Marks

Question 33 Astrophysics (25 marks)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(i)

Outline the reasons why many space observatories have been placed into
Earth orbit.

(ii)

Identify one way in which ground-based observatories can have their

resolutions improved.

The position of a star is found by photographing it against background stars just

before dawn on 1st June. On 1st December, the same star is photographed just
after sunset. Its position was found to have changed by 0.08 arcseconds.
By first finding the stars parallax angle, calculate the distance to this star in
parsecs.

(i)

Different types of spectra are produced by stars, galaxies, emission

nebulae and quasars. Identify the types of spectra produced by each of
these objects.

(ii)

Account for the production of absorption spectra and show why, for the
same element, the characteristic wavelengths are the same as those found
in emission spectra.

Identify one area of current research in the field of Astrophysics and describe
this research, including its potential benefits to society.

(i)

Identify two of the risks associated with performing a first-hand

investigation to examine spectra produced in discharge tubes and
reflected sunlight.

(ii)

For one risk identified in question (e) (i), describe a precaution that was
taken so as to minimise this risk.

We are the stuff of stars. If not for the stars that are now long gone, we would
be mere puffs of gas.
Assess this quote by describing the synthesis of elements in stars.

24

c.

(i)

Marking Criteria
Description of properties made thoroughly with clear comparisons
Some properties described; comparison attempted
A property identified

Marks
3
2
1

The desirable properties of radioisotopes are: short half-lives (so that the amount of radiation quickly decays after being injected into the
body); and biological tagging (can be bound to another molecule which is taken up by specific organs). Unsuitable radioisotopes have long
half-lives so that they continue to emit radiation long after the scan has been completed. Also, some radioisotopes are not capable of being
bound to biologically active molecules so they do not accumulate in specific organs or may be expelled relatively quickly by the body.
c.

(ii)

Marking Criteria
Thorough description of PET including why cancer cells can be resolved; logical and sequential with
correct physics
Some points on the basis of PET given
Identification of a relevant fact to the operation of PET given

Marks
4-5
2-3
1

A source of positrons such as fluorine-18 in the form of 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) is injected into or inhaled by the patient. Such a
radioisotope is produced in a cyclotron. It has a half-life of about 2 hours, so decays quickly after the scan is performed. When a positron
collides with an electron, pair annihilation occurs and two gamma rays travelling in opposite directions with energies of 511 keV are detected
in a gamma ray camera. The gamma ray camera feeds information into a computer which produces an image. Cancer cells or tumors usually
have a higher water content than normal tissue. As water contains two hydrogen atoms per molecule, the gamma rays from tumors have a
higher intensity so such areas are resolved on the scan.
d.
Marking Criteria
Current area of research described in depth with potential benefits to society well defined
Current area of research described adequately some benefit(s) identified
Current area of research identified and some further information given
An area of research identified

Marks
4
3
2
1

[This question relates to PFA 5. As such, wide-ranging responses may be expected. A good response should show evidence of wide
knowledge and reading in medical physics.]
e.g. Functional MRI the imaging of the areas of the brain which blood flows to when different thought processes or stimuli or induced. This
is possible due to the way in which advances in MRI have been made in recent years so that targeted areas of the organ (the brain) can be
continuously scanned without harm to the patient. This may lead to information which increases our understanding of diseases like epilepsy,
depression, memory loss, dementia etc. This knowledge may lead to better treatments or preventative medicines which increases patients
quality of life or prevents the disease from occurring.
e.

(i)

Marking Criteria
Risks outlined well for both patient and operator
A risk identified

Marks
2
1

A bone scan is produced when a radioisotope (usually Technetium-99m) is injected into the patient. This is a gamma ray emitter. The patient
will receive gamma ray radiation for a relatively short time, as Tc 99m has a half life of
e.
(ii)
Marking Criteria
Marks
Appropriate response including benefit outweighing risk is provided
1
The medical benefits in being able to make an accurate diagnosis of the condition (e.g. cancer) outweighs the slight increased risk of
contracting cancer from the radiation.
f.

(i)
Marking Criteria
Complete explanation given
Description of diagram or partial explanation only

Marks
2
1

A very strong external magnetic field is applied causing the nuclei to have their spin align with it.
f.

(ii)
Marking Criteria
Complete description given
Partial description only or identification of condition required for precession

Marks
2
1

Pulses of radio waves at a certain frequency are directed at these spinning nuclei which causes them to precess.
33

Astrophysics

a.

(i)
Marking Criteria

Marks
2
1

Two distinct reasons outlined well

One reason outlined

Observatories in Earth orbit are above the atmosphere so that they are not affected by seeing (the blurring of images due to refraction effects)
and are not subjected to the selective absorption of radiation by the atmosphere.
a.

