,
interference, can lead to consecutive losses, decreasing the effectiveness of erasure
code. Weak correlation between quality and distance, hidden terminal problems, and
dynamic change of connectivity complicates the situation further. The second sort of
problems comes from the constrained resources of Wireless Sensor Networks motes.
A mote is battery powered, so has a limited power source. It also has small
computational power and memory space. Furthermore, its communication bandwidth
is narrow. Therefore user cant run a complicated algorithm to achieve reliability: the
algorithms run on motes should not send too much overhead traffic, and should not be
computationally or storage intensive.

1.8 Reliable Data Delivery

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Reliable data transport is an important topic in wireless sensor networks. A

reliable protocol in wireless sensor networks is a protocol that can reliably deliver
packets from their sources to their destinations without packet loss. Many WSN
applications require reliable data transport. For example, consider a sensor network
deployed in a chemical plant to detect harmful gas. It is crucial for sensor nodes to
reliably transport every sensor reading back to the sink. Other critical WSN
applications such as biological monitoring, health care monitoring, and battlefield
surveillance also require high end-to-end reliability.
On the other hand, some applications may not require simple 100% guaranteed
transmission of data packets. The reason is that this guaranteed delivery is challenging
and costly in terms of energy and bandwidth usage. In some circumstances,
applications may only require data packets to be reliably delivered.

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2 LITERATURE SURVEY

Title : End-To-End Reliability in Wireless Sensor Networks Survey and

Research Challenges
Author :

Paulo Rogerio Pereira, Antonio Grilo, Francisco Rocha, Mario

Serafim Nunes, Augusto Casaca, Claude Chaudet, Peter Almstrom
and Mikael Johansson

Year

2007, Published in IEEE.

Introduction

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), are highly distributed self-organized

systems.
Sensor nodes collect measurements of interest over given space, making them
available to external systems and networks at special nodes designated sink

nodes.
Moving nodes and failing nodes due to battery power depletion are problems
that raise a significant number of routing problems, demanding the use of

efficient routing protocols.

If the sensed information is to be used for active control (e.g. industrial
process control) rather than passive monitoring, estimation and detection, the

additional design goal of predictable latency appears.

Many control strategies can compensate for information delay and jitter (delay
variations), provided that these can be deterministically bounded or
statistically quantified in the design phase.

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Disadvantages

The whole challenge lies in cost-effective identification and maintenance of

these redundant paths in the presence of nodes performing regular sleep
periods with coarse time synchronization. Many building blocks are already
present in the literature, but to our knowledge no protocol has been proposed

that solves the whole problem.

Although DTC was not developed as a solution to the congestion control

problem, it relies on the TCP mechanisms.

Moving nodes and failing nodes due to battery power depletion are problems
that raise a significant number of routing problems, demanding the use of
efficient routing protocols.

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Title

: A Smart TCP Acknowledgment Approach for Multi hop Wireless

Networks

Author

Ruy de Oliveira, Torsten Braun, Member, IEEE

Year

2007, Published in IEEE.

Introduction

TCP has been successful due to its robustness and providing reliability on an
end-to-end basis

To motivate the extension of this protocol to wireless networks

These networks pose some critical challenges to TCP

The level of bit error rate (BER) is not negligible

High mobility

The focus of this paper is the interaction between TCP and the MAC layer

To present a strategy for decreasing medium contention as much as possible

The receiver may combine up to four ACK packets when the wireless channel
is in good condition.

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Title

Hop-By-Hop Reliable Data Deliveries for Underwater Wireless

Sensor Networks

Author

Muhammad Ayaz, Azween Abdullah, Ibrahima Faye

Year

2010, Published in IEEE.

Introduction

A highly precise, real time and continuous monitoring system is extremely

important for various applications, such as off-shore oilfield monitoring,

pollution detection, and oceanographic data collection.

Most of the applications require long term monitoring of the selected areas

when user are interested to collect the information.

For this purpose, Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) provides a
solution in order to monitor the areas that are not feasible for human presence

due to unpredictable underwater activities and high water pressure.

These networks are generally formed by acoustic sensor nodes and are
deployed in the interested areas at different depth levels and surface sinks used

for the real time data collection.

The UWSN consists of a number of sensor nodes that depend on the area of
deployment, are used to sense any event occurring in the surroundings and
after some required processing, route this sensed data towards any surface

sink.
An important fact about the UWSN is that, an individual node can be resource
constrained, but a collection of these nodes can cover large areas, first sensing
and then forwarding this useful data towards the surface sink with an

acceptable degree of accuracy.

In some applications like submarine detection, the sensed data can be time

critical and have to be delivered within appropriate intervals.

Therefore, such applications require not only a guaranteed data delivery, but
also within tolerable end-to-end delays.

Advantages

26

Consider three metrics in order to check the performance of our algorithm.

Packet delivery ratios with different number of nodes, packet delivery ratios at
different time intervals and then user compared the effect of packet user
compared the effort of packet losses and duplications after specified time

interval.
In the beginning, here is minor difference for both approaches but as time
passes and more data packets are produced in the network then clearly, 2HACK generate better delivery ratios as compared to HbH-ACK.

Disadvantages

In underwater Wireless Sensor Networks, sensor nodes can die due to

inhospitable conditions, which decrease the performance of the network.

Usually, acknowledgements and retransmissions help to recover the lost data
packets, but these efforts result in additional traffic and large end-to-end

delays, sometime which can lead to failure of nodes.

In order to handle this dilemma, proposed a 2H-ACK mechanism, where two
nodes maintain the same copy of the data packet.

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Title

Reliable Data Deliveries using Packet Optimization in Multihop Underwater Sensor networks

Author

Muhammad Ayaz, Low Tang Jung, Azween Abdullah and

Iftikhar Ahmad

Year

2011, Published in IEEE.

Introduction

A fundamental challenge in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs)

is that acoustic links are subject to high transmission power with high channel
impairments. These channel impairments result in higher error rates and

temporary path losses which restrict the efficiency of these networks.

Besides this, the availability of limited resources and continuous node
movements are major threats for reliable data deliveries. With these
constraints, it is a difficult task to design a protocol which has the ability to

maximize the reliability of these networks.

