.

(Integrated Circuit
IC)

(Silicon Si)

(semiconductor).

(Printed Circuit Boards
PCB)

fiberglass


SMT,

Wafer

Wafer chip

5.

(hardware) (software) H/Y

(hardware)
, ( )
,

,

,
, mouse, ),
.

(software)

.

,
.

(system software) (operating

system) (utility
programs) editors, library routines, compilers,
.


(application software)



.

,
, .

(operating system)

,

,

.


.


,
.

Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X, Unix,

Linux, Android, .

Central Processing Unit (CPU).

(
0 1)
.

(processor).
Main memory (

).

CPU.

0, 1

CPU.
Input/Output (I/O).

CPU,

I/O.

(CPU)

datapath

.
datapath

(ALU),
,



(floating point units FPU)

CPU.
control unit (

CPU

ALU

ALU

(control lines).
A, B,

ALU

(Arithmetic Logic Unit, ALU)

.
n bit

.
ALU

R.

(flags)

(
,
,

, ).

ALU
A

B
n

Flags

ALU

n
R

Control
Lines

Overflow

-3
+ -6
-9

(overflow)

2

.

1101
+1010
1) 0111 = +7

+5
+6
+11

0101
+0110
1011 = -5

15.

8-bit

c
ALU

v
s

Control
lines

s - Sign flag. Set if the 2-complement value is negative (copy of

MSB)
z - Zero flag. Set if the value is zero
v Overflow flag. Overflow set if the 2-complement result does
not fit in the register
c - Carry Set if the result did not fit in the register

signals),

s (sign), z (zero)

signals)

11001110.

11001110.

01001101

(control

c (carry), v (overflow),
.

01001101

(control

(OR).

16.

n = 8.

(ALU)

)

Cout, G7G1G0 7A1A0 =
1111, 7 1 0 = 01111100, Cin S2S1S0=010.
)

G7G1G0 7A1A0 = 10001101,
7 1 11111,Cin S2S1S0=110.
)

A,
Cin S2S1S0


(register)

. X,

n bit,
CLK

, LD

, CLR
.

CLK

LD

CLR
n

-bit
x

x3

x1

x2

MUX

MUX

x0

MUX

MUX

LD
CLK
CLR
CLR

CLR

CLR

CLR

z3

z2

z1

z0

17.

LD=1

4-bit

CLK

CLR=0.

LD.
1

CLK

1
LD=1

1
CLR=0

CLK

LD=0
CLR=0


(main memory)

CPU.

2nb-bit.
n bit,

2n
,

b bit.

000.000
000.001
000.010

2n

111.110
111.111
n-bit

b-bit

Kbyte KB, 1 KB = 210 byte =1024 byte,

Mbyte MB, 1 MB = 220 byte,
Gbyte GB, 1 GB = 230 byte,
Tbyte
,1
= 240 byte.

Kbit Kb, 1 Kb = 210 bit =1024 bit,
Mbit Mb, 1 Mb = 220 bit,
Gbit Gb, 1 Gb = 230 bit,
Tbit
b, 1 b = 240 bit.

RAM),

(Random Access Memories

(static)
(dynamic).

(Read Only Memories,

ROM)

ROM

,
,

Videogames
Smartphones
Mobile phone, Applications
Internet Access
PC (desktops, laptops,
Applications, Internet Access
netbooks, tablets)
Workstation
CAD/CAM, Graphics
Server
Networks
Mainframe

Browsers, e-mail

, .
Internet
.
tablets.

,
,
, Web
clients,


,

desktop, laptop, netbooks,

workstation

T workstations

.

. workstations
()
.

,

graphics user
interface (GUI).
, workstation

Workstation

Servers

server

clients

(
).
server web servers,
database servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers,
application servers, .
.

Rack mount server

Servers

Computer Network

Network switches
network switches ( switching hubs)

packet switching.
network switches

network bridge

data link layer (layer 2).

network switches

network layer.
switches

as layer-3 multilayer switches.

Ethernet Switch

Routers
routers

hardware,

internetwork,
router

, router

.
routers

"traffic
directing"
Internet.

router

 Router

routers

Internet.
router

DSL router

Internet
ISP (Internet

Service Provider).
routers,
enterprise routers,

ISP

core routers

Internet backbone.

routers

hardware,
router

software

ADSL Enterprise Router

Core
routers

Embedded systems

.
,


.

(embedded system)

Real-time operating systems

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system (OS)
intended to serve application process data as it comes in,
typically without buffering delays. Processing time requirements
(including any OS delay) are measured in tenths of seconds or
shorter.
A key characteristic of an RTOS is the level of its consistency
concerning the amount of time it takes to accept and complete an
application's task; the variability is jitter. A hard real-time
operating system has less jitter than a soft real-time operating
system. The chief design goal is not high throughput, but rather a
guarantee of a soft or hard performance category. An RTOS that
can usually or generally meet a deadline is a soft real-time OS,
but if it can meet a deadline deterministically it is a hard real-time
OS.

An RTOS has an advanced algorithm for scheduling.

Scheduler flexibility enables a wider, computer-system
orchestration of process priorities, but a real-time OS is more
frequently dedicated to a narrow set of applications. Key
factors in a real-time OS are minimal Interrupt latency and
minimal thread switching latency. A real-time OS is valued
more for how quickly or how predictably it can respond than for
the amount of work it can perform in a given period of time.

According to a 2014 Embedded Market Study, the following RTOS

are among the top 10 operating systems used in the embedded
systems market:
Green Hills Software INTEGRITY
Wind River VxWorks
QNX Neutrino
FreeRTOS
Micrium C/OS-II, III
Windows CE
TI-RTOS Kernel (previously called DSP/BIOS)