.

CHAPTER XV

TTIE EXECUT'IVE FUNCTIONS

frHE

c<ijdination of efforts csscntial to a systcm of cdipca.

rcquircs, a we havc r..n, an orgrrrLtior ,yrt of
comunicatio. Such a systcm of communication implics ccntc! o poinb of intcrconcqtion ad cn oly opcrate as thesc
ccntcrs arc occupied by pcrsons who arc callcd cxccutivcs. lt
might bc said thcn, that thc functioo of cxccutivcs i to cvc e
chanrcls of communiction so fa communicatioas must pass
tlrough ccntral positions. But sincc thc objcct of c communi.
cation systcm is coiirdination oI all arpccts of organization, it
follows that thc functio of cxccutivcs cltc to all thc wot
cscntil to thc vitality and cnduanc of an organization,
!o fer, at lcast, as it mut bc accomplishcd through formal
cciidination.
It fu ipotant to obscryc, howcvcr, that not all woL donc
by pcrsons who occupy cxccutivc positions is in concction rvith
thc cxccutivc functions, thc ccriirdination of ctivitics of oc.
Somc of thc worL of such p*rons, though orgadz*iol wotk,
i not cxccutivc, For cxaople, if thc pruidcnt of a corporation
goca out pcrsonally to scll products of his company or cngagrs
in rome of thc production worb thcrc arc not cxccutivc rcfviccs,
If thc prcsidcnt of a univcrsity givcs lccturcs to a clas of studcnts, this is not cxccutivc wok. If thc hcad of govcru!ct
dcpartmcnt spcnds time on complaints or disputcs about 6crvic.g
crrdcrcd by thc dcpartmcnt, thir is not neccssarily cxccutivc
wok. Exccutivc wok is not that ol thc orgalization, but thc
spccializ*d work of maintainiry rhc organization in opcration.
Probably a excutivca do a coidcablc amount of ocxccutivc worL. Somctimes tlis wok is moe valuablc than thc

tiol

v
216

THE EXECUTM

FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS

FTTNCTIONS 2tj

we are concered are like thosg of the ncrvous systcm, including

the brain, in relation to e rest of the body. It exists to main-

work they do. This itemtue of fuctions is a

mac of conveniencc and often of econom because of e
scarcity of abilities; or there may bc other rcasons for it. As a
csult of the combination of cxecutive with on-cccutive
functions, however, it is di6cult in practicc mercly by compari
son of titles o of nominal fuctions to determine the comparativc methods of executive wok in dificcnt olganizations.
If we mean by executive functions the spccialized work of
maintaining systems of codperative effort, ]re rDay bcst plc
executive

tain the bodily system by directing thosc actions rvhich ac

nccssay moe cffectively to adjust to the environment, but
it can hardly be said to mange the body, a lerge part of whose

functions ae i.ndependert of

it

and upon which

it in tu

depends.

The essential executive functions, as I shall prcsct them, correspond to thc elements of organization as already stated in
Chapter VII and presented in some derail in Part III. They are,
frrst, to provide c syfcm of communication; second, to pro
inote thc sccuing of essential edorts; and, ird, to formulate
and dene putposc. Sice the clcmcnts of organization arc in
tcclatcd ard interdependcnt, e executive functions are so
likewise; ncvcrtheless they are subject to considerable specializatiorl and as functions arc to a substantial degree separablc in
practice. W shall dcal with them only as found in complcx,
though not necessarily large, organizations.

work has to bc dooe,

desirablc,
to
tracc
out
who
arc doing that work
and thco, whcn
ceed for general purposes to 6nd out what

a panicular organization,
This is especially true bccause executivc wok is itself oftcn
complcxly organizcd. In an organization of modcte size
therc may be a hundred pcrsons who arc engagcd part of thc
ti6e in cxccutive work; and some of them, for examplc clcrLs
or stenogaphels, arc not cxccutivcs in any ordinary scnrc.
Ncvereless, the activitics of thcsc pcrsons constitutc thc cxccutivc orgaizatiol. It is to thc functions of this organization as
a spccial unit that our attcntioo should be given primaril thc
distribution oI work bctwccn pcrsom or positions being for
gencral purposcs quite of secondary importance. This chaptcr
will be devotcd to thc functions of the executivc organization
as a whole which cxists exclusively for the c<rdination of the
cfiorts of thc entirc organization.
The executive functions scvc to maintein a systero of cooperative cffot. They are impcrsonal. Thc functions are not,
as so ftequeltly stated, to malagc a group of pcrsons. I do
riot think a correct undcrstanding of cxccutivc wok can bc had
if this narrowcr, convenient, but suictly speaLing erroncous,
conccption obtains. It is not even quite correct to say that the
cxcctive functions ae to managc the systcm of copcrativc
cfiots, As a whole it is m.rnagcd by itselt not by thc executive
organization, which is a part of it. Thc functions with which

