Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nhap Mon Tri Tue Nhan Tao PDF
Nhap Mon Tri Tue Nhan Tao PDF
NHP MN
TR TU NHN TO
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2007
NHP MN
TR TU NHN TO
Bin son :
LI NI U
Tr tu nhn to (hay AI: Artificial Intelligence), l n lc tm hiu nhng yu t tr tu.
L do khc nghin cu lnh vc ny l cch ta t tm hiu bn thn chng ta. Khng ging
trit hc v tm l hc, hai khoa hc lin quan n tr tu, cn AI c gng thit lp cc cc yu t
tr tu cng nh tm bit v chng. L do khc nghin cu AI l to ra cc thc th thng
minh gip ch cho chng ta. AI c nhiu sn phm quan trng v ng lu , thm ch ngay t lc
sn phm mi c hnh thnh. Mc d khng d bo c tng lai, nhng r rng my tnh
in t vi thng minh nht nh c nh hng ln ti cuc sng ngy nay v tng lai pht
trin ca vn minh nhn loi.
Trong cc trng i hc, cao ng, Tr tu nhn to tr thnh mt mn hc chuyn
ngnh ca sinh vin cc ngnh Cng ngh Thng tin. p ng kp thi cho o to t xa, Hc
vin Cng ngh Bu chnh Vin thng bin son ti liu ny cho sinh vin, c bit h o to t
xa hc tp. Trong qu trnh bin son, chng ti c tham kho cc ti liu ca i hc Bch khoa
H ni [1] gio trnh gn gi v tnh cng ngh vi Hc vin. Mt s gio trnh khc ca i hc
Quc gia thnh ph H Ch Minh [], ti liu trn mng v cc ti liu nc ngoi bng ting Anh
[] cng c tham kho v gii thiu sinh vin o to t xa c thm.
Ti liu ny nhm hng dn v gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn, cc khi nim, nh
ngha tm tt. Mt s thut ng c ch gii bng ting Anh hc vin c bng ting Anh d
dng, trnh hiu nhm khi chuyn sang ting Vit.
Ti liu gm cc chng sau:
- Chng 1 : Khoa hc Tr tu nhn to: tng quan
- Chng 2 : Cc phng php gii quyt vn
- Chng 3 : Biu din tri thc v suy din
- Chng 4 : X l ngn ng t nhin
- Chng 5 : Cc k thut tr tu nhn to hin i
Cn nhiu vn khc cha cp c trong phm vi ti liu ny. ngh cc bn c
tm hiu thm sau khi c nhng kin thc c bn ny.
Nhiu c gng cp nht kin thc nhng thi gian, iu kin, kh nng c hn nn ti
liu chc chn cn nhiu thiu st. Chng ti mong nhn c nhiu kin ng gp ti liu
c hon thin hn cho cc ln ti bn sau.
TC GI
nghin cu ng thi (nh Wang (1960)) ng quan tm n vic c c nhng gii php ng
n, khng quan tm n vic con ngi phi lm nh th no.
Khi nhn ra phn t cha mt cu trc nh c bit, s lng thnh phn tham gia c th b
gim xung nhanh chng. Nhm DENDRAL kt lun rng h thng mi l rt mnh bi v: ton
b kin thc c lin quan n gii quyt cng vic c phc tho s qua t cu trc chung
trong [thnh phn quang ph on trc] c nhng cu trc c bit
Tm quan trng ca DENDRAL l n l h thng cm nhn kin thc thnh cng u tin.
Cc chuyn gia ca lnh vc ny i su t s lng ln cc qui lut c mc ch c bit. Cc h
thng sau ny cng khng kt hp li thnh ch chnh ca phng php chuyn gia ca
McCarthy - phn hon ton tch bit ca kin thc (trong cu trc ca qui lut) v thnh phn lp
lun.
Vi bi hc ny, Feigebaum v cc thnh vin khc ti Stanford bt u lp d n chng
trnh Heuristic, u t m rng vo cc phng php mi ca h chuyn gia nhm p dng vo
cc lnh vc khc nhau. Nhng n lc chnh sau l chun on y hc. Feigenbaum, Buchanan
v Edward Shortlife pht trin h chuyn gia MYCIN chn on bnh nhim trng mu.
Vi khong 450 lut, h chuyn gia MYCIN c th thc hin tt hn nhiu bc s mi. N c hai
s khc bit c bn vi h chuyn gia DENDRAL. Th nht: khng ging nh cc lut
DENDRAL, khng mt mu l thuyt chung no tn ti m c th suy lun t cc lut ca h
MYCIN. Cc lut phi c cu cht vn ca chuyn gia, ngi c nhim v tm chng t kinh
nghim. Th hai: cc lut phn nh mi lin quan khng chc chn vi kin thc y hc. MYCIN
kt hp vi h vi phn ca bin s c coi l cc nhn t ph hp tt ( mi lc) vi phng
php m cc bc s tip cn vi cc triu chng trong qu trnh chun on.
Cch tip cn khc chun on y hc cng c nghin cu. Ti trng i hc Rutger,
nhng my tnh trong ngnh sinh ho ca Sual Amarel bt u tham vng nhm c gng chun
on bnh tt da trn kin thc c biu t r rng ca nhng chic my phn tch qu trnh
bnh tt. Trong khi , mt s nhm ln hn ti MIT v trung tm y t ca Anh ang tip tc
phng php chun on v iu tr da trn hc thuyt c tnh kh thi v thc t. Mc ch ca
h l xy dng cc h thng c th a ra cc phng php chn on y hc. V y hc, phng
php Stanford s dng cc qui lut do cc bc s cung cp ngay t u c chng minh l ph
bin hn. Nhng h chuyn gia PROSPECTOR (Duda 1979) c cng b cho mi ngi bng
cch gii thiu thit b khoan thm qung
Nh ng n
l c th v
m i y l
Vi c nghin c u c
tr tu
l n
ngh a
bng.
(Haugeland, 1985)
[s
n ng c m nh n,
ng ho c a] cc ho t l p lu n v l m vi c.
ng gip chng ta k t h p
nh ng t
duy c a con ng i v i
cng vi c c ng nh
quy t nh,
(Winston, 1992)
gi i quy t v n , h c t p...
(Bellman 1978)
Ngh thu t sng t o my mc l
Trong l nh v c nghin c u l
th c hi n ch c n ng hnh th nh t
tm ra cch gi i thch v
i l m vi c
c nh ng h nh ng c t duy
b t my tnh l m nh ng vi c m
c lin quan n s t ng ho
Stubbefield, 1993)
Biu din tri thc, lu tr thng tin c cung cp trc hoc trong qu trnh thm vn.
T ng lp lun s dng thng tin c lu nhm tr li cu hi v phc tho kt lun
mi.
My hc: thch nghi vi mi trng mi, kim tra v chp nhn nhng mu mi.
i vi AI, khng cn c s c gng cao mi qua c qu trnh kim tra ca Turning. Khi
cc chng trnh AI giao tip trc tip vi con ngi th vic hot ng c ging nh ngi
l vn thit yu. Qu trnh trnh din v l gii nhng h thng nh th c th hoc khng
cn da vo con ngi.
D LIU
THUT
TON
D LIU
C S TRI THC
NG C SUY
DIN
ng c suy din: l phng php vn dng tri thc trong c s tri thc gii quyt vn .
Mng ng ngha, logc v t , khung, mng l cc phng php th hin tri thc mt cch
thng dng.
Dng khung th hin tri thc chc chn l phng php c nhiu ha hn trong cc
nm gn y.
Vic gn lin cch th hin v s dng tri thc l c s hnh thnh h chuyn gia. Vy nn
phi kt hp cc qu trnh nghin cu cc quy lut, thit k v xy dng h chuyn gia. Tuy nhin
cho n nay, a s cc h chuyn gia mi thuc lnh vc y hc.
ng dng ca phng php ny trong vic nhn dng trong ch vit, m thanh, hnh nh
cho n ngay tr nn quen thuc. Ngi ta c h thng x l hnh nh ba chiu, h thng
tng hp ting ni.
Do khi lng s ca tri thc v l thuyt nhn dng. cc chng trnh sau cha cp
n cc phng php nhn dng c.
1.4.6 Ngi my
Cui nhng nm 70, ngi my trong cng nghip t c nhiu tin b Khoa hc
ngi my l ni kt thng minh ca nhn thc vi hnh ng. Ngi my c b cm nhn v
cc c ch hot ng c ni ghp theo s iu khin thng minh. Khoa hc v c hc v tr tu
nhn to c tch hp trong khoa hc v ngi my. Cc n tr tu nhn to nghin cu v
ngi my bt u t n mt tay. Trong thc t, ngi my c dng trong cc nhim v
chuyn su, thuc cc dy truyn cng nghip.
Ni dung v khoa hc ngi my s c trnh by trong ti liu ring, khng thuc cc
chng ca ti liu ny.
10
11
TNG KT
Chng ny a ra cc nh ngha v AI v thit lp li cc c s ca n, l s pht
trin. Mt s cc im quan trng ng lu nh sau:
Ngi ta ngh v AI c khc nhau. C hai cu hi quan trng l: bn c quan tm n suy
ngh hoc hnh vi? v Bn c mun hnh mu con ngi hoc t mt tng chun mc?
Cc nh trit hc (quay tr li nm 400 tr.CN) a ra kin cho rng no b cng nh mt
chic my, rng n c iu khin bng tri thc c m ho, v ngh c th mang theo thi
quen gip nhng hnh ng ng n.
Mt s nh ton hc cung cp nhng cng c cc lnh tnh ton logic chc chn cng tt
nh l khng chc chn, cc lnh khng chnh xc. H cng t c s lm vic cho cc thut ton.
Ngnh tm l hc cng c thm tng rng loi ngi v ng vt c th a ra cch x
l thng tin my mc. Ngnh ngn ng hc trnh by rng ngn ng dng trong m hnh
ny.
Ngnh cng nghip my tnh cung cp cc ng dng ca AI. Cc chng trnh AI c xu
hng kh ln, v h khng lm vic c nu my tnh khng c tc v b nh cn thit.
Lch s ca AI c cc chu k thnh cng, ti u ho t khng ng ch, v kt qu dn n
gim lng nhit tnh v chi ph. Cng c nhng bc lp ch ra c cc cch tip cn mi v
trau di c h thng trong s cc cch .
Nhng tin trin gn y trong hc thuyt cn bn v s thng minh tin b cng vi kh
nng ca cc h thng thc t.
Nhng im ch v tiu s v lch s
12
Cun sch Artificial Intelligence ca Daniel Crevier (1993) a ra lch s kh hon chnh
ca lnh vc ny, v Age of Intelligent Machines ca Raymond Kurzweil (1990) v AI trong ng
cnh ca khoa hc my tnh v lch s tr tu. Cc vn bn ca Dianne Martin (1993) cng cng
nhn rng t rt sm cc my tnh l c kh nng bi sc mnh thn k ca tr tu.
Phng php lun trng thi ca AI c Herb Simon bn ti trong The Sciences of the
Artificial (1981), l cc lnh vc nghin cu c quan tm cng vi cc to tc phc tp.
N cng l gii ti sao AI c th c tm nhn trn c hai lnh vc ton hc v khoa hc.
Artificial Intelligence: The very Idea bi John Haugeland (1985) a ra s tng thut c
th c c ca trit hc v cc vn ca AI. Khoa hc nhn thc c m t tt nht bi
Johnson Laird, My tnh v no b: gii thiu v khoa hc nhn thc. Baker (1989) gm c phn
c php ca ngn ng hc hin i, cng Chierchia v McConnel-Ginet (1990) bao gm c ng
ngha, Allen (1995) bao gm c ngn ng hc t quan im ca AI.
Feigenbaum v Feldman lm vic vi AI t rt sm, cun sch ca h c ta My
tnh v suy ngh. Cun X l thng tin ng ngha ca Minsky v mt lot bi vit v Tr tu my
ca Donald Michie. Mt s lng ln cc trang bo c tp hp li trong S hiu bit trong AI
(Webber v Nilsson, 1981).
Cc cuc hi tho xut hin gn y bn v vn chnh ca AI, l: thng nht c hai
nm mt ln din ra hi tho quc t AI, gi tt l IJCA (International Joint Conference AI), v
hi tho din ra hng nm mc quc gia v AI, v AAAI l t chc ng ra bo tr cho AI. Cc
tp ch chuyn ngnh chung v AI l AI, Computation Intelligence, t chc IEEE Transactions on
Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, v tp ch in t Journal of Artificial Intelligence
Research. Cc sn phm thng mi a ra trong cc tp ch nh AI Expert v PC AI. T chc x
hi chuyn nghip v AI l American Association for AI (AAAI), ACM Special Interest Group in
AI (SIGART) v AISB (Society for AI and Simulation of Behaviour). Tp ch v AI ca AAAI v
SIGART Bullentin c rt nhiu cc ti v thy hng dn tt nh l thng bo ca cc cuc
hi tho v tho lun.
Vit Nam gn y c t chc cc Hi nghi Khoa hc: H m mng n ron; Hoi tho Quc
gia v H m do vin Toan hc, Vin Cng ngh Thng tin thuc vin Khoa hc Cng ngh Quc
gia t chc hng nm.
BI TP V CU HI
1. Chng ti a ra nh ngha ca AI theo hai kha cnh, con ngi, tng v hnh ng.
Nhng c nhiu kha cnh khc c gi tr ng xt n. Mt trong s l s chn la gia: s
phn khch ca chng ti v cc kt qu l thuyt hoc cc ng dng thc hnh. Mt kha cnh na
l chng ti c d kin c th nhn ra cc my tnh ca chng ti c thng minh hay khng. c
8 nh ngha tiu biu trong Hnh 1.1 v c 7 nh ngha theo bn kha cnh chng ti va cp
v bn c cm thy cc nh ngha l hu ch sau y
AI l ...
a. mt tp hp cc thut ton d tnh ton, thch hp tnh gn ng cho cc bi ton c bit
kh . (Partridge, 1991)
b. s tham gia vo xy dng mt h thng k hiu vt l sao cho c th vt qua trc nghim
ca Turning.
c. lnh vc khoa hc my tnh nghin cu v cc my c th hnh ng thng minh ra sao.
(Jackson, 1986)
13
d. mt lnh vc nghin cu l xoay quanh cc k thut tnh ton, cho php thc hin cc
cng vic i hi thng minh thc s khi c con ngi tham d. (Tanimoto, 1990)
e. mt s u t rt ln ca tr tu ca t nhin v cc nguyn l, cc my mc yu cu s
am hiu hoc ti to n . (Sharples , 1989)
f. Li ch ca my tnh l lm c mi th, xem n nh l thng minh. (Rowe, 1988)
2. Nghin cu ti liu AI tm ra cc cng vic no di y c th gii quyt c bng
my tnh:
a. Tr chi bng bn
b. Li xe trung tm Cair
c. Khm ph v chng minh cc l thuyt ton hc mi.
d. Vit mt truyn ci
e. a ra mt li khuyn kh hp l trong phm vi lin quan n lut php.
f. Dch ting Anh sang ting Vit theo thi gian thc.
3. Thc t, h cu v d on:
a. Tm mt bn cng b ca mt nh trit hc hoc nh khoa hc c uy tn cho rng hiu qu
ca chc chn s khng bao gi c trnh din bi my tnh, rng by gi c
trnh din.
b. Tm mt cng b ca mt nh khoa hc v my tnh c uy tn cho rng hiu qu ca o
chc chn c trnh din bi thi im t khi n hp qui cch.
c. So snh chnh xc ca nhng d on trong cc lnh vc khc nhau, chng hn nh y
sinh, cng ngh nano, hoc in gia dng.
4. Cho rng nhng chic my tnh l khng thng minh - chng ch c th lm c nhng g
m lp trnh vin bo chng l cu lnh phn trc th ng v hm sau khng ng?
14
15
Trong phn ny, chng ta s tm hiu qu trnh xc nh bi ton chi tit hn. Trc tin, ta
xem xt khi lng kin thc m agent c th c s dng hng n cc hnh ng ca n v
trng thi m n phi i qua. iu ny ph thuc vo s nhn thc ca agent vi mi trng ca
n nh th no thng qua kt qu gic quan v hnh ng ca n. Chng ta bit c bn loi bi
ton khc nhau: bi ton mt trng thi n gin; bi ton a trng thi; bi ton ngu nhin v bi
ton thm d
Ki u d li u B i ton
Cc thnh ph n: Tr ng thi ban u, cc ton t , ki m tra m c
tiu, h m chi ph ng i
Gii quyt vn
Hiu qu ca tm kim c th o c theo t nht ba ch tiu Th nht, c tm thy mt gii
php no khng? Th hai, c phi l mt gii php tt khng (gii php c chi ph ng i
16
Cc bi ton v d
Phm vi ca cc mi trng nhim v m c th c m t c im bi cc vn c
nh ngha r rng l rt rng ln. Chng ta c th phn bit gia ci gi l cc bi ton tr
chi, m nhm minh ho hay thc hnh rt nhiu cc phng php gii quyt vn , v ci
gi l cc bi ton thuc th gii thc m s l cc vn kh khn hn v mi ngi thc s
quan tm n cc gii php gii quyt cc vn ny. Trong phn ny, chng ta s a ra v d
cho c hai loi vn . Cc vn chi tt nhin c th m t mt cch chnh xc, ngn
gn. iu c ngha l cc nh nghin cu khc nhau c th d dng s dng cc vn ny
so snh vic thc hin ca cc gii thut. Ngc li, cc vn th gii thc li khng th c mt
s miu t mt cch n gin, nhng chng ta s c gng a ra mt cch chung nht v s m t
chnh xc cc vn ny.
Cc bi ton Tr chi
Tr chi 8 qun c (C ta canh)
Mt v d ca tr chi 8 qun c c ch ra trong hnh 2.1, gm mt bng kch thc 3 x 3
vi 8 qun c c nh s t 1 n 8 v mt trng. Mt qun c ng cnh trng c th i
vo trng. Mc tiu l tin ti v tr cc qun c nh trong hnh bn phi. Mt mo quan trng
cn ch l thay v dng cc ton t nh chuyn qun c s 4 vo trng, s tt hn nu c
cc ton t nh trng thay i v tr vi qun c chuyn sang bn tri ca n, bi v loi ton
t th hai ny s t hn. iu s gip chng ta c cc khi nim nh sau:
17
Kim tra mc tiu: trng thi khp vi hnh dng ch ra hnh 3.4
Trng thi ch
1
18
19
Urziceni, Vaslui}. v vic kim tra mc tiu s kim tra xem agent Bucaret cha v tt c
20 thnh ph c ving thm xong ton b cha.
Bi ton ngi bn hng rong (TSP) l mt bi ton du lch ni ting trong mi thnh
ph phi c ving thm ng chnh xc mt ln. Mc ch l tm hnh trnh ngn nht. 6 Bi
ton c phc tp NP(Karp,1972), nhng c mt s c gng rt ln nhm ci thin kh nng
ca cc thut ton TSP. Ngoi cc chuyn i c lp k hoch cho ngi bn hng rong,
nhng thut ton ny c s dng cho cc nhim v nh lp k hoch cho s dch chuyn ca
cc mi khoan trn trn bng mch mt cch t ng.
Bi ton hnh trnh ngn nht - ng dng nguyn l tham lam (Greedy)
Bi ton: Hy tm mt hnh trnh cho ngi giao hng i qua n im khc nhau, mi im
i qua mt ln v tr v im xut pht sao cho tng chiu di on ng cn i l ngn nht.
Gi s rng c con ng ni trc tip t gia hai im bt k.
Tt nhin l c th gii bi ton ny bng cch lit k tt c cc con ng c th i, tnh
chiu di ca mi con ng ri tm con ng c chiu di ngn nht. Tuy nhin cch gii
ny c phc tp O(n!) Do , khi s i l tng th s con ng phi xt s tng ln rt nhanh.
