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Unit 2 Steam Power Plant: Structure
Unit 2 Steam Power Plant: Structure
Structure
2.1
Introduction
Objectives
2.2
2.3
Steam Generator
2.4
Super Heater
2.5
2.6
Furnaces
2.7
2.8
Steam Turbines
2.9
Condenser
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Two important area of application of thermodynamics are power generation and
refrigeration.
Both power generation and refrigeration are usually accomplished by a system that
operates on a thermodynamics cycle.
Thermodynamics cycles can be divided into two generation categories :
(a)
Power Cycles
(b)
Refrigeration Cycles
The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called engines and
the thermodynamics cycles they operate on are called power cycle.
The devices or systems use to produce refrigeration are called refrigerator, air
conditioners or heat pumps and the cycles they operates on are called refrigeration
cycles.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized as :
(a)
(b)
Gas Cycles or Vapor Cycles : In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in
the gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle, where as in vapor cycles the
working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle and in
the liquid phase during another part.
(c)
21
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
Wnet
Qin
(b)
(c)
Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle is composed of 4 totally reversible processes :
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
TL
TH
22
(b)
The Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for vapor power cycle because it
cannot be approximated in practice.
(a)
T
(b)
Figure 2.1 : Carnot Cycle
2
Turbi
ne
wpump,in
Pump
1
4 qout
Condenser
(a)
T
3
qin
W turb,out
qout
wpunp,in
s
(b)
Figure 2.2 : Rankine Cycle
23
(b)
The ideal Rankine cycle dose not involve any internal irreversibilities
(c)
Process 1-2
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed
isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature
increases somewhat during this isentropic compression process due to slight
decrease in the specific volume of the water. The vertical distance between
state 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated for clarity.
Process 2-3
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a
superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger
where the heat originating from combustion gases, is transferred to the
water essentially at constant pressure. The boiler together with the section
where the steam is superheated (the superheater), is often called the steam
generator.
Process 3-4
The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands
isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an
electric generator. The pressure and the temperature of the steam drops
during this process to the values at state 4, where steam enters the
condenser
Process 4-1
At this state, the steam is usually a saturated liquid-vapor mixture with a
high quality. Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser
which is basically a large heat exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling
medium from a lake, or a river. Steam leaves the condenser as saturated
liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle.
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump, boiler, turbine
and condenser) are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes that make up
the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow process.
The steady flow equation per unit mass of steam reduces to
(qin qout ) (win wout ) he hi (kJ/kg)
Pump (q = 0) :
wpump, in (h2 h1 ) v ( P2 P1 )
where h1 h f @ p1 and v v1 v f @ p1
Boiler (w = 0) :
qin h3 h2
Turbine (q = 0) :
24
Condenser (w = 0)
qout h4 h1
where
wnet
q
1 out
qin
qin
IDEAL CYCLE
Pressure drop in
the boiler
Pressure drop
in the pump
3
Irreversibility in
the turbine
2
ACTUAL CYCLE
4
1
Pressure drop in
the condenser
s
(a)
T
2a
2s
4s
4a
(b)
The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the
surrounding as the steam flows through various components.
Particular importance is the irreversibilites occurring within the pump and the
turbine. A pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine produces a smaller
25
work output as a result of irreversibilties. Under the ideal condition the flow
through these devices is isentropic.
The deviation of actual pumps and turbine from the isentropic ones can be
accurately accounted by isentropic efficiencies, define as :
p
ws h2 s h1
wa h2a h1
wa h3 h4a
ws h3 h4 s
(b)
(c)
2
2
4
1
1
Increase in wnet
P4 < P4
26
Increase
in w net
Increase
in wnet
2
2
High - p
turbine
Boiler
Low p
trine
Reheater 4
P 4 = P5 =
Preheat
5
6
Condenser
Pump
(a)
Reheating
T
High-pressure
3
turbine
2
Low pressure
4
2
(b)
Figure 2.7 : Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
Thus the total heat input and the total work output for a reheat cycle become :
qin qprimary qreheat (h3 h2 ) (h5 h4 )
wturbine, out wturbine, I wturbine, II (h3 h4 ) (h5 h6 )
Steam exiting
boiler
Steam
entering boiler
2
28
(b)
qout (1 y) (h7 h1 )
wturbine, out (h5 h6 ) (1 y) (h6 h7 )
wturbine, in (1 y) wpump I, in wpump II, in
where
m6
m5
wpump I, in v1 ( p2 p1 )
wpump II, in v3 ( p4 p3 )
5
Turbine
Boiler
y
Open
FWH
6-y 1-y
4
2
Condenser
Pump II
Pump 1
(a)
T
5
4
6
3
7
s
(b)
Figure 2.9 : Steam Power Plant
29
Turbine
Boiler
Mixing
chambe
r
7
8
Closed
FWH
5
2
Condenser
Pump 1
Pump II
(a)
T
4
5
9
2
8
s
(b)
Figure 2.10 : Steam Power Plant
(b)
(c)
Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of
steam and perform work.
(d)
In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories
depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which the plant is
intended.
The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits :
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine
cycle.
Steam is generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the
condenser and fed into the boiler again.
The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as
follows :
(a)
(b)
Prime mover
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Draught system
(g)
(h)
Pumping system
(i)
Figure 2.11 shows a schematic arrangement of equipment of a steam power station. Coal
received in coal storage yard of power station is transferred in the furnace by coal
handling unit. Heat produced due to burning of coal is utilized in converting water
contained in boiler drum into steam at suitable pressure and temperature. The steam
generated is passed through the superheater. Superheated steam then flows through the
turbine. After doing work in the turbine the pressure of steam is reduced. Steam leaving
the turbine passes through the condenser which is maintained the low pressure of steam
at the exhaust of turbine. Steam pressure in the condenser depends upon flow rate and
temperature of cooling water and on effectiveness of air removal equipment. Water
circulating through the condenser may be taken from the various sources such as river,
lake or sea. If sufficient quantity of water is not available the hot water coming out of the
condenser may be cooled in cooling towers and circulated again through the condenser.
Bled steam taken from the turbine at suitable extraction points is sent to low pressure
and high pressure water heaters.
31
Coal
Storag
e
To chimney
Flue gases
Air
preheater
Cool
handing
plant
Air
Flue gases
Feed water
3-phase supply
Economiser
Ash
Storage
Ash
handing
plant
Boiler
Flue
gases
Steam
Main valve
Super
heater
Boiler feed
pump
Turbine
High pressure
heater Condensate
extraction pump
Generator
Exhaust
steam
Condenser
Low presser
heater
Circulation
water pump
Cooling tower
River or canal
Air taken from the atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is
heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes through the furnace. The flue gases after
passing over boiler and superheater tubes, flow through the dust collector and then
through economiser, air pre-heater and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere
through the chimney.