in

Tr Mevr,rc o Oczrto Covuucto

Wc have oticed in previous chapters that, wheri a complcx
of more than onc unit is io question, centers of communication
and corresponding executivcs alc necessary. The necd of a
dcnitc sysrem of communication creates th rst task of the
organizcr and is the immcdiatc origin of executivc organization.
If the purposc of an organization is conceivcd initially in the
mind of one pcrson, he is likely very early to 6nd riecessery the
sclection of licutcnants; and
the organization is spontancous
its very first task is likcly to be the sclection of a leadc. Since
communication will bc accomplished only through the agcncy
of persons, thc sclcction of persons for xccutive functions is
thc concctc mcthod of establishing the itant o cottfrLl)rriaa.
tion, though it must be immcdiately followcd by thc ceation
of positios, that is, a yltrz of commuicatiort; and, cspecially

V
2T8

THE EXECUTIVE FIICTIONS

FLINCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS

in established organizations, thc positions will exist to be 6llcd

in the cvent of vacancies.
In oer words, communication position and the "locating"
of the sevices of a persofl are complementary phascs of the
seme thing. The cente of communication is thc organization
sefvice of a peson et a place. Persons without positions cannot
function s executives, they mean nothing but potentiality.
Conversel positions vacant ae as defunct as dead erve ccnters. This is why executives, when functioning strict\ as
executives, are unable to appraise men in the abstact, in a
olgadzatio vacuum, es it wee, Men are neither good nor
bad, but only good or bad in this or that position. This is why
thcy not infrequcntly "change the organization," the arrangement of positions, if me suitable to 6ll them ac not available,
In fact, "cxccutive organization" in practicc cannot be divoced
from "exccutive personncl"; and "exccutive pcsonncl" is without impotant meaning except in conjunction with a spccic
arrangemcnt of positions.
Therefore, the problem of the establishment and maintcnance

of thc systcm of communication, that is, the primary task of

thc executivc organization, is pcrpctually that of obtaining the
coalescencc of the two phascs, exccutive personel and executivc
positions. Each phase in turn is the stategic facto of the
executivc poble-first onej thefi the other phase, must be
adjustcd. This is the central problem of the cxecutive functions.
Its solution is not in itself sufrcient to accomplish thc work of
all these functions; but no othcrs can be accomplished without
it, and none well unless it is well donc.
Although this communication fuction has ro phases, it is
trsually necessary in practice to deal with onc phase at a time,
and thc problcms of each phasc are of quite difiecnt kids.
The problcms of positions !e those of location and the gcogaphical, ternporal, social, and functional specializations of

2t9

udt

and group organizations, Thc personncl problems arc a

spccial case of grncral personncl problems -. tbc recruitilg of
contibutols who hav appopriatc qualifications, and the developmcnt of thc inducements, i[centrves) persuasion, and objective authority that can makc thosc quali6cations efiective
cecutivc services in thc organization.

I. TIE SCHEMT O! ORGANZATION

Lct us call the first phase of thc function thc deFnition

the "schne of oganization." This

is thc aspcct of organization which reccivcs clatively cxcessivc
of organization positions

fomal attention because it can apparently bc reduccd to organization charts, specifications of dutics, and dcscriptions of divi.
sions of labor, etc. It rests upon or repescnts a cdidination
chicfly of thc work to be done by the orgedizetion, that is, its
purporcs broken up into subsidiary purposes, specializations,
tasks, etc., which will bc discussed in Scction III of this chaptcr;
thc kind and quanrity of lclaiccJ of pefionnel that ca bc obtained; thc Lind and qeDtiLty on ?cftottr thet must bc includcd
in the coperativc systcm for this purposc; the inducemcnts
that arc rcquircd; and the places at which and the times when
thcsc factors can be combined, which will not bc specifically
discusscd ircre.t
It is cvident that thcse ale mutually depcndcnr factors, and
thac they all involvc othc executive functions which we shall
dicuss latc, So far as he clcmc of oganization is sepalatcly
attackcd, it is always on the assumption that it is thcn the
stratcgic factor, the othe factors of oganization remaiing
6xcd fo thc timc being; but since the underlying purpose of
any changc in a scheme of organization is to afiect these othe
factos as a whole favorably, any schcme of organization at any
'S.c Chaptc X, "Thc Bash
of thc pr6.dt chaptt.

rd Kitds of

Spc.ializatiors,"

d S..tion III

t
22O

THE EXECUTIVE

FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS

given time eprescnts ncessarily a result of prcvious successivc

approximations th-rough a period of time. It has always necessarily to be ttacked on the basis of the prescnt situation.
If.