In this paper provide a reliability model in order to insure reliable data
deliveries from sensor nodes to surface sink. For this purpose, therefore
propose an algorithm which determines the suitable data packet size for

efficient data transfer.

It uses a Two-Hop Acknowledgment (2H-ACK) model where two copies of
the same data packet are maintained in the network without extra burden on

the available resources.

The findings on the relationship between data packet size, throughput, Bit
Error Rate (BER), and distance between both communicating nodes are also
presented.

Advantages
28

This proposed protocol has many advantages such as,

It does not require any specialized hardware,

No dimensional location information required and
Node movements can be handled easily without maintaining complex routing
tables.

Disadvantages

It still requires some reliability mechanism to handle the problem of node

failure or packet losses so that more precise results can be obtained.

Title

Improving TCP Performance in Multi Hop Mobile Adhoc

Network

Author

Raghuraj Singh

Introduction

TCP is a window-based flow and congestion control protocol that uses a

sliding window mechanism to manage its data transmission. The purpose of
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this scheme is to guarantee that the sender adjusts its transmission rate to meet

both sender and receiver needs.

Thus, the TCP sender contains a variable denoted window determining the

amount of packets it can send into the network before receiving an ACK.
This variable changes dynamically over time to properly limit the connections

sending rate.
The sending rate of a TCP connection is regulated by two distinct

mechanisms, the flow control and the congestion control.

Thus, the receiver advertises in every ACK transmitted a window limit to the
sender. This window is named receiver advertised window (rwin) and changes
over time depending on both the traffic conditions and the application speed in

reading the receivers buffer.

To this end, the TCP sender also uses a limiting window called congestion

window (cwnd).
To conform the both control schemes, the TCP sender adjusts its window to

the minimum between rwin and cwnd.

In general, however, cwnd is considered the limiting factor of a TCP sender
because the receivers buffer is mostly large enough not to constrain the
senders transmission rate. TCP congestion control has been evolving over the
years to detect congestion inside the network and promptly react to that by
properly slowing down.

Disadvantages
Causes of TCP performance degradation in MANETs

TCP is unable to distinguish between losses due to route failures and network

congestion.
TCP suffers from frequent route failures.

Causes of TCP performance degradation in SANETs

The contention on the wireless channel.

TCP unfairness.

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Title

Performance Modeling of Three-Hop Relay Routing in

Intermittently Connected Mobile Networks

Author

Jiajia Liu, Hiroki Nishiyama and Nei Kato

Introduction

A significant amount of works has been done to model the delivery

performances in Intermittently Connected Mobile Networks (ICMNs).

However, available works considered either the two-hop relay routing or the
epidemic routing, which actually represent two extreme cases of the message
delivery process in ICMNs.
31

Take one step ahead and focus on the three-hop relay routing where each

message travels at most three hops to reach the destination.

Under such a scheme, besides that the source can send a message copy to each
node it meets, a relay which receives the message directly from the source can
also replicate the message to other nodes, while a relay node which receives
the message from another relay can only forward the message to the

destination.
In order to characterize the complicated message delivery process under the
three-hop relay routing, a multidimensional Markov chain theoretical

framework is developed.
Based on the Markov chain framework and block matrix theory, closed-form
expressions are further derived for the important message delivery delay and

delivery cost.
Intermittently Connected Mobile Networks (ICMNs) consisting of sparsely
distributed mobile nodes, usually suffer from dramatic topology changes and
frequent network partitions

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Advantages

A significant amount of works has been done to model the delivery

performances for store-carry-forward routing schemes in ICMNs.

The store-carry-forward kind of routing which utilizes the space-time paths
among relay nodes to achieve end-to-end delivery becomes a popular routing

option for ICMNs.

Under such a routing scheme, besides that the source can send a message copy
to each node it meets, a relay which receives the message directly from the
source can also replicate the message to other nodes, while a relay node which
receives the message from another relay can only forward the message to the
destination.

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3 PROPOSED SYSTEM
3.1 Introduction to Single Hop
In a Single Hop network, the datas are transferred to least leading hop. [1]In
this network, only one transmission can be take place from source to destination at the
time, there is no subsequent packet transmission between one hop to other. Wireless
station can be linked to Wireless Access Points (WAPs) that are connected to the
router through wired network, for instance, wireless access points like Wi-Fi,
WiMAX, cellular being connected to a bigger network, the Internet.

Fig. 3.1 Single Hop Communication

3.2 Single Hop Source Routing

Fig. 3.2 Single Source Routing

Single-Hop routing is conceptually straight forward, after a node detects a path
failure, it selects one or more intermediaries and attempts to reroute its packets
through them. [2]If the resulting indirect path is sufficiently disjoint from the default
route, the packets will flow around the faulty components and successfully arrive at
the destination. Assuming that the reverse path through the intermediary also avoids
the fault, end-to-end communication is restored.
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Single-Hop transmission is an important communication embryonic in which

the foundation node transports its package to all nodes within its communication
range. [3]Single-Hop transmission is very useful homogeneous and heterogeneous
networks, particularly in wireless networks where every communication is a singlehop transmission by nature.

3.3 Example of Single Hop Network

Fig. 3.3 Example of Single Hop

3.4 Protocols Used in Single Hop

Transport protocol provides reliability, which is fundamental for all the
applications. [4]The transmission control protocol (TCP) is the transport level
protocol that provides a completely reliable connection oriented, full duplex stream
transport service that allows two application programs to form a connection, send data
in either direction, and then terminate the connection. Most existing routing protocols
are based on One-hop model.
For which TCPs response of reducing the cause in single hop network. To
detect these problem fundamental principles of TCP the transmission Control Protocol
is a widely used transport protocol in wired and wireless communications. TCP sends
data in segments which do not exceed a maximum segment size as negotiated via a
three-way handshake between the communicating agents during an initial connection
establishment phase. [7]Single-hop, Nearest Closer and LEACH are typical and basic
routing protocols for these types respectively.

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Transmission Range

Transmission Collision
Key Requirements of the Single Hop Network Environment:

Reliable Data Transfer

Congestion Control

These features are generally supported by TCP.