Steam condensing system consists of the following :
(a)
Condenser
(b)
Cooling water
(c)
Cooling tower
(d)
Hot well
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
2.3.2 Classification
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel
is transferred to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired
temperature and pressure.
The steam produced is used for :
(a)
(b)
(c)
Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by the application of
heat. Usually boilers are coal or oil fired.
32
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Water tube
(b)
Fire tube.
In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products of combustion
flow over these tubes. In fire tube boiler the hot products of combustion pass through the
tubes, which are surrounded, by water. Fire tube boilers have low initial cost, and are
more compacts. But they are more likely to explosion, water volume is large and due to
poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the change in steam demand. For the same
output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger than the shell of water-tube
boiler. Water tube boilers require less weight of metal for a given size, are less liable to
explosion, produce higher pressure, are accessible and can respond quickly to change in
steam demand. Tubes and drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than that of fire-tube
boilers and due to smaller size of drum higher pressure can be used easily. Water-tube
boilers require lesser floor space. The efficiency of water-tube boilers is more.
Water tube boilers are classified as follows :
Horizontal Straight Tube Boilers
(a)
Longitudinal drum
(b)
Cross-drum.
Two drum
(b)
Three drum
(c)
(d)
Four drum.
(b)
(c)
(d)
Because of high movement of water in the tubes the rate of heat transfer
becomes large resulting into a greater efficiency.
33
(b)
(c)
Compact.
Internal Furnace
Horizontal Tubular
(a)
Short firebox
(b)
Locomotive
(c)
Compact
(d)
Scotch.
Vertical Tubular
(a)
(b)
Low cost
(b)
(c)
It is compact in size.
Internally fired
(b)
Externally fired
In internally fired boilers the grate combustion chamber are enclosed within the
boiler shell whereas in case of extremely fired boilers and furnace and grate are
separated from the boiler shell.
According to the position of principle axis :
(a)
Vertical
(b)
Horizontal
(c)
Inclined.
According to application :
(a)
Stationary
(b)
Natural circulation
(b)
Forced circulation.
Low pressure
(b)
Medium pressure
(c)
Higher pressure.
Air Pre-heater
The flue gases coming out of the economizer is used to preheat the air before
supplying it to the combustion chamber. An increase in air temperature of
20 degrees can be achieved by this method. The pre heated air is used for
combustion and also to dry the crushed coal before pulverizing.
Soot Blowers
The fuel used in thermal power plants causes soot and this is deposited on the
boiler tubes, economizer tubes, air pre heaters, etc. This drastically reduces the
amount of heat transfer of the heat exchangers. Soot blowers control the formation
of soot and reduce its corrosive effects. The types of soot blowers are fixed type,
which may be further classified into lane type and mass type depending upon the
type of spray and nozzle used. The other type of soot blower is the retractable soot
blower. The advantages are that they are placed far away from the high
temperature zone, they concentrate the cleaning through a single large nozzle
rather than many small nozzles and there is no concern of nozzle arrangement with
respect to the boiler tubes.
Condenser
The use of a condenser in a power plant is to improve the efficiency of the power
plant by decreasing the exhaust pressure of the steam below atmosphere. Another
advantage of the condenser is that the steam condensed may be recovered to
provide a source of good pure feed water to the boiler and reduce the water
softening capacity to a considerable extent. A condenser is one of the essential
components of a power plant.
Cooling Tower
The importance of the cooling tower is felt when the cooling water from the
condenser has to be cooled. The cooling water after condensing the steam
becomes hot and it has to be cooled as it belongs to a closed system. The Cooling
towers do the job of decreasing the temperature of the cooling water after
condensing the steam in the condenser.
The type of cooling tower used in the Columbia Power Plant was an Inline
Induced Draft Cross Flow Tower. This tower provides a horizontal air flow as the
water falls down the tower in the form of small droplets. The fan centered at the
top of units draws air through two cells that are paired to a suction chamber
partitioned beneath the fan. The outstanding feature of this tower is lower air
static pressure loss as there is less resistance to air flow. The evaporation and
effective cooling of air is greater when the air outside is warmer and dryer than
when it is cold and already saturated.
Superheater
The superheater consists of a superheater header and superheater elements. Steam
from the main steam pipe arrives at the saturated steam chamber of the superheater
header and is fed into the superheater elements. Superheated steam arrives back at
the superheated steam chamber of the superheater header and is fed into the steam
pipe to the cylinders. Superheated steam is more expansive.
Reheater
The reheater functions similar to the superheater in that it serves to elevate the
steam temperature. Primary steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine. After
passing through the high pressure turbine, the steam is returned to the steam
generator for reheating (in a reheater) after which it is sent to the low pressure
turbine. A second reheat cycle may also be provided.
SAQ 1
(a)
(b)
(c)
35
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Convection
superheater
Economizer
Increased
combustion air
Combustion
zone
Tempering air
(alternate)
36
Convection
superheater
Increased
combustion air
Economizer
Combustion zone
Air heater
Flue gas
recirculating fan
Convection surface
Furnace
By-pass clamper
37
High superheat
Low superheat
Use one or more high pressure feed water heaters to raise the temperature of feed
water from de-aerator outlet temperature to the required boiler economizer inlet
temperature. The heater drains are cascaded from heater to heater, back to the
de-aerator in a fashion similar to the heater drain system for the low pressure
heaters.
2.5.1 Advantages
(a)
Fuel economy.
(b)
(c)
5
Low
pressure
turbine
High
pressure
turbine
Boiler
Generator
7
6
Condenser
Feed
water
heater
Feed pump 2
Feed pump 1
Temperature
5
Boiler
4
FP 2
2
FP 1
HPT
6
LPT
Condenser
Entropy
FP1 = Feed pump 1
FP2 = Feed pump 2
HPT = High pressure turbine
LPT = Low Pressure turbine
Figure 2.16 : Rankine Cycle with Two Steam Turbines and a Single Open Feedwater Heater
39
Feedwater heaters can also be open and closed heat exchangers. An open feedwater
heater is merely a direct-contact heat exchanger in which extracted steam is allowed to
mix with the feedwater. This kind of heater will normally require a feed pump at both the
feed inlet and outlet since the pressure in the heater is between the boiler pressure and
the condenser pressure. A deaerator is a special case of the open feedwater heater which
is specifically designed to remove non-condensable gases from the feedwater.
Closed feedwater heaters are typically shell and tube heat exchangers where the
feedwater passes throughout the tubes and is heated by turbine extraction steam. These
do not require separate pumps before and after the heater to boost the feedwater to the
pressure of the extracted steam as with an open heater. However, the extracted steam
must then be throttled to the condenser pressure.
Many power plants incorporate a number of feedwater heaters and may use both open
and closed components.