(ii)
Marking Criteria

Marks
1

One method identified

e.g. One of: adaptive optics; active optics or interferometry
b.
Marking Criteria
Parallax angle found correctly and subsequent distance calculation performed correctly
Angle given used incorrectly to find distance using correct equation correctly
Angle given used incorrectly and a further error made

Marks
3
2
1

The parallax angle to use is = x 0.08 = 0.04.

Using d = 1/p
= 1/0.04
= 25 p.c.
c.

(i)

Marking Criteria
All types of spectra identified correctly
Three types of spectra correctly identified
One type of spectra attributed to source correctly in addition to emission nebula
Source
Stars
Galaxies
Emission nebula
Quasars
c.

Marks
3
2
1

Type of spectra produced

absorption
continuous*
emission
emission

(ii)

Marking Criteria
Thorough account given with clear link between absorption and emission wavelengths
A response outlining process of absorption line production given
Some relevant information given identifying reason(s) for absorption

Marks
4-5
3
1-2

An absorption spectrum is produced when a background source of a continuous spectrum (such as the core of a star) passes through a heated
gas containing molecules, ions and atoms. Electrons in the gas particles are able to absorb photons of set amounts of energy so they can jump
up energy level(s), or orbitals. According to the relationship between the absorbed energy and frequency, E = hf, each set amount of energy
absorbed has a certain frequency, f. When the excited electron relaxes and loses its absorbed energy, it falls back down to a lower energy
level orbital and re-emits the photon with the original frequency of the absorbed light. The re-emission occurs in all directions so that to an
observer, the overall effect is less intensity at that wavelength against the continuous background an absorption spectrum. With emission
spectra, the same frequencies for the same atoms/ions appear as bright lines as there is no continuous spectrum background source.
d.
Marking Criteria
Current area of research described in depth with potential benefits to society well defined
Current area of research described adequately some benefit(s) identified
Current area of research identified and some further information given
An area of research identified

Marks
4
3
2
1

[This question relates to PFA 5. As such, wide-ranging responses may be expected. A good response should show evidence of wide
knowledge and reading in astrophysics.]
e.g. In the field of deep space observation, the future Gaia observatory, the Hubble Space Telescope and other observatories in Earth orbit
are making advances in observations of increasingly distant objects. The light originated from these objects only a few hundred million years
after the Big Bang the better the observations resolution using interferometry etc, along with better sensitivity, the further back in time can
the telescope see. With such observations of the early universe, we may gain an increased understanding of how our universe formed.
e.

(i)
Marking Criteria

Marks
2
1

Two risks clearly identified

One risk identified

e.g. 1. The risk of electric shock/electrocution from the high voltage source necessary to operate a discharge tube; 2. The risk of damage to
the eyes by accidentally looking directly at the Sun through the spectroscope.
e.

(ii)
Marking Criteria

Marks
1

Appropriate precaution described

e.g. Ensuring appropriate distance is kept between hands/body parts and the voltage source and wires when tube is operating
f.
Marking Criteria
Synthesis of elements well described and quote appropriately assessed
Synthesis of elements described
Several relevant pieces of information provided
One relevant aspect of element synthesis given

Marks
4
3
2
1

In the core of main sequence stars hydrogen nuclei are being fused into helium nuclei. The cores of red giant stars fuse heavier nuclei such as
helium into carbon. More massive red giant stars are able to fuse and synthesise elements all the way to iron, as these processes are
exothermic and sustain fusion in the star. Any nuclei heavier than iron forms in an endothermic process within the central core of a
supernova explosion. The existence on Earth of these heavier elements is proof of the existence of stars which have ceased to exist. The leftover material has since re-formed into our solar system and us.
34

From Quanta to Quarks

a.

(i)

Marking Criteria
Correct identification of appropriate instrument

Marks
1

A spectroscope or spectral analyser

a.

(ii)

Marking Criteria
Significance outlined clearly
Some link between Balmer series and Bohr model made

Marks
2
1

The Balmer series (the first hydrogen series observed) showed only discrete lines of emission at certain wavelengths not a continuous
spectrum. Bohr could account for this by allowing electrons to jump between set energy levels and emitting photons with frequencies
proportional to the difference in the energies of the allowed levels.
b.
Marking Criteria
Wavelength calculated and its size recognised and related to our world
Wavelength calculated correctly
Wavelength stated as being too small to be noticed or identified but not calculated

Marks
3
2
1

h
mv
6.626 1034
=
57.0 103 50.0
= 2.32 1034 m

Such a wavelength is completely undetectable in our world it is about a millionth millionth millionth millionth the diameter of a hydrogen
atom.
c.

(i)

Marking Criteria
Transmutation well described with at least one example shown by correct nuclear reaction
Transmutation described lacking a nuclear reaction
Transmutation identified

Marks
3
2
1

Transmutation is the changing of a nucleus of one element into a nucleus of another element i.e. the number of protons in the nucleus is
changed, usually by alpha or beta decay or by fission into two smaller nuclei.
e.g.