3.5 Problems in Single Hop Network

C

Single Hop networks and thus must deal with much more complex collision
patterns than in cellular type systems. [5]Cellular type systems were based on single
hop systems. Achieving a dependable one hop transmission A
in wireless networks is
not an easy mission due to the crashes caused by a singularity known as Hidden
Terminal Problem. [6]If a broadcast is between two nodes (i.e., point-to-point
communication), then RTS CTS protocol can resolve the problematic eventually.
However, point-to-point approach will be extremely inefficient and often useless if it
is used for one-hop broadcast in MANETs.
Example: Hidden Terminals
Example: Hidden Terminals

Fig. 3.4 Hidden Terminal Problem

The transmission range is the range, with respect to the transmitting station,
within which a transmitted packet can be successfully received. [8]A typical hidden
terminal situation is depicted in figure above. The hidden station problem may persist
in networks even with the use of the RTS/CTS handshake. Because of this needed
power for interrupting a packet reception is much lower than that of delivering a
packet successfully.

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Author Suggest [4] however, in single hop networks packets can be lost by a
number of different causes, such as,

Transmission error
Link Failure
Topology changes

3.6 Reliability in Single Hop Network

Reliability = the number of packets received by the sink node / the number of
packets

sent to the sink node

Firstly, this definition can be used in the field and laboratory. [7]In the field
provided the sink node (end-user) knows how many cluster heads or sensors there are
and the average number of packets of sensed data per sensor per time unit, then
reliability can be estimated at any time during the lifetime of the network using the
number of time units elapsed.
Any difference between reliability measured in the field and laboratory could
be used to detect how many packets of data are lost between sensors and cluster heads
or the sink node (this would include counting sensors that have failed or have
otherwise been lost to the system).

Fig. 3.5 Single Hop Network

Secondly, this simple definition of reliability can be used in a network where
there are sensors of various types monitoring different things to produce a single
simple measure of accuracy. In this situation our definition gives a systemic measure
of accuracy for the network as a whole independent of the applications.
This definition also makes it easy to analyze communication among the sensor
nodes; in particular it makes the estimation of data collision in the wireless sensor
network possible.

37

3.7 Merits in Single Hop Networks

Power Saving due to smaller communication range

Less number of smashes
One-hop source routing, attempts to recover from path failures by
routing indirectly through a small set of randomly chosen

intermediaries.
One-hop source routing, can achieve close to the maximum benefit

available with very low overhead.

Single-hop transmission is more efficient, when power consumption of
real wireless sensor nodes transceivers is taken into account.

3.8 Demerits in Single Hop Network

Reputation of packets, it is hard to complete in wireless networks due

to the accidents caused by Hidden Terminal Problem.

Too much of Packet loss in Single hop Network
Single hop network will take long time to reach destination
Collision occurs during packet transmission
Path detection is also major problem in single hop networks
The location of its own and that of its one-hop neighbors without the

knowledge about the entire network.

Single-hop source routing, can achieve less reliability because of

packet loss.
For long-distance transmission, single-hop communication is unable to
meet our needs due to the restriction of transmission distance and
accuracy.

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3.9 Introduction to Two Hop

In Two-hop model where two copies of the same data packet are maintained in
the network without extra burden on the available resources. [12]In Two-hop model
information-based routing protocol is proposed for real-time wireless sensor
networks. Two-hop model in wireless ad-hoc network, some distributed algorithms
and efficient information exchange schemes are reported. By the study of generic
routing with multi-hop routing information it is observed that the number of hops
required from the source to sink decreases significantly from one-hop to two-hop
information-based routing.
The choice of two hops is a tradeoff between performance improvement and
the complexity cost. The idea of two-hop routing is straightforward but how to use or
integrate the information effectively so as to improve energy and real-time
performance is generally nontrivial. The resulting design has the following novel
features.
1) Compared with existing protocols that utilize only one-hop neighborhood
information, it achieves lower deadline miss ratio and also higher energy efficiency.
2) A mechanism is embedded which can release nodes that are frequently
chosen as packet forwarder. An improvement of energy balance throughout the
network is achieved. The idea of two-hop routing is generic and applicable. [13] The
usage of Two-hop model knowledge is not new: many broadcast/multicast algorithms
have tried to reduce and eliminate redundant transmissions based on this information.
Some real-time algorithms for Wireless Sensor Network are based on Two-hop model.
In order to optimize the performance of packet transfer from multiple sensor nodes to
the Sink Two-hop model to determine the most relevant hop. [10]Two-hop
Knowledge and routing information, our objective in this article is to significantly
reduce congestion and increase packet reliability.
Two-hop model information to determine the most relevant hop to be activated
and to increase reliability for packet transmission. Two-Hop Model to find more paths
of shorter lengths for duty-cycled systems. The availability of limited resources and
continuous node movements are major threats for reliable data deliveries. [9]With
these constraints, it is a difficult task to design a protocol which has the ability to
maximize the reliability of these networks.

39

Two-hop provide a reliability model in order to insure reliable data deliveries

from sensor nodes to sink. In two-hop model which determines the suitable data
packet size for efficient data transfer. Two-hop routing to improve communication
performance in Wireless Sensor Network:

Data Transmission Reliability

Bandwidth Aggregation
Load balance transmission
Congestion-free transmission
Low latency transmission

Author Suggest [13] the establishment of two paths between a pair (source,
destination) for transmission can increase reliability and some approaches such as
even use the path redundancy to send two copies of the same packet on the various
paths to the Sink. Here we made a trade-off between the difficulty and to overhead to
obtain and consider very accurate information and this is the reason why we propose a
probabilistic approach that has the advantage of being very simple and requiring only
a small additional cost in terms of message exchanged compared to traditional onehop.
As per author [14] for a two-hop network, the maximum throughput can be
approximate taking into account the two Source-Relays (SR) and Destination-Relays
(DR) transmission. Two-hops are enforced and hence, the performance is better
especially at the edge of the communication range. Thus two-hop communication
comes into play, providing options for communications over larger distances.