FUNCTIONS

22t

usually be paid to rcsponsible persons, resposibility itself does

not arisc foo such inducrocnts.

However, lovc of prestige is, in general, a much eo importart induccmcDt in the cse of executives than with the rest
of thc personftl. Inteest in work and pride in oganization
ac othe incentivcs that usually must be present. These facts
are much obscued as cspccts cohmecial organizations, wherc
aterial induccments appca to be the edectivc factors partly
bccause such inducemcnts ee mole readily oficed i such
orgnizarions and partly bccausc, sincc the othe incentives ee
oftcn cqual as between such organizations, material induccmcnh ae thc only evailable difiecntial facto. It also becomes
an i.mportant secoridary facto to individuals in many cascs,
bccausc prcstige and oficial responsibilities impose heavy matcrial burdcns oA thcm. Hence neithe chuches no socialistic states have been ablc to escape the necessity of direct o
indiect mareial inducements for high dignitaries or ocials.
But this is probably incidcntal and supcr6cial in all organizetions. It appears to bc tuc that io all of them adequatc incentivcs to exccutivc seviccs are di6cult to oflcr. Those most
availablc in the prcscot age arc tangible, aterialistic; but on
thc wholc they arc both insuficient and oftcn abortive.2
Following loyalty, responsibility, and capacity to be dominated by organization personality, come the more speci6c pesonal abilities. They arc roughly divided into two classes:
rclativcly general abilitics, involving general alertness, compre-

PERSONNEL

The schcme of organization is dependet ot only upon the

general factors of the organization as a wholc, but likewise, as
we havc indicated, on the availability of various kids of scviccs fo the crecutive positions. This becomes in its tur! the
stratcgic factor. In gcneral, the pdnciples of the economy of
incentives apply hcre as well as to other more geneal personncl poblcms. The balancc of factos ad the tcchnical protl
lcms of this special class, howevc, ar ot only difierent from
those generally to bc found in other spheres of organizatio cconomy but ac highly spccial in diderent types of
oganizations.
The rnost impotant singlc conuiburion rcqtricd of the executivc, cctainly thc ost univcsel quali6cation, is loyalty,
domination by the organization pclsomlity. This is the 6st
cccssity bccausc thc lins of communication cannot function
at all unlcss thc pcrsonal contibutions of cxecutivcs will be
prcscnt at thc rcquired positions, at the times necessry, without default fo ordinay pcrsonal rcasons. This, as a pcrsonal
qualication, is known in sccular organizations as rhe quality
of "responsibility"; in political organizations as "regularity";
in governmental organizations as fealty or loyalty; in rcligious
orgarizatio[s as "complete submission" to the faith and to thc
hicrarchy of objcctivc rcligious auority.
The contribution of pcrsonal loyalty and submission is lcast
susccptiblc to tangible inducercnts. It cannot be bought cithcr
by material inducements or by other positive inccnrivcs, cxcept
all other things be equal. This is as rrue of industrial orgalizations, I bclicvc, as of any othets. It is rather gencrally understood that although money or othe Eraterial iduccments must

'Aftd much cxpoicncc,I am convin.cd t.t thc most inclcctirc srliccs in

a cotinuins cfiort dc in onc scnsc thosc of volutcds, o. of schi-voluntcds;
lor dmplc, hllpy workds. Wht ppcrs to bc incxpctuivc is in fact
vcry cxpc3ivc, bccaus. non matcial inccntilcs-such s prcstis., tol.ration
gr.at pdional irtdBt in thc work wi it! accompanyig fads and
o
"pcf'pojcct, . yiclding to cxaggdat d con.cptions f individul importancc
caus.s of itcral fictioq and many otcr undcsirablc consqucnccs.
Yct in hany .Egmcy situations, and i la.gc prt of lolical, charitablc,
civic, cducatioal, d rclisious orsrization work, oftcn idispcnsablc a.rvice
carot bc ohai.d by matial inccntivG.