Mt cch n gin hn nhiu cho kt qu tng i tt l ng dng thut ton heuristic ng
dng nguyn l tham lam Greedy. T tng ca thut gii nh sau:
Bi ton: Mt cng ty nhn c hp ng gia cng m chi tit my J1, J2, Jm. Cng ty c
n my gia cng ln lt l P1, P2, Pn. Mi chi tit u c th gia cng trn bt k my gia cng
no. Mt khi gia cng mt chi tit trn mt my, cng vic s tip tc cho n lc hon thnh,
khng th b ct ngang. gia cng mt vic J1 trn mt my bt k ta cn dng thi gian tng
ng l t1. Nhim v ca cng ty l lm sao gia cng xong ton b n chi tit trong thi gian sm
nht.
Chng ta xt bi ton trong trng hp c 3 my P1, P2, P3 v su cng vic vi thi gian l
t1 = 2 , t2 = 5, t3 = 8, t4 = 1, t5 = 5, t6 = 1. C mt gii php c t ra l: Ti thi im t = 0, ta
tin hnh gia cng chi tit J2 trn my P1, J5 trn my P2 v J1 ti P3. Ti thi im t = 2 cng vic
J1 c hon thnh, trn my P3 ta gia cng tip chi tit J4. Trong lc , hai my P1 v P2 vn
ang thc hin cng vic u tin ca mnh Theo vy sau my P3 s tip tc hon thnh nt
cc cng vic J6 v J3. Thi gian hon thnh cng vic l 12. Ta thy phng n ny thc hin
cng vic mt cch khng tt. Cc my P1 v P2 c qu nhiu thi gian rnh.
Thut ton tm phng n ti u L0 cho bi ton ny theo kiu vt cn c phc tp c
O(m ) (vi m l s my v n l s cng vic). By gi ta xt n mt thut gii Heuristic rt n
gin ( phc tp O(n)) gii bi ton ny:
n
20
iu khin Robot
iu khin robot l s tng qut ho ca bi ton tm ng i c miu t lc trc.
Thay v mt tp cc l trnh ri rc, mt robot c th di chuyn trong mt khng gian lin tip vi
(v mt nguyn l) mt b v hn cc hnh ng v trng thi c th. n gin, robot trn di
chuyn trn mt mt phng, khng gian bn cht l hai chiu. Khi robt c cnh tay v chn m
phi c iu khin, khng gian tm kim tr nn a chiu. Cn c cc k thut tin tin bin
khng gian tm kim tr nn hu hn. Ngoi s phc tp ca bi ton cn ch cc robot tht s
phi x l cc li trong vic c thng tin sensor v cc b iu khin ng c.
Sp xp dy
S lp rp t ng cc i tng phc tp c thc hin bi rbt ln u tin c
tin hnh bi robot Freddy (Michie,1972). S pht trin k t kh chm chp nhng chc chn
n rt cn cho nhng ni lp rp phc tp nh lp rp in t. Trong cc bi ton lp rp, vn
l tm mt th t lp rp cc phn ca mt sn phm. Nu nh la chn sai mt th t, s
khng th lp thm mt s cc b phn ca sn phm nu nh khng phi d b mt s b phn
lp rp lc trc . Kim tra mt bc trong dy m bo tnh kh thi l mt bi ton tm
kim hnh hc phc tp rt gn vi iu khin robot. Nh vy, vic sinh ra nhng bc k v hp
l l khu t nht trong dy truyn lp rp v vic s dng cc gii thut tt lm gim vic tm
kim l iu cn thit.
21
thi no na m rng. Vic la chn trng thi no m rng trc tin do chin lc tm
kim quyt nh.
22
vi mi nt n.
23
24
25
26
Tm kim
chi ph
thp nht
Tm kim
theo
su
Tm kim
theo su
gii hn
Thi gian
bd
bd
bm
bl
bd
bd/2
Khng gian
bd
bd
bm
bl
bd
bd/2
C ti u
khng?
Khng
Khng
Khng
C, nu l d
Tiu chun
Tm
Tm
kim lp kim
su dn tin li
C hon thnh?
nh gi cc chin lc tm kim, b l h s phn nhnh, d l su ca gii php; m l su
ti a ca cy tm kim; l l gii hn su
Cho n lc ny, chng ta xt tt c cc vn ngoi tr cn mt trong nhng vn
phc tp nht ca qu trnh tm kim, l: kh nng lng ph thi gian do vic m rng cc trng
thi m gp v c m rng trc trn mt s ng i. i vi mt s bi ton, kh
nng ny khng bao gi xy ra, mi trng thi ch c i n theo mt con ng. Vic xc
nh chnh xc vn bi ton 8 con hu rt c tc dng, l mi trng thi ch c th nhn
c thng qua mt ng i.
i vi rt nhiu bi ton, cc trng thi b lp li l iu khng th trnh khi. iu ny c
tt c cc bi ton m cc ton t l c th o ngc, nh cc bi ton tm ng i v bi ton
nhng nh truyn gio v nhng k n tht ngi. Cc cy tm kim cho nhng bi ton ny l v
hn, nhng nu chng ta ta bt mt s trng thi lp li, chng ta c th ct cy tm kim xung
cn kch thc hu hn, ch sinh ra mt phn ca cy m m rng th khng gian trng thi.
Thm ch khi cy l hu hn, vic trnh cc trng thi lp c th dn n mt s suy gim theo
cp s m chi ph tm kim. Mt v d kinh in c m t hnh 2.4. Khng gian ch cha m+1
trng thi, vi m l su ti a. Do cy bao gm mi ng i c th trong khng gian, n c
2m nhnh.
27
Hnh 2.6 Mt phng php tm kim tt nht s dng cc gii thut tm kim tng qut
Trong chng trc, chng ta tm thy mt s cch p dng cc tri thc cho qui
trnh xc nh r rng chnh xc mt vn bng cc thut ng v trng thi v cc ton t.
Tuy nhin, khi chng ta c a cho mt bi ton m c ch r c th, cc s la chn
ca chng ta l c gii hn. Nu chng ta s dng gii thut tm kim tng qut, th cch duy
nht c th p dng c tri thc l hm "hng i, hm quyt nh nt no s c m rng
tip theo. Thng thng, tri thc quyt nh iu ny c cung cp bi mt hm nh gi
tr v mt s c ngha m t s mong mun c m rng nt. Khi cc nt c xp th t
nt no c nh gi tt nht s c m rng trc. Chin lc nh vy c gi l php
tm kim tt nht (best-first). N c th c ci t trc tip vi tm kim tng qut, nh
hnh 2.6.
Tn gi tm kim tt nht l php tm kim quan trng nhng khng chnh xc. Nu
chng ta m rng nt tt nht trc tin, khng phi l php tm kim - l mt cch i
thng n mc tiu. iu c th lm l chn nt t ra l tt nht theo hm gi. Nu hm gi l
r, th nt ny s l nt tt nht. Trong thc t, hm gi thnh thong c sai st v vic tm
kim b lc ng. Tuy nhin, chng ta s dng tn tm kim tt nht, v tn tm kim v
ngoi tt nht c v khng tin.
Khi c mt h gii thut tm kim tng qut vi cc hm theo th t khc nhau, tn ti
mt h cc gii thut tm kim tt nht vi cc hm gi khc nhau. V mc ch l tm kim
cc gii php c chi ph thp, nhng gii thut ny s dng phng php nh gi cc chi ph
ca gii php v c gng ti thiu n. Chng ta c mt phng php o: s dng chi ph
28
29
ri, chng khng phi lun lun tm ra cc gii php ti u: cn phi c s phn tch mt cch k
cc gii php ton cc, ch khng ch mt s la chn tt nht tc th.
Php tm kim tham lam tng t php tm kim theo su im l n u tin i theo
mt ng n ti ch, nhng n s quay lui khi gp ng ct.N c nhng nhc im ging
vi phng php tm kim su - khng ti u, v khng hon thnh v c th ri vo mt ng
v hn v khng bao gi quay li chn kh nng khc. phc tp thi gian trong trng hp
ti nht ca php tm kim tham lam l O(bm), vi m l su ti a ca khng gian tm kim.
Bi v php tm kim tham lam lu tr tt c cc nt trong b nh, phc tp khng gian ca n
tng t nh phc tp thi gian. Vi mt hm heuristic tt, phc tp khng gian v phc
tp thi gian c th gim ng k. Lng gim ph thuc vo bi ton c th v cht lng ca
hm h.
Hnh 2.7.
V d r rng v php heuristic chp nhn c l khong cch ng thng hSLD m
chng ta s dng i n Bucaret. Khong cch ng thng l chp nhn c bi v ng i
ngn nht gia bt c hai im l mt ng thng. Trong hnh 2.7, chng ta ch ra mt s bc
u tin ca php tm kim A* ti Bucaret s dng php heuristic hSLD. Ch rng php tm
kim A* u tin m rng t Rimnicu Vilcea hn so vi m rng t Fagaras. Mc d thm ch
30
Hnh
2.8tp
Cc
giai
onton
ca php
phc
ca
thut
A* tm kim A i n Bucharest. Cc nt c gn nhn vi f
= g +h . Cc gi tr h l cc khong cch ng thng ti Bucharest ly t gi thit
31
Cc hm heuristic
Cho n lc ny, chng ta mi ch xem xt mt v d v mt heuristic: khong cch ng
thng i vi cc bi ton tm ng i. Trong phn ny, chng ta s xt cc hm heuristic i vi
tr chi s 8. iu ny s soi ri v yu t t nhin ca cc hm heuristic ni chung.
Tr chi s 8 l mt trong nhng bi ton tm kim theo phng php heuristic sm nht. Nh
cp trong phn 2.5, mc tiu ca tr chi ny l i cc con c theo chiu ngang hoc chiu dc vo
trng cho n khi thu c trng thi cc qun c nh m hnh mc tiu (hnh 2.9).
4
6
1
8
8
2
Trng thi u
3
4
Trng thi ch
32
bc tip theo l tm mt hm heuristic tt. Nu chng ta mun tm kim cc gii thut ngn nht,
chng ta cn mt hm heuristic m khng bao gi c on vt qu s cc bc i ti mc tiu.
Sau y l hai ng c vin:
h1 = s lng qun c m sai v tr. i vi hnh 2.9, 7 trong s 8 qun c sai v tr, v
vy trng thi u s c h1 = 7. h1 l mt hm heuristic chp nhn c, bi v r rng l
bt c qun c no m ang sai v tr phi di chuyn t nht mt ln.
h2 = tng s khong cch ca cc qun c so vi v tr mc tu. Bi v cc qun c khng
th i theo cc ng cho, khong cch m chng ta tnh tng s l tng ca cc khong
cch theo chiu ngang v theo chiu dc. Khong cch ny i khi c gi l khong
cch khi thnh ph(city block distance) hoc khong cch Manhantan h2 l chp
nhn c, v bt c nc i no cng ch c th di chuyn mt qun c mt bc gn
hn ti ch. Cc qun c t 1 n 8 trong trng thi u cho ta mt khong cch
Manhatan l:
h2 = 2 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 0 + 2 = 18
Xy dng cc hm heuristic
Chng ta thy rng, c h1 v h2 l nhng heuristic kh tt i vi tr chi s 8, v h2 th
tt hn h1. Nhng chng ta khng bit lm th no pht minh ra mt hm heuristic. Lm sao
mt ngi c th c c mt heuristic nh h2? Mt my tnh c th pht minh mt cch my
mc ra c mt heuristic nh vy khng?
h1 v h2 l cc nh gi (c on) i vi di ng i cn li trong tr chi s 8,
nhng chng cng c th c xem l cc di ng i c chnh xc tuyt vi i vi
nhng kiu n gin ho ca tr chi ny. Nu nh qui tc ca tr chi c thay i mt
qun c c th di chuyn n bt c ch no, thay v ch c th i n trng ngay cnh n, th h1
s a ra mt cch chnh xc s cc bc ca gii php gn nht. Tng t, nu mt qun c c
th i mt theo tt c cc hng, thm ch i vo b chim bi mt qun c khc, th h2 s
a ra con s chnh xc cc bc i ca gii php ngn nht. Mt bi ton vi t rng buc hn
i vi cc ton t c gi l mt bi ton gii tr (relaxed problem). Thng xy ra trng hp
33
,, hm(n)).
34
- chiph- f(root)
loop do
gii php, giihn-f - DFS-contour(root,gii hn-f)
if gii php khc rng then return gii php
if gii han-f = then return tht bi; end
function dfs-contour(node, giihn-f) returns mt dy gii php v mt gii hn chi ph f mi.
Input: node, mt nt
Gii hn f, gii hn chi ph f hin thi
Cc bin a phng: next-f, gii hn chi ph f ca contour tip theo, ban u l
If chiph -f[node] > giihn-f then return rng, chiph-f[node]
If goal-test[problem](state[node]) then return node, giihn-f
For mi nt s trong successor(node) do
Gii php, f-mi dfs-contour(s, giihn-f)
If gii php khc rng then return gii php, giihn-f
Next-f MIN(next-f, new-f); end
Return rng, next-f
35
36
37
38
Bc nhy u tin trong vic thc hin khng phi xut pht t nhng gii thut tt hn
hay cc hm nh gi m l t phn cng. Belle, my tnh chuyn dng cho vic chi c vua u
tin (Condon v Thomson, 1982) s dng cc mch tch hp ci t cc nh gi v tr v
cc th h di chuyn, lm cho n c th tm kim khong vi triu v tr ch i mt nc.
39
Kt lun
Chng ny p dng cc heuristic lm gim chi ph tm kim. Chng ta xem xt mt
s gii thut s dng cc heuristic, v thy rng s ti u phi tr gi cao di dng chi ph tm
kim, thm ch vi cc heuristic tt.
Php tm kim best-first l php tm kim tng qut khi cc nt c chi ph t nht (da theo
mt s tnh ton) c m rng trc tin.
Ti thiu ho f(n) = g(n) + h(n) kt hp im mnh ca php tm kim thiu thng tin v
php tm kim hu n. Nu chng ta s dng cc trng thi lp li v m bo rng h(n)
khng bao gi c lng vt qu, chng ta c php tm kim A*.
40
BI TP
2.1 Gi s rng chng ta chy mt gii thut tm kim hu n vi h(n) = - g(n). Php tm kim
hu n s cnh tranh vi kiu tm kim no?
2.2 Hy pht minh ra mt hm heuristic cho tr chi s 8 m thnh thong c lng vt qu,
v ch ra lm th no n c th dn n mt gii php gn ti u i vi mt bi ton c th.
2.3. Hy chng minh rng nu hm heuristic h tunn theo bt ng thc tam gic, th chi ph f dc
theo bt c ng i no trn cy tm kim l khng gim. (Bt ng thc tam gic pht biu rng
tng s cc chi ph t A dn B v t B n C khng c nh hn chi ph i trc tip t A n C).
2.4. Php tm kim A* tin li c th l mt phng php tt khng? N c th p dng c
trong nhng iu kin no?
2.5. Hy miu t mt khng gian tm kim trong php tm kim lp su dn thc hin km hn
nhiu so vi phng php tm kim theo chiu su.
2.6. Hy vit gii thut cho phng php tm kim tin li, bng gi m hoc bng mt ngn ng
lp trnh. Gi s rng mi php tm kim s l mt php tm kim theo chiu rng, v php tm
kim tin v php tm kim li thay nhau m rng mt nt mt thi im
41
Nhp mn
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
C ch suy din
3.7
3.8
3.1 NHP MN
Con ngi sng trong mi trng c th nhn thc c th gii nh cc gic quan (tai,
mt v cc gic quan khc), s dng cc tri thc tch lu c v nh kh nng lp lun, suy din,
con ngi c th a ra cc hnh ng hp l cho cng vic m con ngi ang lm. Mt mc
tiu ca Tr tu nhn to ng dng l thit k cc Agent thng minh (intelligent agent) cng c
kh nng nh con ngi. Chng ta c th hiu Agent thng minh l bt c ci g c th nhn
thc c mi trng thng qua cc b cm nhn (sensors) v a ra hnh ng hp l p ng
li mi trng thng qua b phn hnh ng (effectors). Cc robots, cc softbot (software
robot), cc h chuyn gia,... l cc v d v Agent thng minh. Cc Agent thng minh cn phi c
tri thc v th gii hin thc mi c th a ra cc quyt nh ng n.
42
Tri thc m t
nh ngha: Tri thc s kin l mt khng ng v mt s kin, hin tng hay mt khi
nim no trong mt hon cng khng gian hoc thi gian nht nh.
V d: khng nh v hin tng: Mt tri ln phng Ty. Khi nim v: tam gic
u: l tam gic c ba gc bng nhau.
Tri thc th tc
nh ngha: Tri thc th tc l tri thc m t cch gii quyt mt vn , quy trnh x l
cc cng vic, lch trnh tin hnh cc thao tc Cc dng ca tri thc th tc thng dng l cc
lut, chin lc, lch trnh
V d: IF xe my khng khi ng c
THEN u tin kim tra bugi
43
44
gian tnh ton v khng gian nh. Ngi ta mong mun ngn ng biu din tri thc gn vi ngn
ng t nhin.
3.5.1.1. C php
C php ca logic mnh rt n gin. N cho php xy dng cc cng thc. C php
ca logic mnh gm tp cc k hiu v tp cc lut xy dng cng thc.
Cc k hiu
Hai hng logic: True v False.
Cc k hiu mnh (cn c gi l cc bin mnh ): P, Q,...
Cc php kt ni logic: , , , , .
Cc du m ngoc( v ng ngoc ).
ta vit (AB)C.
Cc cng thc l cc k hiu mnh s c gi l cc cu n hoc cu phn t. Cc
cng thc khng phi l cu n s c gi l cu phc hp. Nu P l k hiu mnh th P v
P c gi l literal, P l literal dng, cn P l literal m. Cu phc hp c dng A1...Am
trong Ai l cc literal s c gi l cu tuyn (clause).
3.5.1.2 Ng ngha:
Ng ngha ca logic mnh cho php ta xc nh ngha ca cc cng thc trong th
gii hin thc no . iu c thc hin bng cch kt hp mi k hiu mnh vi s kin
no trong th gii hin thc. Chng hn, k hiu mnh P c th ng vi s kin Paris l
th nc Phphoc bt k mt s kin no khc. Bt k mt s kt hp cc k hiu mnh
vi cc s kin trong th gii thc c gi l mt minh ha (interpretation). Chng hn minh
ha ca k hiu mnh P c th l mt s kin (mnh ) Paris l th nc Php . Mt s
kin ch c th ng hoc sai. Chng hn, s kin Paris l th nc Php l ng, cn s
kin S Pi l s hu t l sai.
Mt cch chnh xc hn, ta hiu mt minh ha l mt cch gn cho mi k hiu mnh
mt gi tr chn l True hoc False. Trong mt minh ha, nu k hiu mnh P c gn gi tr
chn l True/False (P: True/ P: False) th ta ni mnh P ng/sai trong minh ha . Trong
mt minh ha, ngha ca cc cu phc hp c xc nh bi ngha ca cc kt ni logic.
Chng ta xc nh ngha ca cc kt ni logic trong cc bng chn l (xem hnh 3.1)
45
lP
PQ
PQ
PQ
PQ
False
False
True
False
False
True
True
False
True
True
False
True
True
False
True
False
False
False
True
False
False
True
True
False
True
True
True
True
46
PQ
(PQ) S
False
False
False
True
False
False
False
True
True
True
False
True
False
True
False
False
True
True
True
True
True
False
False
False
False
True
False
True
False
False
True
True
False
True
False
True
True
True
True
True
lA B
A B (AB) (BA)
l(lA) A
AB
Lut De Morgan
l(A B) lA lB
l(A B) lA lB
BA
AB BA
AB
Lut kt hp
47
(A B) C A (B C)
(A B) C A (B C)
p dng lut phn phi, thay cc cng thc c dng A(BC) bi (A B) (A B).
48
If P1 and....and Pm then Q.
Khi m=0, n=1 cu Horn tr thnh cu n Q, hay s kin Q. Nu m>0, n=0 cu Horn tr thnh
dng lP1 v......v lPm hay tng ng l(P1^...^ Pm).
