Control

Control Systems
Systems Design
Design

2007131


iTextbook:
Richard C. Dorf and Robert H. Bishop, MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS 10th Edition

iReference:
Benjamin C. Kuo, AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 7th Edition
Katsuhiko Ogata, Modern Control Engineering" 2th Edition

iMATLAB and SIMULINK:

Mathworks Inc., Matlab Users Guide and Simulink Users Guide


i
i MATLABSIMULINK

2007131


i Chapter

1 Introduction to Control Systems

i Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems
i Chapter 3 State Variable Models
i Chapter 4 Feedback Control System Characteristics
i Chapter 5 The Performance of Feedback Control Systems
i Chapter 6 The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
i Chapter 7 The Root Locus Method
i Chapter 8 Frequency Response Methods
i Chapter 9 Stability in The Frequency Domain
i Chapter 10 The Design of Feedback Control Systems

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CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Control Systems

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FIGURE 1.2
Open-loop control system (without feedback).
An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating
device to control the process directly without using
feedback

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Control :
Output
Results

Input
Reference
Plant or
Process

Manual Control
Automatic Control

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Automobile Cruise-Control
Airplane Flight Control
Robot Arm Control
Inkjet Printer Head Control
Disk Drive Read/Write Head Positioning Control

FIGURE 1.3

Closed-loop feedback control

system (with feedback).

A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of

the output and feedback of this signal to compare it
with the desired output (negative feedback).

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FIGURE 1.4

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Multivariable control system.

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FIGURE 1.5

Watts flyball governor.

Advantages of Feedback:
Increased accuracy (reduced the steady-state error)
Reduced sensitivity to parameter variations
Reduced effects of disturbances
Increased speed of response and bandwidth
Computer Aided Control System Design (CACSD)
Matlab & Simulink
Matrixx
Simnon
Program CC
M

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FIGURE 1.19 The control system design process.

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CHAPTER 2
Mathematical Models of Systems
Differential Equations of Physical System
Linear Approximations of Physical System
The Laplace Transform
The Transfer Function Of Linear System
Block Diagram Models
Signal-Flow Graph Model
Computer Analysis of control system
Design Examples
The Simulation of System Using Matlab
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Differential Equations of Physical System

The approach to dynamic system problem can be listed as follow:
1. Define the system and its components
2. Formulate the mathematical model and list the necessary assumptions.
3. Write the differential equations describing the model.
4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6. If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system

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2007131

FIGURE 2.1 (a) Torsional spring-mass

system.(b) Spring element.

d 2 y (t )
dy (t )
M
+
b
+ ky (t ) = r (t )
dt 2
dt

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2007131

; Linear Approximations of Physical Systems

A linear system satisfied the properties of superposition and homogeneity.

r(t)

y(t)
system

r (t ) y (t ) y (t ) = g [ r (t )]

r1 (t ) y1 (t )
r (t ) = r1 (t ) + r2 (t ) y (t ) = y1 (t ) + y2 (t )
r2 (t ) y2 (t )
g [r1 (t ) + r2 (t )] = g [ r1 (t )] + g [ r2 (t )]

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Linearization of a nonlinear systems:

y (t ) = g [ x (t )]
Expanding the nonlinear equation into a Taylor series about the operation point,
then we have

( x xo ) 2
( x xo ) d 2
d
+ 2 g ( x)
+L
y = g ( x ) = g ( xo ) + g ( x )
2!
dx
1!
dx
x= x
x= x
o

Neglecting all the high order terms, to yield

y = g ( xo ) +

d
( x xo )
g ( x)
= y0 + m ( x xo )
dx
1!
x= x
o

y y 0 = m ( x xo )
or y = m x

y = g ( x1 ,L, xn )
= g ( x1o ,L, xno ) +
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g
x1

x = xo

( x1 x1o ) +

g
x2

x = xo

( x2 x2 o ) + L +

g
xn

x = xo

( xn xno )
8

Example 2.1 Pendulum oscillator model

T = Mgl sin
sin
| = 0 ( 0 )

where T0 = 0.

T T0 Mgl

T = Mgl (cos 00 )( 0)
= Mgl

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; Rotational Motion

1. Inertia
Newtons Law for rotation motion :
d
d2
T ( t ) = J ( t ) = J ( t ) = J 2 ( t )
dt
dt

(t )

J
T (t )

T : Torque J : Inertia : Angular acceleration

: Angular velocity : Angular displacement

(t )

2. Torsional Spring
T ( t ) = k ( t )

k : Torsional spring constant

T (t )

3. Friction for rotational motion : viscous, static, coulomb friction

d
T (t ) = B (t )
(t )
dt
B : Viscous friction coefficient

B
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T (t )
10

dv(t ) 1
v(t )
+C
+ v(t ) dt = r (t )
dt
L0
R

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11

; The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Definition:

The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the

Laplace transform of the input variable, with all initial conditions
assumed to be zero.
The Laplace transform of the impulse response, with all the initial
conditions set to zero.

r(t)

y(t)
system
Y ( s)
= G( s)
R( s )

or
G ( s ) = L[ y (t )]
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12

Example : Mass-Spring-Friction System

y (t )

f (t )

d
d2
f1 (t ) = ma (t ) = m v (t ) = m 2 y (t )
dt
dt
f 2 (t ) = ky (t )

f 3 (t ) = B

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d
y (t )
dt

13

 f (t ) = f1 + f 2 + f 3
d2
d
= m 2 y (t ) + B y (t ) + ky (t )
dt
dt
&y&(t ) +

B
1
k
y& (t ) + y (t ) = f (t )
m
m
m

Taking the Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, we have

s 2Y ( s ) + s

B
1
k
Y ( s) + Y ( s) = F ( s)
m
m
m

Then the transfer function between Y(s) and F(s) is obtained

Y ( s)
1
= 2
F ( s ) s m + sB + k

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14

1. Inertia
Newtons Law for rotation motion :
d
d2
T ( t ) = J ( t ) = J ( t ) = J 2 ( t )
dt
dt

(t )

J
T (t )

T : Torque J : Inertia : Angular acceleration

: Angular velocity : Angular displacement

(t )

2. Torsional Spring
T ( t ) = k ( t )

k : Torsional spring constant

T (t )

3. Friction for rotational motion : viscous, static, coulomb friction

d
T (t ) = B (t )
(t )
dt
B : Viscous friction coefficient

B
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T (t )
15

 Field-current controlled DC motor (Homework #1)

Armature-controlled DC motor
Mathematical modeling of PM DC motor:
Ra

La
+

ia (t )
va (t )

eb (t )

J,B

TLoad

The air-gap flux of the dc motor is

Ra
v a (t )
eb (t )
km
T (t )
J
(t )

Armature resistance La
Applied voltage
ia (t )
Back-emf
kb
Torque constant
Tm (t )
Load torque
Td
Rotor inertia
B
Rotor displacement (t )

Armature inductance
Armature current
Back-emf constant
Motor torque
Disturbance torque
Viscous friction coefficient
Rotor angular velocity

(t ) = k f i f (t )
and the torque developed by by the dc motor is
Tm (t ) = k1 (t )ia (t ) = k1k f i f (t )ia (t )
= k1k f I f ia (t ), i f (t ) = constant
= k mia (t )
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16

If La/Ra 0, the approximate model of the dc motor is obtained as

( s)
Va ( s )

km
JRa s + ( BRa + kb k m )

k
s + 1

where

JRa
km
, k=
BRa + kb km
BRa + kb km

 Relation between km and kb

The power input to the rotor = The power delivered to the shaft
eb (t )ia (t ) = T (t ) (t )
kb (t )ia (t ) = kmia (t ) (t )
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km = kb

17

The cause and effect equation for the motor circuit are
d
ia (t ) + eb (t )
dt
eb (t ) = kb (t ) = kb (t )

va (t ) = Ra ia (t ) + La

d
(t ) + B (t ) + Td
dt
d2
d
= J 2 (t ) + B (t ) + Td
dt
dt

T (t ) = J

The motor torque is equal to the torque delivered to the load, that is
Tm (t ) = T (t )

Hence the transfer function of the dc motor, with Td=0, is

( s)
Va ( s )
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km
( Ra + sLa )( Js + B ) + kb km
18

 Tachometer
et (t ) = kt (t ) = kt

d
(t )
dt

Potentiometer
e p (t ) = k p (t ), k p =

Vapp
2N

Vapp

ep

Incremental encoder (Homework #2)

1. Measuring angular displacement
2. Measuring angular velocity

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19

DC motor Filed-controlled
Home work 2:
( s)
V f ( s)

=?