Feedwater heaters are used in both fossil- and nuclear-fueled power plants. Smaller
versions have also been installed on steam locomotives, portable engines and stationary
engines. An economiser serves a similar purpose to a feedwater heater, but is technically
different. Instead of using actual cycle steam for heating, it uses the lowest-temperature
flue gas from the furnace to heat the water before it enters the boiler proper. This allows
for the heat transfer between the furnace and the feedwater occurring across a smaller
average temperature gradient. System efficiency is therefore further increased when
viewed with respect to actual energy content of the fuel.
Superheated
steam
Reheated
steam
Reheater
High pressure
turbine exhaust
Steam
Blowdow
n
Economiser
Deaerated boiler
feedwater
Boiler
Flue gas
Coal
Coal-air
mix
Hot air
AHP
Pulverizer
Hot air
Ambient air
Fan
Ash
Figure 2.17 : Coal-fired Power Plant Steam Generator Highlighting the Air Pre-heater Location
(Radiant Section Tubing is Not Shown)
40
Types
There are two types of air preheaters for use in steam generators in thermal power
stations : One is a tubular type built into the boiler flue gas ducting, and the other
is a regenerative air preheater. These may be arranged so the gas flows
horizontally or vertically across the axis of rotation.
Tubular Type
Construction Features
Tubular preheaters consist of straight tube bundles which pass through the
outlet ducting of the boiler and open at each end outside of the ducting.
Inside the ducting, the hot furnace gases pass around the preheater tubes,
transferring heat from the exhaust gas to the air inside the preheater.
Ambient air is forced by a fan through ducting at one end of the preheater
tubes and at other end the heated air from inside of the tubes emerges into
another set of ducting, which carries it to the boiler furnace for combustion.
Problems
The tubular preheater ductings for cold and hot air require more space and
structural supports than a rotating preheater design. Further, due to dust-laden
abrasive flue gases, the tubes outside the ducting wear out faster on the side facing
the gas current. Many advances have been made to eliminate this problem such as
the use of ceramic and hardened steel.
Many new circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and bubbling fluidized bed (BFB)
steam generators are currently incorporating tubular air heaters offering an
advantage with regards to the moving parts of a rotary type.
Dew Point Corrosion
Dew point corrosion occurs for a variety of reasons. The type of fuel used, its
sulfur content and moisture content are contributing factors. However, by far the
most significant cause of dew point corrosion is the metal temperature of the
tubes. If the metal temperature within the tubes drops below the acid saturation
temperature, usually at between 88C and 110C, but sometimes at temperatures
as high as 127C, then the risk of dew point corrosion damage becomes
considerable.
Regenerative Air Pre-heaters
There are two types of regenerative air pre-heaters: the rotating-plate regenerative
air preheaters and the stationary-plate regenerative air preheaters.
Rotating-plate Regenerative Air Pre-heater
The rotating-plate design consists of a central rotating-plate element installed
within a casing that is divided into two (bi-sector type), three (tri-sector type) or
four (quad-sector type) sectors containing seals around the element. The seals
allow the element to rotate through all the sectors, but keep gas leakage between
sectors to a minimum while providing separate gas air and flue gas paths through
each sector.
41
Tri-sector types are the most common in modern power generation facilities. In
the tri-sector design, the largest sector is connected to the boiler hot gas outlet.
The hot exhaust gas flows over the central element, transferring some of its heat to
the element, and is then ducted away for further treatment in dust collectors and
other equipment before being expelled from the flue gas stack. The second,
smaller sector, is fed with ambient air by a fan, which passes over the heated
element as it rotates into the sector, and is heated before being carried to the boiler
furnace for combustion. The third sector is the smallest one and it heats air which
is routed into the pulverizers and used to carry the coal-air mixture to coal boiler
burners. Thus, the total air heated in the air preheater provides: heating air to
remove the moisture from the pulverised coal dust, carrier air for transporting the
pulverised coal to the boiler burners and the primary air for combustion.
Stationary-plate Regenerative Air Preheater
The heating plate elements in this type of regenerative air preheater are also
installed in a casing, but the heating plate elements are stationary rather than
rotating. Instead the air ducts in the preheater are rotated so as to alternatively
expose sections of the heating plate elements to the upflowing cool air.
Top
rotating
air ducts
FG
Air
FG
Hood
Stationar
y section
(stator)
FG
FG = Flue Gas
= hot flue gas
= Cooled flue gas
= cool air
= Heater air
= Heating plate elements
Air
Bottom
rotating
air ducts
As indicated in the figure, there are rotating inlet air ducts at the bottom of the
stationary plates similar to the rotating outlet air ducts at the top of the stationary
plates.
2.6 FURNACES
2.6.1 Types and Classification of Different Furnaces
Based on the method of generating heat, furnaces are broadly classified into two types
namely combustion type (using fuels) and electric type. In case of combustion type
furnace, depending upon the kind of combustion, it can be broadly classified as oil fired,
coal fired or gas fired.
42
According to
Mode of heat
transfer
Forging
Furnace
Classification
Batch
According to
Mode of heat
transfer
Fe-rolling (batch/
continuous) Pusher
Continuous
According to
Mode of heat
transfer
Pot
Recuperative
Regenerative
Liberation of sufficient heat within the furnace to heat the stock and
overcome all heat losses.
Transfer of available part of that heat from the furnace gases to the surface
of the heating stock.
Reduction of heat losses from the furnace to the minimum possible extent.
(b)
Unit System
In this system the raw coal from the coal bunker drops on to the feeder
Secondary air
Furnace
Primary Air
coal
Raw coal
Banker
Burner
Pulverising
Mill
Feeder
Fan
Hot Air
43
Hot air is passed through coal in the feeder to dry the coal. The coal is then
transferred to the pulverising mill where it is pulverised. Primary air is supplied to
the mill, by the fan. The mixture of pulverised coal and primary air then flows to
burner where secondary air is added. The unit system is so called from the fact
that each burner or a burner group and pulveriser constitutes a unit.
Advantages
(a)
(b)
(c)
Cyclone separator
Exhaust
fan
Pulverised
coal burner
Vent
Mill
Conveyor
Feeder
Fan
Hot air for
coal drying
Dryer
Primary Air
fan
Burner
Secondary air
Advantages
(a)
The pulverising mill grinds the coal at a steady rate irrespective of boiler
feed.
(b)
There is always some coal in reserve. Thus any occasional breakdown in the
coal supply will not affect the coal feed to the burner.
(c)
Disadvantages
(a)
(b)
(c)
To a large extent the performance of pulverised fuel system depends upon the mill
performance.
The pulverised mill should satisfy the following requirements :
44
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 2.23 shows the equipments for unit and central system of pulverised coal
handling plant.