3.10 Two-Hop Source Routing

Two-Hop network model provides the reliability by maintaining two copies of
the same data packet by different nodes. Although, more than one copy of the same
data packet can be received at the destination, but it happens with low probability
especially when we compare them with the data packets losses. This can be observed
clearly in that the comparison of data packet duplications with the average number of
data packet losses. Both the number of duplicate data packets and amount of packet
losses are small when Two-hop network model is used.

40

Fig. 3.6 Selecting the Next Hop for Packet Forwarding

(a) Selecting next hop. (b) Selecting next hop and replying ACK.
The data forwarding and acknowledgment method followed by Two-hop
model. Selecting next hop is showing a source nodeN9 that has a data packet to be
sent toward the surface sink with its own Hop ID 56. In order to do that, it will ask its
neighbors for their Hop IDs. Nodes N8 and N7 will reply as both of these are in the
range of N9. After comparing their Hop IDs, N7 will be declared as the next hop as its
Hop ID is smaller than N8.
After receiving the data packet, instead of sending ACK immediately, N7 will
try to find the next hop node in order to reach the destination, so it will repeat the
same process as N9. As a result, when node N7 gets an inquiry reply from N5, then
first it will send ACK toward N9 and then forward data packet toward N5. After
receiving this ACK, N9 will clear the data packet from its buffer, which is shown in
selecting next hop and replying ACK.
This process will continue till the current data packet reaches the destination.
From the whole procedure illustrated in selecting the next hop for data packet
forwarding and further depicted from the algorithm, it is clear that, two nodes try to
maintain the same copy of a data packet in the network. In case of an unwanted event,
such as if a node is destructed, another copy is still available in the network and it will
be forwarded after a specified waiting time.

41

3.11 Two-Hop Communication

In ad-hoc network model for two-hop communication between two stationary
sender and receiver nodes. [11]There are N mobile nodes that are randomly scattered
over a bounded area and each communication path between the sender and the
receiver node requires one node out of the N nodes to serve as a router node. As the
Two-Hop communication, the router node is located in the area intersection of
coverage of node S and D.
In Two-Hop communication two independent paths set up between the sender
and receiver nodes. The paths can be independent if the nodes have multiple radios
and the communication is over a different channel for each router.

1st Hop

2nd Hop

Node Failure

Node Success

Fig. 3.7 Two-Hop Communication

Two-hop communication over an ad-hoc network with packet losses due to
route failures that are independent of rate and packet losses due to the physical
channel that dependent on the rate. One-hop and Two-hop based routing is significant.
When the connection is down, the sender can hold a packet for a certain time,
before dropping the packet, to wait for the connection to be setup. We take into
account this allowable delay tolerance.

42

3.12 Example of Two-Hop Model

Fig. 3.8 Two-Hop Model

3.13 Protocol Used in Two-Hop Model

Author Suggest [15] beside these, availability of limited resources and
continuous node movements are major threats for the reliable data deliveries. With
these constraints, it is a difficult to design a protocol which has the ability to
maximize the reliability of these networks. Two-hop reliability model in order to
insure the reliable data deliveries to the sink. Tow-hop reliability can achieve better
delivery ratios as compared to the One-hop reliability without additional resource
consumption.
Real time and continuous monitoring system is extremely important
for various applications, such as

Landslide detection
Pollution detection

Most of these applications require long term monitoring of the selected areas
when we are interested to collect the information. It has been shown that Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and other congestion control mechanisms like this are highly
problematic for wireless multi-hop networks. TCP is a connection oriented protocol,
that requires 3-way handshake between the sender and receiver before actual data
packet transmission starts.

43

Client

Server

SYN, SequenceNum = x
SYN+ACK, SequenceNum = y
Acknowledgement = x+1
ACK, Acknowledgement= y+1

Fig.3.9 3-Way Handshake Process

The Figure will clearly explain the process of initial connection establishment
between sender and the receiver. [15]Where actual data might be only a few bytes, the
3-way handshake process will definitely be a simple for such a small volume of data.
However, these sensor nodes are supposed to transfer the sensed data within the
network, and this cause congestion in different parts at different time intervals due to
their single-hop nature.
So the time required to establish a TCP connection between two end nodes
that are a significant number of hops away from each other, might be very high. For
reliability concerns, TCP required an end-to-end ACK and retransmission strategy,
which can results in a poor throughput and longer transmission time. Most of the
available TCP implementations use a window-based mechanism for the flow control
functionality, which requires high accuracy for round trip time, which itself is twice
the end-to-end delay.
Also TCP assumes that only congestion is responsible for the packet loss, so it
focuses mainly on the congestion control mechanisms by decreasing the transmission
rate. When packet losses are due to problematic channel, then there is no need to
decrease the transmission rate to maintain throughput efficiency. TCP mainly focuses
on:

Congestion Control Mechanisms

Throughput Efficiency
Decreasing the Packet Loss
Energy Efficiency

3.14 User Datagram Protocol

44

On the other hand, when we talk about User Datagram Protocol (UDP), then it
does not offer any flow control and congestion control mechanisms. In the case of
congestions, UDP simply drops the packets without providing any scope for
recovering these lost packets. Besides, no ACKs are available when we choose UDP
as a transport layer protocol as it relies on the lower or some upper layers in order to
recover the lost packets. So, such UDP like approaches obviously does not work for
two-hop reliability model.

There is no any flow control and congestion control mechanisms.

Packets are dropped without providing any scope for recovering these

lost packets.
No ACK available in User Datagram Protocol.
Reliability is lesser than TCP
Too much of Packet Loss while using the User Datagram Protocol

Because of these reason only we choose Transmission Control Protocol in

two-hop reliability model. Transmission Control Protocol will focus on following
issues:

Guaranteed delivery with ACKs

Congestion control
Power consumption of sensor nodes, so we can increase the life of the
network.

3.15 Reliability in Two-Hop Model

In order to increase the network reliability, and provide a guaranteed delivery,
two-hop acknowledgement reliability model is used. For this scheme, instead of a
single node, two nodes try to maintain every single packet in the network. The data
forwarding method used in two-hop reliability model[15]. Here, a source node N9 has
a data packet in order to send towards surface sink with its own Hop ID 56. It will ask
its neighbors for their Hop IDs, and Nodes N8 and N7 will reply as both of these are
in the range of N9.