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20

Homework 3
V2 ( s )
=?
V1 ( s )

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21

Homework 4:

L = n m
Tm
=?
TL

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22

The block diagram

FIGURE 2.26 Multiple-loop feedback control

system.

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23

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24

FIGURE 2.27
Fig.2.26
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Block diagram reduction of the system of

25

Signal-flow Graph Modes

V f (s )

G (s )

(s )

FIGURE 2.28 Signal-flow graph of the dc

motor.
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26

Signal-flow Graph Modes

Branch:
Nodes:
Forward-path gain:
Loop gain:
Non-touching:

FIGURE 2.31 Two-path

interacting system.
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27

Masons signal-flow gain formula:

Tij

Pij ijk

input node
=
output node

Pijk :
:
ijk :

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28

Example 2.11

G7
G8

G1

G2

G3

G4
H4

H2

G5

G6

H1

H3

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29

The Simulation of System

Assuming that a mode and the simulation are reliably accurate,computer
simulation has the following advantages:
1.

System performance can be observed under all conceivable conditions.

2.

Results of field-system performance can be extrapolated with a simulation

model for prediction purposes.

3.

Decisions concerning future system presently in a conceptual stage can be

examined.

4.

Trials of system under test can be accomplished in a much-reduceed period

of time.

5.

Simulation results can be obtained at lower cost than real experimentation.

6.

Study of hypothetical situation can be achieved even when the hypothetical

situation would be unrealizable in actual life at the present time.

7.

Computer modeling and simulation is often the only feasible or safe

technique to analyze and evaluate a system.

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30

2007131

FIGURE 2.34 Analysis and design

using a system model.

31

Example 2.12 Electric traction motor control

( s)
vin ( s )

=?

FIGURE 2.35 Speed control of an electric traction

motor.
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32

FIGURE 2.35 Speed control of an electric traction motor.

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33

The simulation of system using Matlab

M&y& + by& + ky = r (t )
The unforced dynamic response,y(t), of the spring-mass-damper mechanical system is

y (t ) =

y ( 0)
1 2

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e nt sin(n 1 2 t + )

34

2007131

FIGURE 2.40 Script to analyze the spring-mass35

damper.

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FIGURE 2.41 Spring-mass-damper unforced response.

36

Exercises
E2.8 E2.9

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37

CHAPTER 4
Feedback Control System Characteristics

Open and Closed-Loop Control.

Sensitivity of Control System to Parameter Variations.
Control of the Transient Response of Control system.
Disturbance Signals in a Feedback Control system.
Steady-state Error.
The cost of Feedback

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; Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control Systems

Open-loop

R(s)

C(s)
G(s)

Transfer function:

G( s) =

C ( s)
R( s)

Error signal: E ( s ) = R ( s ) C ( s )
Output: C ( s ) = G ( s ) E ( s ) = G ( s )[ R ( s ) C ( s )]

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2007131

 Closed-loop
R (s )

E (s )

C(s)

G (s )

m
H (s )

B(s)

Error signal: E ( s ) = R ( s ) B ( s )
Feedback signal: B ( s ) = H ( s )C ( s )
Output: C ( s ) = G ( s ) E ( s ) = G ( s )[ R ( s ) B ( s )]
Transfer function:

T ( s) =

Error transfer function:

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C ( s)
G( s)
=
R( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s )

1
E ( s)
=
R( s) 1 G ( s) H ( s)
4

Sensitivity of Control Systems to Parameter variations

Definite: System sensitivity is the ratio of the change in the system transfer
function to the change of a process transfer function( or parameter) for a
small incremental change

T (s)

G(s)

T ( s ) / T ( s ) T ( s ) G ( s )

=
G ( s ) / G ( s ) G ( s ) T ( s )
T ( s ) G ( s ) T ( s ) G ( s )
= lim

0 G ( s )
T ( s ) G ( s ) T ( s )
ln(T ( s ))
=
ln(G ( s ))
=

The chain rule:

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T (s)

T (s) G(s)

G(s)

 Open-loop
Transfer function:

T (s)

G(s)

T ( s) =

C ( s)
= G( s)
R( s)

T ( s ) G ( s )

=1
G ( s ) T ( s )

Closed-loop
Transfer function: T ( s ) =

T (s)

G(s)

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C ( s)
G( s)
=
R( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )

1
T ( s ) G ( s )

=
G ( s ) T ( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )

Rf

Vin

Ri
en

Ka

K a = 3000

Vo

Homework
Answer the questions:
1. The necessary assumptions, such that the transfer function of the inverse amplifier can
be obtained as follows: V (s) = R
f

Vin ( s )

2. The largest ratio of the

3.

S ATo

4.

S RT f

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Rf

Rin

and R , why?
in

Control of then Transient Response of Control System

Open-loop

Transfer function:

G( s) =

T (s) =

Y (s)
b
=
R(s) s + a

b
A
, R( s) =
s+a
s

Output:

b A

s+a s
Ab
y (t ) = L1{Y ( s )} =
(1 e at ), t 0
a

Y ( s) = G ( s) R( s) =

Time constant: =
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1
a

Settling time:

5
8

Error signal:

As + (a Ab)
s( s + a)
a Ab Aa (a Ab) at
e(t ) = L1{E ( s )} =
+
e
a
a

E ( s) = R( s) Y ( s) =

Rise time: tr = t2 t1

y (t ) |t =t2 = 0.9 Cy ()
1
t 2 = ln(0.1)
a
c(t ) |t =t1 = 0.1 y ()
1
t1 = ln(0.9)
a

1 .2

0 .8

0 .6

0 .4

0 .2

t1

t2

0
0

1
1
tr = ln(0.1) + ln(0.9)
a
a

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 Closed-loop

( H ( s ) = 1)

Transfer function: T ( s ) =
Output:

C ( s)
b
=
R ( s ) s + ( a + b)

b
A

s + ( a + b) s
Ab
y (t ) = L1{Y ( s )} =
(1 e ( a +b )t ), t 0
a+b

Y ( s) = T ( s) R( s) =

Time constant: =
Error signal:

1
a+b

As + Aa
s ( s + a + b)
Aa
Ab at
e(t ) = L1{E ( s )} =
e
+
a+b a+b

E ( s) = R( s) Y ( s) =

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10

Disturbance Signal in a Feedback Control System

Open-loop
d
+

R(s)

Y(s)

G(s)

Output due to R(s): YR ( s ) ( s ) |d =0 = G ( s ) R ( s )

Output due to d: Yd ( s ) |R =0 = 1 d ( s )
Total output: Y ( s ) = YR ( s ) ( s ) + Yd ( s ) ( s )
= G ( s) R( s) + d ( s)

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11

 Closed-loop
Td (s )

R (s )

G (s )

Y(s)

H (s )

Output due to R(s): YR ( s ) ( s ) |Td =0 =

Output due to Td(s): YTd ( s ) |R =0 =

G(s)
R( s)
1 + G (s) H (s)

1
Td ( s )
1 + G (s) H (s)

Total output: Y ( s ) = YR ( s ) + YTd ( s )

=
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G (s)
1
R( s) +
Td ( s )
1 + G (s) H (s)
1 + G (s) H (s)
12

Td (s )

Homework #5

Y (s )

R (s )

8
s+5

Fig. H5a
3
r (t )

t
0

td (t )

t
5

y (t )

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t
13

Y (s )

R (s )

8
s+5

Fig. H5b

N d (s )

r (t )

t
0

nd (t )

t
5

y (t )

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t
14

Steady-state Error
ess = e(t ) |t = e( )
= lim e(t ) = lim s E ( s )
t

s 0

Open-loop

Error signal: E ( s ) = R ( s ) Y ( s ) = (1 G ( s )) R ( s )
A
s
ess = lim(1 G ( s )) R ( s ) = A(1 G (0))

Steady-state error: if R ( s ) =
Closed-loop

Error signal:

s 0

E ( s) =

Steady-state error:

1
R( s)
1 + G( s) H ( s)

if R ( s ) =

A
s

ess = lim( sE ( s )) =
s 0

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when H ( s ) = 1
A
1 + G ( 0) H ( 0)

1
s 0 1 + G ( s )

ess = lim

15

The Cost of Feedback System

1.