te

-ec

-^{

V
THE EXECUTM

FTINCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS
hensiveness

of intercst, flexibilit faculty of adjustmct,

poise,

corage, ctc.; and specialized abilities based on panicular apti-

tudes and acquird techniques. The fust kind is relatively

dificult to appraisc because it depends upoo innatc chaactcrie
tics developed through general expeience. It is not greatly
susceptible of immediate inculcation. The secold kind may bc
less ae because the divisiol of labor, that is, orgization itscq
fosters it automatically, and because it is susccptible to develop
ment (t a cost) by taining and cducatio. We dcliberatcly
and more end more turn out specialists; but we do not develop
general executives well by speci6c efiors, and we know very
litde about how to do it.
Thc higher the positions in the line of authoity, the orc
gencral the abilities required. The scarcity of such abilities, together with thc necessity for keeping thc lines of authority as
short as feasible, cootrols thc organization of exccrtive work.
It leads to the eduction of the numbcr of formally cxccutivc
positions to the minimum, a measute madc possible by creating
about the exccutives in many cases stafis of specialists who
supplement em in timc, cnergy, and technical capacities.
This is made feasible by elaborate ad often delicate arrangements to coect cor esulting from the faults of ovcr-specialization and the paucity of linc exccutives.
Thc operation of such systcms of complex executive oganization rcquires thc highest devclopment of the executive ats,
Its vaious foms ad techniques are most definitely cxcmpli6cd
in the amies and avies of the major powers, the Postal Administrations of several European countries, thc Bcll Telephone
System, some of the great reilway systems, and the Catholic
Church; and perhaps in the political oganization of the British
Empire. One of the 6st limitatios of wold-wide or eve a

'Foo r

structu.al point of vicw orsanizatioD of thc Unit.d Stt6 of

Amqi@ epccially notdorthy, bt fom thc viwpoint of thc qccutivc
fu.tios it is inr.ndcd to bc d.fcctivc; tlt is, c systo of Stt6 RishB o!

t:_

FUNCTIONS

223

much molc lestrictcd international ogadzation i the ccessity for the development of these foms alld tcchniques fa
beyond their present status.
Thus, joiotly with the developmcnt of the schemc of organization, e selectionj proinotion, demotion, and dismissal oI
men becomes the essencc of maintaining the system of communicetion without which no organizetion can exist. The
selection in part, but especially the promotion, demotion, and
dismissal of men, depend upon thc exercise of supervision or
what is often called "control."
Contol relates direcdy, and in conscious application chiefly,
to the wok of the orgenizetion as a whole ather than to
the work of executives as such. But so heavily dependent is the
success of coipcation upon the functioning of th exccutive
organization that practically the control is ove cxecutives for
the most part. If the work of an organization is not strcccssful,
if it is ine6cient, if it cannot maintain the services of its pcsonnel, thc conclusion is thet its "managcment" is wong; that
is, that the schcme of communication or the associated personnel

or both, that is, the exccutive department directly relatcd, are

at fault. This is, sometimes at lastr no! true, but oftcn it is,
Moreover, for the corectio of such faults the 6sr reliace is
upon cxecutive orgaization, The methods by which control
is excrcised ae, of couse, numeous and largely technical to
each organizationJ and necd ot be further dicusscd here.

III.
So

INORMAL EXCUII!'E ORCANIZAAIONS

fa we havc considered thc 6rst executive function only

elates to the forml communication syfem. It has bcen

emphasized seveal times in is treatise that
ormal oganas

it

dual sovdcianty ad thc scparation of l.sislatjv., judiciI, nd qccutivc do

puncnc pr.dudc!
of authoritativc @munietion i
Amdiq sovdcnr s a fomal orSanizatioq. It intcndcd o qpectcd

r c rquirdcn8 will

bc

hct

by inforhal orsnizatio.

FTINCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS

THE EXECUTIVE FTINCTIONS

ization is essential to formal organizations, paticularly with

eferencc to communication. This is true not only of thc organization as a whole, o of its rltimate subodinate units, but
also of that special part which we call the executive organizalion.
The communication function of executives includes the maintenance of infomal executive organization as an essential means
of comunicatio.
Although I have never head it stated that this is an executivc
fuction or that such a thirg as an informal executive orgallization exists, in all the good organizations I have obseved the
most caeful attcntion is paid to it. In all of them infomal
oganizatios operate. This is usually not appacnt cxccpt to
those directly concerncd.
Thc general ethod of maintaining an informal executivc
organization is so to operate and to select arrd promotc exccutivcs that a gcneral condicion of compatibility of personncl is
maintaincd. Perhaps often and certainly occasionally men cannot bc proroted or selcctcd, or evcn must be relievcd, becausc
they cannot function, becausc they "do not t " whcrc thec is
no question of formal competence. This question of "frtncss"
involves such matters as cducation, cxpericnce, age. scx, personal distinctions, prestige, race, nationality, faith, politics, sectional antecedents; and such very speci6c personal traits as

background (European armies, navies, labor unions, Soviet and

Fascist governments, political parties); by confeences and con-

224

manncrs, spccch, pesonal appearancc, etc. It gocs by few if any

rules, cxccpt those based at lcast nominally on othe) fomal,
consideations. It reprcscnts in its best scnse the political aspccts
of personal relationship in formal organizatiori, I suspect it to
be most highly developed in political, labor, church, and uni-

versity organizations, for the very eason that the intangible

typcs of persoflal services are relativcly more important in them
then in most othr, especially industrial, organizations. But it
is certainly of major importance in all organizacions.
This compatibility is promoted by educational requircmcnts
(armies, navics, churches, schools); by requiremcnt of ccrtain

