Cognition : the way in which information is processes and manipulated in remembering,

thinking, and knowing.

1950 psychology resumes focus on the mind and mental processes.
Artificial intelligence (AI) : a scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of
performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people.
Concepts : mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
Prototype model : all instances of a concepts are compared to a prototype (ideal example) of
that concepts.
Thinking : the mental process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving
problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively.
Problem solving : the mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the
goal is not readily available.
Following the steps in problem solving :
1.
2.
3.
4.

Find and frame problems

Develop good problem-solving strategies
Evaluate solutions
Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time

Subgoals : intermediate goals or intermediate problems that put us in a better position for
reaching the final goal or solution.
Algorithms : strategies-including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutionsthat guarantee a solution to a problem.
Heuristics : shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not
guarantee an answer.
Fixation : using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective.
Functional fixedness : failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a things usual
functions.
Reasoning : the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions.

Inductive reasoning : reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations.

Deductive reasoning : reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific
instance.
Decision making : the mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them.
Two systems of reasoning and decision making :
1. System 1 => automatic (rapid, heuristic, intuitive)
2. System 2 => controlled ( slower, effortful, analytical)
Biases and heuristics :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Confirmation bias => search only for into that supports our ideas.
Base rate fallacy => ignore info about general principles.
Hindsight bias => report falsely that we predicted on outcome.
Representativeness heuristic => make judgments based on stereotypes.
Availability heuristic => predict probability based on ease of recall.

Mindfulness : the state of being alert and mentally present for ones everyday activities.
Open-mindedness : the state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things,
Emotion and cognition :
1. Moods influence the way we think
2. Bad moods : use careful logic to solve problem.
3. Good moods : efficiency, originality
Divergent thinking : thinking that produces many solution to the same problem.
Convergent thinking : thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem.
Characteristics of creative thinkers :
1.
2.
3.
4.

Flexibility and playful thinking

Inner motivation
Willingness to face risk
Objective evaluation of work

Intelligence : all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive task, to solve problems, and to learn from
experience.
Meansuring intelligence :
1. Validity => the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

2. Reliability => the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of
performance.
3. Standardization => the development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring
a test and the creation of norms.
Intelligence test :
1. Binet- mental age (MA) => an individuals level of mental development relative to that of
others.
2. Stern- intelligence quotient => an individuals mental age divided by chronological age
multiplied by 100.
3. Normal distribution => a symmetrical, bell shaped curve, with a majority of the scores
falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes
of the range.
4. Stand ford- binet test
Culture-fair test : intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased.
Genetic :
1. Heritability => the proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained
by differences in the genes of the groups members.
2. Increases with age
Environmental :
1. Flynn effect
Gifted : possessing high intelligence and or superior talent in a particular area.
Intellectual disability : a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ,
usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life.
Sternbergs triarchic theory :
1. Analytical intelligence => the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast.
2. Creative intelligence => the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine.
3. Practical intelligence => the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice.
Gardners frames of mind :
1. Verbal => the ability to think in words and use language to express meaning.
2. Mathematical => the ability to carry out mathematical operation.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Spatial => the ability to think three-dimensionally.

Bodily-kinesthetic => the ability to manipulate objects and to be physically adept.
Musical => the ability to be sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone.
Interpersonal => the ability to understand and interact effectivelywith others.
Intrapersonal => the ability to understand oneself.
Naturalist => the ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and

human-made system.
9. Existentialist => the ability to grapple with the big questions of human existence, such as
the meaning of life and death, with special sensitivity to issue of spirituality.
Language : a form of communication-whether spoken, written, or signed-that is based on a
system of symbols.
Infinite generativity : the ability of language to produce an endless number of meaningful
sentences.
Structure of language :
1. Phonology => a languages sound system.
2. Morphology => a languages rules for word formation.
3. Syntax => a languages rules for combining words to from acceptable phrases and
sentence.
4. Semantics => the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language.
5. Pragmatics => the useful character of language and the ability of language to
communicate even more meaning than is said.
Coping : managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve lifes problems, and seeking
to master or reduce stress.
Cognitive reappraisal : regulating ones feelings about an experience by reinterpreting that
experience or thinking about it in a different way or from a different angle.