Loss of gain

2.

Increased number of components and complexity

3.

Possibility of instability

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16

 Lab #1
Introduction to Matlab and Simulink
Simulation (Lab #3,4,5,6)
How can the Simulink be applied to measure the angular
velocity and angular displacement in which an incremental
encoder are used in control systems?

Exercises:
E4.1 E4.3 E4.6 E4.7 P4.4 P4.14 AP4.6 AP4.7

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17

CHAPTER 5
The Performance of Feedback
Control Systems

Introduction
Test Input Signal
Performance of a Second-order System
The S-Plane Root Location and The Transient Response
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control System
Performance Indices

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Introduction

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Test Input Signal

Step-function
A t 0
u (t ) =
0 t < 0
U ( s ) = L{u(t )} =

or

u (t ) = A us (t )

u (t )

A
s

Ramp-function
At t 0
r (t ) =
0 t < 0
R ( s ) = L{r (t )} =

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or

A
s2

r (t ) = At us (t )

r (t )

 Parabolic-function

1 2
At
p(t ) = 2
0

t0
t<0

P ( s ) = L{ p (t )} =

or p (t ) =

1 2
At us (t )
2

A
s3

p (t )

General Form
tn
A
r (t ) = A us (t ) R ( s ) = n +1
n!
s

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Performance of a Second-order System

n2
G(s)
K
Y (s) =
R( s ) = 2
R( s) = 2
1 + G(s)
s + ps + K
s + 2n s + n2

With a unit step input, we obtain

n2
Y (s) =
s ( s 2 + 2n s + n2 )

n is held constant while the damping ratio is varied

>1 : Overdamped s1, 2 = n n 2 1
=1 : Critically damped s1, 2 = n
0< <1 : Underdamped

=0: Undamped

s1, 2 = n j n 1 2

s1, 2 = j n

<0 : Negatively damped s1, 2 = n j n 1 2

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Performance of a Second-order System

1

n2
Y ( s) =
s ( s 2 + 2n s + n2 )
when 0 < < 1
y (t ) = 1

n t

sin(n t + ) = 1

1 2

y (t )
y max

Overshoot
1
0 .9

= 2 % or 5 %

0 .5

0 .1
0 td

tp

ts

t (sec)

tr=t2t1
Typical unit-step response of a control system

t1 t2
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n
dy (t )
=
e nt sin n 1 2 t = 0
dt
1 2
e nt = 0

sin n 1 2 t = 0 n 1 2 t = n
t=

n 1

tp =

n =1 t = tp

n 1 2

M p = 1 + e /
P.O =

1 2

y max y fin
y fin

100% = e /

1
ts =

100%

Damping Factor : = n

Settling Time:
1

1 2

e nt s < 0.02
1

ln(0.02 1 2 )

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, for ess < 0.02

2007131

The S-plane Root Location and the Transient Response

d = n 1 2

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S-plane

Second-order step response

A
C
System A

Draw the step responses of the system B and

C,. respectively
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10

 n 3 > n 2 > n 1 j
n1

3 > 2 > 1
n2

=0

n3

constant

constant n
j

2 < 1 < 0
3 > 0
1

constant
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d 2 > d1

d 2
d1

constant d
11

0<<1

=1

0<<1

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=0

0>>-1
=-1

>1 <-1
=0

0>>-1

12

c(t )

>1

c(t )

S -

S -

=0

0
0

c(t )

S -

c(t )

S -

=1

c(t )

S -

0 < <1

1 < < 0

S -

c(t )

0
0

< 1

Step response
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13

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14

The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control System

Type of Control Systems
R (s )

Loop transfer function:

Q( s)
G( s) H ( s) =
P( s )

E (s )

G (s )

C(s)

H (s )

bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0
=
an s n + an 1s n 1 + an 2 s n 2 + L + a1s + a0
m

K ( s + z j )
j =1
n N

s N ( s + pi )
i =1

The loop transfer function as s approaches zero depends on the

number of integrations N.
The number of integrations is often indicated by labeling a
system with a type number that simply is equal to N.
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15

Error function: E ( s ) =
Steady-state error:

1
R( s)
1 + G( s) H ( s)

ess = lim s E ( s )
s 0

if H ( s) = 1
Step-function input

1
A

s 0
1 + G(s) s
A
=
1 + lim G ( s )

ess = lim s

s 0

Define the position error constant as:

K p = lim G ( s )
s 0

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ess =

A
1+ Kp

16

Ramp-function input

ess = lim s
s 0

1
A
A
2 =
1 + G ( s) s
lim sG ( s )
s 0

K v = lim sG ( s )

Define the velocity error constant as:

s 0

A
Kv

ess =
Parabolic-function input

ess = lim s
s 0

A
A
1
3=
1 + G ( s) s
lim s 2G ( s )
s 0

Define the acceleration error constant as:

K a = lim s 2G ( s )
s 0

ess =

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A
Ka
17

Summary of steady-state errors (unit feedback)

Type of Error Constant
system
N

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K p Kv Ka

Steady-state error

A
1+ Kp

A
Kv

ess
A
Ka

Constant

Constant

Constant

18

Performance indices
A performance index is a
quantitative measure of the
performance of a system and is
chosen so that emphasis is given to
the important system specifications.
A system is consider an optimum
control system when the system
parameters are adjusted so that the
index reaches an extreme value,
commonly a minimum value.
The Integral of the Square of the Error:
T

ISE = e 2 dt
0

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19

2007131

20

CHAPTER 6
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
The Concept of Stability
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The Relative Stability of Feedback Control Systems

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The Concept of Stability

Stability

Absolute stability
Relative stability

The methods for the determination of stability

of linear continuous-time systems:
Routh-Hurwitz criterion
stable
Nyquist criterion
Bode diagram
stable

j
S-plane

unstable

unstable

A stable system is a dynamic system with a

bounded response to a bounded input

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S-plane

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2007131

 Bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stability:

u (t )

System

(t )

y (t )
h (t )

y (t ) = u (t ) h ( )d y (t ) u (t ) h( ) d

y (t ) = u (t ) h ( )d
0

If u(t) is bounded, u (t ) M

y (t ) M h ( ) d
0

Thus, if y(t) is to be bounded, or

y (t ) N <

M h( ) d N <
0

h ( ) d Q <
0

M , N and Q are finite positive number

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; The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Consider the characteristic equation of a linear SISO system

q ( s ) = an ( s r1 )( s r2 ).....( s rn ) = 0
=a n s n an (r1 + r2 + ... + rn ) s n 1 + an (r1r2 + r2 r3 + ...) s n 2
+ an (r1r2 r3 + r1r2 r4 + ...) s n 3 + .... + an (1) n r1r2 ... = 0
q( s) = s n +
an 1
an
an 2
an
an 3
an

a
an 1 n 1
a
s +L+ 1 s + 0 = 0
an
an
an

all roots
= products of the roots taken two at a time
= products of the roots taken three at a time
=

M
a0
an

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= ( 1) n products of the roots

7

The necessary condition to guarantee that all roots of q(s)=0 with

negative real part are:
All the coefficients of the equation have the the same sign.
None of the coefficients vanishes.