Raw coal
Primary crusher
Magnetic separator
Coal drier
Coal bunkers
Central system
Unit system
Scale
Scale
Pulveriser
Pulveriser
Central bin
Burners
Feeder
Furnace
Burners
45
distance through many boiler passes. The induced draft fan works in conjunction
with the forced draft fan allowing the furnace pressure to be maintained slightly
below atmospheric.
The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced
quantity of steam is required for the same power generation if high pressure
steam is used.
(b)
The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the
arrangement of furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the
heat exchange area.
(c)
(d)
The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
(e)
(f)
Hotgas
Storage
And
Separator
drum
Down
comer
Circulating
Pump Distributing
Economise
r
Heater
Main
steam
Evaporator
(convective)
Preheated
Combustion
Chamber
Fuel
Fire gate
Ash pan
Evaporator
(radiant)
header
The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above the
drum pressure. The distribution headers distribute the water through the nozzle into the
evaporator. The steam separated in the boiler is further passed through the super-heater.
46
Secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the parallel boiler circuits a choke
is fitted entrance to each circuit. These boilers have been built to generate 45 to
50 tonnes of superheated steam at a pressure of 120 bars and temperature of 500C.
Recently forced circulation has been introduced in large capacity power
If the boiler pressure was raised to critical pressure (225 atm), the steam and
water would have the same density and therefore the danger of bubble
formation can be completely avoided.
(b)
Natural circulation boilers require expansion joints but these are not
required for Benson as the pipes are welded. The erection of Benson boiler
is easier and quicker as all the parts are welded at site and workshop job of
tube expansion is altogether avoided.
(c)
The transport of Benson boiler parts is easy as no drums are required and
majority of the parts are carried to the site without pre-assembly.
(d)
The Benson boiler can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area. The
space problem does not control the size of Benson boiler used.
(e)
The furnace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using
small diameter and close pitched tubes.
(f)
(g)
The Benson boiler can be started very quickly because of welded joints.
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
Explosion hazards are not at all severe as it consists of only tubes of small
diameter and has very little storage capacity compared to drum type boiler.
During starting, the water is passed through the economiser, evaporator, superheater and
back to the feed line via starting valve.
During starting, first circulating pumps are started and then the burners are started to
avoid the overheating of evaporator and superheater tubes.
The pressure feed pump draws the water through the economizer and delivers it into the
evaporator drum. About 65% of the steam coming out of super heater is passed through
the evaporator drum in order to evaporate the feed water coming from economizer.
The steam circulating pump draws the saturated steam from the evaporator drum and is
passed through the radiant superheater and then convective superheater. About 35% of
the steam coming out from the superheater is supplied to the H.P. steam turbine. The
steam coming out from H.P. turbine is passed through reheater before supplying to L.P.
turbine. The amount of steam generated in the evaporator drum is equal to the steam
tapped (65%) from the superheater. The nozzles which distribute the superheated steam
through the water into the evaporator drum are of special design to avoid priming and
noise.
This boiler can carry higher salt concentration than any other type and is more compact
than indirectly heated boilers having natural circulation. These qualities fit it for land or
sea transport power generation. Loffler boilers with generating capacity of 94.5 tones/hr
and operating at 140 bar have already been commissioned.
2.6.10 VELOX-Boiler
When the gas velocity exceeds the sound-velocity, the heat is transferred from the gas at
a much higher rate than rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. The advantages of this
theory are taken to obtain the large heat transfer from a smaller surface area in this
boiler. Air is compressed to 2.5 bars with the help of a compressor run by gas turbine
before supplying to the combustion chamber to get the supersonic velocity of the gases
passing through the combustion chamber and gas tubes and high heat release rates. The
burned gases in the combustion chamber are passed through the annulus of the tubes.
The heat is transferred from gases to water while passing through the annulus to generate
the steam. The mixture of water and steam thus formed then passes into a separator
which is so designed that the mixture enters with a spiral flow. The centrifugal force thus
produced causes the heavier water particles to be thrown outward on the walls. This
effect separates the steam from water. The separated steam is further passed to
superheater and then supplied to the prime-mover. The water removed from steam in the
separator is again passed into the water tubes with the help of a pump.
The gases coming out from the annulus at the top are further passed over the superheater
where its heat is used-for superheating the steam. The gases coming out of superheater
are used to run a gas turbine as they carry sufficient kinetic energy. The power output of
the gas turbine is used to run the air-compressor. The exhaust gases coming out from the
gas turbine are passed through the economiser to utilize the remaining heat of the gases.
The extra power required to run the compressor is supplied with the help of electric
48
motor. Feed water of 10 to 20 times the weight of steam generated is circulated through
the tubes with the help of water circulating pump. This prevents the overheating of metal
walls.
Boiler Efficiency,
(b)
Evaporation Ratio
Heat output
100
Heat input
Heat in steam output (kCals)
100
Heat in fuel input (kCals)
Scope
The procedure describes routine test for both oil fired and solid fuel fired boilers
using coal, agro residues etc. Only those observations and measurements need to
be made which can be readily applied and is necessary to attain the purpose of the
test.
Part one deals with standard boilers, where the indirect method is
specified.
49
(b)
Part two deals with complex plant where there are many channels of
heat flow. In this case, both the direct and indirect methods are
applicable, in whole or in part.
ASME Standard : PTC-4-1 Power Test Code for Steam Generating Units
This consists of
(c)
(d)
50
Heat output
100
Heat input
Heat Input
Both heat input and heat output must be measured. The measurement of
heat input requires knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel and its flow
rate in terms of mass or volume, according to the nature of the fuel.
For Gaseous Fuel
A gas meter of the approved type can be used and the measured
volume should be corrected for temperature and pressure. A sample
of gas can be collected for calorific value determination, but it is
usually acceptable to use the calorific value declared by the gas
suppliers.
For Liquid Fuel
The meter, which is usually installed on the combustion appliance,
should be regarded as a rough indicator only and, for test purposes, a
meter calibrated for the particular oil is to be used and over a realistic
range of temperature should be installed. Even better is the use of an
accurately calibrated day tank.
For Solid Fuel
The accurate measurement of the flow of coal or other solid fuel is
very difficult. The measurement must be based on mass, which means
that bulky apparatus must be set up on the boiler-house floor.
Samples must be taken and bagged throughout the test, the bags
sealed and sent to a laboratory for analysis and calorific value
determination. In some more recent boiler houses, the problem has
been alleviated by mounting the hoppers over the boilers on
calibrated load cells, but these are yet uncommon.
Heat Output
There are several methods, which can be used for measuring heat output.
With steam boilers, an installed steam meter can be used to measure flow
rate, but this must be corrected for temperature and pressure. In earlier
years, this approach was not favoured due to the change in accuracy of
orifice or venturi meters with flow rate. It is now more viable with modern
flow meters of the variable-orifice or vortex-shedding types.