225

veDtions; by speci6cally social activities; by class distinctios

connectcd with privileges and "authority" (in armies, fiavies,
churchcs, universities). A cetain conformity is required by
unwitten undestanding that can sometimes be formally enforced, expressed for its negative aspect by the phrase "conduct
unbecoming a gentleman and an o6ce," There arc, however,
innumerablc other processcs, many of which are not consciously
employed for this purpose.
It must not be understood that the desired degree of compatibility is always thc same o is the maximum possible. On
the contrary it seems to mc to be often the case that cxcessive
coparibility or harmony is delererious, resulting in "single
tack minds" and excessively crystallized attitudes and in the
dcstruction of pcrsonal responsibility; but I know from experience in operating with ncw emegency ogaizations, in which
thcre was no timc and little immediate basis for the grow
of an informal organization properly codrdinated with formal
organization that it is elmost impossible to secue edective and
c6ciertt copeation without it.
Thc functions of informal cxecutive orgariizations are the
communication of intangible facts, opinions, suSgestions, suspicions, that cannot pass through formal channels without raising
issues calling for decisions, without dissipating dignity and
objcctivc authority, and without overloading executive posi
tions; also to minimize excessive cliques of political types arising
from too great divergence o( inteests and views; to promote
self-discipline of the group; and to make possible the develop
ment of important personal ineuences in the organization.
There are probably other fuctions.
I shall comment on only two functions of infomal executive

organization. The necessity for avoiding lormal issues, that

is, for avoiding the issuance oI numeous fomal orders except

r
2

FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZ ATIONS

THE EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS

ori loutinc Eratters end excpt

I Lnow of major cxccutives who

1fI emege[cies, is impotant.'

issue en order or judgment scttlirig an important issue ather seldom, although they are functioning all the time. The obvious desire of politicians to avoid
important issues (and to impose em on thei opponents) is
based upon a thorough sense of organization. Neither authority
nor coperative dispositioo (largcly the same things) will stand
much overt division o formal issues in the present stage of
human development, Hence most laws, executive ordes, dcisiors, etc., ee iri efect formal otice that all is well
there is
agreement, auority is not questioned.

The question of pesonal influencc is very subtle. Probably

most good organizations have somewhec a Colonel House; and
ma[y men not oDly exercise bcncficcnt influence far beyond
that implied by their formal statusr but most of them, at thc

timc, would lose their influence if they had corcspondinS

fomel status. The reason may be that many men have personal
qualifications of high order at will not opelatc under c
stress of commensurate o6cial responsibility. By analogy I may
mcntio the golfers of frrst class skill who canlot "stand p"
in public tournaments.
To summarize: the 6st erccutive function is to devclop and
maintain system of communication. This involves jointly a
scheme of oganizatiol and an executive psonnel, Thc processes by which th letter is accomplishcd include chiefly thc
sclection of men and the ofiering of inceDtives; techniqucs of
contol pemitting effectiveness in promoting, demoting, and
whcn writing

thcs lins I tricd to .ell an importnt gcnqal d.cision

mdc by mc on my initiativc as a tclcphonc qcdtivc wiin teo y@s. I
could rccall noDc, althugh on cvicwins thc rccord I found scvdal. On thc
othc hd, I @n sdll r.cll wiout y ccod may major deisios mad.
by mc "out of hand wh.r I wa a Rccf AdnrnRtrtor. I probably avq8.d
t lu:t vc a day for ci8htccn monlhs. ln r. hLrcr cr( I worlcd wirh a vdy
nobl. group but a v..y poor info.mal orsanizarion undcr ddancy .o!-

227

dismissing rnen; and finally the sccuring of an informal organ-

ization in which the esscntial property is compatibility of

personnel. The chief funcrions of this informal organization are
expansion of the means of communication with reduction in the
necessity for formal dccisions, the minimizing of undesiable
infltrcnces, and the promotion of desiable influences concodant
with e scheme of formal responsibiliries.

II.

TrE SEctnNc o EsSENAL SER!'rcEs nov horvous

The second funcrion of the execurivc organization is lo promote the securiog of the personal sevices that costitute the
material of organizations.
The wok divides into two main divisions: (r) the bringing
of persons into ccitperarive relarionship wirh the organization;
(n) thc eliciting of the services aftcr such persons have bcen
brought into that relationship.