Necessary but not sufficient!

q( s) = an s n + an 1s n 1 + ..... + a1s + a0 = 0

sn

an

a n2

a n4

s n 1

a n 1

a n 3

a n 5

s n2

b1

b2

b3

s n 3
.
.
s

c1

.
.
.
.

s0

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a n 6 ......
a n 7 ....

b1 =

a n 1a n 2 a n a n 3
an

c1 =

b1a n 3 a n 1b2
b1

b2 =

a n 1a n 4 a n a n 5
an

The Routh-Hurwitz criterion states that the number of roots of q(s)

with positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in sign
of the first column of the Routh array

Case1:No element in the first column is zero

Second-order system

Third-order system

q ( s ) = a2 s 2 + a1s + a0 = 0

q ( s ) = a3 s 3 + a2 s 2 + a1s + a0 = 0

s2

a2

a0

s3

a3

a1

s1

a1

s2

a2

a0

s0

b1 =

a1a0 a2 0
= a0
a1

The system is stable if all the coefficients

have the same sign.

bs1 =

s0

a2 a1 a3a0
a2
a0

set

a3 ~ a0 > 0

The system is stable if a a

2 1

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> a3a0

Case 2: Zeros in the first column while some other elements of the row containing a
zero in the first column are nonzero.
q( s ) = s 5 + 2 s 4 + 2 s 3 + 4s 2 + 11s + 10 = 0

>0

s5
s3

1
2
0

s2

c1

s1

d1

s0

10

s4

11
10
0
0
0
0

d1

4 12

1
x5

+ 2 x1 + 2 x1 + 4 x1 + 11 x1 + 10

1
x5

(1 + 2 x1 + 2 x 2 + 4 x 3 + 11x 4 + 10 x 5 )

1
x5

F ( x)

12

6c1 10
6
c1

F ( s) s= =
1
x

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2
4
6
10
0
0

c1 =

10

Case 3: Zeros in the first column, and the other element of the row containing the
zero are also zero.
This condition occurs when the polynomial contains singularities that are symmetrically
located about the origin of the s-plane.
S-plane

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S-plane

S-plane

11

q( s) = s 3 + 2s 2 + 4s + 8 = 0

s3 1
s

s1 0

A( s ) = 2 s 2 + 8 = 0
= s2 + 4 = 0
s = j2

s0
(1)
s+2
s 2 + 4 s 3 + 2s 2 + 4s + 8
+ 4s

s3

( 2)
dA( s )
= 2s
ds

s3 1

+8

s2

2s 2

+8

s1 2

2s

q ( s ) = ( s + 2)( s + j 2)( s j 2) = 0

s0

The system has not any pole on the RHP,

but system is marginally stable.
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12

Case 4: Repeated roots of the characteristic equation

on the imaginary axis.
(2)

(1)

A( s ) = s 4 + 2 s 2 + 1 = ( s 2 + 1) 2 = 0
s = j , j , j , j

q( s) = s 5 + s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 1 = 0
s

A( s ) = s 4 + 2 s 2 + 1 = ( s 2 + 1) 2 = 0
s = j , j , j , j

s3

s2 1

s1 0

dA( s )
= 4s 3 + 4s
ds

s +1
s 4 + 2s 2 + 1

s5 + s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 1
+ 2s 3

s5

+s

s4

+ 2s 2

+1

s4

+ 2s 2

+1

The system has not any root on the RHP,

but the system is unstable.
Repeated roots on the imaginary axis

The resulted of Routh array is Falsely

indicated.

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13

q( s) = s 3 + 2s 2 + 4s + k = 0
s3
s

s1
s0

2
8k
2
k

q ( s ) = s 3 + 3ks 2 + (k + 2) s + 4 = 0
Ans: k>0.528, system is stable.

(1) k > 8
(2) k > 0
8
0

Ans: k>8, system is stable.

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14

2007131

15

q ( s ) = s 4 + 8s 3 + 17 s 2 + (k + 10) s + ka = 0
s4 1

17

s3 8

(k + 10)

s 2 b1

ka

ka
0

s1 c1
s 0 ka
b1 =

126 k
b (k + 10) 8ka
, and c1 = 1
8
b1

k < 126
ka > 0
(k + 10)(126 k ) 64ka > 0

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16

2007131

17

Exercises and Problems

E6.1,E6.2,E6.6,E6.17
P6.6,P6.12,P6.15,P6.18
AP6.4,DP6.1

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18

CHAPTER 7
The Root Locus Method
The Root Locus Concept
The Root Locus Procedure
The Root contour
The Root Locus Using Matlab

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T ( s) =

Y ( s ) p( s)
=
R ( s ) q( s )

Roots
to find out the solution of the characteristic
equation.

q( s ) = 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0

R (s )

E (s )

G (s )

C(s)

H (s )

q( s ) = 1 + KG1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 0
G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 1

| G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) |=

1
K

1
|K |

180 2k , for K > 0

G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 00 2k , for K < 0
where k = 0,1,2...

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q( s ) = s 3 + 2 s 2 + Ks + 4 K = 0
= s 3 + 2 s 2 + K ( s + 4) = 0
s+4
= 1+ K 2
=0
s ( s + 2)
s+4
G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 2
s ( s + 2)

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q( s ) = 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 1 + K
| G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) |s = s1 =

1
=
s( s + 2) s = s1

1
=0
s ( s + 2)
s1

G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) |s = s1

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2007131

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; The Root Locus Procedure

Step
Related equation or Rule
1. Write the characteristic equation so that F ( s ) = 1 + KG1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) = 0
the parameter of interest K appears as a
multiplier.
m
2. Factor G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) in terms of n poles and
(s + z j )
j =1
m zeros.
G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) = n
( s + pi )
i =1

3. Locate the open-loop poles and zeros of  : poles, {: zeros,

F (s ) in the s-plane with selected symbols. or : roots of characteristic equation
4. Locate the segments of the real axis that a). Locus begins at a pole and ends at zero.
b). Locus lies to left of an odd number of
are root locus.
poles and zeros ( K 0 ).
5. The number of branch on the root loci, . = n, when n m;
n: number of finite poles, m: number of finite zeros
6. The root loci are symmetrical with respect
to the horizontal real axis.
7. Intersect of the asymptotes (Centroid)
pi z j or = Re( pi ) Re( z j )
=
8. Angles of asymptotes of the root loci.

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nm
nm
( 2k + 1)
, K 0

k = n m
; k = 0,1,2,L, n m 1
2k

,
K < 0
nm

9. Breakaway points (saddle points) on the Roots of d G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0 or d K = 0

1
1
ds
ds
root loci.
10. Intersection of root loci with imaginary Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
axis.
11. Angles of departure and angles of arrival
( 2k + 1) K 0
G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) =
, k = 0,1,2,L
of the root loci.
K < 0
2 k
at s = pi or s = z j .
n
12. Calculation of K at a specific root si .
(s + p )
K=

i =1
m

(s + z j )
j =1

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s = si

2007131

Step 4: The root locus on the real axis always lies in a section of the
real axis to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros.

Odd segments

Step 5: Determine the number of separate loci,SL.The number

of separate loci is equal to the number of poles

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10

Step 6: The root loci must be symmetrical with respect to the horizontal real
axis.
Step 7: The linear asymptotes are centered at a point on the real axis given
by = poles zeros The angle of the asymptotes with respect to the
A

real axis is

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nm

A =

( 2q + 1)
1800
nm

n = 4, m = 1, 1 =

( 2q + 1)
1800 , q = 0,1,2, n m 1
4 1

11

Step 8:The actual point at which the root locus crosses the imaginary axis is
readily evaluated by utilizing the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
Step 9: Determine the breakaway point

dK
=0
ds

the tangents to the loci at the breakaway point are equally over 3600

1 + KG1 ( s ) = 1 + K

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1
=0
( s + 2)( s + 4)

12

K = ( s + 2)( s + 4)
dK
= ( 2 s + 6) = 0, s = 3
ds

dK
ds

2
s
-2

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13

Step 10:Determine the angle of departure of the locus from a pole and the
angle of arrival of the locus at a zero,using the phase angle criterion.

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14

; Examples
F ( s) = 1 + K

1
F ( s) = 1 + K
s ( s + 2)
2

1
s( s + 2)( s + 3)

1.5

4
1

2
Imag Axis

Imag A xis

0.5

-0.5

-2
-1

-4

-1.5

-2
-3

-2

-1

0
Real A xis

-6
-4

-3

-2

-1
Real Axis

Effects adding poles to G1(s)H1(s)

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15

F ( s) = 1 + K

1
s( s + 2)( s + 3)( s + 4)

F ( s) = 1 + K

s+4
s( s + 2)( s + 3)

2
2
1
Imag A xis

Imag Axis

-1

0
-1
-2

-2
-3

-3

-4
-6

-4

-5

-4

-3

-2
Real Axis

-1

Effects adding poles to G1(s)H1(s)

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-5
-5

-4

-3

-2
-1
Real A xis

Effects adding zeros to G1(s)H1(s)

16

F ( s) = 1 + K

1
s 4 + 12 s 3 + 64 s 2 + 32 s

F ( s) = 1 + K

1
s( s + 3)( s 2 + 2 s + 2)

3
4
2

1
Imag A xis

Imag A xis

-1
-2
-2
-4

-6
-6

-3

-5

-4

-3

-2
Real A xis

-1

Effects adding poles to G1(s)H1(s)

-4
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2
-1
Real A xis

-<K<

 Lab #3
Written a M-file to plot the root loci step by step. (rlocfind)
2007131

17

q( s ) = s 3 + s 2 + s + = 0

1+

s
s + s +
3

=0

s3 + s2 + = 0
1+

s ( s + 1)
2

=0

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18

R (s )

Y (s )

k1
s(s + 2)

k2s

Specifications:
1.