The alternative with small boilers is to measure feed water, and this can be
done by previously calibrating the feed tank and noting down the levels of
water during the beginning and end of the trial. Care should be taken not to
pump water during this period. Heat addition for conversion of feed water at
inlet temperature to steam, is considered for heat output.
In case of boilers with intermittent blowdown, blowdown should be avoided
during the trial period. In case of boilers with continuous blowdown, the
heat loss due to blowdown should be calculated and added to the heat in
steam.
Merits and Demerits of Direct Method
Merits
(a)
(b)
(c)
51
Demerits
(a)
(b)
(c)
The following losses are applicable to liquid, gas and solid fired boiler :
L1 Loss due to dry flue gas (sensible heat)
L2 Loss due to hydrogen in fuel (H2)
L3 Loss due to moisture in fuel (H2O)
L4 Loss due to moisture in air (H2O)
L5 Loss due to carbon monoxide (CO)
L6 Loss due to surface radiation, convection and other unaccounted*.
*Losses which are insignificant and are difficult to measure.
The following losses are applicable to solid fuel fired boiler in addition to above :
L7 Unburnt losses in fly ash (Carbon)
L8 Unburnt losses in bottom ash (Carbon)
52
Energy Balance
Having established the magnitude of all the losses mentioned above, a simple
energy balance would give the efficiency of the boiler. The efficiency is the
difference between the energy input to the boiler and the heat losses calculated.
Boiler energy Balance :
Input/Output Parameter
kCal / kg of fuel
100
5. Partial combustion of C to CO
Total Losses
(b)
(c)
(d)
Draft control
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Boiler insulation
(i)
Quality of fuel
53
Boiler Rating
Conventionally, boilers are specified by their capacity to hold water and the steam
generation rate. Often, the capacity to generate steam is specified in terms of
equivalent evaporation (kg of steam/hour at 100oC).
The equivalent of the evaporation of 1 kg of water at 100oC to steam at 100oC.
Efficiency
In the boiler industry there are four common definitions of efficiency :
Combustion Efficiency
Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to
its ability to completely burn the fuel. The boiler has little bearing on
combustion efficiency. A well-designed burner will operate with as little as
15 to 20% excess air, while converting all combustibles in the fuel to useful
energy.
Thermal Efficiency
Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a boiler. It
does not take into account boiler radiation and convection losses.
Boiler Efficiency
The term boiler efficiency is often substituted for combustion or thermal
efficiency. True boiler efficiency is the measure of fuel to steam efficiency.
Fuel to Steam Efficiency
Fuel to steam efficiency is calculated using either of the two methods as
prescribed by the ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers)
power test code, PTC 4.1. The first method is input output method. The
second method is heat loss method.
54
impulse
(ii)
reaction
(b)
Condensing
(ii)
(iii)
Mixed Pressure
(iv)
Reheat
(v)
Single Casing
(ii)
Tandem compound
(iii)
Cross Compound
Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft
are coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more
casings are directly coupled together to drive a single generator. A cross
compound turbine arrangement features two or more shafts not in line
driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A
cross compound turbine is typically used for many large applications.
55
(d)
(e)
(f)
As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit
pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this
higher ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very
high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades is a large portion of the maximum
velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit
velocity is commonly called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
Casings
The materials used to construct turbines will vary somewhat depending on the
steam and power conditions for which the turbine is designed. Turbine casings are
made of cast carbon steel for non superheated steam applications. Superheated
applications use casings made of carbon molybdenum steel. For turbine casings
used on submarines, a percentage of chrome stainless steel is used, which is more
resistant to steam erosion than carbon steel. Each casing has a steam chest to
receive the incoming high-pressure steam. This steam chest delivers the steam to
the first set of nozzles or blades.
Nozzles
The primary function of the nozzles is to convert the thermal energy of steam into
kinetic energy. The secondary function of the nozzles is to direct the steam against
the blades.
Rotors
Rotors (forged wheels and shaft) are manufactured from steel alloys. The primary
purpose of a turbine rotor is to carry the moving blades that convert the steam's
kinetic energy to rotating mechanical energy.
Bearings
The rotor of every turbine must be positioned radially and axially by bearings.
Radial bearings carry and support the weight of the rotor and maintain the correct
radial clearance between the rotor and casing.
59
Axial (thrust) bearings limit the fore-and-aft travel of the rotor. Thrust bearings
take care of any axial thrust, which may develop on a turbine rotor and hold the
turbine rotor within definite axial positions.
All main turbines and most auxiliary units have a bearing at each end of the rotor.
Bearings are generally classified as sliding surface (sleeve and thrust) or as rolling
contact (antifriction ball or roller bearings). Figure shows a typical sliding surface
bearing.
Shaft Packing Glands
Shaft packing glands prevent the leaking of steam out of or air into the turbine
casing where the turbine rotor shaft extends through the turbine casing. Labyrinth
and carbon rings are two types of packing. They are used either separately or in
combination.
Labyrinth packing consists of rows of metallic strips or fins. The strips fasten to
the gland liner so there is a small space between the strips and the shaft. As the
steam from the turbine casing leaks through the small space between the packing
strips and the shaft, steam pressure gradually reduces.
60
Carbon packing rings restrict the passage of steam along the shaft in much the
same manner as labyrinth packing strips. Carbon packing rings mount around the
shaft and are held in place by springs.
Three or four carbon rings are usually used in each gland. Each ring fits into a
separate compartment of the gland housing and consists of two, three, or four
segments that are butt-jointed to each other. A garter spring is used to hold these
segments together. The use of keepers (lugs or stop pins) prevents the rotation of
the carbon rings when the shaft rotates. The outer carbon ring compartment
connects to a drain line.
Advantages of the Steam Turbine over Reciprocating Engine
(a)
(b)
The Steam Turbine develops power at a uniform rate and hence does not
require Flywheel.
(c)
(d)
(e)
If the Steam Turbine is properly designed and constructed then it is the most
durable Prime Mover.
(f)
Much higher speed may be developed and a far greater range of speed is
possible than in the case of Reciprocating Engine.
(g)
(h)
Steam Turbines are quite suitable for large Thermal Power Plant as they can
be built in size from few Horse Powers to over 200000 HP in single unit.
(b)
(c)
(d)
High efficiency is only obtained at full-load. Naval vessels very often had
cruising turbines which could be run at full output while the main turbines
were shut down.
(b)
High efficiency is only obtained when the turbine exhausts into a nearvacuum, generated by a condenser. These are very large pieces of
equipment to carry around.
(c)
Turbines cannot run in reverse. Ships carried separate turbines solely for
reversing, and locomotives had to do the same.