Cn ch rng, khng phi mi cng thc u c th biu din di dng hi ca cc cu Horn.
Tuy nhin trong cc ng dng, c s tri thc thng l mt tp no cc cu Horn (tc l mt
tp no cc lut if-then).
3.5.4. Lut suy din
Mt cng thc H c xem l h qa logic (logical consequence) ca mt tp cng thc
G ={G1,.....,Gm} nu trong bt k minh ha no m {G1,.....,Gm} ng th H cng ng. Ni cch
khc bt k m hnh no ca G cng l m hnh ca H.
Khi c mt c s tri thc, ta mun s dng cc tri thc trong c s ny suy ra tri thc
mi m n l h qu logic ca cc cng thc trong c s tri thc. iu c thc hin bng
cch s dng cc lut suy din (rule of inference). Lut suy din ging nh mt th tc m chng
ta s dng sinh ra mt cng thc mi t cc cng thc c. Mt lut suy din gm hai phn:
mt tp cc iu kin v mt kt lun. Chng ta s biu din cc lut suy din di dng phn s
, trong t s l danh sch cc iu kin, cn mu s l kt lun ca lut, tc l mu s l cng
thc mi c suy ra t cc cng thc t s.
Sau y l mt s lut suy din quan trng trong logic mnh . Trong cc lut ny , i,
, l cc cng thc:
Lut Modus Ponens
1 ....... i ........m
i
T mt hi ta suy ra mt nhn t bt k ca hi.
Lut a vo hi
49
1,.......,i,........m
1 .......i ....... m
T mt danh sch cc cng thc, ta suy ra hi ca chng.
Lut a vo tuyn
i
1....... i. ....... m
T mt cng thc, ta suy ra mt tuyn m mt trong cc hng t ca tuyn l cng thc .
Lut phn gii
T hai tuyn, mt tuyn cha mt hng t i lp vi mt hng t trong tuyn kia, ta suy ra tuyn
ca cc hng t cn li trong c hai tuyn.
Mt lut suy din c xem l tin cy (sound) nu bt k mt m hnh no ca gi thit ca lut
cng l m hnh ca kt lun ca lut. Chng ta ch quan tm n cc lut suy din tin cy.
Bng phng php bng chn l, ta c th kim chng c cc lut suy din nu trn u l tin
cy. Bng chn l ca lut phn gii c cho trong hnh 3.3. T bng ny ta thy rng, trong bt
k mt minh ha no m c hai gi thit , ng th kt lun cng ng. Do
lut phn gii l lut suy in tin cy.
False
False
False
False
True
False
False
False
True
False
True
True
False
True
False
True
False
False
False
True
True
True
True
True
True
False
False
True
True
True
True
False
True
True
True
True
True
True
False
True
False
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
Hnh 3.3 Bng chn l chng minh tnh tin cy ca lut phn gii.
Ta c nhn xt rng, lut phn gii l mt lut suy din tng qut, n bao gm lut Modus
Ponens, lut Modus Tollens, lut bc cu nh cc trng hp ring. (Bn c d dng chng minh
c iu ).
Tin , nh l, chng minh.
Gi s chng ta c mt tp no cc cng thc. Cc lut suy din cho php ta t cc
cng thc c suy ra cng thc mi bng mt dy p dng cc lut suy din. Cc cng thc
50
(1)
PQ
(2)
RS
(3)
(4)
(5)
Gi s ta cn chng minh cng thc GH. T cng thc (2) v (4), ta suy ra Q (Lut
Modus Ponens). Li p dng lut Modus Ponens, t (3) v (5) ta suy ra S. T Q, S ta suy ra QS
(lut a vo hi). T (1) v QS ta suy ra GH. Cng thc GH c chng minh.
Trong cc h tri thc, chng hn cc h chuyn gia, h lp trnh logic,..., s dng cc lut
suy din ngi ta thit k ln cc th tc suy din (cn c gi l th tc chng minh) t
cc tri thc trong c s tri thc ta suy ra cc tri thc mi p ng nhu cu ca ngi s dng.
Mt h hnh thc (formal system) bao gm mt tp cc tin v mt tp cc lut suy
din no (trong ngn ng biu din tri thc no ).
Mt tp lut suy din c xem l y , nu mi h qu logic ca mt tp cc tin
u chng minh c bng cch ch s dng cc lut ca tp .
3.5.5. Lut phn gii, chng minh bc b bng lut phn gii
thun tin cho vic s dng lut phn gii, chng ta s c th ho lut phn gii trn
cc dng cu c bit quan trng.
Lut phn gii trn cc cu tuyn
A1 ............... Am C
C B1 ............... Bn
A1 ........... Am B1 ... Bn
trong Ai, Bj v C l cc literal.
Lut phn gii trn cc cu Horn:
51
52
(1)
CD P
(2)
E C
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
53
,,,
54
55
56
cu Student (Lan) c gi tr chn l l True hoc False tu thuc trong thc t Lan c phi l sinh
vin hay khng.
Ng ngha ca cc cu phc hp.
Khi xc nh c ng ngha ca cc cu n, ta c th xc nh c ng ngha ca cc cu
phc hp (c to thnh t cc cu n bng cc lin kt cc cu n bi cc kt ni logic) nh
trong logic mnh .
V d: Cu Student(Lan) Student(An) nhn gi tr True nu c hai cu Student(Lan) v
Student(An) u c gi tr True, tc l c Lan v An u l sinh vin.
Cu Like(Lan, Rose) Like(An, Tulip) l ng nu cu Like(Lan, Rose) l ng hoc cu
Like(An, Tulip) l ng.
Ng ngha ca cc cu cha cc lng t
Ng ngha ca cc cu x G, trong G l mt cng thc no , c xc nh nh l ng
ngha ca cng thc l hi ca tt c cc cng thc nhn c t cng thc G bng cch thay x
bi mt i tng trong min i tng. Chng hn, nu min i tng gm ba ngi {Lan, An,
Hoa} th ng ngha ca cu
57
x G(x) y G(y)
x G(x) y G(y)
(x G(x)) x ( G(x))
3.
Loi b cc ko theo
PQ
thay P Q bi ( P Q) ( P Q)
Chuyn cc ph nh ti cc phn t
iu ny c thc hin bng cch thay cng thc v tri bi cng thc v phi trong cc
tng ng sau
( P) P
(P Q) P Q
(P Q) P Q
(x P) x (P)
(x P) x (P)
Loi b cc lng t tn ti
58
Mt cch tng qut, gi s y (G) l mt cng thc con ca cng thc ang xt v nm
trong min tc dng ca cc lng t x1,...,xn. Khi , c th xem y l hm ca n bin x1,,xn.
ca v d f(x1...xn). Sau , thay cc xut hin ca y trong cng thc G bi hng thc f(x1...xn) v
loi b cc lng t tn ti. Hm f c a vo loi b cc lng t tn ti c gi l hm
Skolem.
V d: xt cng thc sau:
(1)
Cng thc con y P(x,y) nm trong min tc dng ca lng t x, ta xem y l hm ca x: f(x).
Cc cng thc con v (Q(a, v)) v y R(x,y) nm trong min tc dng ca cc lng t x, u
ta xem v l hm g(x,u) v y l hm h(x,u) ca hai bin x,u. Thay cc xut hin ca y v bi cc
hm tng ng, sau loi b cc lng t tn ti, t cng thc (1) ta nhn c cng thc:
(2)
(3)
Cn ch rng, sau khi c thc hin bc ny tt c cc bin trong cng thc c xem l chu
tc dng ca cc lng t ph dng.
Bc ny c thc hin bng cch thay cc cng thc dng: P(QR) bi (PQ)(PR) v
thay (PQ)R bi (PQ) (PR). Sau bc ny cng thc tr thnh hi ca cc cu tuyn ngha
l ta nhn c cc cng thc dng chun tc hi.
Chng hn, cu (3) c chuyn thnh cng thc sau
(P(x,f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u))) (P(x,f(x)) R(x,h(x,u))) (4)
Loi b cc hi
(5)
t tn li cc bin
t tn li cc bin sao cho cc bin trong cc cu khc nhau c tn khc nhau, chng hn, hai cu
(5) c hai bin cng tn l x, ta cn i tn bin x trong cu hai thnh z, khi cc cu (5) tng
ng vi cc cu sau
P(f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u))
P(f(x)) R(x,h(x,u))
(5)
59
Nh vy, khi tri thc l mt tp hp no cc cng thc trong logic v t, bng cch p dng th
tc trn ta nhn c c s tri thc ch gm cc cu tuyn (tc l lun c th xem mi cu trong
c s tri thc l tuyn ca cc literal). Tng t nh logic mnh , mi cu tuyn c th biu
din di dng mt ko theo; v tri ca cc ko theo l hi ca cc cu phn t; v phi l tuyn
ca cc cu phn t. Dng cu ny c gi l cu Kowalski. Mt trng hp quan trng ca cu
Kowalski l cu Horn (lut if - then).
3.5.6.3 Cc lut suy din
Trong cc phn trc chng ta a ra cc lut suy din quan trng trong logic mnh : lut
Modus Ponens, lut Modus Tolens, lut bc cu,... lut phn gii. Chng ta ch ra rng, lut
phn gii l lut y cho bc b. iu c ngha l, bng phng php chng minh bc b,
ch s dng lut phn gii ta c th chng minh c mt cng thc c l h qu logic ca mt
tp cc cng thc cho trc hay khng. Kt qu quan trng ny s c m rng sang lgic v t.
Tt c cc lut suy din c a ra trong logic mnh u ng trong logic v t cp mt.
By gi ta a ra mt lut suy din quan trng trong logic v t lin quan ti lng t ph dng
xG
G[x/t]
Chng hn, t cu x Like(x, Football) (mi ngi u thch bng ), bng cch thay x bi An
ta suy ra cu Like(An,Football) (An thch bng )
Hp nht
Trong lut thay th ph dng, ta cn s dng php th cc bin bi cc hng thc nhn c
cc cng thc mi t cng thc cha cc lng t ph dng. Ta c th s dng php th hp
nht cc cu phn t (tc l cc cu tr thnh ng nht). Chng hn xt hai cu phn t
Like(An, y), Like(x, Football). Cn lu rng hai cu ny l hai cu y Like(An,y) v x
Like(x,Football) m cho n gin ta b i cc lng t ph dng. S dng php th [x/An,
y/Football] hai cu trn tr thnh ng nht Like(An,Football). Trong cc suy din, ta cn s dng
php hp nht cc cu bi cc php th. Chng hn, cho trc hai cu
Friend(x,Ba) Good(x) (Mi bn ca Ba u l ngi tt)
Friend(Lan,y) (Lan l bn ca tt c mi ngi)
Ta c th hp nht hai cu Friend(x,Ba) Good(x) v Friend(Lan,y) bi php thay th
[x/Lan,y/Ba]. p dng lut thay th ph dng vi php thay th ny ta nhn c hai cu:
Friend(Lan,Ba) Good(Lan)
Friend(Lan,Ba)
T hai cu ny, theo lut Modus Ponens, ta suy ra cu Good(Lan) (Lan l ngi tt).
60
=[x/b,y/g(z)] th G =P(b,g(z),f(a,b)).
sao cho G v H tr thnh ng nht
(G=H) th G v H c gi l hp nht c, php th c gi l hp nht t ca G v H.
Vi hai cu phn t G v H m tn ti php th
Gi s Pi,Pi' (i= 1,..,n) v Q l cc cng thc phn t sao cho tt c cc cp cu Pi,Pi' hp nht
c bi php th , tc l Pi=P i (i =1,..,n). Khi ta c lut:
(Pi Pn Q),Pi',..,Pn'
Q'
Trong Q' =Q.
V d: Gi s ta c cc cu (Student (x)
Gi s ta c hai cu tuyn A1 Am
C v B1 Bn D, trong Ai (i =1,..,m) v Bj
(j=1,..,n) l cc literal, cn C v D l cc cu phn t c th hp nht c bi php th , C=
D. Khi ta c lut:
A1 Am C,B1 Bn D
Study (An).
Hai cu Play(x,Tennis) v Play(An,y) hp nht c bi php th =[x|An,y|Tennis]. Do t
hai cu cho, ta suy ra cu Hear(An,Music) Study (An). Trong v d ny, hai cu
61
A=Hear(x,Music)
V d: Xt hai cu Student(x)
(Ba, Football).
62
trnh by s to thnh cc hng thc danh sch v cc php ton trn danh sch. Song trc ht
chng ta cn xc nh v t bng, mt v t thng xuyn c s dng.
3.5.6.4.1. V t bng
V t bng, k hiu truyn thng l =, biu din mi quan h ng nht. Gi s T1 v T2 l hai
hng thc bt k, khi cng thc phn t T1 = T2 l ng trong mt minh ho nu trong minh
ho T1 v T2 ng vi cng mt i tng. Chng hn, cu: Father (An) = Ba l ng trong
mt minh ho, nu ngi ng vi Father(An) v ngi ng vi Ba l mt.
Sau y l mt v d n gin v s dng v t bng nhau. Gi s v t Sister(x,y) c ngha l x
l ch gi ca y, khi cu Tam c t nht hai ch gic th biu din bi cng thc:
63
list(X,Y)
[ XY ]
list(X,list(Y,Z))
[ X, YZ ]
list(X,list(Y,list(Z, [ ])))
[ X,Y,Z ]
Trong ngn ng Prolog, ta c th s dng c hai dng biu din danh sch.
Cc php ton c bn trn danh sch:
64
X khi ui ca L.
Tc l,
Delete (X,L,L1) (L =[X | L1]) (L = [Y| L2] Delete (X,L2,L3) L3 =[Y,L3])
Chng hn, ta c quan h ng sau:
Delete(a,[a,b,a,c],[b,a,c])
Delete(a,[a,b,a,c],[a,b,c])
Quan h Sublist(L1,L) l ng nu danh sch L1 l danh sch con ca danh sch L, chng hn:
Sublist([c,d,e],[a,b,c,d,e,f]) quan h ng; cn Sublist([b,d],[a,b,c,d,e,f]) l sai.
ng nhin, nu L1 l danh sch con ca L, th danh sch L c th phn tch thnh cc
danh sch con. Do ta c th xc nh quan h ny nh sau:
L1 l danh sch con ca danh sch L, nu:
(1) L l kt ni ca L2 v L3, v
(2) L3 l kt ni ca L1 v L4
tc l, ta c: Sublist(L1,L) <= Conc(L2,L3,L) ^ Conc(L1,L4,L3)
Trn y l mt s php ton c bn trn danh sch, d dng cho x l danh sch, ta
cn xc nh mt s php ton khc.
Tp hp l mt khi nim c bn trong ton hc, ta c th m t rt nhiu vn bng cch s
dng tp hp v cc php ton trn tp hp.Tuy nhin ta c th biu din tp hp bi danh sch,v
cc php ton tp hp c th c xc nh thng qua cc php ton trn danh sch.
3.5.6.5. Xy dng c s tri thc
Nh chng ta bit mt h tri thc bao gm hai thnh phn chnh l c s tri thc
(CSTT)v th tc suy din. Nh vy thit k mt h tri thc, chng ta cn phi xy dng nn
CSTT. CSTT bao gm cc cu (trong mt ngn ng biu din tri thc no , y l logic v t
cp mt). Cc cu ny biu din tri thc ca chng ta v mt lnh vc p dng m chng ta ang
quan tm. Logic v t cp mt l mt cng c mnh biu din tri thc v lp lun. Song mt
65
vn t ra l, ta phi la chn cc i tng no, cc s kin no, cc quan h no, cc tri thc
chung no a vo CSTT, sao cho vi CSTT , th tc suy din c th a ra cc cu tr li
cho cc cu hi ca ngi s dng.
Qu trnh xy dng CSTT c gi l cng ngh tri thc (knowledge engineering).Ngi
k s tri thc (ngi k s lm vic trong lnh vc cng ngh tri thc) c th nm c cc cng
ngh lm ra CSTT, nhng ni chung anh ta khng hiu bit v lnh vc p dng. Ngi k s tri
thc cn phi phng vn cc chuyn gia trong lnh vc khai thc cc tri thc cn thit a
vo CSTT,qu trnh ny c gi l qu trnh thu thp tri thc (knowledge acquisition).Ch nm
c c php v ng ngha ca ngn ng biu din tri thc, chng ta khng th xy dng c
CSTT. Ngi k s cn phi hiu bit cc k thut ca cng ngh tri thc. Trong mc ny chng
ta s trnh by vn tt cc k thut c bn ca cng ngh tri thc.
Phng php lun xy dng mt CSTT bao gm cc bc chnh sau y:
Trc ht cn phi xc nh CSTT m ta xy dng ni ti cc loi i tng no, cc s
kin no, cc thuc tnh no, cc quan h no. Mun vy ngi k s tri thc cn phi tm hiu
cc chuyn gia trong lnh vc p dng c s hiu bit y v lnh vc . Cn nh rng, ch
khi no hiu bit tng tn v lnh vc p dng mi bt u xy dng CSTT.
H thng t vng ch l danh sch cc thut ng. Chng ta cn phi s dng cc thut ng ny
vit ra cc cng thc logic m t cc tri thc chung ca chng ta v lnh vc p dng, v cng
l chnh xc ho cc thut ng m chng ta a ra trong h thng t vng. Chng hn, khi ni
ti cc quan h h hng, ta cn a vo cc v t Sibling(x,y) biu din quan h "x v y l anh
em", v t Parent (u,v) biu din "u l cha m ca v",... Sau ta cn a vo tin sau y:
x,y(Sibling(x,y) (xy)p(Parent(p,y)Parent(p,x)))
Cu ny ni rng, nu x v y l anh em th h phi cng cha m v ngc li.
Mt s lng ln cc tri thc ca con ngi c m t bi cc cu trong ngn ng t
nhin. Do xy dng CSTT chng ta cn bit chuyn cc cu trong ngn ng t nhin thnh
cc cu trong ngn ng v t. Sau y l mt vi v d cho ta bit cch chuyn cc cu trong ngn
ng t nhin thnh cng thc logic (chng ti khuyn c gi hy t mnh vit ra cc cng thc
66
x(Mushroom(x)Purple(x)
Poisonnous(x))
Tt c cy nm hoc c mu tm hoc c c
x(Mushroom(x)Purple(x)Poisonnous(x))
Mi cy nm hoc mu tm hoc c c nhng khng l c hai
x(Mushroom(x)(Purple(x)Poisonnous(x))(Purple(x) Poisonnous(x)))
Tt c cc cy nm tm u c c tr mt cy
x(Mushroom(x)Purple(x) Poisonnous(x))y(Mushroom(y)Purple(y)(yx)
Poisonnous(y)))
Ch c hai cy nm tm
x,y(Mushroom(x)Purple(x)Mushroom(y)Purple(y)(xy)
z,x(Mushroom(z)Purple(z)(z=x)(z=y)))
Sau khi chng ta vit ra cc cng thc logic (cc tin ) m t cc tri thc chung v
lnh vc p dng, c th xem nh chng ta xy dng nn mt CSTT. thun li cho vic lu
tr CSTT trong my tnh, v thun li cho th tc suy din hot ng, chng ta c th chun ho
cc cu trong CSTT.
Trong ton hc, ngi ta c gng tm c mt tp cc tin c lp, tc l trong
khng c tin no c th suy ra t cc tin cn li. Tuy nhin, trong cc h tri thc, CSTT
c th cha cc tin "tha", chng khng lm tng thm cc tri thc mi c suy ra, song
chng c th lm cho qu trnh suy din hiu qu hn.
3.5.6.5. Ci t c s tri thc
Trong mc trc, chng ta xt mt s k thut xy dng c s tri thc (CSTT).