45

Fig.3.10 Selecting the Next Hop for Packet Forwarding

After comparing

their Hop IDs, N7 will be

declared as the next Hop as its Hop ID is smaller than N8. Now, N7 will repeat the
same procedure and N4 will be selected as the next hop as its Hop ID is smaller than
the N6. This process will continue, till the current data packet reaches the destination.

Fig.3.11 Data packet forwarding by using Two-Hop

Acknowledgement Reliability model
Two-Hop acknowledgement provides the reliability by maintaining two copies
of same data packet by different nodes. Although, more than one copy of the same
data packet can be received at the destination, but it happens with low probability
especially when we compare them with the data packets losses. [15] The comparison
of data packet duplications with the average number of data packet losses. When we
use Two-hop acknowledgement reliability model, then we received small number of
duplicate data packets, while the amount of packet losses is also small. Two-hop
reliability model provides better results in such situations with small densities.
Acknowledgements and retransmissions help to recover the lost data packets,
but these efforts result in additional traffic and large end-to-end delays, sometime
46

which can lead to failure of nodes. In order to handle this dilemma, two-hop reliability
model, where two nodes maintain the same copy of a data packet. Two-hop reliability
model not only handles these packet losses but also help to reduce the congestion
problem without creating any extra burden on the network.

3.16 Difference between Single-hop and Two-hop reliability model

3.16.1 Single-Hop
In Single hop network source and destination only take place when the
transmission occurs. Which select the leading to hop appearances. Once data or
packet lost its not easy to retrieve the packet for retransmission. Major difficult in
single-hop network is hidden terminal problem. Within a radio range only data
transmission happened successfully.
Over the range data transmission is difficult to proceed. Retransmission
process will take long time in single-hop network. Single-hop source routing, can
achieve less reliability because of packet loss.
3.16.2 Two-Hop
In two-hop network model where two copies of the same data packet are
maintained in the network without extra burden on the available resources. Two-Hop
Acknowledgement provides the reliability by maintaining two copies of the same data
packet by different nodes. Which also help to reduce congestion problem without
creating extra burden in two-hop network.
Although, more than one copy of the same data packet can be received at the
destination, but it happens with low probability especially when we compare them
with the data packets losses. Acknowledgements and retransmissions help to recover
the lost data packets, but these efforts result in additional traffic and large end-to-end
delays, sometime which can lead to failure of nodes. Tow-hop reliability can achieve
better delivery ratios as compared to the One-hop reliability without additional
resource consumption.

47

Fig.3.12 One-Hop and Two-Hop

3.17 Merits of Two-Hop Reliability Model

Without extra burden on the available resource two copies of same data can be

maintained in two-hop network.

If there is any packet loss easy to retrieve the lost packet.
Congestion problem is also controlled without extra burden.
Data accuracy is also better than comparing with one-hop network model.
Two-hop reliability model provides better results in such situations with small

densities.
Retransmissions help to recover the lost data packets.
Which increase the network reliability, and provide a guaranteed delivery,
two-hop acknowledgement reliability model is used.

3.18 Demerits of Two-Hop Reliability Model

Additional traffic and large end-to-end delays, sometime which can lead to

failure of nodes.
Congestion Control Mechanisms have addition burden in two-hop network

model.
Less Throughput Efficiency
It consumes more energy for maintaining two copies of same packet.
Availability of limited resources and continuous node movements are major

threats for the reliable data deliveries.

In two-hop network model will take long time to reach the targeted

destination.
Accuracy of the data is also less in two-hop network model.
The source node does not know, how long it have to keep the save copy of

data packets and when it will delete the data packets.

Therefore, this can be the reason for over burden on the network, more energy

consumption and as well as the memory of that node can be lost.

Energy Efficiency is major problem in two-hop network model.
It is a difficult task to design a protocol for communication between sender
and the receiver.
48

Expected Reliability is not fulfilled with Two-hop network model.

49

4 THREE HOP RELIABILITY MODEL DESIGN AND

IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 Three-Hop
Reliable model with the name of Three-Hop Reliability Model, in which every
sender node of each group of three layers will maintain the copy of same successful
transferred data packets without creating extra burden on the networks. Three Hops
Reliability model is used to increasing the reliability of Packets. While in Three Hop
Reliability model has many advantages such as not requiring any specialized
hardware, no dimensional location information required and easiness in handling node
movements without maintaining complex routing tables[16].
Reliability performance is better than comparing to One Hop and Two Hop
Reliability Model. It has Three nodes will take the responsibility to keep the copy of
same successful transferred data packet. The process of keep the copy of data packets
and forwarding by using the three-hop reliability model.
For getting more precise results, it furthermore still requires some reliability
mechanisms to handle the problem of node or packet loss. Following are the purposes
to design this reliable model:

Assure the delivery of data packets

To control the congestion in the network
To save the energy consumed.

In this model, three nodes will take the responsibility to keep the copy of same
successful transferred data packet. [17] User take one step ahead and focus on the
three-hop relay routing. Under such a routing scheme, besides that the source can
send a message copy to each node it meets, a relay which receives the message
directly from the source can also replicate the message to other nodes, while a relay
node which receives the message from another relay can only forward the message to
the destination [17].

50

4.2 Three-Hop Source Routing

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and other congestion control
mechanisms like this are highly problematic for wireless two-hop networks TCP is a
connection oriented protocol that requires 3-way handshake between the sender and
receiver before actual data packet transmission starts. [16]Where actual data might be
only a few bytes, the 3-way handshake process will definitely is a burden for such a
small volume of data.
So the time required to establish a TCP connection between two end nodes
that are a significant number of hops away from each other, might be very high. For
reliability concerns, TCP required an end-to-end ACK and retransmission strategy,
which can results in a poor throughput and longer transmission time. Most of the
available TCP implementations use a window-based mechanism for the flow control
functionality, which requires high accuracy for round trip time, which itself is twice
the end-to-end delay . Also TCP assumes that only congestion is responsible for the
packet loss, so it focuses mainly on the congestion control mechanisms by decreasing
the transmission rate. Data packets can get lost due to many problems like, erroneous
acoustic channel and failure of nodes. When packet losses are due to problematic
channel, then there is no need to decrease the transmission rate to maintain throughput
efficiency.
On the other hand, when we talk about UDP, then it does not offer any flow
control and congestion control mechanisms. In the case of congestions, UDP simply
drops the packets without providing any scope for recovering these lost packets.
Besides, no ACKs are available when we choose UDP as a transport layer protocol as
it relies on the lower or some upper layers in order to recover the lost packets. So,
such UDP like approaches obviously does not work for. Although, the protocols
belong to this category, do not implement a window-based procedure, still their
performance base on the feedback control messages sent by the destination. These
feedbacks used to adjust the transmission rate during different conditions, which are
not appropriate for these networks.