Steady-state error for a ramp input 35%

2.

Damping ratio of dominant roots

3.

Settling time to within 2 % of the final value

0.707

sec.
3

sec.

1 + GH ( s ) = s 2 + 2 s + s + = 0
= k2k1 , = k1

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19

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20

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21

1 + G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 1 + K

s +1
=0
s (s + a)
2

Root Locus

Root Locus

10

Root Locus

-2

2
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis

-2

-6

-2

-4

-4

-4

-8

-6
-10
-10

-9

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

-6

Real Axis

-8
-9

a = 10

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

-8
-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

Real Axis

-3

-2

-1

0.2

Real Axis

a=9

a =8

Root Locus
8

Root Locus

Root Locus

0.4

4
0.3

0.2

2
0.1

-2

Imaginary Axis

1
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis

-1

-0.1

-2

-4

-0.2

-3

-6

-0.3

-4

-8
-7

-6

-5

-4

-3
Real Axis

a=7
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-2

-1

-5
-2

-1.8

-1.6

-1.4

-1.2

-1
Real Axis

a=2

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

-0.4
-1.2

-1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

Real Axis

a =1
22

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23

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24

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25

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26

CHAPTER 8
Frequency Response Methods
Introduction
Frequency Response Plots
Polar Plot
Bode Plot
Log Magnitude and Phase Plot
Frequency Response Measurements
Performance Specifications in The Frequency Domain
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;Introduction
r(t)

T(s)

c(t)
C(s)

R(s)

Output: C ( s ) = T ( s ) R ( s )
If

r (t ) = A sin( t ) c(t ) = C sin( t + )

For sinusoidal steady-state analysis, we replace s by j, and

output c(t) becomes
C ( j ) = T ( j ) R ( j ) = C ( j ) C ( j ) = C ( j ) e jC ( j )

For a closed-loop system

T ( j ) = T ( s ) s = j =

G ( j )
1 + G ( j ) H ( j )

= T ( j ) T ( j )
or R( w) + jX ( w)
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where
T ( j ) =

G ( j )
1 + G ( j ) H ( j )

T ( j ) = G ( j ) 1 + G ( j ) H ( j )

and
R ( ) = Re[T ( j )]
X ( ) = Im[T ( j )]

T ( j ) = Re[T ( j )] + j Im[C ( j )]
R ( ) + jX ( )
T ( j ) = R 2 ( ) + X 2 ( )
T ( j ) = tan 1

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X ( )
R ( )

The Laplace transform pair

C ( s ) = L{c(t )} = 0 c(t )e st dt

c(t ) = L1{C ( s )} =

1 + j
st
C
(
s
)
e
ds

2j j

The Fourier transform pair

C ( j ) = F {c(t )} = c(t )e jt dt

and
c(t ) = F 1{C ( j )} =

1
2

jt
C
(
j

)
e
d

The Fourier transform exists for f(t) when

c(t ) dt <
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;Frequency Response Plots

Polar plot
A plot of the magnitude versus phase in the polar coordinates as is
varied from 0 .
Find T(j); | T(j)|, T(j), R (j) and X(j).
To Determine the behavior of the magnitude and phase of T(j) at
0 and .

lim T ( j ) ; lim T ( j )
0

lim T ( j ) ; lim T ( j )

To Determine the the intersection

R ( ) = = 0 X ( ) = =
i

X ( ) = = 0 R ( ) = =
r

To Determine the the asymptotic line

lim T ( j ) = lim[R ( ) + jX ( )] = a + jb
0

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Case 1: Integral and derivative factor s 1

0
A). T ( j ) =

1
j

B ). T ( j ) = j

Case 2: First-order factor T ( s ) = (1 + s ) 1

0
1

0
1

= i
A). T ( j ) =
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1
1 + j

B ). T ( j ) = 1 + j
6

Case 3: Quadratic factor

n2
A). T ( s ) = 2
s + 2 n s + n2
1

T ( j ) =

2
s
+ 2
2

1 + 2 (j ) + (j )

: small

1
2
1 ( ) + j 2 ( )
n

B ). T ( s ) =

s +1

1
n

s 2 + 2 n s + n2

n2

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Bode plot
The Bode plot of the function T(j) is composed of two plots:
The amplitude of T(j) in decibels (dB) versus or log10 .
The phase of T(j) in degree versus or log10 .

T ( j ) = T ( j ) e jT ( j )
Logarithmic gain = 20 log10 T ( j )
100

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

50
0
-50
-100
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
-2
10

-1

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

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 Constant factor: K

K dB = 20 log K
and

0
K =
180

for K > 0
for K < 0

15

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
200

100

-100
-1
10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

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T ( j ) dB = 20 log ( j ) p = 20 p log( )
d
[ 20 p log( )] = 20 p dB / decade
d (log )
and

200

( j ) p = p 90

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

100
0
-100
-200
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-1
10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

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10

 Simple zero: 1 + s

T ( j ) dB = 20 log T ( j ) = 20 log 1 + ( ) 2

<< 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log(1) = 0
>> 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log ( ) 2 = 20 log( )
and

25

T ( j ) = tan ( )
1

15

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

1 T ( j ) dB = 20 log 2 3
=
1

T ( j ) = tan (1) = 45

20

10
5
0
-5
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

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11

 Simple pole:

1
1 + s

T ( j ) dB = 20 log T ( j ) = 20 log

1+ ( ) 2

<< 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log(1) = 0
>> 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log( )
and

T ( j ) = tan ( )

T ( j ) dB = 20 log 2 3
=
1

T ( j ) = tan (1) = 45
1

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-5
-10
-15
-20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
0
10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

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12

n
Quadratic poles:
s 2 + 2 n s + n2

T ( j ) dB = 20 log

[1(

] [2 ( ) ]

2 2+
n )

<< 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log(1) = 0
n

2
>> 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log( ) = 40 log( )
n
n

and

2 ( )
T ( j ) = tan
2
1
(

<< 1 T ( j ) = 0
n

>> 1 T ( j ) = 180
n
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13

 = n T ( j ) dB = 20 log(2 )
= n T ( j ) = 90
20

= 0.1, 0.2

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0
10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Log Magnitude and Phase Plot

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14

;Performance Specifications in The Frequency Domain

Resonant peak: Mp
The resonant peak is the maximum value of |T(j)|.
Resonant frequency: r
The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the peak resonant occur.
Bandwidth: BW (B)
The bandwidth is the frequency at which T(j) drops to 70.7% of, or 3 dB
down from, its zero-frequency value.
Cutoff rate
The cutoff rate is the slop of log-magnitude curve near the cutoff frequency.