CSTT l tp cc mnh (tin ) m t tri thc ca v mt lnh vc no . Gi thit, CSTT
c chun ho, tc gm cc cu tuyn (mi cu l tuyn ca cc literal). Th tc suy din, ni
chung, l th tc chng minh bc b. Trong trng hp CSTT l mt tp cc cu Horn (cc lut
If-Then), ta c th s dng th tc suy din tin (forward chaining) hoc th tc suy din li
(forward chaining) s c trnh by sau lp lun. Trong cc th tc suy din, ta phi thc hin
lp cng vic nh sau: tm ra cc literal c th hp nht c vi mt literal ang xt no ; nu
tm c th p dng lut phn gii cho hai cu cha hai literal hp nht c . Do , cho
th tc suy din thc hin hiu qu, cn ci t CSTT sao cho cng vic lp li trn c thc
hin hiu qu. Trc ht, ta cn biu din cc hng thc v cc cu phn t bng cc cu trc d
liu thch hp.
3.5.6.5.1. Ci t cc hng thc v cc cu phn t:
V mt c php, cc hng thc v cc cu phn t c cu trc ging nhau Do , ta ch xt
vic ci t cc hng thc. Cc hng thc biu din i tng trong th gii hin thc. T cc i
tng n c biu din bi cc k hiu, hng, bin; ta c th to ra cc i tng c cu trc.
Cc i tng c cu trc l cc i tng c mt s thnh phn. Cc thnh phn ny li c th l
cc i tng c cu trc khc. kt hp cc thnh phn to thnh mt i tng mi, s dng
k hiu hm (function). Chng hn, s dng k hiu hm Date, ngy 1 thng 5 nm 2000 c
67
biu din bi hng thc date(1, May, 2000). Mt ngy bt k trong thng 5 nm 2000 c biu
din bi hng thc: date(Day, May, 2000) trong Day l k hiu bin. Hng thc ny gm 3
thnh phn, mt l k hiu bin, hai thnh phn khc l cc k hiu hng. Hng thc ny c biu
din bi cu trc cy trong hnh 3.3
date
May
Day
2000
seg
point
point
point
triangle
point
point
point
68
List
List
Spring
Summer
List
Autumn
List
Winter
[]
Hnh 3.5 Cy biu din danh sch [spring, summer, autumn, winter]
Mt cch tng t, bng cch chuyn sang dng hng thc, ta c th biu din danh sch:
[a,b], c, [ [a, e], d ] ] bi cy trong hnh 3.6
List
List
List
List
b
List
List
[]
a
List
List
[]
[]
69
Male(Lan)
Khi , ti cc ch s ng vi kho Brother v Male, bng bm s lu gi cc thnh phn
c cho trong bng sau
70
Kho
Literal dng
Literal m
Cu dng
Cu m
Brother
Brother(An,Ba)
Brother
Brother(x,y)
Brother (x,y)Male(y)
Brother(Tam, Hoa) (Lan, Cao) Male(y)Brother(y,x) Brother(y,x)
Brother (x,y) Male(x)
Male
Male(Cao)
Male(Lan) Brother(x,y)
Male(Ba)
Male(x)
Brother (x,y)Male(y)
Brother (y,x)
P1 Pn Q
trong cc Pi (i = 1, ..., n) v Q l cc cu phn t.
Cc cu Horn cn c vit di dng
71
nu P1 v P2 ... v Pn th Q
(if P1 and ... and Pn then Q)
cc Pi (i = 1, ..., n) c gi l cc iu kin, Q c gi l kt lun ca lut.
Cc lut nu - th c cc u im sau y
Cc lut nu - th l dng biu din t nhin ca tri thc. Bng cch s dng cc lut nu th chng ta c th biu din c mt s lng ln tri thc ca con ngi v t nhin, v x hi,
kinh nghim ca con ngi trong lao ng, sn xut, tri thc ca cc thy thuc, tri thc ca cc
k s, tri thc trong cc ngnh khoa hc: kinh t, sinh hc, ho hc, vt l, ton hc,...
Sau y l mt lut v chn on bnh:
Nu
1.
2.
tri s ma
2.
<hnh ng>
72
Ngi ta phn bit hai dng h, cc h da trn lut s dng lp lun tin v phn kt lun
ca cc lut xc nh cc khng nh mi c gi l cc h din dch (deduction systems). Cc
h da trn lut m phn kt lun ca cc lut xc nh cc hnh ng cn thc hin c gi l
h hnh ng da trn lut (rule-based reaction systems).
Trong cc h din dch, chng ta xem mi lut u sinh ra cc khng nh mi c gi tr
nh nhau; tc l, ta khng xem khng nh do lut ny sinh ra l tt hn khng nh do lut
khc sinh ra. Do trong cc h din dch, khi m nhiu lut c th chy c (mt lut c gi
l chy c nu tt c cc iu kin ca lut c tho mn) ta c th cho tt c cc lut chy
(mt lut chy sinh ra khng nh mi).
Trong cc h hnh ng, khi c c nhiu hn mt lut c th chy, ni chung, chng ta ch
mun thc hin mt trong cc hnh ng c th. Do , trong cc h hnh ng, chng ta cn c
chin lc gii quyt va chm quyt nh cho lut no chy trong s cc lut c th chy. Sau
y l mt s chin lc gii quyt va chm.
ng nhin l, vic s dng chin lc gii quyt va chm no ph thuc vo tng p dng.
Tu theo mc ch thit k ca h m ta la chn chin lc gii quyt va chm cho thch hp.
Biu in tri thc khng chc chn
Trong i sng thc t, c rt nhiu iu m ngay c cc chuyn gia cng khng hon
ton tin tng chng l ng hay sai. c bit l cc kt lun trong chn on y hc, trong d bo
thi tit, trong phng on s hng hc ca my mc, chng ta khng th tin tng 100% cc kt
lun a ra l ng. Chng hn, nu xe my ang chy b cht my v kim tra xng hy cn th
c th tin rng 90% l do c vn bugi. Tuy nhin vn cn 10% phng on l sai, xe b
cht my do cc nguyn nhn khc. Do trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta cn phi a vo
mc chc chn ca cc lut v cc s kin trong c s tri thc. Chng ta s gn cho mi lut
hoc s kin mt mc chc chn no , mc chc chn l mt s nm gia 0 v 1. Cch
vit
A1 An B : C
(1)
A B : C
(2)
73
Pr(B) = Pr(BA)Pr(A)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Ngoi cng thc (5), ngi ta cn a ra cc phng php khc tnh mc chc chn Pr(A),
khi m A = A1 An v cc A1, ..., An khng c lp.
74
Chch
Bit
Ht
Chim
T
Lm
Cnh
a) a/sin= b/sin
b) c/sin= b/sin
c) S =
p ( p a )( p b)( p c)
d) ++=
e) S= hc*c
f) Nu chng ta t cc quan h ny l cc nt vung, cc bin l cc nt trn; cung l
cc ng lin kt gia cc bin c lin quan (nh S, hc, c) trong cc quan h ( y l
cng thc e); c); b) ). Hc vin c th dng mng ng ngha m t cc mi quan h
gia bin v hm.
3.5.6.5.5 Biu din tri thc bng khung
Khung l mt phng php biu din tri thc c cu trc d liu cha tt c tri thc lin
quan n mt i tng c th no . Khung (Frame) c lin h cht ch n khi nim hng
i tng. Khung thng c dng biu din nhng tri thc chun hoc nhng tri thc da
trn kinh nghim hoc cc im c hiu bit cn k.
Cu trc ca khung gm hai thnh phn c bn Slot v Facet. Slot l mt thuc tnh
c t i tng v d khung m t xe hi c hai Slot l Trng lng v Loi ng c. Mt Slot
c th ch nhiu Facet. Cc Facet i khi cn c gi l Slot con, V d Facet ca Slot Loi
ng c c th l:Kiu ong c, S xi lanh,Kh nng tng tc .
3.5.6.5.6 Cc phng php biu din tri thc khc
75
Lp lun tin v
lp lun li
Chng ta s phn chia c s tri thc thnh hai b phn: c s lut v c s s kin (hoc b
nh lm vic). C s lut bao gm cc lut c t nht mt iu kin, biu din cc tri thc chung
v lnh vc p dng. Cn c s lut bao gm cc cu phn t (cc lut khng iu kin) m t cc
s kin m chng ta bit v cc i tng trong lnh vc p dng.
76
th ng vt l chim
Lut 4: nu 1. ng vt l loi c v, v
2. ng vt n tht
th ng vt l th n tht
Lut 5: nu 1. ng vt l loi c v, v
2. ng vt c rng nhn, v
3. ng vt c mng vut
th ng vt l th n tht
Lut 6: nu 1. ng vt l th n tht, v
2. ng vt c mu lng vng hung, v
3. ng vt c m sm
th ng vt l bo Chu Phi
Lut 7: nu 1. ng vt l th n tht, v
2. ng vt c mu lng vng hung, v
3. ng vt c vn en
th ng vt l h
Lut 8: nu 1. ng vt l chim, v
2. ng vt khng bit bay, v
3. ng vt c chn di, v
4. ng vt c c di
th ng vt l iu
Lut 9: nu 1. ng vt l chim, v
2. ng vt khng bit bay, v
3. ng vt bit bi, v
4. ng vt c lng en v trng
th ng vt l chim cnh ct
Gi s mt em b quan st mt con vt c tn l Ki trong s th, em thy n c cc c im sau
Ki c lng mao
Ki n tht
Ki c mu lng vng hung
Ki c m sm
Lc ny c s s kin s bao gm cc s kin trn.
Th tc lp lun tin xem xt lut 1. Khi bin ng vt trong lut ny c thay bi Ki,
iu kin ca lut tr thnh Ki c lng mao, y l mt s kin c trong b nh lm vic, do
ta suy ra Ki l loi c v. y l s kin mi, do n c thm vo b nh lm vic. Xt lut
4, th bin ng vt bi Ki, th hai iu kin ca lut tr thnh:
Ki l loi c v, v
Ki n tht
77
3.6.3 Lp lun li
Trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta cn c th s dng phng php lp lun li
(backward chaining hoc backward reasoning).
Trong lp lun li, ngi ta a ra cc gi thuyt cn c nh gi. S dng lp lun li, gi
thuyt a ra hoc l c chng minh, hoc l b bc b (bi cc s kin trong b nh lm vic).
Cn lu rng, chng ta ni gi thuyt c chng minh, hoc b bc b l mun ni ti n c
chng minh, hoc bc b bi tnh trng hin thi ca b nh lm vic. Khi m b nh lm vic
thay i (chng ta thm vo hoc loi b mt s s kin) th mt gi thuyt c chng minh
c th tr thnh b bc b v ngc li.
Qu trnh lp lun li din ra nh sau: Ta i snh gi thuyt a ra vi cc s kin trong
b nh lm vic. Nu c mt s kin khp vi gi thuyt, ( y khp c hiu l hai cu m
t s kin v gi thuyt trng nhau qua mt php th no ), th ta xem nh gi thuyt l ng.
Nu khng c s kin no khp vi gi thuyt, th ta i snh gi thuyt vi phn kt lun ca cc
lut. Vi mi lut m kt lun ca lut khp vi gi thuyt, ta i li li phn iu kin ca lut.
Cc iu kin ny ca lut c xem nh cc gi thuyt mi. Vi gi thuyt mi, ta lp li qu
trnh trn.
Nu tt c cc gi thuyt c sinh ra trong qu trnh pht trin cc gi thuyt bi cc lut
c chn thch hp u c tho mn (u c trong b nh lm vic) th gi thuyt a ra
c xem l ng. Ngc li, d ta p dng lut no pht trin cc gi thuyt cng dn ti cc
gi thuyt khng c trong b nh lm vic v khng th quy gi thuyt ny v cc gi thuyt mi
khc, th gi thuyt a ra c xem l sai.
V d lp lun li. lm sng t t tng ca lp lun li, xt vi d sau.Gi s b nh
lm vic cha cc s kin sau.
Bibi c lng v
Bibi c chn di
Bibi c c di
Bibi khng bit bay
Ta a ra gi thuyt sau y
Bibi l iu
78
P1
P2
P3
nh "hoc"
S1
S2
79
Nh chng ta ni, trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta s tch c s tri thc thnh hai phn
Vi mi lut R:
Nu P1 v P2 ... Pm th Q
k hiu Conds l danh sch cc iu kin ca lut, Conds = [P1, P2, ..., Pm], v k hiu Conc l kt
lun ca lut, Conc = Q. Ta xem mi lut R nh mt cp danh sch cc iu kin v mt kt lun:
R = (Conds(R), Conc(R))
Trong th tc lp lun tin, chng ta s s dng lut suy din sau
P1 Pi Pm Q,
S
P1' Pi '1 Pi ' Pm' Q '
trong , Pi hp nht vi S bi php th , tc:
Pi = S, v Pk = Pk (k = 1, ..., m; k i), Q = Q.
'
Lut suy din trn cho php ta t mt lut c m iu kin, mt trong cc iu kin
khp vi mt s kin suy ra mt lut mi c m - 1 iu kin. Do nu lut c m iu kin, th
bng cch p dng lut suy din tin m ln (nu c th) ta suy ra c mt s kin. S kin ny l
kt qu ca vic p dng php th bin vo kt lun ca lut.
3.6.6 Th tc For_chain
Th tc sau y, th tc For_Chair, thc hin qu trnh p dng lut suy din nu trn
gim bt s iu kin ca mt lut trong c s lut. Khi m ta dn ti mt lut c phn iu kin
rng tc l ta suy ra mt s kin. Trong th tc For_Chain, lut R = (Conds, Conc) l bin a
phng ca th tc, Conds = [P1, ..., Pi, ..., Pm]
procedure For_Chain (conds, conc);
begin
for mi S trong FB do
if S hp nht vi iu kin Pi trong Conds bi php th
then {
Conds [P1, ..., Pi-1, Pi+1, ..., Pm];
Conc Conc ;
if Conds rng then Add(Conc, FB)
else For_Chain(Conds, Conc);
}
end;
Ch . Trong th tc trn, th tc Add(Conc,FB) thc hin kim tra kt lun conc c l s
kin mi khng (tc l khng c s kin no trong c s s kin FB trng vi Conc hoc nhn
c t Conc bng cch t tn li cc bin), nu Conc l s kin mi th n c t vo FB.
80
Qu trnh lp lun tin l qu trnh p dng th tc trn cho cc lut trong c s lut cho
ti khi no khng c s kin mi no xut hin. Ta c th tc sau:
procedure Forward_Reasoning (RB, FB);
begin
repeat
for mi lut (conds, conc) trong FB do For_Chain(Conds, Conc);
until khng c lut no sinh ra s kin mi;
end;
V d. Gi s c s lut cha lut sau (lut m)
nu
1. x l nga, v
2. x m ca y, v
3. y chy nhanh
th x c gi
C s s kin gm cc s kin sau
Tom l nga
Ken l nga
Kit l nga
Bin l nga
Tom l m ca Bin
Tom l m ca Ken
Bin l m ca Kit.
Kit chy nhanh.
Bin chy nhanh.
Bng cch s dng cc v t House(x) (x l nga), Mother(x, y) (x l m ca y), Fast(y) (y
chy nhanh), Valuable(x) (x c gi), ta c th vit lut trn li thnh cu:
House(x) Mother(x, y) Fast(y) Valuable(x)
C s s kin gm cc cu phn t sau
House(Tom)
(1)
House(Ken)
(2)
House(Kit)
(3)
House(Bin)
(4)
Mother(Tom, Bin)
(5)
Mother(Tom, Ken)
(6)
Mother(Bin, Kit)
(7)
Fast(Kit)
(8)
Fast(Bin)
(9)
81
S kin (1) khp vi iu kin th nht ca lut bi php th [x/Tom], t lut m ta suy ra
Fast(Bin) Valuable(Tom)
Fast(Kit) Valuable(Bin)
82
Tn
L nh v c ng d ng
Phn
GADS
Geodata
Analysis
tch
cung
c p
t i
Display nguyn a l
System
T v n v qu n tr u t
PMS
Portfolio Management System
Phn tch ch t l ng v b tr
IRIS
Industrial
Information
PROJECTOR
Ho ch nh k ho ch t i chnh
IFPS
BRANDAID
tr ng, ngn
sch, qu ng co
Hnh 3.9: Mt s h h tr ra quyt nh
D liu
ni
(internal)
Sn
xut
D
liu
giao
dch
Tip
th
Nhn
s
Cc
loi khc
D liu da
Trn ti liu
(document based)
D liu ngoi
(external)
H
qun
tr
c s
d
liu
H
qun
tr da
trn
m
hnh
Ngi ra quyt nh
M hnh
chin lc
M hnh
chin thut
M hnh
hot ng
M hnh cc
th tc
(subroutine)
83
84
P1 Pm Q
nh mt cp (conds, conc); trong Conds l danh sch cc iu kin ca lut.
Conds = [P1, ..., Pm]
v Conc l kt lun ca lut, Conc = Q.
Mt s kin S (cu phn t) c xem nh mt lut khng c iu kin, tc l Conds = [ ] v
Conc = S.
T tng ca phng php lp lun li l nh sau. Vi mi gi thuyt trong danh sch cc gi
thuyt, ta tm nhng lut c phn kt lun hp nht vi gi thuyt . Nu lut ny l mt s kin
th ta loi b gi thuyt ang xt khi danh sch cc gi thuyt. Nu khng th ta xem cc iu
kin ca lut l cc gi thuyt mi xut hin v gi thuyt ang xt c thay bi cc gi thuyt
mi . Khi ta nhn c mt danh sch cc gi thuyt mi. Lp li qu trnh trn cho danh
sch cc gi thuyt mi ny. Trong qu trnh trn ta lu li hp thnh ca cc php th s dng
. Nu ti mt bc no , danh sch cc gi thuyt tr thnh rng, th ta kt lun gi thuyt ban
u l ng vi php th bin .
85
Sau y l th tc suy din li. Trong th tc ny, Hyp v l cc bin a phng trong
th tc. Gi tr ban u ca Hyp l danh sch cc gi thuyt ban u (biu din cu hi c t
ra), cn gi tr ban u ca l php th rng.
procedure Backward_Chaining (Hyp, );
begin
H gi thuyt u tin trong danh sch Hyp;
for mi lut R = (conds, Q) do
if H hp nht vi Q bi php th 1 then
1.
2.
3.
4.
1;
5.
(1)
House(Ken)
(2)
House(Kit)
(3)
House(Bin)
(4)
Mother(Tom, Bin)
(Tom l m Bin)
(5)
Mother(Tom, Ken)
(6)
Mother(Bin, Kit)
(7)
Fast(Kit)
(8)
Winner(Bin)
(9)
1. x l nga, v
2. x l m y, v
3. y chy nhanh
th
x c gi )
Winner(z) Fast(z)
(11)
86
= 1 = [w/x]
= [w/x][x/Tom] = [w/Tom]
Gi thuyt Winner(Bin) trng vi s kin (9) (hp nht c bi php th 1 = []). Do danh
sch cc gi thuyt tr thnh rng vi php th = [w/Tom, y/Bin, z/Bin]. Nh vy vi php th
ny th gi thuyt Valuable(w) tr thnh ng, hay ni cch khc, Tom l con nga c gi.
T cc lut c s dng trong qu trnh lp lun trn, v t php th thu c, ta c th xy
dng nn cy chng minh cho Valuable(Tom) (xem hnh 3.11).
Valuable(tom)
Horse(tom)
Mother(tom, bin)
Fast(Bin)
Winner(Bin)
87
B1 Bm A
Trong lut trn, A c gi l u, danh sch cc cu Bi (B1, ..., Bm) c gi l thn ca lut.
Nu m=0, k hiu :- s c b i, khi ta c cu phn t A v n c gi l mt s kin.
V d. Gi s chng ta bit cc thng tin sau y v An v Ba.
An yu thch mi mn th thao m cu chi.
Bng l mn th thao.
Bng bn l mn th thao.
An chi bng .
Ba yu thch mi th m An yu thch.
Cc cu trn c chuyn thnh mt chng trnh Prolog nh sau
likes(an, X) :- sport(X), plays(an, X)
sport(football).
sport(tennis).
plays(an, football).
likes(ba, Y) :- likes(an, Y).