51

4.3 Protocol Used in Three-Hop Model

In Layer by Layer Angle based Flooding (L2-ABF) protocol is commonly
used in three-hop reliability model. The Angle-based flooding approach is used in this
proposed routing protocol. This routing mechanism is not based on sensor node
location information and has been designed for delay and power efficient multi-layer
communication in three-hop networks. In this routing mechanism, there is no need for
a sender node to know its own location or the location of the final destination (Sink)
before transmitting the data packets.
Anchor nodes flood the sensed data towards the surface sinks via the upper
layer nodes. The forwarder node will define the flooding zone by using the initial
angle. After defining the flooding zone, the node will send Hello Packets (HP) within
the defined zone and wait for the Hello Reply (HR). If there is no HR received, the
node will increase the value of variable in the initial angle, to increase its flooding
zone until the basic condition is met. Here, it assumes that after the completion of one
round by using the different values of the variable and the node did not receive any
Hello Reply, the nodes can send data packets directly to the sink nodes on the
maximum power. Here, it is important to note that nodes can use random values of the
variable to increase the size of the flooding zone. The randomness of the variable
value is more helpful to control the End-to-End delays as well as the power
consumption of the nodes. The selection of the random values for variable depends on
the movement of the nodes.

4.4 Three-Hop Reliability Model

Fig.4.1 Keeping the Copy of the Packet between Three Nodes

52

The process to keep the copy of data packets and data packet forwarding by
using the Three-Hop Reliability Model. Here it is important to note that every node
will check the field Step value of the final message. [16]If it is less than three,
nodes will forward the data packets to next hop; otherwise node sends the final
message to the previous forwarder when send the data packets to next layer nodes.
The node N21 has data packet and it ready to send towards the destination on water
surface (Sink). Node N15 resides in the upper layer and inside the flooding zone
which is calculated by node N21.
Node N21 sends the Hello Packet inside the defined zone. Figure described
the Hello Packet format. N15 is inside the flooding zone and send Hello Reply to
node N21 along with the information as mention. After receiving the hello reply the
node N21 send data packet to node N15 with keeping the save copy of data packets
and adds 1 in the value of field Step of the final message.

Fig.4.2 Hello Packet Format

Fig.4.3 Hello Reply Format

The node N15 will check if the value of Step field still is less than 3 and will
follow the same process as N21 and send data packets to node N8 with the increment
1 into the current value of Step field. N8 will check if the value of Step field is
still less than 3. So node N8 will send the data packets to node N5. When node N8
will receive the acknowledgement from N5 and the Step field value becomes 3, the
node N8 send the final message to the lower layer nodes that have a save copy of
these data packets by reducing the value of Step into zero.
After receiving the final message to node N8, it will delete the save copy of
data packets and rebroadcast the final message to previous forwarder nodes so they
can delete the data packets from the memory. Although, nodes delete the saved data
packets when nodes will receive the final message but the deletion of data packets is
not fully depend on the receiving of final message.

53

Fig.4.4 Three Step Final Message Format

To save the memory and remove the extra burden on the network, nodes can
delete the save copy of data packets with the time limit which is after sending the
packets and did not receive the final message.

4.5 Advantages of Three-Hop Reliability Model

Three-hop Reliability Model can achieve better delivery ratios as compare to

Two-hop reliability model without using any additional resources and

configurations.
Moreover, this is accomplished with a level of accuracy that is acceptable.
Detection and some other like applications can be time critical and, therefore,

must be delivered within the proper time interval.

Three-hop network model need guaranteed data deliveries of packets on time.
Nature of the network is one of the major reasons for this congestion problem

is controlled without creating extra burden.

When packets are lost, they need to be retransmitted and this results in a large
amount of energy being lost. This will be solved with three-hop reliability

model.
Three-hop reliability model uses varying amounts of energy.
The maximization of throughput is the key aim of these networks rather than

providing fairness among the nodes.

Three-hop reliability approaches are available for reliability to increase the

performance of network.
This reliable model is used to increase the reliability for our designed routing

protocol.
Three-hop reliability model assures the delivery of the packets.
To control the congestion in three-hop network model and it also save the
energy consumed.

54

5 PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS AND ANALYSIS

5.1 An Introduction to Cygwin
Cygwin is free software that provides a Unix-like environment and software
tool set to users of any modern x86 32-bit and 64-bit versions of MS-Windows (XP
with SP3/Server 20xx/Vista/7/8) and (using older versions of Cygwin) some obsolete
versions (95/98/ME/NT/2000/XP without SP3) as well. Cygwin consists of a Unix
system call emulation library, cygwin1.dll. With Cygwin installed, users have access
to many standard UNIX utilities. They can be used from one of the provided shells
such as bash or from the Windows Command Prompt.
Additionally, programmers may write Win32 console or GUI applications that
make use of the standard Microsoft Win32 API and/or the Cygwin API. As a result, it
is possible to easily port many significant UNIX programs without the need for
extensive changes to the source code. Cygwin provides all of the components needed
to do this in most cases; most POSIX-compliant software, including X11 applications,
can easily be ported to MS-Windows using Cygwin.

5.2 Installing Cygwin Overview

Installing Cygwin begins with downloading and running the Cygwin installer
(setup-x86.exe or setup-x86_64.exe), which is a small application that allows you to
choose:

The Cygwin root directory (where Cygwin will be installed on your system)

Which of the many Cygwin mirrors you will use while downloading

Which optional Cygwin packages should be installed

as well as a few other installation options. Cygwin packages consist of bzip2-

compressed tar (.tar.bz2) archives. The installer downloads these from the mirror you
have chosen into a temporary directory, validates them by computing their MD5
sums, and then unpacks them into the root directory you have chosen.