The characteristic fact of thc fist division is thar the organization is acting upon persons who are irr every sense outsidc it.
Such action is neccssary not mercly to securc thc pcrsonncl of
ncw organizations, or to supply the material fo the gowth of
cxisting organizations, but also to replace the losses (hat continually take placc by eason of death, rcsignation, "backsliding," emigration, discharge, cxcommunication, ostracism. These
factors of growth or replacemcnt of contibutors require bringing persons by organization efiort within range of the consideratio of the incentives available in orde to induce some of
these persons to attach themselvcs to the organization. Accodingly the task involves two parts: (a) bringing persons within
reach of specic efior ro secue services, and () the application of that eIot when they have been brought near enough,
Oftc both parts of the task occupy thc edots of thc same
penons or parts of an organization; but they arc clearly distinct

228

THE EXECUTTVE FUNCTIONS

FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS

eleaents end consideable specializatioo is fond

with espect

rmcrts, at present, the accetio of members taLes the fom

of stimulating reproduction by ective promorional efforts, as in
France and Ital for cxample, or by the easc of acquiring citizenship and free land as until recently in e Unired States. In
many industrial organizations foreign recruiting was once an
important aspect of their work, and dirccdy or indirecly the
appeal for contributors of capital or credit has bee fundametally international in scopc until ecent exchange cstictions,
In fact, the most univesal aspect of indr.rstrial organization
appcal has becn in rcspect to this typc of contribub
fo many
practical purposes he is not usually regarded as the-material of
organization, though il thc prescnt study he is.
(D) The edort to induce specidc persons who by the general
appcal are brought into conract with an organization actually
to becomc identi6ed with ir constirutes thc more regular and
loutine work of secuing contributors. This involvcs in its
gcocral aspects the method of pcrsuasion which has alrcady
bccn dcscribcd, thc establishmcnr of inducemenh and incetivcs, and dicct ncgotiation. The methods rcquircd arc indcfinitely largc in numbcr and of very wide variety. It would
ot be useful hce to add to what has alcadv bcen said in
Chaptcr XI on e economy of incentivcs. I[ is only nccessary
to cmphasizc again that fundamentally most pcrsons potentially availablc are nor susceptible at any given timc of being
induced to give scrvicc to any paticular olgadzatiori, lage
o small.

to them.
pcrsons within reach of ccniting or proseling influence is a task which di-ders in practical emphasis among
organizations in respcct both to scope and to meod. Some

(a) Bringing

espccially the Catholic Church, sevreligious organizations

Mormon Church, for cxamplc Chuches,
the
cal Potcstat
havc as ideal goals the attachment of all persons to thcir
organizations, and the wide world is the eld of prosclyting
propaganda. During many decades the Unitcd States of
Amiica invited all who could each its shoes to become
Ameican citizens. Othcr organizations, having limits on thc
volume of thei activitics, rcstrict the 6eld of propaganda. Thus
roay netions in cffect now estict subfantial growth to thorc
who acquirc a natioal status by birth; thc Amcrican Lcgion
csticts its membcrship to thosc who have acquircd a status
by a ccrtain typc of previous scrvicc, etc. Others restict thei
6clds practically on the basis of proportions. Thus universitics
"in principlc" arc open to all or to all with cducational and
character qualications but may restrict thcir appeals to geo
graphical, racial, and cla$ proportions, so as to preseve thc
cosmopolitan character of their bodies, or to Prcscrvc plc_
doninancc of nationals, ctc. Industlial aod commcrcial organ_
izations are thcoretically limited usually by considcrarions of
social compatibility and additionally by thc costs of propaganda.
Thcy usually attcmpt no appcal whcn thc gcograPhic rcmoteness
makcs it incfiectivc.
Although thc scope of the cld of ptopaganda is fo oost
oganizations not clealy conccivcd or stated and as a problem
only rcquirce activc considcatio[ at intcrals usually long, thc
qucstio.! is ncvertheless fundamcntal. Thir is best indicatcd by
thc mcthods pacticlly cmploycd in connectroo with it. In
chuchcs thc organization of mission rrork and its teritoial
scopc arc thc best indications of its importalcc. In most gov'

Although the work of recruiting is important in most organizations, and especially so in thosc which are ncw or rapidly
!

I must rcp@t tha althoush rhc .mphesis is or rhc cptoyc group of codibuto, so f. as industrial orsizetions a.c concd'cd, r*c;.rcs .t"e
t9ms" rc cqually includcd, Thc principlcs broadly disu$cd hc rclarc to
salBmanship es wclla!@ployins pcsons. Scc lasc 75.