M p
1
0.707

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15

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16

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17

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18

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19

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20

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21

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22

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23

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24

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25

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26

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27

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28

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29

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30

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31

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32

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33

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34

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35

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36

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37

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38

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39

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40

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41

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42

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43

2007131

44

CHAPTER 9
Stability in the Frequency Domain
Introduction
Mapping Contours in the s-Plane
The Nyquist Criterion
Relative Stability and the Nyquist Criterion
Time-Domain performance Criteria Specified in
the Frequency Domain

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Introduction
Time-domain
Routh-Hurwitz criterion
Root-Locus
by locating the roots of characteristic equation in the s-plane.
Frequency domain
Nyquist stability criterion
based on the theorem of complex variables due to Cauchy,
commonly known as principle of argument.
H. Nyquist 1932

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F ( s) = 2s + 1

Enclose
A : F ( s ) |s =1+ j = 2 s + 1 = 2 + 2 j + 1 = 3 + 2 j

Clockwise and eyes right

B : F ( s ) |s =1 j = 2 s + 1 = 3 2 j

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F (s) =

s
s+2

Cauchys Theorem:If a contour in the s-plane encircles Z zeros and P poles of

s

F(s) and does not pass through any poles or zeros of F(s) and the traversal is in the
clockwise direction along the contour, the corresponding contour F in the F(s)-plane
encircles the origin of the F(s)-plane N=Z-P time in the clockwise direction
2007131

F ( s) =

2007131

s
s + 0.5

F ( s ) =| F ( s ) | F ( s ) =

| s + z1 || s + z 2 |
(s + z1 + s + z 2 s + p1 s + p2 )
| s + p1 || s + p2 |

=| F ( s ) | ( z1 + z2 p1 p2 ) =| F ( s ) | F

F = z p

2007131

P = 1, Z = 3,

2007131

N = Z P = 3 1 = 2

Nyquist contour (Nyquist path)

Since the Nyquist contour must not pass through any poles and zeros
of F(s), the small semicircles shown along the j-axis are used to
indicate that the path should go around these poles and zeros if they
fall on the j-axis.

j 1
b

i
h

j1
g

2007131

j
8

j1
b

i
h

j1
g
f

2007131

Path ab:
s=j ; 0<<1
Path bc:
s=j1+ej; 0 and -90 <<90
Path cd:
s=j ; 1<<
Path def:
s=Rej; R and 90 <<-90
Path fg:
s=j ; -<<-1
Path gh:
s=-j1+ej; 0 and -90 <<90
Path hi:
s=j ; -1< <0
Path ija:
s=ej; 0 and -90 <<90
9

GH ( s ) =

1. : 0 0 , : 90 ~ 90, s = e

K
s (s + 1)

K
= e j ,900 ~ 900
j

0 e (e
+ 1)

G ( s ) = lim

2. : 0 + , s = j
K
K
GH ( s ) =
=
, , | GH ( j ) | 0, 180 0
2
j ( j + 1) + j

2007131

3. : ~ - , s = Re j , R , : 90 ~ 90
K
K
GH ( s ) |s = Re j = lim
= 2 e j 2 0e j 2 ,180 ~ +180
j

R Re ( Re + 1)
R

4. : 0
The portion of the polar plot from = to = 0
is symmetrical to the polar plot from = 0 + to = +

10

G ( s) =

2007131

100
( s + 1)( s + 1)
10

11

Nyquist criterion and the GH(s) plot

Since the open-loop transfer function GH(s) is generally known, it
would be simpler to construct the GH(s) plot that corresponds to the
Nyquist path, and the same stability conditions of the closed-loop
system can be obtained by observing the number of encirclements of
the (-1,j0) point in the GH(s)-plane.
F ( s ) = 1 + GH ( s ) GH ( s ) = 1 F ( s )

j
+ j
s-plane

jv

GH(s)
s

( 1, j 0)
u

j
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12

Stability requirements
For the closed-loop system to be stable, there should be no zeros
of F(s) in right half s-plane; i.e.,
Z=0
this condition is met if
N=ZP=0 P= P
The special case of P=0, means open-loop stable system, the
closed-loop system is stable if
N=ZP=0

N 0 = Z 0 P0

Open loop : GH ( s) =

N ( s)
D( s)

closed loop : F ( s ) = 1 + GH ( s ) = 1 +

P1 = P0 poles of L( s ) = F ( s )
N ( s) D( s) + N ( s)
=
D( s)
D( s)

N 1 = Z 1 P1
Z 1 = 0 stable for closed - loop
N 1 = 0 P1 = P1

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13

GH ( s ) =

K
s ( 1s + 1)( 2 s + 1)

1. : 0 0 + , s = e j , 0, : 90 ~ 90
K
= e j , | GH ( S ) |= , : 90 ~ 90
j

0 e ( e
+ 1)( 2e + 1)
1

GH ( s ) = lim

2. : 0 + , s = j ,
GH ( s ) =
=

K
j ( j 1 + 1)( j 2 + 1)
K ( 1 + 2 ) jK ( 1 )(1 2 1 2 )

1 + 2 ( 12 + 22 ) + 4 12 22

Let Im=0

Re =

= Re + J Im

1 2

The magnitude of the real part,Re of the GH(jw) at this frequency is

Re =

1
K ( 1 + 2 )
, =
2
2
4 2 2
1 + ( 1 + 2 ) + 1 2
1 2
2

- K 1 2
=
1 + 2

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3. : + -, s = re j , r , : 90 ~ 90
K
GH ( s ) = lim j
0e j 3
j

j
r re ( r e
+ 1)(r 2 e + 1)
1

14

GH ( s ) =

K
s ( s + 1)( s + 1)

2007131

K =1
stabl

K =2

K =3
unstab

15

System with a pole in the right-hand s-plane

GH ( s ) =

2007131

K1
,
s ( s 1)

K2 = 0

1. = 0 0 +

16

1.w : 0 0 + , s = e j , : 90 ~ 90
K
= e j = 180
j
j

0 e (e
1)

GH ( s ) = lim

2.w : 0 + , s = jw
GH ( jw) =

K
=
jw( jw 1)
K
1
2 2

K
1
2 2

900 tan 1 ( w)

( w4 + w )

90 + tan 1 ( w)

( w4 + w )

3.w : , s = re j , : 90 ~ 90

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17

closed loop
Y ( s)
K1
= 2
, F ( s ) = s 2 + K1 K 2 s s + K 1 = 0
R( s ) s + ( K1 K 2 1) s + K1
F (s) = 1 +

K1 (1 + K 2 s)
=0
s ( s 1)

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18

System with a zero in the right-hand s-plane

GH ( s ) =

N 1 = 1

N0 = 1

K ( s 2)
( s + 1) 2

Z 0 = 1, N 0 = 1 P0 = 0
P1 = P0 = 1, N 1 = 1, Z 1 = 2
Closed-loop system is unstable

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19

Relative Stability and the Nyquist Criterion

The Nyquist stability criterion is defined in term of (-1,j0) points on the
polar plot or the 0 dB, -180 point on the Bode diagram or Log-magnitudephase diagram. Clearly, the proximity of L(j) locus to this stability point is
a measure of the relative stability of the system.
Definition
Phase Crossover
A phase crossover on the L(j) plot
is a point at which the plot intersects
the negative real axis.
Phase Crossover Frequency: p
The phase crossover frequency is the
frequency at the phase crossover, or
where
L(jp)= 180

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20

Gain Crossover
The gain crossover is a point on L(j) plot at which the
magnitude of L(j) is equal to 1.
Gain Crossover Frequency: g
The gain crossover frequency is the frequency of L(j) at the
gain crossover, or where
|L(jg)|=1

( 1, j 0)

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21

Gain Margin: (GM)

The gain margin is the increase in the system gain when phase = - 180
that will result a marginally stable system with intersection of (-1,j0)
point on the Nyquist plot.
Gain margin is the amount of gain in decibels (dB) that can be added to
the loop before the closed-loop system become unstable.

GM = 20 log{1 L( j p ) }
= 20 log{ L( j p ) }
1
or 20 log{
}
L( j p )

= p
(1, j0)
L ( j p )

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22

Bode plot
Gm=15.563 dB (at 2.2361 rad/sec), Pm=43.21 deg. (at 0.77934 rad/sec)
50

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

GM

-50
-100
-150
-50
-100

PM

-150
-200
-250
-300
-2
10

-1

10

= g 10

= p

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007131

23

K
GH ( s ) =
s ( 1s + 1)( 2 s + 1)
2007131

24

60
40
20

PM
0

dB

= g

GM
-20

= p

-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-280 -260 -240 -220 -200 -180 -160 -140 -120 -100

-80

degree

Log-magnitude-phase curve
2007131

25

 = 0.01PM

2007131

26

Y ( jw)
G ( jw)
= T ( jw) =
= M ( w)e j ( w)
R ( jw)
1 + GH ( jw)
G ( jw) = u + jv
G ( jw)
u + jv
u 2 + v2
M=
=
=
1 + G ( jw) 1 + u + jv (1 + u ) 2 + v 2