55

If you have at least 30 Gb free disk space (roughly half of which can be
reclaimed after installation), you may choose to perform a full installation of Cygwin
with all of its optional packages. This choice is recommended for those who prefer to
work in a Unix or GNU/Linux environment but who are constrained to work under
MS-Windows. A full installation provides a large subset of the software provided as
standard components of a typical GNU/Linux distribution. Allow at least an hour to
perform a full installation if you have a fast Internet connection, more otherwise.

5.3 Running the Cygwin Installer

1. Click on the "Install Cygwin-32 now" icon at right (or do so on the Cygwin
Website). Save the link (setup-x86.exe) to your desktop, then double-click on the
saved icon to begin installation. If you prefer, you may install Cygwin-64 using
the setup-x86-64.exe installer from the Cygwin web site. Note that XView-based
software from PhysioToolkit, including WAVE, cannot be compiled on Windows
using 64-bit Cygwin, since several required DLLs are available in 32-bit versions
only.

5.4 Simulation Process

Nowadays, the WSN is a hot research topic. Many network details in WSNs
are not finalized and standardized. Building a WSNs testbed is very costly. Running
real experiments on a testbed is costly and difficulty. Besides, repeatability is largely
compromised since many factors affect the experimental results at the same time. It is
hard to isolate a single aspect. Moreover, running real experiments are always time
consuming. Therefore, WSNs simulation is important for WSNs development.
Protocols, schemes, even new ideas can be evaluated in a very large scale. WSNs
simulators allow users to isolate different factors by tuning configurable parameters.
Consequently, simulation is essential to study WSNs, being the common way
to test new applications and protocols in the field. This leads to the recent boom of
simulator development.
However, obtaining solid conclusions from a simulation study is not a trivial
task. There are two key aspects in WSNs simulators: (1) The correctness of the

56

simulation models and (2) the suitability of a particular tool to implement the model.
A correct model based on solid assumption is mandatory to derive trustful results.

5.5 Basic Concepts of Simulation

There are three types of simulation: Monte Carlo Simulation, Trace-Driven
Simulation and Discrete-Event Simulation. The last two simulations are used
commonly in WSN. The first subsection will talk about the concepts of Trace-Driven
Simulation and Discrete-Event Simulations. The second subsection will illustrate the
concepts of simulator and emulator.
5.5.1 Discrete-Event Simulations and Trace-Driven Simulation
Discrete-event simulation is widely used in WSNs, because it can easily
simulate lots of jobs running on different sensor nodes. Discrete-event simulation
includes some of components. This simulation can list pending events, which can be
simulated by routines. The global variables, which describe the system state, can
represent the simulation time, which allow the scheduler to predict this time in
advance. This simulation includes input routines, output routines, initial routines, and
trace routines. In addition, this simulation provides dynamic memory management,
which can add new entities and drop old entities in the model. Debugger breakpoints
are provided in discrete-event simulation, thus users can check the code step by step
without disrupting the program operation.
However, Trace-Driven Simulation provides different services. This kind of
simulation is commonly used in real system. The simulation results have more
credibility. It provides more accurate workload; these detail information allow users to
deeply study the simulation model. Usually, input values in this simulation constant
unchanged. However, this simulation also contains some drawbacks. For example, the
high-level detail information increases the complexity of the simulation; workloads
may change, and thus the representativeness of the simulation needs to be suspicious.

57

5.6 Simulation Tools

This section illustrates seven main-stream simulation tools used in WSNs: NS2, TOSSIM, EmStar, OMNeT++, J-Sim, ATEMU, and Avrora, and analyzes the
advantage and disadvantage of each simulation tool.
5.6.1 NS-2
NS-2 [NS-2_wiki,NS-2_isi,Egea05,Sinha09,Yi08,Stevens09,Xue07] is the
abbreviation of Network simulator version two, which first been developed by 1989
using as the REAL network simulator. Now, NS-2 is supported by Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency and National Science Foundation. NS-2 is a discrete event
network simulator built in Object-Oriented extension of Tool Command Language
and C++. People can run NS-2 simulator on Linux Operating Systems or on Cygwin,
which is a Unix-like environment and command-line interface running on Windows.
NS-2 is a popular non-specific network simulator can used in both wire and wireless
area. This simulator is open source and provides online document.
5.6.2 Merits and Limitations
NS-2[NS-2_wiki,NS-2_isi,Egea05,Sinha09,Yi08,Stevens09,Xue07] contains
both merits and limitations when people use it to simulate WSNs. To the merits, firstly
as a non-specific network simulator, NS-2 can support a considerable range of
protocols in all layers. For example, the ad-hoc and WSN specific protocols are
provided by NS-2. Secondly, the open source model saves the cost of simulation, and
online documents allow the users easily to modify and improve the codes. However,
this simulator has some limitations. Firstly, people who want to use this simulator
need to familiar with writing scripting language and modeling technique; the Tool
Command Language is somewhat difficult to understand and write. Secondly,
sometimes using NS-2 is more complex and time-consuming than other simulators to
model a desired job. Thirdly, NS-2 provides a poor graphical support, no Graphical
User Interface (GUI) the users have to directly face to text commands of the

58

electronic devices. Fourthly, due to the continuing changing the code base, the result
may not be consistent, or contains bugs.

In addition, since NS-2 is originally targeted to IP networks but WSNs, there

are some limitations when apply it to simulate WSNs. Firstly, NS-2 can simulate the
layered protocols but application behaviors. However, the layered protocols and
applications interact and cannot be strictly separated in WSNs.

1.

In Cygwin Command Prompt, to open the NAM Editor by using the command
startxwin.bat

Fig.5.1 To Open Cygwin Command Prompt

59

2.

After giving the command, the NAM Editor command prompt will opened
like this.

Fig.5.2.Opening NAM Window

3.

Then type the command cd c: in NAM Editor command prompt, the Cygwin
will enter into the drive to process the data.