\=_

FI.INCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS

THE EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS

e{pending or which have high "turnover," revcthcless in

csublished and enduring organizations the elicitiilg oI the
quantity ad quality of eflorts from their adherents is usually
morc important and occuPies the greater Part of personcl
cffort. Because of the more tangible character of "membership,"
being an "employce," elc.. recruig is apt to rcccive mote
attentior es a ficld of personnel work than the business of
pomoting the actual output of effots and inlluenccs, which
are the eal matcrial of organization.t Membcrship, nominal
adherence, is merely the startig point; and the minioum contibutios which can be conceived as enabling tentio[ of such
conection would generally be insucicnt fo the suvival of
activ o productive organization. Hence every church, evcry
govefnmenr, every olef importent organization. bas lo itcnsify or multiply the contributions which its mcmbes will
make above the lcvel o volumc which would occur if o uch
cffort wee made. Thus chuchcs must stlengthe the faith,
secre compliance by public and private acknowlcdgmcnts of
faith o dcvotion, and secue matcrial contributions fom thci
mcmbcs. Govenments arc concelned with increasing thc
promoting national solidarity, loyalty,
quality of the citizenry
patriotism. disciplinc. and competcncc. Other organizations are
similarly occupicd in sccuring loyalty, reliabilit rcsponsibility,
cnthusiasm, quality of efforts, outPut. In short, every organization to suvivc must delibeately attend to the roaintenatrce and
growth of its authority to do the things necessary for cciirdination, effectivness, and eficiency. This, as we havc scen, depends upon its appcal to persons who are already related to the

of icertivcs and authoity. As executive functions they may be

distinguished as the maintenancc of morale, the maintenace
of the scheme of induccments, the maintcnance of schemcs of

230

23r

dcterrents, supervision ad control, inspectior, educatiol and

training.

IlI.

T Fonwurro:, o Pupos

^ND

OrJEdinEs

The third executive function is to formulate and de6ne the

purposes, objectives, ends, of the organization. It has already
been made clear that, stricdy speaking purpose is de6ncd moe
nearly by the aggregate of action taken than by ay fomulation
in words; but that that aggegate of action is a residuum of the
dccisions relative to purposc and the environmcntr eulting in
closer and close approximalions

to the concete acts. It

has

also bcen emphasized thar purpose is something that must bc

accepted by all the contributors to the system of c6orts. Again,
it has bcen statcd that plpose must be broken into fagments,
speci6c objectives, not only orderd iri timc so that detailed purposc and detailed actio follow in thc seies of pogre$ive
codperation, but also odeed contemporaneously into the spe-

that cach
- gcographical, social, aod fuctioal - than
unit oganizetion implics. It is more apparcnt here
with
cializations

olhcr cxccutive functions rhar il js an entire executive orgnization that formulatcs, rcdefnes, breaks into details, and decides
o the innumcrablc simuhancous and progressive actions that
are the strcam of synthecs constitting purpose or action, No
single exccutive can unde any conditions accomplish this
function alone, but only that part of it which rclates to his
position in the executivc organization.
Hence the critical aspect of this finctio[ is thc assignment of
responsibility
- e delegation of objective authority. Thus in
onc scnse this fuction is that of thc scheme of positions, the
systcm of communication, already discussed. That is its potentiel aspect, Its othcr aspect is the actual decisions and coduct

organization.

The methods, thc inducemcnts and incentives, by which this

is done have already been in general indicated in ou discussio
'As ad instanc., notc tc grcat attcntion in civil sdvic reeultioB, d lso
in potical ppointmcdti, to obtainins nd rctinins mploymcnt, nd thc
rcltivcly small ancntion to sdvicB.

_\-.


232

FUNCTIONS OF ORCANIZATIONS

which make the scheme a working system. Accordingly, the

general executive states that "this is the pupose, this the otu
jective, this the directio$ in general terms, i which we wish to
move, before next year." His department heads, or the heads
of his main territorial divisions, say to thei departments or
suborganizations: "This mcas for us these things now, then
othcrs next month, then others letr, to be better defined afte
experience." Their subdepatmcnt or division hcads say: "This
means for us such and such operations now at these places, such
others at those places, something today hcre, others tomorrow
thee." Then distict o bueau chiefs in turn become mole and
moe spcci6c, thei sub<hiefs still nore so as to place, group,
time, until finally purpose is mercly jobs, specific groups,
definite men, de6nite times, accomplished results. But meanwhile, back and forth, up ad down, the communications
pess, reportiog obstacles, difficulties, impossibilities, accomplishmertsi rede6ning, modifying purposes levcl after level.
Thus thc orgadzation for the definitioo of purpose is the
organization for the specification of wok to do; and thc spccifrcations are madc in thei 6nal stage when and where the
work is being donc. I suspect that at least nine-tenths of all
organization activity is oo the rcsponsibility, thc authority, and
the spccifications of those who make thc last contributions, who
apply personal encrgics to thc 6nal concete objectives. There
is no meaniflg to personal specialization, pcrsonal cxperience,
personal training personal location, personal ability, eycs and
ears, arms and legs, brains and emocions, if this is ot so. What
must be added to the indispcnsablc authority, rcsponsibility, and
capability of each contributor is the indispensable co<jdiatio,
This rcquircs a pyramiding of the formulation of purpose that
bccomcs more and more general as the number of units of basic