(1 M 2 )u 2 + (1 M 2 )v 2 2 M 2u = M 2
2 M 2u M 2 M 2 M 2
=
+

u +v
+
1 M 2 1 M 2 1 M 2 1 M 2
2

M2
M
u
+ v2 =
2
2
1 M
1 M

v
u

1+ u

= T ( jw) = (u + jv) /(1 + u + jv) = tan 1 tan 1

let N = tan
v
=0
N
1 2 1
1
(u + 0.5) 2 + (v
) = 1 + 2
2N
4 N

u2 + v2 + u

2007131

27

2007131

28

2007131

29

Time-Domain performance Criteria Specified in

the Frequency Domain
Nichols Charts
40

30

Mp=8dB

Open-Loop Gain (dB)

20

10

= r

= B

-10

-3dB
-20

-30

-40
-280

k = k2
-260

-240

k = k1
-220

-200

-180

-160

-140

-120

-100

-80

Open-Loop Phase (deg)

2007131

30

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

31

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

32

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

33

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

34

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

35

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

36

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

37

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

38

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

39

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

40

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

41

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

42

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

43

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

44

Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131

45

Exrcises
E9.1,E9.7,E9.8,E9.15,E9.21,P9.2,P9.4,P9.17,P9.21,AP9.4,

2007131

46

CHAPTER 10
The Design of Feedback Control Systems
The Design of Feedback Control System
Introduction
Time Domain Design
P-Control PI-Control PD-Control PID-Control
Phase-Lead Compensation Design
Phase-Lag Compensation Design
Frequency Domain Design
Phase-Lead Design Using Bode Diagram
Phase-Lag Design Using Bode Diagram
Design for Deadbeat Response
2007131

;Introduction
Design procedure
Determine what the system should do and how to it (design specifications).
Determine the controller or compenstaor configuration relative to how it is
connected to the controlled plant.
Determine the parameter values of the controller or compensator to achieve
the design goals.
Simulation verifications and recheck the specifications.
Experimental results.
Design specification
Time domain: maximum overshoot, rise time, settling time and steady-state
accuracy
Frequency domain: gain margin, phase margin, resonant peak, bandwidth

2007131

 Controller (Compensator) configuration

Cascade (series) compensation

Feedback compensation
Series-feedback compensation
Forward compensation with series compensation (two degree of
freedom)
Feedforward compensation (two degree of freedom)
State-feedback compensation

r (t )

e(t )

Gc (s )

u (t )

G p (s )

y (t )

r (t )

e(t )

u (t )

G p (s )

y (t )

Gc (s )
Figure 1 Cascade
Figure 2 Feedback

2007131

r (t )

Gc (s )

e(t )

u (t )

G p (s )

y (t )

G H (s )
Figure 3 Series-feedback compensation

r (t )

GcF (s )

e(t )

u (t )

Gc (s )

G p (s )

y (t )

Figure 4Forward compensation with series compensation (two degree of freedom)

2007131

GcF (s )
r (t )

u (t )

Gc (s )

y (t )

G p (s )

Figure 5 Feedforward compensation (two degree of freedom)

r (t )

u (t )

G p (s )

x (t )

y (t )

K
Figure 6 State-feedback compensation

2007131

 Time Domain Design

r (t )

e(t )

Gc ( s )

u (t )

G p ( s)

y (t )

PID Controller Design

d
e(t )
dt
U ( s ) = ( K p + K i 1s + K d s ) E ( s )
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K I e(t ) + K d

Kp

U (s)

U (s)
Gc ( s ) =
= K p + K i 1s + K d s
E ( s)

E (s)

db

1
KI
s

Kds

db

20 log K p

20db / decade

p Controller

900

db

I Controller

+ 20db / decade

+ 900

2007131

D Controller

 Closed-loop control with P-controller

PM , GM

P-control for first order system

R (s )

a
s+a

Kp

Y (s)

a>0
r (t )

Kp = 3
Kp = 2
Kp =1
t

aK p
Y (s)
=
R ( s ) s + (aK p + a )
y (t ) =

S plane

GH ( j ) plane

Kp

KP
(1 e a ( K P +1)t )
KP +1

2007131

P-control for second order system

R (s )

aK p
Y ( s)
= 2
R( s ) s + as + aK p

n = aK p ,

K P1

Kp
a
2 aK p

Y (s)

a>0

K p1 > K p 2 > K p 3

GH ( j ) plane

K P2

K P3

a
s( s + a)

S plane

GM

0+

2007131

PI-control for first order system

1
s
a( K p s + K I )

Gc ( s ) = K p + K I

R (s )
Kp

Y (s)
=
R( s ) s 2 + (a + bK p ) s + bK I

n = bK I , =

a + bK p
bK I

KI

A = 1, B = ( a + bK p ), C = bK I

1
s

Y (s)

b
s+a

a, b > 0

B 2 4 AC > 0, > 1
B 2 4 AC = 0, = 1
B 2 4 AC < 0, < 1

GH ( j ) plane

S plane

GM

2007131

0+

PI-control for second order system

K I R (s )
bK
(
s
+
)
b
p
Y ( s)
K
s
P
=
, F (s) = 1 +
2
b( K s + K I )
R(s)
s ( s + a)
1+ 2 p
s (s + a)
K ps + KI

Kp
KI

Y (s)

b
s(s + a)

a, b > 0

1
s

KI
<< a
KP
S plane

GH ( j ) plane

0+

2007131

KI
KP

10

PD-control for second order system

R (s )

Gc ( s ) = K p + K d s

Kp

a( K d s + K p )
Y (s)
= 2
R( s ) s + (a + bK d ) s + bK p

n = bK p , =

a + bK d
,
bK p

KDs

b
s(s + a)

a, b > 0

A = 1, B = (a + bK d ), C = bK I

B 2 4 AC > 0, > 1
B 2 4 AC = 0, = 1
B 2 4 AC < 0, < 1
GH ( j ) plane

S plane

GM

2007131

0+

11

PID-control for second order system

1
s
b( K d s 2 + K p s + K I )

R (s )

Gc ( s ) = K p + K d s + K I

Y (s)
=
R( s ) s 3 + (a + bK d ) s 2 + bK p s + bK I

Kp
KI

1
s

Y (s)

b
s(s + a)

a, b > 0

(a + bK d ) bK p > bK I
The Optimum Coefficients of T(s) Based on the ITAE
Criterion for a step Input (P.252 Table 5.6)

Kds

s 3 + 1.75n s 2 + 2.15n s + n3
GH ( j ) plane

2007131

S plane

12

Phase-lead Compensation Network

G(s) =

V2 ( s )
R2
( R1Cs + 1)
=
V1 ( s) R1 + R2 {[ R1 R2 /( R1 + R2 )]Cs + 1}

R1 R2
R + R2
C, = 1
R1 + R2
R2

G(s) =

(1 + s)
, > 1
(1 + s )

m = zp =

z=

1
, p = ,z < p

= tan 1
, when = m ,
1 + ( )) 2
( / (1 / ) 1
=
1+1
2
1 + sin m
1
sin m =
, =
+1
1 sin m
tan m =

2007131

13

Phase-Lag Compensation Network

R2 + ( 1 )
Vo
R2Cs + 1
Cs
=
G(s) =
=
Vin R1 + R2 + ( 1 ) ( R1 + R2 )Cs + 1
Cs
1 + s
1 s+z
( R + R2 )
=
=
, = R2C , = 1
R2
1 + s s + p
1
1
z= ,p=
, > 1, m = zp

2007131

14

Root Locus Method

S plane

s+z
,z < p
Gc ( s ) =
s
+
p
Phase-Lead Compensation Design
The s-plane root locus method is as follows:

1.

List the system specifications and translate them into a desired root
location for the dominant roots.

2.

Sketch the uncompensated root locus, and determine whether the

desired root locations can be realized with an uncompensated system.

3.

If a compensator is necessary, place the zero of the phase-lead network

directly below the desired root location (or to the left of the first two
real poles).

4.

Determine the pole location so that the total angle at the desired root
location is 1800

5.

Evaluate the total system gain at the desired root location and then
calculate the error constant.

6.

Repeat the steps if the error constant is not satisfactory.