61
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Mechanical Efficiency
62
Steam Rate
2.9 CONDENSER
2.9.1 Functions of Condensers
The main purposes of the condenser are to condense the exhaust steam from the turbine
for reuse in the cycle and to maximize turbine efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum.
As the operating pressure of the condenser is lowered (vacuum is increased), the
enthalpy drop of the expanding steam in the turbine will also increase. This will increase
the amount of available work from the turbine (electrical output). By lowering the
condenser operating pressure, the following will occur :
(a)
(b)
(c)
It is therefore very advantageous to operate the condenser at the lowest possible pressure
(highest vacuum).
Direct Contact
(b)
Surface
Direct contact condensers condense the turbine exhaust steam by mixing it directly with
cooling water. The older type Barometric and Jet-Type condensers operate on similar
principles.
Steam surface condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern power
plants. The exhaust steam from the turbine flows on the shell side (under vacuum) of the
condenser, while the plants circulating water flows in the tube side. The source of the
circulating water can be either a closed-loop (i.e. cooling tower, spray pond, etc.) or once
through (i.e. from a lake, ocean, or river). The condensed steam from the turbine, called
condensate, is collected in the bottom of the condenser, which is called a hotwell. The
condensate is then pumped back to the steam generator to repeat the cycle.
63
For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in
order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the
condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100oC where the
vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally
works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensable air into the closed loop must be
prevented.
The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to
reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.
Note : Tubes are brass, cupro nickel, titanium or stainless steel. The tubes are expanded or rolled and bell
mouthed at the ends in the tube sheets.
Figure 2.35 : Typical Power Plant Condenser
The diagram depicts a typical water-cooled surface condenser as used in power stations
to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine driving an electrical generator as
well in other applications
For most water-cooled surface condensers, the shell is under vacuum during
normal operating conditions.
Hotwell
At the bottom of the shell, where the condensate collects, an outlet is installed. In
some designs, a sump (often referred to as the hotwell) is provided. Condensate is
pumped from the outlet or the hotwell for reuse as boiler feedwater.
Vacuum System
For a steam ejector, the motive fluid is steam.
For water-cooled surface condensers, the shell's internal vacuum is most
commonly supplied by and maintained by an external steam jet ejector system.
Such an ejector system uses steam as the motive fluid to remove any noncondensable gases that may be present in the surface condenser. The Venturi
effect, which is a particular case of Bernoulli's principle, applies to the operation
of steam jet ejectors.
Motor driven mechanical vacuum pumps, such as the liquid ring type, are also
popular for this service.
Motive fluid
nozzle
Converging
inlet nozzle
Diverging outlet
diffuser
Outlet
Motive fluid
Diffuser throat
Tube Sheets
At each end of the shell, a sheet of sufficient thickness usually made of stainless
steel is provided, with holes for the tubes to be inserted and rolled. The inlet end
of each tube is also bell mouthed for streamlined entry of water. This is to avoid
eddies at the inlet of each tube giving rise to erosion, and to reduce flow friction.
Some makers also recommend plastic inserts at the entry of tubes to avoid eddies
eroding the inlet end. In smaller units some manufacturers use ferrules to seal the
tube ends instead of rolling. To take care of length wise expansion of tubes some
designs have expansion joint between the shell and the tube sheet allowing the
latter to move longitudinally. In smaller units some sag is given to the tubes to
take care of tube expansion with both end water boxes fixed rigidly to the shell.
Tubes
Generally the tubes are made of stainless steel, copper alloys such as brass or
bronze, cupro nickel, or titanium depending on several selection criteria. The use
of copper bearing alloys such as brass or cupro nickel is rare in new plants, due to
environmental concerns of toxic copper alloys. Also depending on the steam cycle
water treatment for the boiler, it may be desirable to avoid tube materials
containing copper. Titanium condenser tubes are usually the best technical choice;
however the use of titanium condenser tubes has been virtually eliminated by the
sharp increases in the costs for this material. The tube lengths range to about 17 m
for modern power plants, depending on the size of the condenser. The size chosen
is based on transportability from the manufacturers site and ease of erection at the
installation site.
65
Waterboxes
The tube sheet at each end with tube ends rolled, for each end of the condenser is
closed by a fabricated box cover known as a waterbox, with flanged connection to
the tube sheet or condenser shell. The waterbox is usually provided with man
holes on hinged covers to allow inspection and cleaning.
These waterboxes on inlet side will also have flanged connections for cooling
water inlet butterfly valves, small vent pipe with hand valve for air venting at
higher level, and hand operated drain valve at bottom to drain the waterbox for
maintenance. Similarly on the outlet waterbox the cooling water connection will
have large flanges, butterfly valves, vent connection also at higher level and drain
connections at lower level. Similarly thermometer pockets are located at inlet and
outlet pipes for local measurements of cooling water temperature.
Atmospheric relief valves open and close automatically. Each valve needs to be
installed vertically and properly leveled for smooth operation. Special ring seals
and a water seal is provided for zero leakage in full vacuum conditions. Each
valve opens immediately when pressure increases slightly above atmospheric
pressure. Higher than atmospheric set pressures can be provided with internally
spring loaded discs. During regular maintenance and as many times as possible,
each atmospheric valve should be opened by turning the hand wheel clockwise
then closing the valves by turning counter clockwise. This process ensures nonbinding and self-cleaning valve action.
(b)
(c)
(d)
Remove heat from the water discharged from the condenser so that
the water can be discharged to the river or recirculated and reused.
67
(b)
The air flow in either class may be cross flow or counter flow with respect to the
falling water. Cross flow indicates that the airflow is horizontal in the filled
portion of the tower while counter flow means the air flow is in the opposite
direction of the falling water.
The counter flow tower occupies less floor space than a cross flow tower but is
taller for a given capacity. The principle advantages of the cross flow tower are
the low pressure drop in relation to its capacity and lower fan power requirement
leading to lower energy costs.
All mechanical towers must be located so that the discharge air diffuses freely
without recirculation through the tower, and so that air intakes are not restricted.
Cooling towers should be located as near as possible to the refrigeration systems
they serve, but should never be located below them so as to allow the condenser
water to drain out of the system through the tower basin when the system is shut
down.
Forced Draft
68
The forced draft tower, has the fan, basin, and piping located within the
tower structure. In this model, the fan is located at the base. There are no
louvered exterior walls. Instead, the structural steel or wood framing is
covered with paneling made of aluminum, galvanized steel, or asbestos
cement boards.
During operation, the fan forces air at a low velocity horizontally through
the packing and then vertically against the downward flow of the water that
occurs on either side of the fan. The drift eliminators located at the top of
the tower remove water entrained in the air. Vibration and noise are
minimal since the rotating equipment is built on a solid foundation. The
fans handle mostly dry air, greatly reducing erosion and water condensation
problems.