Vi chng trnh Prolog trn (n m t s thch th thao ca An v Ba), ta c th t ra cc cu
hi, chng hn An yu thch ci g ?. Cu hi ny c vit trong Prolog nh sau.
? - likes(an, X).
Khi a vo mt cu hi, h Prolog s thc hin qu trnh suy din logic tm ra cc cu tr li
cho cu hi. Chng hn, vi cu hi trn Prolog s a ra cu tr li:
X = football
88
CU HI V BI TP
Bai 1. Cho {(a b)c, (b c)d, (a b)}. Hi d ?
Bai 2. Cho {pq , qr}. Hi pr?
Bai 3. Cho {(a b)c,(b c)d,d}. Cm ab ?
Bai 4
Bai 5
Cm t {(p q) r, ( q r) s, s} Hi p q ?
Bai 6.
Cho { p v q , q v r , r v s, u v s} Hi p,u
Bai 7.
Cho{pq , qr , rs , p} Hi p s?
Bi 8: Cho tp mnh :
a) ng T n to
b) ng T n cam
c) Cam l thc n
d) Mn n m ngi n khng cht (sng) gi l thc n
e) ng T ang sng
f) Hi to c phi l thc n?
Hy: 1. Dng logic vi t m t cc mnh trn
2. Dng thut ton Havard (hoc Robinson gii.
Bi 9 Cho tp quan h (hm) trong tam gic:
g) a/sin= b/sin
89
h) c/sin= b/sin
i)
S=
p ( p a )( p b)( p c)
j) ++=
k) S= hc*c
Hy 1. Dng mng ng ngha m t cc mi quan h gia bin v hm
2. Dng thut ton vt du loang tm li gii
90
4.1.2 C s ca ngn ng
Mt ngn ng hnh thc c nh ngha nh mt tp cc chui k t, trong mi chui
k t l mt chui cc biu tng c ly ra t mt tp hu hn c gi l biu tng terminal.
Mt trong nhng phin toi khi lm vic vi c ngn ng t nhin v ngn ng hnh thc l c
qu nhiu s khc bit hnh thc v k hiu cho vic vit ng php. Tuy nhin, hu ht chng u
tng t nh cch m chng cn c vo tng ca cu trc cm t - cc chui k t c son
tho ca cc chui k t c s c gi l cm t, dn n cc phm tr khc nhau. Cc phm tr
nh cm danh t, cm ng t, cu c gi l biu tng nonterminal. Trong k php BNF quy
lut vit ph hp ca biu tng nonterminal n bn tri v lin kt ca u cui hoc khng
u cui vit bn phi. Quy lut c vit nh trong v d sau:
S NP VP
C ngha l chng ta c th em bt k cm t NP thm vo sau bt k cm t VP v kt
qu l mt cm t dng cu.
Cc bc thnh phn ca giao tip:
Mt on giao tip in hnh, trong ngi ni S mun truyn t li thng bo P n
ngi nghe H s dng t W, c sp xp trong 7 tin trnh. Ba bc i vi ngi ni:
Mc ch
Pht sinh
Tng hp
Bn bc i vi ngi nghe
Nhn thc
Phn tch
nhiu ngha)
91
Quy lut v d
ABC
ABBA
S a S b
S a S
Ngn ng v d
Bt k
anbncn
anbn
a*b*
Vn ni v nghe.
Mc ch: Bng cch ny hay cch khc ngi ni quyt nh rng s c mt s ci m n
ng ni vi ngi nghe. iu ny thng bao gm c c tin v mc ch ca ngi nghe v
th khi ni s c s tc dng ao c. Trong v d ca chng ta ngi ni c mc ch cho ngi
nghe bit wumpus khng cn sng na.
S pht sinh: Ngi ni s dng kin thc v ngn ng quyt nh xem ni nh th
no. Trong nhiu cch s kh khn hn vic lt ngc vn ca s hiu bit (v d nh phn
tch v chuyn thnh ngha). S pht sinh ny khng b p nhiu nh s hiu bit trong tr tu
nhn to, ch yu bi v con ngi chng ta hay bn khon khi ni vi my, nhng li khng b
kch ng khi chng ni li. By gi chng ta ch cho rng ngi nghe c th chn t the
wumpus is dead.
92
93
Nghin cu ca chng ta v trung tm giao tip l cch m mt nim tin ca nhn vt thay
i vo t v tr li vi nim tin v kin thc c bn ca mt nhn vt khc. C hai cch xem
xt qu trnh ny:
M hnh bn tin m ha
M hnh bn tin m ha ni rng ngi ni xc nh mt nhn nh P trong ngh v m
ha gi ny vo trong t (hoc k hiu) W. Ngi nghe sau s c gng m ha bn tin W
ly li nguyn bn P (v d nh m Morse). Di m hnh ny ngha trong u ngi ni, bn
tin m n c chuyn i m ngi nghe nhn c tt c ngh c s lng tng t. Khi chng
khng ging nhau th nguyn nhn l do ting n trong khi giao tip hoc mt li trong khi m
hay gii m.
M hnh tnh hung giao tip
Hn ch ca bn tin m ha dn n m hnh tnh hung giao tip, l m hnh cho rng
ngha ca mt bn tin ph thuc vo c t ng v c tnh hung m trong cc t c pht m.
Trong m hnh ny, ch cn trong mt php tnh tnh hung, cc hm m v gii m thm vo
mt i s in hnh cho mt tnh hung mi. Bn m t cho s vic m nhng t tng t c th
c rt nhiu ngha cho nhng tnh hung khc nhau.
M hnh tnh hung ngn ng ch ra mt ngun ca giao tip khng thnh cng: nu nh
ngi ni v ngi nghe c nhng tng khc nhau ca tnh hung hin thi c th, khi bn
tin c th khng c thng qua nh nh.
Agent A
nhn thc
KB
Agent B
Hnh ng
nhn thc
KB
Reasoning
Hnh ng
Reasoning
94
cng ngn ng bn trong v bn ngoi s c mt thi gian d dng tng hp v phn tch,
nhng chng vn phi tm hiu quyt nh phi ni vi nhau nh th no.
Trong phn ny chng ta xem xt vic pht trin t lnh vc tr chi sang cc h thng
thc c hiu qu trong cc cng vic v ngn ng. Chng ta cng thy mt vi k thut dch
cc cu t mt tp hp ting Anh n gin. c vn l:
Cc ng dng thc t: cc cng vic v ngn ng t nhin c chng minh c hiu qu.
X l bi lun: vn nm bt on vn c nhiu cu.
Hiu qu ca vic phn tch ng php: cc thut ton phn tch c php v dch cc cu
nhanh.
Tng cng v thut ng: quan tm ti cc t khng thng dng hoc khng bit.
Tng cng v ng php: quan tm ti cc ng php phc tp.
Dch theo ngha: mt s vn cn dch theo ngha hn l dch theo cc hm n gin.
Ng ngha: cch chn php dch ng.
Chng ta bt u xem xt cc h thng thnh cng trong vic a ngn ng t nhin
vo ng dng thc t. Cc h thng ny u c chung hai tnh cht: mt l chng u tp chung
vo mt lnh vc nht nh ch khng cho phi l tt c, hai l chng ch tp chung vo mt nhin
v c th ch khng i hi hiu ton b ngn ng.
4.2 X L V HIU VN BN
4.2.1 Truy nhp c s d liu
Lnh vc u tin thnh cng i vi vic x l ngn ng t nhin l truy cp CSDL. Vo
nm 1970, nhiu CSDL trong cc my tnh KHUNG CHNH (mainframe), nhng ch truy cp
c bng cch vit cc chng trnh hon thin bng cc ngn ng kh hiu. Nhn vin phc v
trong cc my mainframe khng th p ng tt c cc i hi ca ngi s dng, cn ngi s
dng khng mun hc cch lp trnh. Giao din ngn ng t nhin c a ra gii quyt vn
ny. u tin l giao din ca h thng LUNAR, mt phng thc c xy dng bi William
Woods (1973) v nhm ca mnh cho trung tm NASA. N cho php, v d, mt nh a cht hi
v d liu ho hc ca cc mu t trn mt trng c mang v t tu Apollo. H thng ny
khng th s dng th gii thc, nhng trong mt kim nghim n thnh cng 78% cc cu hi
nh l:
What is the average model plagioclase concentration for lunar samples that contain
rubidium?
H thng s Fernando Pereiras (Pereira, 1983) l mt h thng tng ng. N tr
li nh sau v cc cu hi v CSDL a l nh:
Q: Which countries are bounded by two seas?
A: Egypt, Iran, Israel, Saudi Arabia and Turkey.
Q: Whats are the counties from which a river flows into Black sea?
A: Romania, Soviet Union.
Thun li ca cc h thng nh vy mang li r rng. Nhng c bt li l ngi s dng
khng bit khi no thnh cng v nhng t no nm ngoi h thng. Vo cui th k trc, mt
vi h thng thng mi xy dng mt s lng ln cc t, ng php p ng din rng cc
vn bn. Cnh bo chnh trong cc h thng hin ti l s tc ng qua li ln nhau. Ngi s
95
96
Phn loi vn bn tun theo cc k thut NLP khng phi l gi li (IR : Information
Retrieval) bi v s phn lp l c nh, v nhng ngi xy dng cc h thng tp trung
kt hp cc chng trnh ca h vi vn .
4.2.4 Ly d liu vo vn bn
Ly d liu t mt vn bn l ly ra mt vi thng tin yu cu c th a vo mt cu trc d
liu.
Hiu qu phn tch t
Trong phn ny, chng ta xem xt tnh hiu qu ca thut ton phn tch t. mc
broadest, c ba vn chnh lm tng hiu qu:
Khng lm hai ln ci g c th lm mt ln.
Khng lm nu c th trnh c.
Khng trnh by ring l nu khng cn.
c bit, chng ta s thit k mt thut ton phn tch t thc hin nh sau:
Chng ta nhn thy rng the students in section 2 of Computer Science 101 l danh
t NP (Noun Phrase), l mt tng thy rng kt qu trong mt cu trc d liu bit l
mt s . Cc thut ton ny c gi l phn tch t loi theo s . Bi v chng ta ang quan
tm ti cc ng php ng cnh t do (context-free), mi mnh tm thy trong ng cnh ca mt
nhnh trong khng gian tm kim cng c th phi lm vic nh vy trong nhnh khc ca khng
gian tm kim. Ghi nhn cc kt qu trong s l mu cho vic lp trnh trnh vic lp li.
Chng ta thy rng thut ton phn tch s kt hp vic x l trn xung (top-down) v
di ln (bottom-up).
[0,2 SNP*VP]
0
The
agent
feels
breeze
97
thit. Vi ng php mnh nht nh (Definite Clause Grammar), chng ta miu t vic x l
nh mt mu ca suy lun logic trong cc chui (string). Vic quay lui c s dng khi mt
vi qui tc c th iu khin cng mt d on. By gi chng ta s xem cch tip cn th ba.
Di cch nhn ny, qu trnh phn tch mt cu n t gm mt s mu vi n + 1 nh v
thm vo mt s cnh biu din, c gng to ra mt cnh hon thin m tri ra t nh 0 ti
nh n v l s phn lp S. Khng c vic quay lui: tt c mi th c t trong s ny.
Phn tch m rng t s : ng gi
Khi thut ton phn tch s kt thc, n tr v ton b s , nhng chng ta thc s
cn l mt cy (tree) (hoc mt s cy). Ph thuc vic phn tch c s dng, chng ta mun
chn mt hoc ton b cy phn tch m tri ton b u vo, hoc chng ta mun xem xt mt s
cy con m khng tri ra trn ton b u vo. Nu c mt ng php b sung, c th chng ta ch
mun tm m rng ng ngha, b qua cc cu trc c php. Trong mi trng hp, chng ta cn
kh nng phn tch m rng t mt s .
Cch d nht lm vic l sa b han thin (Completer) sao cho khi n kt hp hai
cnh con to thnh cnh cha. N cha trong cnh cha danh sch cc cnh con m cu thnh n.
Sau , khi phn tch ch cn tm trong chart[n] cho mt cnh bt o ti 0, quy ti danh sch
cc cnh con to ra cy phn tch hon thin. Ch php bin chng quyt nh ci g thc hin
phn tch m rng trn.
Chng ta kt thc vn bng vic phn tch phc tp thut ton l O(n3) trong
trng hp xu nht ( n l s t u vo). Trng hp tt nht c th t c l ng php
ng cng t do (context-free grammar). Ch , nu thiu rng ng gi, thut ton s bng n
trong trng hp xu nht, bi v n l kh nng c O(2n) cy phn tch khc nhau. Trong thc t,
c th thc hin thut ton phn tch vi yu cu 100 t mt giy, vi s bin i ph thuc
vo phc tp ca ng php v u vo.
Du hiu c php
S thay i nh ng t, gii t sinh ra nhiu s nhp nhng, bi v chng c th dn ti
mt vi s khc bit. V d:
Lee asked Kim to tell Toby to leave on Saturday.
Ph t Saturday c th c hi cho tell hoc leave.
Du hiu t vng
C nhiu t nhp nhng, nhng tt c khng ging nhau. Khi hi ngha ca t pen, hu
ht mi ngi u tr li l mt cng c vit. Mc d n cn cc ngha khc nh hng ro,
nh lao, con thin nga c.
98
D liu ting ni
M hnh
m thanh
Tn hiu
u vo
Trch chn
c trng
M hnh
t vng
M hnh ha,
Phn lp
M hnh
ngn ng
T c
Tm kim, nhn dng
i snh
99
Trong h nhn dng ting ni vi cch pht m ri rc c khong lng gia cc t trong
cu. Trong h nhn dng ting ni lin tc khng i hi iu ny. Ty thuc vo quy m v
phng php nhn dng, ta c cc m hnh nhn dng ting ni khc nhau. Hnh 4.2 l m hnh
tng qut ca mt h nhn dng ting ni in hnh .
Tn hiu ting ni sau khi thu nhn c lng t ha s bin i thnh mt tp cc vector
tham s c trng vi cc phn on c di trong khong 10-30 ms. Cc c trng ny c
dng cho i snh hoc tm kim cc t gn nht vi mt s rng buc v m hc, t vng v ng
php. C s d liu ting ni c s dng trong qu trnh hun luyn (m hnh ha/phn lp)
xc nh cc tham s h thng.
Cc phng php tip cn trong nhn dng ting ni
C ba phng php ph bin c s dng trong nhn dng ting ni hin nay l:
100
Phn tch cc khi ng m mang tnh trc gic, thiu chnh xc;
B tch
c trng
Phn
Tn hiu
ting ni
B tch
c trng
on
v
.
.
.
Trch chn
c trng
gn
Chn
la
Ting ni
c nhn
dng
nhn
B tch
c trng
Hun luyn
mu
<Mu th>
Ting
ni
Cc mu
chun/Cc
m hnh
<Mu tham chiu>
Trch chn
c trng
Pha 2
Phn loi
mu
Quyt nh
logic
Ting ni
nhn dng
101
102
Ting ni
Phn tch tn hiu
Trch chn c trng
Cc
m hu thanh/V
thanh/ Khong lng
Phn on
ngun
kin
thc
Gn nhn
Phn lp m thanh
Nguyn tc ng m
Xc nh t
Truy cp t in
Xc nh cu
M hnh ngn ng
103
ting ni ngi ta thng chia ting ni thnh nhiu on c thi gian bng nhau c gi l
khung (frame), mi khung c di t 10 n 30 ms.
Pht hin ting ni
Pht hin thi im bt u, im kt thc ca ting ni (tch ting ni ra khi khong
lng) l phn cn thit trong chng trnh nhn dng ting ni, c bit trong ch thi gian
thc. Phn ny trnh by ba phng php pht hin ting ni da trn hm nng lng thi gian
ngn SE (Short Energy) v t l vt qu im khng ZCR (Zero Crossing).
a. Pht hin ting ni da trn hm nng lng thi gian ngn
Hm nng lng thi gian ngn ca tn hiu ting ni c tnh bng cch chia tn hiu
ting ni thnh cc khung, mi khung di N mu. Mi khung c nhn vi mt hm ca s
W (n) . Nu hm ca s bt u xt mu th m th hm nng lng thi gian ngn E m c xc
nh nh sau:
Em =
m + N 1
[x(n)W (n m)]
n=m
trong :
n: l bin ri rc;
m: l s mu th th m;
N: l tng s mu ting ni
W
(n
) thng dng l hm ca s ch nht c xc nh nh sau:
Hm ca s
1
W ( n) =
0
0 n N 1
nN
104
sgn[x(n+1)] sgn[x(n)]
trong , sgn(.) l hm du
Nng lng l i lng c dng xc nh vng cha m hu thanh, v thanh.
Nhng hm nng lng thng rt nhy cm vi nhiu. Do vy, ngi ta thng s dng hm gi
nng lng trong tnh ton. Hm gi nng lng c xc nh bi:
N 1
trong ;
E (n) : l hm gi nng lng,
N
T l vt qu im khng ZCR
Ta thy, khung c nng lng cng cao th t l vt qu im khng cng thp v ngc
li. Nh vy, t l vt qu im khng l i lng c trng cho tn s tn hiu ting ni.
y, chng ta cn xc nh cc tham s ngng cho hm gi nng lng vi hai ngng trn v
di v mt ngng t l vt qu im khng.
K hiu:
EUp
E Down
Bc 5: im kt thc t c xc nh nu ti ; t l vt qu im khng
nh hn ngng (ZCR< ZCR _ T ), v hm gi nng lng tng ng nh hn
105
hiu ting ni. VAD dng xc nh mt khung cha tn hiu ting ni hay nhiu. Hm u ra
ca VAD trn khung th m l v [m]. Vi khung cha ting ni (c th c nhiu) v [m]=1, ngc
li khung ch cha nhiu v [m]=0.
Thut ton c m t nh sau:
Bc 1: Tnh nng lng ph ngn hn
Ef
E f [m] =
trong ;
NumChan
f [m, i ]
i =1
ln
Th
Cn khng th
E f [m] E m [m 1] <
E m [m] = E m [m 1] +
trong ,
(4-1)
E f [m] E m [m 1]
100
E m [m] = E m [m 1]
(4-2)
(4-3)
E f [m] E m [m]
Th
v[m] = 1;
Cn khng th :
v[m] = 0;
trong
Phng php ny ngn vic phn loi sai ca ph m st v ting ni cui tn hiu ting ni.
106
s(n)
B lc/Hiu
chnh
s(n)
xt (n)
Phn
khung
c i (t )
o hm
theo thi
Gn
trng s
ci (t )
x t (n)
Ly
ca
DTC
mk
FFT
W(n)
Ph
nng
l
Cc bng
lc tam
c i (t )
Hnh 4.5. S tnh ton cc h s MFCC
ngha v phng php xc nh tham s cc khi trong s trn m t nh sau:
H(z) = 1 az 1
0.9 a 1.0
s (n) = s(n)-a.s(n-1)
Gi tr a thng c chn l 0.97.
Khi 2: Phn khung (Frame Blocking)
~
Trong khi ny tn hiu hiu chnh s (n) c phn thnh cc khung, mi khung c N
mu; hai khung k lch nhau M mu. Khung u tin cha N mu, khung th hai bt u chm
hn khung th nht M mu v chng ln khung th nht N-M mu. Tng t, khung th ba chm
hn khung th nht 2M mu (chm hn khung th hai M mu) v chm ln khung th nht N-2M
mu. Qu trnh ny tip tc cho n khi tt c cc mu ting ni cn phn tch thuc v mt hoc
nhiu khung.