orgadzation bccomes largcr, and moe and morc cmote in

futue tiEc. Respoosibility for abstract, generalizing prospective, long-nn decision is dclegated at thc line, responsibility

THE EXECUTIVE FL'^lCTIoNs

for de6nition, action, emairis always at thc

authority for efort resides.

233

base whec the

The fomulation ad definition of purpose is then a widely

distributed function, only the more gcneral part of which is
crccutive. In this fact lies the most important inheent di6culty in the opcration of cctiperative systems-the flecessity for
indoctrinatilg those at the lower levels with general purposes,
the major decisions, so that they emain cohesive and able to
makc the ultimate dctailed decisions coherent; and thc necessity, for those at the higher levels, of constantly understanding
thc concrcte conditions ad the spcci6c dccisions of the "ultimatc" contibutos from which and fom whom executives ae
often insulated. Without that up-and-down-the-line coiitdination of purposeful dccisions, gcneral decisions and general purposcs are mere intellecttral processes in an organization vacuum,
isulatcd fom rcalities by laycrs of misunderstanding. Thc
fuction of formulating grald purposes aod providing for
thci rcdc6nitio is one which ecds ensitive systems of communication, expericnce in interpretation, imagination, and
dclcgation of rcsponsibiliry.
Pcrhaps there ae one who could conside even so extremcly condcnsed and gefleral a description of the xccutivc fuctions as has here bcen presented without perceiving
that thcse functions are merely elements in an organic whole.
It is thei combination in a working system that makes an
organization.
This combination involves two oppositc incitements to action.
First, the concrete interaction and murual adjustment of the
cxccutive furictions are partly to be detemined by the factors
of the envionmcnt of the organization
thc specific cciiperativc system as a whole and its cnvironment. This involves
fundamentally the logical processes of analysis and the discimination of the statcgic factors. We shall consider this aspect

2y

FIJNCTIONS OF ORCANZATIONS

in thc following chaptcr. Second thc combination equally

of thc vitaty of action - thc
aspcct, thc clcncnt of morelc,
ooral
wiil to cfort. This is thc
the ultimatc cson fo cciipcratron, to which Chapter XVII
will bc givcn,
dcpcnds upon the maitenance

CHAPTER XVI

TIE EXECUTIVE

PROCESS

HE cxecutive functions, which have been distinguished for

purposcs of exposition and which ae the basis fo much
functional specialization io organizations, havc no scparatc concele existence.l They are parts or aspech of a proccss of organization as a wholc. This proccss in the more complex
organizations, and usually even in simple unit organizations,
is made the subject of specializcd responsibility of cxecutives
o leades. The mcans utilized are to a considcable extent
colcete acts logicaliy dctermioed; bur the csscntial aspect of
the proccss is the sensing of the organization as a whole ad
the total situation rlevant to it. It rrensccnds the capacity of
rncrcly intcllectual methods, and the tcchniques of discriminating the factors of the situation. The terms pctinent to it ac
"fceling," "judgmcnt,"'lense," "proportion," "balance," "ap
plopriatcness." It is e matter of at rather than sciencc, and is
acsthetic ather than logical. For this raso[ it is recognizcd
athe thn descibed and is known by ih cflects ather than
by analysis. All that I can hope to do is to statc why this is so
rathcr than to spccify of what the executive pocess consists.
I shall attempt this by presenting generally the scctos of the
total action of organization in which the scnse of thc wholc is
rThc concr(c ph.nomcna ic always cts or rh. cGs of cts. Many
.ts
plcr so prcdomirntly rclakd to a parcular tunction, howcv, tht it k
ofic convcicnt to think of fundion its.ll as codcrct.ly cxmpli6cd in an
dduliv. $ay. For qmple, an ordcr ppoindns a ldson to po,irion may
bc cosiddcd cxdusivcly thc condctc cxprBsion of th. funcrion ofmeitiing
thc comhnication sysrem of th. orSaiztior. Ir will bc .vidcnt, howcvc,

from c vicwpoint of citbcr orisjo o .ficct, that rhc ,cr cannot bc divorccd
from othd cl.ments or flnctions.

-!