Induced Draft
The induced draft tower show in the following picture has one or more fans,
located at the top of the tower, that draw air upwards against the downward
flow of water passing around the wooden decking or packing. Since the
airflow is counter to the water flow, the coolest water at the bottom is in
contact with the driest air while the warmest water at the top is in contact
with the moist air, resulting in increased heat transfer efficiency.
69
Hybrid Draft
They are equipped with mechanical draft fans to augment airflow. Consequently,
they are also referred to as fan-assisted natural draft towers. The intent of their
design is to minimize the power required for the air movement, but to do so with
the least possible stack cost impact. Properly designed fans may need to be
operated only during periods of high ambient and peak loads.
Air out
Water in
Air in
Outflow
70
Located near the centre are the cabinets which house the processors that execute the
control functions. These cubicles also contain the attendant interface and input/output
(I/O) cards and the necessary power supply units (PSUs). The latter will usually be
duplicated or triplicated, with automatic changeover from one to another in the event of
the first failing. This automatic changeover is often referred to as 'diode auctioneering'
because silicon diodes are used to feed power from each unit onto a common bus-main.
In the event of the operational power-supply unit failing, its diode prevents a power
reversal while the back-up power unit takes over. At this time it is important that the
system should raise an alarm to warn that a PSU failure has occurred. Otherwise the
DCS will continue to operate with a diminished power-supply reserve and any further
failure could have serious consequences.
The I/O cards consist of analogue and digital input and output channels. Analogue
inputs convert the incoming signals to a form which can be read by the system. The
printed-circuit cards for analogue inputs may or may not provide galvanic isolation.
With a galvanically isolated device the signal circuit is electrically isolated from others,
from the system earth and from the power-supply common rail.
Termination and Marshalling
It is important to understand that the grouping of inputs and outputs on the I/O
cards does not always correspond with the grouping of signals into multipair
cables, which is dictated by the physical arrangement of equipment on the plant.
While it is sensible to avoid mixing different control systems (e.g. feed water
control and combustion control) onto a single card, the signals associated with a
single system will not necessarily all be carried in the same cable. The result is
that a certain degree of cross connection or 'marshalling' is always required.
Operator Workstations
The operator workstations consist of screens on which plant information can be
observed, plus keyboards, trackballs or mouse devices allowing the operator to
send commands to the system. They also comprise printers for operational records,
logging of events (such as start-up of a pump), or alarms. Some systems also
provide plotters
71
Modulating Controls
Modulating inlet control allows the output of a compressor to be varied to meet
flow requirements. Throttling is usually accomplished by closing down the inlet
valve, thereby restricting inlet air to the compressor. With the use of inlet guide
vanes which direct the air in the same direction as the impeller inlet, centrifugal
compressors yield more efficient results.
Multi-Step Controls
Some compressors are designed to operate in two or more partially loaded
conditions. With such a control schemes, output pressure can be closely controlled
without requiring the compressor to start/stop or load/unload.
72
The central plant operator shall have an option for manually initiating the start
sequence, bringing additional generators on-line, or reconnecting the power plant
bus to commercial power and returning the generator sets to the condition existing
prior to the loss of commercial power. Manual startup and shutdown control shall
be provided locally in each generator area for use by an
operator-maintainer. Visual and audible alarms shall indicate out-of-tolerance
conditions, and critical information shall be printed out or otherwise recorded.
This requirement includes minor discrepancies which, if left uncorrected or
allowed to degrade further, could result in shutdown of the power-generating unit.
A, M1
A, M1
M
A
C
C
M
C
C
C
C
C
A, M
A, M
A
A
A
A
A
A
Table lists required automatic control functions and their initiation mode(s). These
functions are the minimum required, and others may be added as needed. Those
functions requiring manual initiation are noted as (M), those initiated by automatic
signal are noted as (A), and those operating on a continuous signal are noted as
(C). Manual control shall be provided on automatic control functions, as required,
for maintenance and testing.
Control Room (CR) Instrumentation
For installations with a large central power plant, on-site instrumentation and
controls shall be provided in the CR to centralize operation of the on-site utilities.
Instrumentation in the CR shall be microprocessor-based systems and shall permit
the power plant operator to monitor the operating status of all equipment, operate
the equipment, and evaluate system conditions affecting delivery of electric power
and coolant to the site equipment and the facility. Additionally, monitoring and
control of auxiliary equipment and of all equipment required to regulate the
environment of the site shall be performed in the CR. Operators shall be able to
measure operating conditions, which shall permit analysis of the thermodynamic
and mechanical performance of the power plant on a continuous basis. Abnormal
incipient failures and failure conditions shall be annunciated in the CR. Mimic
status boards and/or CRT color graphic displays shall indicate, by color coded
groups arranged graphically, the status of all power generation equipment,
commercial power primary substation medium-voltage switchgear, coolant pumps,
and other critical items. Printout on a periodic basis and under alarm conditions
shall be provided for all critical equipment and plant conditions. Remote CRTs
and printouts shall be provided for operation officers or the facility engineer.
73
(a)
Frequency recorders
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(b)
(c)
Recording watt-hour meters and demand meters shall be installed for the
commercial power connection. The installation shall meet the requirements
of the serving utility and local regulating agencies, and shall provide with
data needed to confirm billing by the utility company. Voltage and current
measurements shall be true RMS.
(d)
Table lists the minimum requirement for the CR control panel instruments
and controls for prime movers. These instruments and controls are the
minimum required, and others may be added as needed.
74
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Motor control switches, jacket water pumps, cooling tower fans, fuel oil transfer pumps,
centrifuges and related auxiliaries
17
18
Annunciator alarms, low lube oil pressure, high lube oil temperature, low jacket water
pressure, high jacket water temperature, high and low day tank levels
The prime mover control panel shall be located in the unit control compartment or
other suitable space in accordance with the manufacturers standard design.
Table 2.3 lists the minimum monitoring and control functions required of the
prime mover control panel. These monitoring and control functions are the
minimum required, and others may be added as needed.
Table 2.3 : Monitoring and Control Functions of Engine Control Panel
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Control Switches
Master operation selector (remote-auto-crank-fire-oil)
Load selector (base-peak)
Master control (stop-start)
Fuel selector switch
Emergency trip push button (to shut down engine and open generator breaker)
Motors and Indicators
Tachometer
Exhaust temperature
Set point
Control system voltage
Digital temperature indicator with selector switch (or recorder) (12 points minimum)
Base operating hours
Peak operating hours
Total operating hours
Fuel flow integrator
Counters for fast, manually initiated, fired, and total starts
Indicating lamps to show start sequencing
Relays, timers, and other devices as required
Local Instrumentation
Local control shall be provided. Transfer of control to the local station shall be
accomplished at the local station upon receipt of permission from the CR operator;
the transfer shall be alarmed in the CR. Representative function to be controlled
locally are listed in table. These functions are the minimum required, and others
may be added as needed.