Khi 3: Ly ca s (Windowing)
Bc tip theo l ly ca s cho mi khung ring r nhm gim s gin on ca tn hiu ting
ni ti u v cui mi khung. Nu w (n), 0 n N-1, sau khi ly ca s c:
~
x n (k ) = xn (k )w(n),
0 n N 1
107
2n
w(n) = 0.54 0.46 cos
,
N 1
0 n N 1
X (k ) = x(n)e
2
nk
N
k =0
f
)
700
tn s
m1
mj
Tn s mel
m
Trong bc ny ta s chuyn log ca cc gi tr k v min thi gian bng cch bin i
Cosine ri rc (DCT). Kt qu ca php bin i ny ta thu c cc h s MFCC.
ci =
108
2 K
i
ln(m j ) cos ( j 0.5) ;
K j =1
i = 1,2,..., K ;
c
Thng thng, ch c mt s gi tr u tin ca i c s dng. Trong cc ng dng
nhn dng ting ni, ngi ta thng ly 12 h s MFCC v thm 1 h s nng lng ca khung
sau khi c chun ha lm tham s c trng cho tn hiu ting ni (nh vy tng cng c
Q=13 h s).
Khi 7: Cepstral c trng s
V nhy ca cc h s cepstral bc thp lm cho ph ton b b dc, nhy ca cc
cepstral bc cao gy ra nhiu nn ngi ta thng s dng ca s cepstral cc tiu ha nhy
ny. Cng thc biu din cc h s cepstral c trng s:
^
Q i
c i = 1 + sin ci ;
2 Q
1 i Q;
ci =
(c t + c t )
=1
1 i Q;
=1
s (n) = k s (n k )
k =1
109
s(n)
s ( n ) Phn on
Lm r
tn hiu
xt ( n)
khung
Ly
x.(n)
ca s
cm (t)
Ly
c m (t )
t
trng s
o hm
Chuyn i
tham s LPC
Phn tch
t tng quan
am (t )
rm (t )
Phn tch
LPC
c m (t )
Hnh 4.7. S b x l LPC dng trch chn c trng ting ni
S khi b phn tch LPC dng cho trch chn cc tham s c trng ca tn hiu ting
ni (Hnh 4.7). Hm sai s d bo c tnh theo cng thc:
p
e( n ) = s ( n ) s ( n) = s ( n) k s ( n k )
k =1
cc tiu ha li cn tm tp gi tr { k } ph hp nht.
Do tn hiu ting ni thay i theo thi gian nn cc h s d bo phi c c lng t
cc on tn hiu ngn. Vn t ra l tm mt tp cc h s d bo ti thiu ha sai s trung
bnh trn mt on ngn.
Hm li d bo trong mt thi gian ngn xc nh bi:
p
E n = e (n) = s n (m) k s n (m k )
m
m
k =1
2
n
p
p
= s ( m ) = 2 s n ( m ) k s n ( m k ) + k s n ( m k )
m
m
k =1
m k =1
2
n
= e ( n) = s n ( m) k s n (m k )
m
m
k =1
2
n
p
E
= 0 = 2 s n ( m ) s n ( m i ) + 2 k s n ( m k ) s n ( m i )
i
m
m k =1
s n ( m i ) s n ( m) = k s n ( m i ) s n ( m k )
m
t:
110
k =1
1 i p;
n (i, k ) = s n (m i ) s n (m k )
m
n (i.0) = k n (i, k )
i = 1,2,..., p ;
k =1
E n = sn (m) k sn(m) sn (m k )
2
k =1
S dng php th ta c:
p
E n = n (0,0) k n (0, k )
k =1
Theo nguyn tc, phn tch d don tuyn tnh rt n gin nhng vic tnh ton n (i, k )
v tm nghim ca h phng trnh rt phc tp. Phng php khc phc l s dng hm t tng
quan gii cc phng trnh ny.
N + p 1
e ( m)
2
m =0
n (i, k ) =
n (i, k ) =
N + p 1
m =0
(m i) sn (m k )
N 1 ( i k )
m =0
( m) s n ( m + i k )
1 i p
0k p
1 i p
0k p
Rn (k ) =
N 1 k
m =0
( m) s n ( m + k )
d thy: n (i, k ) = Rn (i k )
Do Rn (k ) l hm chn nn:
n (i, k ) = Rn ( i k )
i = 1,2,..., p; k = 0,1,2,... p
do
p
k =1
r ( i k ) = Rn (i )
k n
111
= R 1 r
trong :
1
2
=
...
p
r (1)
r (0)
r (1)
r (0)
R=
...
...
r ( p 1) r ( p 2)
... r ( p 1)
... r ( p 2)
;
...
...
...
r (0)
r (1)
r (2)
r=
...
r ( p)
Lc tn s Bark
H s PLP
Tnh cc gi tr
f 2
f
) +1
+[ (
Bark ( f ) = 6 ln
1200
1200
]2
1
112
E ( ) =
( 2 + 56,8 * 10 6 ) 4
( 2 + 6.3 *10 6 )( 6 + 9.58 * 10 26 )
( f ) = ( f ) 0.33
Khi 5: Bin i Fourier ngc (Inverse DFT)
Cc h s t tng quan c bin i Fourier ngc l gi tr u vo cho LPC.
4.6 T IN IN T
Bc u tin trong vic nh ngha ng php l nh ngha mt t in ngn ng, hoc
danh sch cc t vng c th cho php. Cc t c nhm li vo nhng phm tr hoc nhng
phn ca li ni quen thuc n t in ngi dng: danh t, i t, v tn biu th chng,
ng t biu th mt s kin, tnh t b ngha cho danh t, trng t b ngha cho ng t.
Hnh 4.9 cho mt t in ngn ng nh.
113
Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
Pronoun
Name
Article
Preposition
Conjunction
Digit
Ng php
Bc tip theo l phi hp cc t trong cm t. chng ta vn s dng nm biu tng
nonterminal nh ngha s khc nhau ca cm t: cu (S), cm danh t (NP), cm ng t
(VP), cm gii t (PP), v mnh quan h (Rel Clause)(4). Hnh 4.10 xt mt ng php cho 0
vi mt v d cho mi mt quy lut vit li.
S
NP,VP
S Conjuntion S
|
NP
|
|
|
|
|
VP
|
|
|
|
PP
RelClause
Pronoun
Noun
Article Noun
Digit Digit
NP PP
NP Rel Clause
Verb
VP NP
VP adjective
VP PP
VP Adverb
Priposition NP
That VP
I +feel a breeze
I feel a breeze+and+ I smell the
wumpus
I
Pits
The + wumpus
34
the wumpus+ to the east
the wumpus+ that is smell
Stinks
Feel+ a breeze
Is+ smelly
Turn+ to the east
Go+ ahead
To+ the east
That+ is smelly
114
CU HI V BI TP
1. Khng xem li bi tr li cc cu hi sau: bn lp c nhc n ca ng php hnh
thc?
2. Thc hin mt phin bn ca gii thut biu phn tch c php m kt qu l mt
cy cho tt c cnh m m rng cho ton b u vo.
3. Trnh by phng php pht hin ting ni da trn nng lng ph ngn hn
4. Trnh by phng php tnh cc h s MFCC: phng php trch chn tham s ting
ni c s dng rng ri bi tnh hiu qu ca n thng qua phn tch cepstral theo thang o
mel.
5.Trnh by phng php m d on tuyn tnh LPC
115
cc phng php v thut ton lai mng n ron v logic m; gii thut di truyn
Nhng vn k trn l rt ln. Hc vin c th tm c thm [2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 16, 20, 25]
116
Giai on hai c th tnh t sau th chin th hai. c bit, vo nhng nm cu thp nin
60 gn nh ng thi xut hin mt lot m hnh mng n ron hon ho hn c a ra nh:
Perceptron cu Rosenblatt, phn t n ron tuyn tnh Adaline (ADAptive LINear Element) cu
Windrow, Ma trn hc cu Steinbuck. Perceptron rt c ch trng v nguyn l gin n,
nhng n cng hn ch v nh Minsky v Papert chng minh n khng dng c cho cc hm
logic phc. Bn cht cu Adaline l tuyn tnh, t chnh v c dng rng ri cho nhng bi ton
t thch nghi, tch nhiu v vn pht trin cho n ngy nay.
Giai on th ba c th tnh t u nhng nm 80 n nay. Nhng ng gp to ln cho
mng n ron giai on ny phi k n Grossberg, Kohonen, Rumelhart v Hopfield. ng gp
chnh cu Hopfield l hai m hnh mng phn hi: mng ri rc nm 1982 v mng lin tc nm
1984. c bit, ng d kin nhiu kh nng tnh ton ln cu mng m mt n ron n khng th
c c.
Giai on th t, t nm 1990 n nay. Cc Hi ngh, Tp ch khoa hc v chuyn c
bit v mng n ron lin tc c t chc v d nh IJCNN (International Joint Conference on
Neural Networks). Hng lot cc lnh vc khc nhau nh: k thut tnh ton, tnh ton ti u, ng
dng mng n ron trong tin hc, vin thng, sinh-y-hc, d bo, thng k... i vo p dng v
em li nhiu kt qu ng khch l.
117
u1
u2
a,
b1
b2
bm
v(t)
H(.)
x(t)
g(.)
y(t)
b,
Hnh 5.1: a, Nron sinh vt;
b, Nron nhn to
+ Dy thn kinh (axon) l u ra. l phng tin truyn dn tn hiu. Dy thn kinh
c cu to gm cc t v c th di t vi micro mt n vi mt ty tng kt cu c th. u
ra ny c th truyn tn hiu n cc n ron khc.
+ Khp thn kinh (synape) l b phn tip xc ca cc u ra n ron vi r, nhnh ca cc
n ron khc. Chng c cu trc mng c bit tip nhn cc tn hiu (Hnh 1.a) khi c s chnh
lch v nng ion gia bn trong v bn ngoi. Nu lch v nng cng ln th vic truyn
cc ion cng nhiu v ngc li. Mc thm ca cc ion c th coi l mt i lng thay i ty
thuc vo nng nh mt gi tr o thay i v c gi l trng.
Hot ng ca nron sinh v
+ Truyn xung tn hiu: Mi nron nhn tn hiu vo t cc t bo thn kinh khc. Chng
tch hp cc tn hiu vo. Khi tng cc tn hiu vt mt gi tr no gi l gi tr ngng (hay
n gin gi l ngng) chng pht tn hiu ra. Tn hiu ra ca nron c chuyn ti cc nron
hoc ti cc c quan chp hnh khc nh cc c, cc tuyn (glands). Vic truyn tn hiu thc
hin thng qua dy thn kinh v t nron ny ti nron khc theo c ch truyn tin c bit l
khp thn kinh. Mi mt nron c th nhn hng nghn, vn tn hiu v cng c th gi tn hiu
n hng vn cc nron khc. Mi nron c coi l mt thit b in ho, cha cc ni nng lin
tc, c gi l th nng mng (rnembrance potential). Khi th nng mng vt ngng, nron c
th truyn th nng tc ng i xa theo cc dy thn kinh.
+ Qu trnh hc: Khi c xung kch thch t bn ngoi ti, cc khp hoc cho i qua hoc
khng v kch thch hay c ch cc nron tip theo. Hc l mt qu trnh lm cho cch cp nht
ny lp li nhiu ln n mt gi tr n nh, cn bng in ho gia cc nron. (Trong mng
nron nhn to, trng s wij biu din ga tr cn bng ng thi to mi lin kt gia cc
nron).
118
v( t ) = wy( t ) + b k u k ( t ) + I
(5.1)
k =1
(5.2)
H(s)
1
s
Quan h
vo ra
x(t) = v(t)
dx ( t )
= v(t)
dt
1
1 sT
T
dx ( t )
+ x (t) = v(t)
dt
Exp(-sT)
x(t) = v(t-T)
119
y = g(x(t))
(5.3)
C nhiu hm phi tuyn c th s dng trong phn phi tuyn. Mt s hm phi tuyn
thng dng c cho Bng 5.2. Mt s dng khc cng c s dng. (Cc nron chuyn
ng vng th gic trong n ron sinh hc c c tnh ca hm Sigmoid, nron khu vc quan
Tn hm
Bc nhy
n v
Hard limiter
(sgn)
Cng thc
1 nu x 0
g( x) =
0 nu x < 0
1 nu x 0
g( x ) =
1 nu x < 0
Hm tuyn tnh
g(x) = x
Hm tuyn tnh
bo ho
g( x) = x
0
Hm tuyn tnh
bo ho i xng
Hm Sigmoid
n cc
(Unipolar
Sigmoid)
c tnh
nu x > 1
nu 0 x 1
nu x < 0
nu x > 1
1
g( x ) = x nu 1 x 1
1 nu x < 1
g( x ) =
1
1 + e x
Hm Sigmoid
lng cc
2
g( x) =
1
(Bipolar
x
+
e
1
Sigmoid)
st c dng hm Gauss, nn vic m hnh ho cc u ra cc dng k trn l ph hp v tng
ng vi cc n ron sinh hc)
120
*Mt kiu phn loi in hnh c biu din trn Hnh 5.2
Truyn thng
Nhiu
lp
Back
Proparation
Phn hi
Mt
lp
Perce
ptron
Brain
State-in
Box
My
Boltzmann
Cohen
Grossberg
Adaline
T t chc
Hopfield
nh x
c trng
ART
Mc
Culloch
Pitts
I1
u1
b11
x1
g(.)
y1
x2
g(.)
y2
xn
g(.)
yn
I2
u2
In
um
bnm
x i ( t ) = b ik u k ( t ) + I i
k =1
yi = g(xi(t)),
(5.4)
121
trong : xi(t) l cc trng thi ca n ron, i =1,..., n; ui(t) l cc u vo ngoi; bik l trng lin
kt, k = 1,..., m; yi(t) l u ra; n l s nron; m l s tn hiu ngoi a vo.
(5.5)
trong : x = [x1, x2,..., xn]T l vc t trng thi; i = 1,...,n; y = [y1, y2,..., yn]T l vc t u
T
ra; B=[bik] l ma trn trng nm chiu; I = [I1, I2,..., In] l vc t hng.
Nu mi nron c c tnh ng hc bc nht H(s)=1/(Ts+1) th tp hp ca cc nron c
th c vit di dng phng trnh trng thi:
dx
+ x (t ) = Bu (t ) + I
dt
y(t) = g(x(t))
(5.6)
(5.7)
x iq ( t )
nq
=
j=1
w ijq y qj1 ( t )
+ b ik u k ( t ) + I iq
k =1
y iq = g q ( x iq ( t ))
122
(5.8)
trong :
xiq (t)
(5.9)
(5.10)
[ ]
W = w iT
(5.11)
w 1T w 11w 12 ...w 1m
T T
w
w
w
...
w
2m
= 2 = 2 22
...
...................
T
T
w n w n w n 2 ...w nm
Lut hc tng qut: hc i vi mng nron l cp nht trng trn c s cc mu. Theo ngha
tng qut, hc c th c chia lm hai loi: Hc tham s v hc cu trc. Trong nhng nm gn
y, cc cng trnh tp trung cho nghin cu cc lut hc khc nhau. Cc lut hc c th khi
qut thnh dng chung sau:
Wi j r X(t)
(5.12)
dwi (t )
= rx(t )
dt
(5.13)
123
nhng lut hc quan trng nht ca mng nron nhn to. Trong lut hc ca Hebb, tn hiu hc
thay i theo:
r f(WiT X) = f(yi) ;
Wi= f(WiTX) Xj= yiXj; i=1,2..,n ; j=1,2..,m; r di - yi
Trong mt mng c th no , lut Hebb c dng:
(5.14)
y = w jx j d
hoc
y = WTX d
(5.15)
j=1
Lut hc: Lut hc Adaline s dng phng php bnh phng cc tiu truy hi.
Windrow v Hoff ra lut hc da trn phng php gradient dng mt Adaline xp x mt
hm tuyn tnh (m-1) bin nh mt tp hp gm p mu. u tin chn tu vct trng ban u
W(1), sau ta tng bc hiu chnh li W(k) theo cc mu {x(k) , d(k)}, k=1,...,p, sao cho tng
bnh phng sai s t cc tiu:
E( w ) =
1 p (k )
1 p (k )
(k) 2
(
d
y
)
(d w T x ( k ) ) 2
2 k =1
2 k =1
1 p (k ) m
= (d w j x j ) 2
2 k =1
j=1
Wj =
p
E
= ( d ( k ) W T x ( k ) ) x ( k ) j
Wj
k =1
(5.16)
(5.17)
Wj = (d ( k ) W T x ( k ) ) x (jk )
(5.18)
E(W) c dng bnh phng, l mt siu Parabol trong khng gian cc trng Rm, c mt
im cc tiu duy nht. Do , nu chn nh theo phng php gradient trn th c th tm
c vc t trng ti u sau s ln lp ln.
Mng nron RBF (Radial Basis Function)
Mng RBF c Moody v Darker xut nm 1989 da trn s tng ng gia khai
trin RBF vi mng nron mt lp n. Kh nng xp x ca cc hm phi tuyn ca mng c th
tha nhn t hai l do. Mt l, n l mt kiu khai trin RBF. Hai l, n tng ng vi h
thng m v l mt cng c xp x vn nng. c bit mng RBF Gauss s l mt kiu mng c
mt s ngi thng, nn c th p dng lut hc khng gim st ca Kohonen m rng. iu ny
c th gii thch t cch suy din kiu NU-TH ca h thng m tng ng.
Cu trc mng nron RBF
124
C m u vo, Wqj = 1 (nn c ngi gi l mng hai lp) trong lp n: hm kch hot
dng Gauss chun:
Zq =
exp[ || x m k ||2 / 2 q2 ]
l
exp[ || x m k ||
k =1
(5.19)
/ 2 2k ]
u1
y1
b11
w
y2
u2
y i = Wiq Z q = w iT Z
q =1
vi i=1,...,n, k=1,..p s mu
(5.20)
um
yn
bnm
(5.21)
trong : x(t) l trng thi; u(t) l cc u vo ngoi; l tham s; F(.) l hm m t cu trc; G(.)
l hm m t quan h gia bin trng thi v u ra.
Mng phn hi (recurrent) u tin c Kohonen, Anderson v Nakano ra t nhng
nm 1972. Hopfield hiu chnh s hc ca n, trong cc thng tin v trng m bo cc
trng thi nh, ng vi cc im cc tiu. Cc im cc tiu dng lm b nh a ch theo ni
dung (CAM: Content Address Memory) nhm gii quyt bi ton nhn mu (nhn dng tnh). Cc
mu chc chn c dng lm cc im cn bng. Cc sai s gia u vo so vi mu phi nm
trong vng hp dn. Theo quan im ca vt l v spin glass h ng hc nh vy c to ra,
trong h mng gn lin vi tp cc mu c a vo t trc. Nu ton b khng gian lm
vic c phn vng theo CAM th iu kin ban u ng vi cc mu chun l nghim trng thi
dng ng vi cc mu. Tip theo chng ta xem xt hai mng Hopfield l loi mng mt lp phn
hi c s dng rt nhiu trong thc t.
Mng Hopfield ri rc
Hopfield l mt nh vt l xut hai loi mng ni ting. Mng Hopfield u tin l mng n
ron phn hi mt lp dng ri rc vi hm kch hot (1982) [4] phi tuyn dng bc nhy :
n
x i ( t ) = w ij y j ( t ) I i
i,j = 1,...,n
(5.22)
j=1
g ( x i ( t )), nu x i ( t ) 0, i = p
y i ( t + 1) =
nu x i ( t ) = 0, i p
y i ( t ),
(5.23)
125
1 nu x i (t ) 0
g ( xi (t )) =
0 nu x i (t ) < 0
(5.24)
h
(2 y p, i 1)(2 y p, j 1) nu i j
Wij = p
=1
0
nu i = j
1 n
I i = w ij
2 j=1
(5.25)
(5.26)
(5.27)
E = y p ( t + 1) y p ( t ) a pj y j w p
j=1
(5.28)
= ai ( xi ) bi ( xi ) cik d k ( xi )
dt
k =1
trong
(5.29)
V( x ) =
i =1
xi
1 n
bi ()d i ()di + c jk d j ( x j )d k ( x k )
2 j, k =1
xc nh dng v o hm ca n
126
(5.30)
n
n
d
V( x ) = a i ( x i )d i ( x i ) bi ( x i ) cik d k ( x k )
dt
k =1
k =1
dV ( x)
0 : (5.31)
dt
yi = gi(xi);
(5.32)
v xi = gi-1(yi).