Fig.5.3 NAM Command Prompt

60

4.

After entering into the c drive, it defines the path cd cygwin/usr/local/nsallinone-2.28/ns-2.28 to search the executing file and get the result.

5.

Fig.5.4 Entering into NAM Drive

Now to run the executing file in the Cygwin Command Prompt.

6.

Fig.5.5 Entering into Nam Folder

Finally, to run the Cygwin in NAM Editor command prompt define ns sensor.tcl.
Then the run script will like this.
61

Fig.5.6 Executing TCL file

7.

As with the case of TCL Script, NAM Editor Window will opened like

this.

Fig.5.7 NAM Editor Window

62

8.

With the help of TCL, Script 63 Nodes will be created.

Fig.5.8 Node Creation in NAM Editor

63

9.

The Nodes will Search the data availability to send a packet.

Fig.5.9 Data Availability to Send Packet

64

10.

First Hop selection process will be started for a packet transmission.

Fig.5.10 One Hop Node Transmission

65

11.

First Node will send a data to respective sink. Transmission process will be

started.

Fig.5.11 Nodes Send Sensed Data to Respective Sink

66

12.

Second Hop and Third Hop Selection process will be done and a packets are

sending from source to destination.

Fig.5.12 Second Hop and Third Hop Selection

67

13.

Now, Forward a data from source to destination with the help of Three Hop

Reliability Model to increase the Reliability of a packet.

Fig.5.13 Reliability for Forward Data to Sink Node

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5.7 Performance Evaluation

Following Graph will prove that Three-Hops Selection will provide the better
performance comparing to the One and Two-Hop models. With the Help of the NS-2
Simulator tool to prove the Metrics like.

Packet Delivery Ratio

Packet Drop
Throughput

5.7.1 Packet Delivery Ratio

Many protocols in wireless sensor networks use packet delivery ratio
(PDR) as a metric to select the best route, transmission rate or power. PDR is
normally estimated either by counting the number of received hello/data
messages in a small period of time, i.e., less than 1 second, or by taking the
history of PDR into account. The first method is accurate but requires many
packets to be sent, which costs too much energy. The second one is energy
efficient, but fails to achieve good accuracy.
A Sensor Network consists of multiple detection stations called sensor
nodes, each of which is small, lightweight and portable. Every sensor node is
equipped with a transducer, microcomputer, transceiver and power source.

Fig.5.14 Two-Hop Packet Delivery Ratio

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Fig.5.15 Three-Hop Packet Delivery Ratio

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5.7.2 Packet Drop

A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a collection of nodes organized
into a cooperative network. Each node consists of processing capability which
acts as transceiver. Packet dropping is a compromised node which drops all or
some of the packets that is supposed to forward. Packet modification is a
compromised node which modifies all or some of the packets that is supposed
to forward. Packet dropping and modification are common attacks that can be
launched by an adversary to disrupt communication in Wireless Sensor
Network

Fig.5.16 Two-Hop Packet Drop

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Fig.5.17 Three-Hop Packet Drop

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5.7.3 Throughput
Most of studies only consider that wireless sensor networks are
equipped with only Omni-directional antennas, which can cause high
collisions. It is shown that the per node throughput in such networks is
decreased with the increased number of nodes. Thus, the transmission with
multiple short - range hops is preferred to reduce the interference. However,
other studies show that the transmission delay increases with the increased
number of hops. Found that using directional antennas not only can increase
the throughput capacity but also can decrease the delay by reducing the
number of hops.

Fig.5.18 Two-Hop Throughput

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Fig.5.19 Three-Hop Throughput

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6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

6.1 Conclusion
WSNs hold the promise of many applications in the area of monitoring and
control systems. Many properties of the environment can be observed by the
monitoring system with the advent of cheap and tiny sensors. All these applications
are meant for the specific purposes, and therefore maintaining data transport
reliability is one of the major concern and the most important challenge. To address
the reliability, to survey the various existing techniques; each of them has its own
unique working to ensure the reliability. Some of the techniques use retransmission
mechanism while others use redundant information for insuring the reliability. Few of
the above objectives may be considered in the future by the researchers.
These objectives may be achieved as under:

By developing a Markov based model with additional mobile sensors to

replace the faulty sensors in case failure occurs.

By developing the efficient mechanism for clustering the sensor nodes in
heterogeneous WSNs to minimize the number of additional sensors required

during the deployment based on artificial neural network models.

By developing a model for reliable and quick packet delivery in WSNs to
enhance the performance of the network using appropriate application

dependent communication schemes.

By developing a model for reliable and fault tolerant transmission by
introducing biologically inspired sensor nodes which can be trained to

memorize the possible events to be observed by the network.

The proposed model will overcome the problems coming from limited
memory and error prone wireless communication medium as the network can
recall the lost memory (information of interest) from the biologically inspired
sensor nodes based on chain of mental (already memorized system)
associations despite of the corrupted signal sensed at the destination.

Generally, for networks that are multi-hop, hop-by-hop is thought to be

superior in regards to reliability. On the other hand, sensor nodes in WSNs are more
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likely to die because of energy loss which causes a tremendous number of packets to
be lost. Therefore Three Hopes Reliability Model (3H-RM) is proposed that deals
with the problem. In our model, three nodes keep a copy of the same data packet.
Data packets in environments, no matter at which place in the network they are
created, usually need at most 6 to 8 hops to get to their destination. The proposed
approach, under these conditions, can deal with the loss of packets and also aids in the
reduction of the issue of congestion with no extra toll being put on the network. The
proposed approach is supported by simulation results that were achieved using a
variety of parameters.

6.2 Future Work

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) in which each sensor node randomly and
alternatively stays in an active mode or a sleep mode. The active mode consists of two
phases, called the full-active phase and the semi-active phase. When a referenced
sensor node is in the full-active phase of the active mode, it may sense data packets,
transmit the sensed packets, receive packets, and relay the received packets. Finally, a
packet loss approach will be evaluated and studied in order to mitigate the effects of
nodes failure while sending a data packet. Handling these packet losses also helps to
reduce the congestion problem without creating any extra burden on the network. The
energy efficiency can be the future work in Three Hop Reliability Model (3H-RM).

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