Table 2.4 : Functions to be Controlled Locally
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
75
(b)
(c)
Drum level
Feed water
control valve
The most obvious control scheme for feedwater applications is simple level
control. This is also known as single-element control because drum level is the
only indicator used to control feedwater flow.
76
Drum level is sensed by a transducer and fed back to the control system, which in
turn proportionally moves the valve to compensate. If the drum level is increasing
above its nominal point, the modulating valve is cut back; if drum level decreases
below the nominal point, the valve is opened to increase feedwater flow. This
controller may be strictly proportional or it may include integral gain. The simple
goal of this scheme is to maintain a strict level of water in the steam drum.
Flow
Steam
drum
Drum
level
Feed water
Mud
drum
Firing
Area
Flow
Steam
output
Under steady-state conditions, the demand from the boiler system (steam flow)
will be constant. Ideally, this would indicate that feedwater entering the system
will flow at a constant rate and the firing rate from the combustion control is
uniform. Now, assume that the steam demanded from the system undergoes a step
increase. To make up this increase in energy output, it is obvious that the firing
rate must also experience an instantaneous boost. And, to compensate for the
increase in mass flow at the output of the system, it is logical to assume that an
increase in feedwater flow will be needed.
In this situation, it is important to understand the internal dynamics of the boiler
system. When the steam demand is instantly increased, the proportion of steam to
water in the riser tubes will also increase. When the proportion of steam is
increased, the volume of the entire system will also rise. Because of the boiler
construction, the only place that this volume will be taken up is in the steam drum.
This phenomenon is known as swell and is indicated by an instant increase in
drum level when the firing rate undergoes a step increase. The opposite event,
known as shrink, occurs upon a decreased firing rate, causing a corresponding
drop in drum level.
If an instant increase in steam output is required (causing an accelerated firing rate
and swell in the steam drum), a simple level control would react to this swell by
decreasing the feedwater flow to the drum. However, it can be seen that the
increased mass flow at the system output requires an increased feedwater flow at
the input and, thus, the level control has reacted in the wrong direction to the
firing-rate change. As the increase in steam flow translates to a greater quantity of
water leaving the steam drum to enter the downcomer, the level control will
eventually have to play catch-up to establish proper feedwater flow. Such a
scheme will provide unstable feedwater control in large boiler systems.
With this in mind, it is worthwhile to define some goals to feedwater control.
First, the control should monitor drum level. This is not to say that the drum level
should be maintained at a strict level, since this is impossible when shrink and
swell are present in the system. However, to an extent, the control should not
allow the drum level to deviate beyond specific boundaries, which vary depending
on drum size.
Second, the control should be able to balance the input of the system (feedwater)
with the output of the system (steam). We saw above that the single-element level
control does not properly react at first to this requirement.
Going along with this, the third objective to feedwater control is to avoid any
sudden changes in boiler water inventory. Ideally, the control should smoothly
adjust this inventory whenever there are any sudden changes in load.
77
Drum level
Steam flow
Feed water
control valve
Scaling
A flow transducer is located at the output of the boiler system. The purpose of this
scheme is to sense a change in steam demand and use this signal to compensate for
the wrong-way reaction of the drum-level controller. This is demonstrated in the
following Figure 2.44.
Steam Flow
demand
Swell
Drum
level Level
Drum
control term
Steam flow term
Resultant term
feedwater flow
78
To achieve this, the reaction of the steam flow term should be equal and opposite
in direction to the change in the drum-level term. Figure above demonstrates these
reactions separately, and also shows their resultant when combined in a two
element feedwater controller. Over time, the steam-flow term will adjust the
feedwater flow rate to its new level.
These two control loops will require field tuning to achieve the proper dynamics.
When ideally tuned, a step change in steam demand should produce no
instantaneous fluctuation in feedwater flow rate. However, immediately following
the step change in demand, the feedwater rate should begin to adapt to the new
flow demand (as the resultant feedwater curve in Figure above illustrates).
As boiler systems get more complex, more elements of control may be added. To
compensate for fluctuations in feedwater pressure, a feedwater flow controller
may be added. This three-element scheme is shown in Figure 2.45.
PID
Drum setpoint
Drum level
Steam flow
+
-
Feedwater control
valve
Scaling
Feedwater flow
Scaling
79
A rule of thumb says that increasing the live steam temperature by 10C will
increase the efficiency of a 400 MW unit by approximately 0.25 per cent, leading
to large fuel cost savings.
Load-following Capability
Improved steam temperature control improves the boiler stability, which can
improve the load-following capability of the plant significantly. Improving the
boiler stability in general can, of course, lead to improved load-following
capability, but it is crucial in so-called special situations such as load changes,
start/stop of coal mills, soot blowing, fault situations, etc.
Availability
The improved overall stability and the resulting reduced probability of forced
plant outage is an indirect advantage of improving the steam temperature control.
Nevertheless, it is an important advantage, e.g. a forced outage of a coal fired
base-load unit will imply additional fuel costs for restart, lack of power sales,
increased wear of the plant and reduced availability. The costs of a forced outage
will be dependent on plant size, time of occurrence, duration, but will most often
be of major economic significance.
Pl
Pl
X ref
structure. The other part of the feedforward is a filter which ensures that the feedwater
and the fuel are fed to the boiler in a dynamically optimal way thus ensuring that no
control fault arise neither for the temperature nor for the live steam pressure during
load changes. Because of the presence of large time constants in the boiler due to the
large metal masses and delays in the firing system there is a limitation to how hard the
feedback loops can be tuned. This implies that if it is required to operate the plant at
large load gradients or it is desired to stress the plant as little as possible the presence
and correct tuning of the feedforward part is very important.
Scheduled
LQG controller
[0:1]
uadd
e
y ref
Existing boiler
control system
-
y
Boiler
Figure 2.47 : Scheduled LQG Controller with Feedwater Acton from Load Demand Signal,
as a Complement to an Existing Boiler Control System
81
SAQ 2
(a)
What is a super-heater? What are its types? Describe any one of them.
(b)
(c)
(d)
SAQ 3
(a)
(b)
(c)
What is a steam turbine? How do they classify? Explain the working of any
one steam turbine.
(d)
(e)
SAQ 4
(a)
(b)
What is a cooling tower? What are the various types of cooling towers?
(c)
(d)
2.12 SUMMARY
Steam power plants are located at the water and coal available places. Steam is utilized
to run the turbines, in turn gives the power to generator and generator produces the
electricity, the electricity is utilized for lighting, running the industries, for lighting of
offices, schools, etc. Boiler is an important component of the power plants, it produces
the steam.
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Cooling Tower
Condenser
83