(5.33)
(5.34)
v chng minh tnh n nh ca mng theo
dV/dt 0
(5.35)
T (5.35) cho thy h lun n nh, sau mt khong thi gian chuyn ng trong khng
dy / dt = 0
i
tc
gian trng thi, t cc tiu trong min V v dng im vi dV / dt = 0 ,
yi=const vi mi i. Vi h ny tn ti nhiu im cn bng ng vi mc nng lng cc tiu (hay
l y nng lng) trn mt siu phng nng lng ca siu din n chiu. Gi s cc mu vo
(input patterns) tu c a vo h nh trng thi ban u, h s t n im cn bng gn
nht ng vi im n nh. Hnh 5.6 cho thy mt phc ho ngn gn v nng lng ca h E(x).
Nu E(x) l mt hm v hng ca x vi cc cc tiu a phng, cc im cc tiu a phng
ny c gn vo mng lm cc c trng x l thng tin. Nu h thng xut pht trng thi
ban u x(0), th theo thi gian h trt xung y nng lng ca im cc tiu gn nht.
127
Con ngi c kh nng s dng nhng kinh nghim qu kh thch nghi vi nhng thay
i ca mi trng. S thch nghi khng cn ngi hng dn hoc ch o t bn ngoi.
Mng nron nhn to thc hin theo nguyn l gi l mng t t chc. Kohonen nu ln
loi mng vi tn gi c trng l t t chc. Trong mng t t chc, ti mt thi im ch c mt
t bo nron hoc mt nhm nron cc b cho p ng i vi u vo ti thi im . Mng c
mt lp n nh l mt lp u vo. Cc trng ca mng c m ho tng ng vi cc mu
u vo. Cc nh x c trng c s dng nhiu trong nhn mu, iu khin r bt v iu
khin qu trnh. Mc tc ng ca mi nron c tnh theo tch ca vc t vo v vc t trng
xi = UWi
(5.36)
128
tnh cc qu trnh vo ra d liu khng th cng bng tay m bng ngn ng, hnh nh vi
kh nng nhn dng t chnh xc chp nhn c
+ Mng nron nhn to c th s dng lm b bin i A/D. Ta c th xy dng mng
Hopfield mt lp c bn nron vi cc u vo ngoi x=[x0, x1, x2, x3], cc u ra y=[y0, y1, y2,
y3] cho b bin i A/D bn bit. Thnh cng ny ca Hopfield t 1984 chng minh mt cch
tip cn mi trong vic bin i cc gi tr tng t sang s theo nguyn l no ngi thay cho
cc phn cng hoc phn mm kinh in.
+ Nhn mu k t. Cc mng nron c nhiu tc gi nghin cu ng dng trong x
l ch vit, nh: nhn dng k t, nhn dng ch vit, nhn dng ting ni v nh. Vin CNTT
trong khun kh d n kt hp vi Cng ty Fuzisju (Nht) cng bt u ng dng cng ngh
ny cho nhn mu ch ting Vit vit tay. Phn 3 v 4 trong nghin cu ny s trnh by ng dng
mng Nh lin kt hai chiu: BAM) nhn dng k t ting Vit.
+ Nhn dng nh. Trong cc lnh vc nghin cu v hnh nh cng c cc tc gi s
dng mng nron x l hnh nh nh nhn dng, x l.
+ Thc hin cc thut ton ti u. Ngay sau khi xut cc kin trc v thut hc, nm
1986 Hopfield cng vi Tank ng dng mng gii bi ton ti u tm ng i ngn nht thay
cho thut ton Tin hc kinh in Ngi bn hng. Vi phng tin gii quyt bng phn cng
trn cc chip nron hoc phn mm theo thut hc mng nron, phng php ny bc vo k
nguyn ng dng mng nron cho nhng bi ton khc tng t nh bi ton nh tuyn ti u
(s trnh by phn sau)
5.2.4.2 Cc ng dng trong vin thng
+ Nhn dng, m hnh ho knh phi tuyn. Mng nron dn c mt s tc gi nh
Mohamed Ibnkahia ng dng vo cc lnh vc truyn thng: nhn dng knh, m hnh ho knh,
m ho v gii m, hiu chnh knh, phn tch ph, lng t ho vc t... y cc mng nron
truyn thng, phn hi, mng t t chc c ng dng trong cc lnh vc ph hp. V d mng
Perceptron nhiu lp vi thut hc lan truyn ngc c s dng nhn dng v iu khin
h thng t ng dn ng bay cho ngnh hng khng...
+ ng dng trong ATM (s trnh by phn 3 v 4). Atsush xut b iu khin
mng vin thng ATM trn c s mng n ron truyn ngc hc mi quan h gia lu lng
thc t v cht lng dch v. Phng php hc bng mu c xut hc cc mi quan h
.
5.2.4.3 ng dng mng n ron trong x l tn hiu
Mng BAM c s dng x l tn hiu iu khin [6]. Mng c hai lp (Hnh 5.7),
lp vo c n phn t x1, x2,...,xn; lp ra c m phn t y1, y2,...,ym. Ma trn trng c kch thc
mn. Phng trnh trng thi phn t th i lp y c th m t nh sau (i=1,...,n, k: bc lp):
129
1
nu y *i (k + 1) > 0
y i (k + 1) = y(k ) nu y *i (k + 1) = 0 ;
0
nu y *i (k + 1) < 0
y*i (k ) = w ij x j
x1
Lp 1
...
Lp 2
(5.37)
j=1
...
y1
xn
x2
ym
y2
1
nu x *i (k + 1) > 0
x i (k + 1) = x i (k ) nu x *i (k + 1) = 0 ;
0
nu x *i (k + 1) < 0
x *i (k )
= y j w ji
(5.38)
j=1
E = YWX T
(5.39)
Lut cp nht l lut Hebb hay lut tch ngoi m ho lin kt {Xi,Yi} trong mng
BAM bng cch i m t vc t nh phn thnh m t lng cc 0 n 1. Gi s cc vc t ct
Ai v Bi c gi tr lng cc th ma trn trng W c cho:
W = B1T A1 + B T2 A 2 + ... + B Tq A q
(5.40)
Vc t vo
A=(1 0 1 0 1)
B= (1 0 1 0 0)
C= (0 1 0 1 1)
Vc t ra
L = (1 1 1 1)
M = (0 1 1 0)
N = (1 0 0 1)
Vc t vo
A=( 1 -1 1 -1 1)
B=(1 -1 1 -1 -1)
C=(-1 1 -1 1 1)
Vc t ra
L = (1 1 1 1)
M= (-1 1 1 -1)
N = (1 -1 -1 1)
3
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 1
T
T
T
3
1 1 1 1
130
AW T = (1 5 5 1) (1 1 1 1) = L
LW = (4 4 4 4 4) (1 0 1 0 1) = A
iu chng t nu c mt mu vo nh l mt vc t A mng BAM x l v gi ra
mu nh l mt vc t L. Mng BAM lc nh l mt b nh lin kt W, nh cc tnh hung
theo phng trnh (1.38) v cc gi tr ca n th hin trn ma trn bng s nh tnh trn.
th hin kh nng chnh li cho vc t vo
bit th vc t ra s vn l:
A + trong = (0 1 0 0 0) li mt
(A + ) T W = (2 2 2 2) (1 1 1 1) = L
V d ny cho bit mng n ron kh thng minh c kh nng nhn mu vi sai s trong
min nh cho php.
KT LUN
Phn ny trnh by cc m hnh noron sinh vt lm c s cu trc cho m hnh n ron nhn to.
i vi m hnh n ron nhn to c bn vn ln cn c quan tm:
Cc hm tng tc u ra cn xc nh
T cch chn , hng lot cc cu trc mng nhn to c nghin cu v sng to nhm gii
quyt cc bi ton khoa hc v k thut. Cc thit b cng, cc chng trnh, b cng c pht trin
mm c sn xut.
Khng th khng ni n cc lut hc ca mng n ron. Nhng lut hc s cp n
phn ba. Cc chng trnh m phng s cp n phn bn.
5.3. LOGIC M
Ngnh khoa hc ca logic m, h m v m hnh m c s thnh cng vt bc v c
nhiu ng dng thc t. Qu trnh x l thng tin da trn l thuyt logic m i hi khi lng
tnh ton ln v do thi gian tnh ton tr nn quan trng. Cc cng trnh khoa hc gn y
ghi nhn nhng n lc nghin cu ca cc t chc v logic m nhm mc ch pht trin phn
cng hin i cho vic thc hin logic m nhanh hn. Ngoi ra, nhiu nh cung cp a ra cc
gii php kt hp phn cng v phn mm li pht
A(x)
trin h m. Nhng ng dng cho tin hc v vin thng l
tng i kh khn i vi h m song mt s c gng
nh trnh by di y c p dng.
1
5.3.1. Cc khi nim c bn
a. Khi nim tp m
x
0
Trong l thuyt v tp hp kinh in nu ln
cc nh ngha v tp hp, v cc php tnh ca cc tp
hp nh php b, hp, giao, hiu. Trong lgic m cng c Hnh 5.8: Hm lin thuc ca tp
kinh in
131
nhng khi nim v php tnh tng t. Trc tin, ta xem xt s khc nhau gia tp m v tp
hp kinh in thng qua khi nim hm lin thuc. Hm lin thuc A ca tp hp kinh in A
c nh ngha l:
1
A (x) =
0
nu x A
nu x A
C()
B(x)
1
1
x
0
m1 m2
m3
m4
b,
a,
Hnh 5.9: Hm lin thuc ca tp m.
0 (x) 1
B
. Trn Hnh 5.9 l hai hm lin
l 0 v 1 m l ton b cc gi tr t 0 n 1 tc l
thuc ca hai tp m B v C. Nh vy lgic m khng c s suy lun thun ngc nh vi tp
hp kinh in. V vy, trong nh ngha tp m phi nu thm v hm lin thuc ny do vai tr
ca n l lm r ra chnh tp m .
b. nh ngha tp m
Tp m F xc nh trn tp kinh in M l mt tp m mi phn t ca n l mt cp cc
: M [0,1] . nh x f c gi l hm lin
3 4 5
6 8 9
thuc kiu S. i vi cc hm lin
thuc kiu S, do cc cng thc biu Hnh 5.10: Hm lin thuc c mc chuyn i tuyn tnh
(x)
c phc tp ln, nn
din f
thi gian tnh ph thuc cho mt phn t lu. V vy, trong k thut thng thng cc hm lin
thuc kiu S c thay bng cc on thng (tuyn tnh tng on).
Mt hm lin thuc c dng tuyn tnh tng on c gi l hm lin thuc c mc
chuyn i tuyn tnh (Hnh 5.10. Vi hm lin thuc nh Hnh2.2b nu m1 = m2 v
th n chnh l hm lin thuc ca tp kinh in.
132
m3 = m 4
f(x)
H = sup f(x), xM
nu tp m c H=1 gi l chnh tc, H
lun <1 l khng chnh tc.
Min xc nh ca tp m F (nh
ngha trn c s M) k hiu bng S, l
tp con ca M tho mn
Min tin cy
Min xc nh
T = {x M; f(x) = 1}
5.3.2. Cc php ton trn tp m
Tp m cng c 3 php ton c bn l php hp (tng ng php OR), php giao
(tng ng php AND) v php b (tng ng php NOT).
a. Php hp hai tp m:
Hp ca hai tp m A v B c cng c s
M l mt tp m cng xc nh trn c s M vi
hm lin thuc:
A(x)
B(x)
x
Ngoi cng thc trn cn c mt s cng thc khc
tnh hm lin thuc ca php hp hai tp m nh: Php
Hnh 5:12 Php hp ca hai tp m
hp Lukasiewier, tng Einstein, tng trc tip ...
+ Php hp Lukasiewier: A B(x)=min{1, A(x) + B(x)
+ Tng Einstein:
A (x) + B (x)
1 + A (x) + B (x)
A B ( x ) =
133
nu min { A ( x), B ( x )} = 0
max{ A ( x), B ( x )}
AB ( x ) =
nu min { A ( x), B ( x )} 0
1
Nu hai tp m khng cng c s, tp m A vi hm lin thuc A(x) nh ngha trn c
s M v tp m B vi hm lin thuc B(x) nh ngha trn c s N th ta a chng v cng mt
c s bng cch ly tch ca hai c s c l (MN). Ta k hiu tp m A l tp m nh ngha
trn c s MN v tp m B l tp m nh ngha trn c s MN. Nh vy, hp ca hai tp m A
v B tng ng vi hp ca hai tp m A v B kt qu l mt tp m xc nh trn c s MN vi
hm lin thuc:
A ( x , y) = A ( x )
Vi mi y N v
B ( x , y) = B ( y)
Vi mi x M
A(x)
B(x)
x
Hnh 5.13: Php giao ca hai tp m
Php giao ca hai tp m c th hin trn Hnh 5.13. Ngoi cng thc trn cn c mt s
cng thc tnh khc tnh hm lin thuc ca giao hai tp m nh: Php giao Lukasiewier, tch
Einstein, tch i s ...
+ Php giao Lukasiewier: A B(x) = max{0, A(x)
+ B(x)-1}
A(x)
+ Tch Einstein:
A B ( x ) =
A (x) + B (x)
2 ( A ( x ) + B ( x )) A ( x ) B ( x )
+ Tch i s:
AC ( x )
x
A B(x) = A(x)B(x)
Hnh 5.14.Php b ca mt tp m.
134
A ( x , y) = A ( x )
Vi mi y N v B ( x , y) = B ( y)
Vi mi x M
c. Php b ca mt tp m:
B ca tp m A c c s M v hm lin thuc A(x) l mt tp m AC xc nh trn
cng c s M vi hm lin thuc c th hin trn Hnh 5.14 trong :
AC ( x ) = 1 A ( x )
5.3.3. Bin ngn ng
Bin ngn ng l mt bin c th gn cc t trong ngn ng cho gi tr ca n. y cc
t c c trng bi nh ngha tp m trong min xc nh m bin c nh ngha.
Cc bin ngn ng chun ho thng dng l: m ln NB (negative big), m trung bnh
NM (negative medium), m nh NS (negative small), khng Z (zero), dng nh PS (positive
small), dng trung bnh PM (positive medium), dng ln PB (positive big). Vi trng hp ti
gin c th bin ngn ng ch gm: m N, khng Z v dng P.
Bin ngn ng ch cn thit trc tin l cho qu trnh m ho (Fuzzifiezs) cc gi tr r
ca u vo cc b iu khin m, sau l chun ho cc hm lin thuc khc nhau.
135
136
S lng s miu t h m.
Cc thut gii di truyn (GAs: Genetic Algorithms) cng nh cc thut ton tin ho
khc hnh thnh da trn quan nim cho rng qu trnh tin ho t nhin l qu trnh hp l,
hon ho. T n mang tnh ti u [12]. Quan im trn nh mt tin , khng chng
minh, nhng ph hp vi thc t khch quan.
Mc tiu nghin cu ca GAs c th c khi qut nh sau:
Tru tng ho v m phng qu trnh thch nghi trong h thng t nhin.
Thit k phn mm, chng trnh m phng, nhm duy tr cc c ch quan trng ca h
thng t nhin.
Gii thut di truyn s dng mt s thut ng ca ngnh di truyn hc [12] nh:
nhim sc th, qun th (Population), Gen.... Nhim sc th c to thnh t cc Gen (c
biu din ca mt chui tuyn tnh). Mi Gen mang mt s c trng v c v tr nht nh
trong nhim sc th. Mi nhim sc th s biu din mt li gii ca bi ton.
5.3.1.2. Cc ton t di truyn
a. Ton t sinh sn
137
Ton t sinh sn gm hai qu trnh: qu trnh sinh sn (php ti sinh), qu trnh chn lc
(php chn).
a.1. Php ti sinh
f ti = f j
j =1
Gi Fn l tng thch nghi ca ton qun th. Chn mt s ngu nhin f trong
khong t 0 ti Fn . Chn c th th k u tin tho mn f f tk a vo qun th mi.
a.2. Php chn
Php chn l qu trnh loi b cc nhim sc th km thch nghi trong qun th. Qu
trnh ny c m t nh sau:
Sp xp qun th theo th t mc thch nghi gim dn.
Loi b cc nhim sc th cui dy. Gi li n c th tt nht.
b. Ton t ghp cho
138
C s l thuyt ca gii thut di truyn da trn biu din chui nh phn v l thuyt s
[12]. Mt s l mt chui, c chiu di bng chui nhim sc th. Cc thnh phn ca
n c th nhn mt trong cc gi tr trong tp k t biu din Gen hoc mt k t i din
*. S biu din khng gian con trong khng gian tm kim. Khng gian con ny l tp tt
c cc chui trong khng gian tm kim m vi mi v tr trong chui, gi tr ca Gen trng
vi gi tr ca s ; k t i din * c th trng khp vi bt k k t biu din no.
V d: s (* 1 0 1 0) s khp vi 2 chui: (1 1 0 1 0) v (0 1 0 1 0)
Nh vy, s (1 1 0 1 0) v (0 1 0 1 0) ch khp vi chui chnh n, cn s (* * * * *)
khp vi tt c cc s c di l 5.
Vi s c th c tng ng 2r chui, r: l s k t i din * c trong s ; ngc
li, mt chui c chiu di m s khp vi 2m s .
Mt chui c chiu di m, s c ti a 3m s . Trong mt qun th dn s kch thc
n, c th c tng ng t 2m n nx2m s khc nhau.
5.3.3. Thuc tnh ca s
Cc s khc nhau c c trng khc nhau. Cc c trng ny th hin qua hai thuc
tnh quan trng: bc v chiu di xc nh.
139
Eval ( S , t ) =
Eval (C
j =1
ij
p (i ) =
Eval (C i )
Fit (t )
( S , t + 1) = ( S , t ) * n *
Gi Fit (t ) =
Eval ( S , t )
Fit (t )
Fit (t )
l thch nghi trung bnh ca qun th. Vit li cng thc (5-5a):
n
( S , t + 1) = ( S , t ) *
Eval ( S , t )
Fit (t )
( S , t ) = ( S ,0) * (1 + k ) t
trong ;
140
p del ( s ) =
( s)
L 1
t , xc sut tn ti:
p re ( S ) = 1
(s)
L 1
(s)
L 1
(s)
L 1
Kt hp qu trnh sinh sn vi ghp cho ta c phng trnh tng trng ca s sinh sn:
( S , t + 1) = ( S , t ) *
(S )
Eval ( S , t )
1 pc
L 1
Fit (t )
141
Kt hp ba ton t sinh sn, ghp cho, t bin cho ta phng trnh tng trng:
( S , t + 1) = ( S , t )
(S )
Eval ( S , t )
o( S ) p m
1 pc
L 1
Fit (t )
Khi p dng gii thut GAs cho cc vn thc t thng rt kh khn. L do:
Bn cht ca hm mc tiu.
a. C ch to mu
C hai vn quan trng trong tin trnh tin ho ca gii thut di truyn l: tnh a
dng ca qun th v p lc chn lc [12]. Hai yu t ny lin quan mt thit vi nhau: khi
tng p lc chn lc th tnh a dng ca qun th s gim v ngc li. Ni cch khc, p lc
hi t mnh s dn ti s hi t sm ca gii thut. Nhng nu p lc chn lc yu c th lm
cho tm kim thnh v hiu. Nh vy, cn tho hip hai vn . Hin nay, cc phng php
a ra u c khuynh hng d t ti mc ch ny.
Nm 1975 DeJong xem xt mt s bin th ca chn lc n gin bng cch a ra:
m hnh pht trin u t, m hnh gi tr mong i v m hnh nhn t tp trung.