2007131

15

Gc ( s ) = K

s+z
s+ p

R (s )
Gc (s)

The specification for the system are

Y (s)

2
s2

a>0

Settling time(2% criterion) Ts 4 sec onds

Percent overshoot for a step input, 35%
Sol:

S plane

r1

P.O = e 1 0.35 0.32, = cos 1 = 710

4
Ts
= 4 n 1
2

r2

Select the desired roots location are

r1r2 = 1 j 2 = 63.40 = 0.45

r1

= 2(1800 tan 1 2) + 900 = 2(1160 ) + 900 = 142

180 = p p = 380

2007131

1
16

R + jQ

Q
Q
= tan p , M =
, p = z+m
M
tan p
M=

2
= 2.6 p = 1 + 2.6 = 3.6
0.7812

A
B

p
GcG p ( s ) =
K=

2 K ( s + 1)
, F ( s ) = 1 + KG1 H1 ( s ) = 0
s 2 ( s + 3.6)

1
A * A * B 2.232 * 3.25
=
=
= 4.1
G1 H1 ( s ) s = r
2C
2*2
1

Gc ( s ) = 4.1

s +1
s + 3.6

2007131

17

Phase-Lag Compensation Design

The steps necessary for the design of a phase-lag network on the s-plane are as
follows:
1.

Obtain the root locus of the uncompensated system.

2.

Determine the transient performance specifications for the system and locate
suitable dominant root location on the uncompensated root locus that will
satisfy the specifications.

3.

Calculate the loop gain at the desired root location and thus the system error
constant,

4.

Compare the uncompensated error constant with the desired error constant,
and calculate the necessary increase that must result from the pole-zero ratio
of the compensator,.

5.

With the known ratio of the pole-zero combination of the compensator,

determine a suitable location of the pole and zero of the compensator so that
the compensated root locus will still pass through the desired root location.
Locate the pole and zero near the origin of the s-plane in comparison to n .

2007131

18

R (s )
Gc (s)

Sol:

Y (s)

K
s ( s + 10) 2

Spec. : = 0.707, K v = 20
K v = 20 = lim G ( s ) =
s 0

K
, K = 2000
10 2

If K=2000, the system will be unstable

= 0.707 s1, 2 = 2.9 j 2.9

= 236

z 2000
=
= 8.5
p
236

select

z = 0.1, p = 0.1 / 9 = 0.0111

2007131

19

 Frequency Domain Design

Phase-Lead Design Using Bode Diagram
1. Determined the system DC-gain such that the error constant can be satisfied.
2. Evaluate the uncompensated system phase margin when the error constant are satisfied
3. Allowing for a small of safety(5~10 degree), determine the necessary additional phase
lead, m

m = d n + 30 ~ 100 =

4. Evaluate from Eq.(10.11).

sin m + 1
1 sin m

5. Evaluate 10 log and determined the frequency where the uncompensated magnitude
curve is equal to -10 log

. Because the compensation network provides a gain of

10 log atm ,this frequency is the new 0-dB crossover frequency and

simultaneously.

p
6. Calculate the pole p = m and z =

7. Draw the compensated frequency response, check the resulting phase margin, and repeat
the steps if necessary. Finally, for an acceptable design, raise the gain of the amplifier in
order to account for the attenuation( 1 )

2007131

20

dB

log

10 log

1800

2007131

21

R (s )

Example 10.1
Gc ( s ) = K

p s+z
,
z s+ p

z=

p=

Y (s)

2
s ( s + 2)

p s+z
K
z s+ p

Spec. : K v < 5%, 0.4

The system dc-gain>=20

0
Phase margin
20:45

GH ( jw) =

jw(0.5 jw + 1)

0 dB = 20 log 20 20 log w 20 log[(0.5w) 2 + 1]

= 20log20 - 20logw - 10log[(0.5w) 2 + 1]
wc 6.2

n = 180 90 tan 1 (0.5wc ) = 180 162 = 180

m = d n + 30 ~ 100 = 450 180 + 30 = 300
1 + sin m 1 + 0.5
=
=
=3
1 sin m 1 0.5
10 log = 4.77 dB

2007131

find the new crossover frequency from the bode diagram

p
m = 8.4 p = m = 14.4, z = = 4.8

p
K * ( ) = 20 * 3 = 60
z
s + 4.8
Gc ( s ) = 60
s + 14.4

22

Bode Diagram
40

Magnitude (dB)

20

-20

-40

-60

Phase (deg)

-80
-90

-135

-180
-2

10

2007131

-1

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

10

23

Bode Diagram
80

Magnitude (dB)

60

40

20

-20

Phase (deg)

-40
-90

-135

-180
-2

10

-1

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007131

24

Phase-lag Design Using the Bode Diagram

1.

Obtain the Bode diagram of the uncompensated system with the gain adjusted for
the desired error constant.

2.

Determined the phase margin of the uncompensated system and , if it is

insufficient, proceed with the following steps.

3.

Determined the frequency where the phase margin requirement would be

0
satisfied if the magnitude curve crossed the 0-dB line at this frequency. ( allow 5
phase lag from the phase-lag network when determining the new crossover
frequency.

4.

Place the zero of the compensator one decade below the new crossover frequency
and thus ensure only 50 of additional phase lag at c' due to the lag network.

5.

Measure the necessary attenuation at c' to ensure that the magnitude curve
crosses at this frequency.

6.

Calculate by noting that the attenuation introduced by the phase-lag network is 20log at .

7.

Calculate the pole as

2007131

p = 1 = z /

,and the design is completed.

25

dB

20 log
p

p=

z=

'
c

log

c'
10

1800

2007131

26

R (s )

Example:

p s+z

z s+ p

Y (s)

20
s ( s + 2)

( + s)
1 + s
p s+z

=
=
Gc ( s ) =
1 + s ( 1 + s ) z s + p

p=

GH ( jw) =

,z =

Kv
20
=
, K v = 20 / 2
jw( jw + 2) jw( j 0.5w + 1)

Spec. :phase margin=450 the uncompensated system

has a phase margin of 200
Allowing for the phase-lag compensator, we locate
the frequency where (c' ) = 1300 which is to be
our new crossover frequency c = 1.5

20dB = 20 log = 10

c' 1.5

z = z =
=
= 0.15, p = p = z = 0.015
10
10
Gc ( s ) =

1 s + 0.15
10 s + 0.015

The attenuation necessary to cause

to be the new
crossover frequency is equal to 20 dB.
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Bode Diagram
60

40

M
a
g
n
itu
d
e(d
B
)

20

-20

-40

P
h
a
se(d
e
g
)

-60
-90

-135

-180
-2

-1

10

10

10
Frequency

10

10

(rad/sec)

Bode Diagram
100

M
a
g
n
itu
d
e(d
B
)

50

-50

P
h
a
s
e(d
e
g
)

-100
-90

-120

-150

-180
-2

10

-1

10

10
Frequency

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10

10

(rad/sec)

28

Design for Deadbeat Response

Deadbeat response: proceeds rapidly to the desired level and
holds at that level with minimal overshoot.
F ( s ) = s 3 + n s 2 + n2 s + n3
A deadbeat response has the following characteristics:
1.

steady-state error=0

2.

Fast response: minimum rise time and settling time

3.

0.1%<= percent overshoot<2%

4.

Percent undershoot<2%

2007131

F ( s ) = s 4 + n s 3 + n2 s 2 + n3 s + n4

29

Spec. : settling time 1.2 sec

R (s )

z
s+z

K (s + z)
2
s + p s ( s + 2)
Pre-filter
Gc G p ( s )
z
2 Kz
T ( s) =
= 3
s + z 1 + Gc G p ( s ) s + (2 + p ) s 2 + (2 p + 2k ) s + 2kz
Gc G p ( s ) =

s+z
K
s+ p

Y (s)

2
s(s + 2)

4.04
= 3.37
1.2
T (s) = s3 + n s2 + n2s + n3
sol : nTs = 4.04,n =

= 1.9, = 2.2
T (s) = s3 + 6.4s2 + 24.98s + 38.27 = s3 + (2 + p)s2 + (2 p + 2k)s + 2kz
p = 4.4, K = 8.09, z = 2.36
s + 2.36
Gc ( s ) = 8.09
s + 4.4
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2007131

31

1.4

1.2

0.8

Uncompensated system step response

0.6

0.4

system step response with deadbeat compensated

0.2

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10

15

32

PD controller

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33

PI controller

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34

PID controller

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35

Exercises:
E10.1, E10.2, E10.4,

E10.8, P10.9 P10.11,

P10.14, P10.21, P10.39 ,AP10.9 AP10.10, DP10.4

DP10.5

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36