Nm 1981 Brindle xem xt mt s bin th khc nh: to mu tt nh, to mu hn
lon, to mu hn lon phn d khng thay th, u tranh hn lon, to mu hn lon phn d
c thay th.
Nm 1987 Baker nghin cu phng php to mu khng gian hn lon. Phng php
ny dng cch quay bnh xe nh t l trc thc hin chn lc. Bnh xe ny c thit
k theo chun, quay vi s khong chia u theo kch thc qun th.
Xt mt qun th gm 4 nhim sc th. S liu cho trong Bng sau
142
S th
t
1
2
3
4
T ng
Nhi m
s c
thch
th
nghi
01101
169
11000
576
01000
64
10011
316
1170
T l
(%)
14.4
49.2
5.5
30.9
100
30,9%
5,5%
14,4%
42,9%
Ngi ta thc hin vic sinh sn bng cch quay bnh xe Roulette vi s ln bng s
nhim sc th trn bnh xe Roulette. i vi bi ton ny s ln quay bnh xe Roulette l 4.
Nhim sc th 1 c gi tr thch nghi l 169, tng ng 14,4 % tng thch nghi. Nh vy,
nhim sc th 1 chim 14.4% trn bnh xe Roulette. Mi ln quay nhim sc th 1 s chim
khe vi gi tr 0,144.
Khi yu cu sinh ra 1 th h mi, mt vng quay ca bnh xe Roulette c nh
trng s ph hp s chn ra mt c th sinh sn. Bng cch ny, nhng nhim sc th c
thch nghi cao s c c hi c chn ln. Nh vy, s c 1 s lng con chu ln trong
cc th h k tip.
b. Hm mc tiu
143
f i' = a * f i + b
Cn chn cc tham s a, b sao cho thch nghi trung bnh c nh x vo chnh n.
Tng thch nghi tt nht bng cch nhn n vi thch nghi trung bnh. C ch ny c th
to ra cc gi tr m cn x l ring. Ngoi ra, cc tham s a, b thng gn vi i sng qun
th v khng ph thuc vo bi ton.
b.2. Php ct Sigma
144
Kt hp phng php thng k hin i (nh phng php Bayes trong suy din m)
145
146
Theo N.Henderson. Cc cht ca mi c xut cho cc my bay phn lc ln Boeing 747. Washington
Post 24/8/1989
147
i khi chng thy rng cch hnh ng ca mt agent ch da trn chui kt qu tri gic
xc nh thi im, trong khi chng ta c th m t agent ring bit no bng cch xy
dng bng cc hnh vi n thi hnh p li chui kt qu tri gic c th. (Vi nhiu agent, bng
l mt danh sch rt di trong thc t s l v hn, tr khi chng ta t mt gii hn chiu di
ca chui kt qu tri gic m chng ta mun xem xt). Mt danh sch nh vy c gi l mt
php nh x t chui kt qu tri gic thnh cc hnh vi. V nguyn tc, chng ta c th tm ra mt
php nh x ph hp m t mt agent bng vic th tt c cc kh nng chp nhn c ca
chui kt qu tri gic v ghi li hnh vi m agent p li. (Nu agent s dng mt vi php ngu
nhin trong vic tnh ton, th chng ta s th mt vi chui kt qu tri gic, mi chui dm ba ln
a ra hiu bit ng v cch hnh ng theo mc thng thng ca agent). V nu s dng
cc php nh x m t cc agent, th cc php nh x l tng c s dng m t cc agent l
tng. Theo , hnh vi mt agent phi p li chui kt qu tri gic no s cho ta mt phc
tho v mt agent l tng.
D nhin, iu khng c ngha l chng ta phi to ra mt bng r rng cho mi chui
kt qu tri gic c kh nng xy ra. iu cho php xc nh mt c t php nh x m khng
phi lit k y n. Mt agent n gin c cho l rt hay: Hm cn bc hai gn ng ca
my tnh. Chui kt qu tri gic cho agent ny l mt chui cc s kin bm phm biu din cc
con s trn bn phm, hnh vi l hin th con s trn mn hnh hin th. Php nh x l tng: kt
qu tri gic l mt s thc x, hnh vi ng l hin th mt s thc z sao cho z2 x, ly chnh xc
n 15 ch s. S c t ca php nh x khng mang li cho ngi thit k cu trc thc ca
bng cc cn bc hai gn ng. V cng khng mang li cho hm cn bc hai gn ng s dng
bng c cch hnh ng chnh xc: Bng 5.3 ch ra mt phn ca php nh x l tng v mt
chng trnh n gin tnh ton php nh x s dng phng php tnh gn ng Newton.
V d cn bc hai gn ng trn minh ho quan h gia php nh x l tng v mt
thit k agent l tng cho rt nhiu nhim v l hu hn. Trong khi bng c kch thc rt ln,
th agent li l mt chng trnh hay sc tch. iu cho thy c th thit k cc agent sc tch
thc hin php nh x l tng vo cc tnh hung tng qut hn rt nhiu: cc agent m c th
gii quyt v s cc nhim v khc nhau trong v s cc mi trng khc nhau. Trc khi chng
148
149
Kt qu tri gic x
Hnh vi z
1.0
1.000000000000000
1.1
1.048808848170152
1.2
1.095445115010332
1.3
1.140175425099138
1.4
1.183215956619923
1.5
1.224744871391589
1.6
1.264911064067352
1.7
1.303840481040530
1.8
1.341640786499847
1.9
1.378404875209022
function SQRT(x)
Begin
z z (z2 - x)/(2z)
end
return z
S t tr (Autonomy)
C mt iu na cn quan tm trong vic nh ngha mt agent c l tr l tng: phn
S hiu bit c sn (built-in knowledge). Nu cc hnh vi ca agent c b tr hon ton
trong s hiu bit c sn, th d rng n khng cn ch ti cc kt qu tri gic ca n, th
chng ta ni rng agent thiu s t tr. Cho v d, nu nh sn xut ng h c th thy trc rng
ch nhn ca chic ng h s n Australia vo mt ngy no , th mt c ch c th c ci
t sn iu chnh cc kim mt cch t ng 6 gi cho ng. D nhin iu c th thc hin
thnh cng, nhng s thng minh dng nh l vic ca ngi thit k ng h hn l ca chnh
chic ng h.
Cch hnh ng ca agent c th c b tr vo trong c kinh nghim ca chnh n v
s hiu bit c sn trong khi xy dng cu trc ca agent, agent hot ng trong mt mi
trng c th. Mt h thng l t tr - autonomous4 ti mt mc nht nh l h thng m
cch hnh ng c quyt nh bi chnh kinh nghim ca n. Mc d n c th l qu kh khn
t c s t tr hon ton: khi agent c t hoc khng c kinh nghim, n phi hnh ng
ngu nhin tr khi ngi thit k a ra mt vi s gip . V vy, khi m s tin ho cung cp
cho ng vt vi y cc phn x t nhin th chng c th tn ti t hc tp, n c l
cung cp mt agent thng minh nhn to vi mt vi s hiu bit ban u ging nh nng lc
hc tp.
S t tr khng ch ph hp vi trc gic ca chng ta m n cn l mt v d ca thc
tin c s khoa hc. Mt agent hot ng trn c s ca cc gi nh s ch hot ng thnh cng
khi hiu r cc gi nh, v nh vy thiu i s linh hot. Gi s, cho v d con b hung. Sau khi
tm ra t v trng, n em v cc vin phn t mt ng phn gn bt li vo; nu vin
phn b ri trn ng i, con b hung s tip tc lm v bt li vo t vi nhng vin phn khc
4
Thut ng t tr - autonomous cng con c ngha no ging nh khng phi di s iu khin trc
tip ca mt ngi, v d s hot ng ca ln xe trn ng l t tr.
150
theo kch bn, m khng bao gi n nhng vin phn n nh ri. S tin ho gn vo
gi nh ca con b hung, v khi n b vi phm, kt qu ca hnh vi khng thnh cng (v
khng nht li cc vin phn b ri). Mt agent thng minh t tr thc s phi c kh nng hnh
ng thnh cng trong cc mi trng rng ln khc nhau cho thi gian thch nghi.
151
Cc tri gic
Cc hnh vi
Cc mc tiu
Mi trng
Sc
kho Bnh
nhn,
ngi
bnh, bnh vin
chi ph thp
nht
V tr chnh Bng ti vi
xc ca cc b cc b phn
phn trong cc my mc
thng
s an ton cao
nht
152
153
Hnh vi
Mc tiu
(Actions)
(Goals)
Cc camera, cng t
mt, h thng GPS,
microphone
An ton, nhanh, ng
lut, hnh trnh thoi
mi, kinh t nht
Mi trng
Environment
cc con ng,
Taxi cn s bit n u, trn con ng no v ang chy nhanh chm ra sao. Nhng
thng tin ny c th thu c t cc percept. l mt hoc nhiu camera (Controllable TV
camera), cng t mt o tc (Speedometer), v ng h o on ng i (Odometer). iu
khin xe c mt cch chnh xc, nht l trn on ng cong, cn phi c mt b iu khin tng
gim tc (accelerometer). Cng cn bit trng thi my mc ca xe c, v vy cn phi c mt h
thng cc cm bin c hc v in t (engine and electrical sensor). C th c cc thit b khng
c gi tr vi ngi iu khin thng thng nh: h thng v tinh nh v ton cu GPS, cung
cp thng tin chnh xc v tr trn bn in t, hoc cm bin hng ngoi (infrared sensor)
hoc cm bin m (sonar snesor) pht hin khong cch vi cc t v cc chng ngi vt
khc. Cui cng, cn c mt microphone hoc mt bn phm (keyboard) cho cc hnh khch
ni vi ni ni n ca h.
Cc hnh vi c th i vi agent Li taxi s t nhiu tng t nh i vi mt con ngi
iu khin taxi: iu khin ng c thng qua bn p gas, iu khin hng, iu khin phanh.
Ngoi ra, s cn a ra u ra trn mn hnh hoc thit b m thanh giao tip vi hnh khch;
v mt vi cch c th truyn thng vi cc xe c khc.
Kh nng phm vi thc hin (performance measure) m chng ta mun h thng li xe t
ng t c l g? Cc nng lc mong mun bao gm: n ch chnh xc, s tiu th nng
lng l t nht, hao mn t nht, t hng hc nht, thi gian hnh trnh ngn nht hoc chi ph t
nht hoc c thi gian v chi ph t nht, t vi phm lut giao thng nht, lm nh hng n cc
154
li xe khc l t nht, an ton nht, hnh khch thoi mi nht, thu li cao nht. R rng, mt vi
mc tiu l mu thun, v vy s cn phi c s tho hip.
Cui cng, vi d n thc t, chng ta phi quyt nh mi trng li xe taxi s i din.
N phi hot ng trn cc con ng a phng, hoc l trn cc xa l? l Nam California,
ni t khi c tuyt ri, hoc Alaska ni tuyt thng xuyn ri? Lun lun li xe bn phi hoc c
th chng ta mun linh hot c th i bn tri trong trng hp taxi hot ng nc Anh
hoc Nht Bn. R rng, mi trng b hn ch hn, vn thit k d dng hn.
By gi, chng ta phi quyt nh nh th no xy dng chng trnh thc thc hin
php nh x t cc i tng tri gic n cc hnh vi. Chng ta thy rng cc kha cnh iu khin
khc nhau s xut cc kiu agent chng trnh khc nhau. C 4 kiu agent c ch ra:
-
155
Th gii xung
quanh hin nay nh
qui tc
condition - action
Hnh ng phi
lm by gi l g
MI TRNG
cm bin
sensors
156
Hy xem r rng hn trng hp sau: thnh thong, ngi li xe nhn vo gng chiu
hu kim sot cc xe c pha sau. Khi li xe ang khng quan st gng, khng quan st thy
xe c ln ng bn cnh (tc l khng th phn bit c cc trng thi, chng xut hin
v khng xut hin); v vy quyt nh chuyn ln xe mt cch kho lo thn trng, ngi li
xe cn phi bit d l chng c hay khng.
Vn ny sinh, bi v cc sensor khng cung cp mt cch y trng thi. Trong cc
trng hp , agent c th duy tr mt vi thng tin trng thi bn trong nhn bit c cc
trng thi pht sinh ging nh gic quan em li, nhng d sao cng khc nhau mt cch ng k.
y, khc nhau mt cch ng k c ngha rng cc hnh ng khc nhau thch hp cho hai
trng thi.
Vic cp nht thng tin trng thi bn trong ny thc hin bng cch yu cu hai loi kin
thc c m ho trong agent chng trnh. Th nht, chng cn mt vi thng tin th gii xung
quanh tin trin khng ph thuc vo agent nh th no how the world evolves cho v d,
mt chic t ang vt qua nhn chung s l tin dn n pha sau hn l ngay tc th. Th hai,
chng ta cn mt vi thng tin Cc hnh ng ca agent phn ng li th gii xung quanh nh
th no What my actions do cho v d, khi agent r sang ng nh bn phi, c mt ci rnh
ct ngang trc mt n s tin v pha trc hoc li li v pha sau theo con ng ln ni c
con ng nh khc.
Hnh 5.20 a ra cu trc ca agent phn x, cho bit tri gic hin ti c kt hp vi
trng thi bn trong c sinh ra s m t cp nht ca trng thi hin thi. Agent chng trnh
c ch ra hnh 5.21. Mt nhim v th v l chc nng UPDATE-STATE, n p ng cho vic
to ra s m t trng thi bn trong mi. Ging nh cng vic phin dch tri gic mi di nh
sng ca kin thc c sn v trng thi, n s dng thng tin how the world evolves theo di
cc phn khng thy c ca th gii xung quanh, v cng phi bit cc hnh ng ca agent
lm g vi trng thi ca th gii.
Agent mc tiu (Goal-based agent)
What my actions do
qui tc
condition - action
Hnh ng phi lm
by gi l g
c quan phn ng li kich thch
effectors
cm bin
sensors
MI TRNG
state
157
158
C th
Tin nh
Phn on
Tnh
Ri rc
Yes
Yes
No
Semi
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Poker
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Backgammon
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Taxi driving
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Image-analysis system
Yes
Yes
Yes
Semi
No
Part-picking robot
No
No
Yes
No
No
Refinery controller
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
159
Hnh 5.21 Chng trnh m phng agent c bn. N sinh ra cho mi agent
cc tri gic ca chng, a ra mt hnh ng t mi agent, v sau cp nht
mi trng.
160
TM TT
Chng ny chng ta gii thiu tng quan mt s vn ca Tr tu nhn to, chng ta
hnh dung c vic thit k agent. Nhng im ch yu l:
Agent l mt ci g m n c th nhn bit v tc ng li mi trng. Chng ta
phn bit agent vi kiu kin trc v agent chng trnh.
Agent l tng lun lun thc hin hnh ng c mong i t c phm vi thc
hin cc i, em li chui kt qu tri gic n thy.
Agent l t tr phm vi m cc hnh ng ca n la chn c quyt nh bi
chnh kinh nghim ca n, mt phn no s hiu bit ca mi trng c xy
dng bi ngi thit k.
Chng trnh agent nh x t mt tri gic n mt hnh ng, khi cp nht mt trng
thi trong.
C nhiu chng trnh agent c bn khc nhau c thit k, c quyt nh bi loi
thng tin v vic s dng trong qu trnh ra quyt nh. Cc thit k dn n s khc
nhau v hiu qu, tnh sc tch v tnh linh ng. Cc thit k chng trnh agent thch
hp quyt nh bi cc tri gic, cc hnh ng, cc mc tiu v mi trng.
Cc agent phn x (reflex agents) phn ng li ngay tc th cc tri gic, cc agent mc
tiu c bn (goal-based agents) hnh ng vi mc ch l chng s ginh c c
cc mc tiu ca chng, v cc agent li ch (utility-based agent) c gng t c
s hnh phc ln nht.
161
CU HI V BI TP
1. Trinh by m hnh: mng n ron sinh vt v mng n ron nhn tao. Nu r cc thnh phn
c bn ca chng.
2. Trnh by thut ton lan truyn ngc
3.
162
GA
PC
CSDL .C s d liu
NLP:
IR
NP
VP
:Verb Phrase : ng t
163
[1]
Lng Chi Mai, Nguyn Hu Ho. p dng mng n ron m trong nhn dng ch
s, ch vit tay ting Vit. Bo co khoa hc k nim 25 nm thnh lp Vin
Cng ngh Thng tin, tr.623-631. 2001
[2]
Nguyn Quang Hoan. Recurrent High-Order Neural Networks Stability. Japan-USAVietnam Workshop, May, 13-15, 1998..
[3]
Nguyen Quang Hoan. Using Neural Networks for Vietnam Character Recognition.
The 4rd Telecommunication & Information Techno- Econmics Seminar between
PTIT & ETRI June, 2000. Hanoi.
[4]
[5]
Nguyn Quang Hoan. Nghin cu cc phng php v thut ton thng minh trn c s
mng n ron v logc m trong cng ngh thng tin v vin thng. ti cp Tng Cng
Ty BCVT,.M s 082-2000-TCT-R-T-83
[6]
Hong Kim, inh nguyn Anh Dng. Gio trnh: Tr tu nhn to. Nh xut bn
i hc Quc gia TP. H Ch Minh, 2005
[7]
Nguyn c Dn. Nhp mn Logic hnh thc. Nh xut bn i hc Quc gia TP. H
Ch Minh, 2005
[8]
[9]
inh Mnh Tng, Tr tu nhn to. Nh xut bn Gio dc.H ni, 2002
[10] Trung Tun. Tr tu nhn to. Nh xut bn Gio dc. H ni, 1998
[11] Trung Tun. H chuyn gia. Nh xut bn Gio dc. H ni, 1999
[12] Nguyn Hong Phng. Tr tu nhn to. Nh xut bn Khoa hc K thut. H ni,
2006
[13] Phan trng Dn. Llp trnh Turbo PrologNh xut bn Khoa hc K thut. H ni
[14] J. P. Beneke v J. S. Kunicki. Prediction of Telephone Traffic Load Using Fuzzy
Systems. Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. Petersburg. Teletraffic Seminar: New
Telecomm Services Developing Networks, St. Petersburg, Russia. pp. 270280. July, 2, 1995
164
165
MC LC
LI NI U .......................................................................................................................... 1
CHNG 1: KHOA HC TR TU NHN TO: TNG QUAN .................................. 3
1.1 LCH S HNH THNH V PHT TRIN .........................................................................................3
1.1.1. T duy nh con ngi: phng php nhn thc ..................................................................................3
1.1.2. Cc qui tc t duy.................................................................................................................................4
1.1.3. Khi ngun ca AI (1943 - 1956) ........................................................................................................4
1.2. CC TIN C BN CA TTNT......................................................................................................5
1.3. CC KHI NIM C BN .....................................................................................................................6
1.3.1. Tr tu nhn to(AI) l g?....................................................................................................................6
1.3.2. Tri thc l g? ......................................................................................................................................8
1.3.3. C s tri thc (Knowledge Base: KB) .................................................................................................8
1.3.4. H c s tri thc ...................................................................................................................................8
1.4 CC LNH VC NGHIN CU V NG DNG C BN...............................................................9
1.4.1 L thuyt gii bi ton v suy din thng minh ....................................................................................9
1.4.2 L thuyt tm kim may ri...................................................................................................................9
1.4.3 Cc ngn ng v Tr Tu Nhn To......................................................................................................9
1.4.4 L thuyt th hin tri thc v h chuyn gia .........................................................................................9
1.4.5 L thuyt nhn dng v x l ting ni.................................................................................................9
1.4.6 Ngi my..........................................................................................................................................10
1.4.7 Tm l hc x l thng tin ..................................................................................................................10
1.5 NHNG VN CHA C GII QUYT TRONG TR TU NHN TO ..........................12
TNG KT .....................................................................................................................................................12
BI TP V CU HI .................................................................................................................................13
166
167
168
NHP MN
TR TU NHN TO
M s: 412TTN340
Chu trch nhim bn tho
TRUNG TM O TO BU CHNH VIN THNG 1