238
92

234
90

Th + 24 He and

65
29

Cu

65
30

Zn +

0
1

(alpha decay and beta decay)

c.

(ii)

Marking Criteria
Thorough description of mass defect with clear role in nucleus stability showing evidence of superior
understanding of the topic
Mass defect identified and linked to nuclear stability
Identification of mass defect

Marks
5
3-4
1-2

The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the individual nucleons within the nucleus itself. The missing mass is known as
mass defect. Using E=mc2, the mass defect is equated to binding energy the energy that is keeping the nucleus bound together to overcome
the electrostatic repulsion between the protons in the nucleus. The strong nuclear force between nucleons only acts over very small distances
found in a nucleus this force must be overcome to split a nucleus or to remove nucleons. The greater the mass defect per nucleon in the
nucleus, the more stable is the nucleus.

Marks
Question 33 Astrophysics (25 marks)
(a)

(i)

Explain why telescopes are built with a large primary mirror despite the
extra cost involved.

(ii)

Identify the meaning of the astronomical term seeing.

(iii)

Identify two methods by which the resolution and/or sensitivity of a

ground-based observatory can be improved.

(b)

Compare the distance units of the parsec and the light-year by describing how
they are defined and explain why they are both considered as being earthdependent measurements.

(c)

(i)

Intensity-wavelength graphs of two stars are shown below.

star A
intensity

star B

wavelength

(d)

(e)

Outline two ways in which the stars light outputs differ. Give reasons.

(ii)

Identify a possible source of a continuous spectrum of light.

(iii)

Outline why the spectra of most stars are not continuous.

Many models, theories and laws in Physics are tested in simple investigations.
(i)

Describe an investigation you performed that demonstrated the use of

filters for photometric measurements in astronomy.

(ii)

Compare your investigation with the actual use of filters or their modern
day equivalent in modern astronomy.

Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are thought to have been produced
in stars. Discuss the production of the known elements inside stars by fusion.

25

T1 relaxation time refers to the time taken for protons aligned to a magnetic field to relax back to their normal spin state, emitting a pulse
of radio wave electromagnetic radiation in the process.
e.
Marking Criteria
The use of medical physics is justified in a well-balanced, logical and clearly espoused response
showing evidence of a deep understanding of the nature of medical physics and its applications and
benefits
The nature of medical physics is described using references to its applications and an attempt to justify
its use is made
Several aspects of medical physics, including applications, are identified
An application of medical physics is identified

Marks
5-6

3-4
2
1

The use of medical physics is limited to the general populations of the richer nations in the world where its use has become expected and
routine. The diagnosis, treatment and cure of many illnesses, diseases and medical situations such as pregnancy, injuries etc which ultimately
prevents premature death and extends the quality and length of life in these countries has directly benefited their economies and societies to
the extent that they are able to now extend aid in ever-increasing ways, including medical, to poorer nations. Medical technology may lead to
cures for diseases like malaria which could benefit poorer as well as richer countries and should therefore be pursued for the good of the
citizens of both rich and poor countries.
33

Astrophysics

a. (i)
Marking Criteria
Clear explanation with reference to both resolution and sensitivity
Reference made to one of resolution or sensitivity OR both factors identified

Marks
2
1

Sample answer
The surface area of a collecting mirror is proportional to the square of its diameter/radius, which in turn is proportional to the light collecting
ability of the mirror its sensitivity. The resolution of the telescope is proportional to the diameter of the mirror.
a. (ii)
Marking Criteria

Marks
1

Term is identified correctly

Sample answer
Seeing is the term used by astronomers when referring to the blurring or distorting effect of the atmosphere on the image obtained.
a. (iii)
Marking Criteria

Marks
2
1

Two methods identified

One method identified
Two of: adaptive optics; active optics, interferometry.
b.
Marking Criteria
Both terms defined and compared accurately with Earth-dependent natures clearly identified
Either term defined including Earth-dependent nature OR both terms defined
Either term defined

Marks
3-4
2
1

A parsec is about 3 light years. It is the distance that a star with a parallax angle of 1 arcsecond is from earth, a measurement wholly
dependent upon the radius of Earths orbit around the Sun. A light year is the distance light travels in one Earth year in a vacuum again
dependent on the length (and definition) of a year on Earth.
c. (i)
Marking Criteria

Marks
2
1

Two differences given

One difference given
Star A is more luminous (radiates more light) and has a bluer colour than Star B.
c.

(ii)
Marking Criteria

Marks
1

A correct source is identified

An incandescent globe (or any other very hot object).
c.

(iii)

Marking Criteria
A clear outline of a typical stars spectrum formation is provided
A typical stars spectrum is identified

Marks
2
1

While the very hot core of a star produces a continuous spectrum, the outer regions of the star, known as its atmosphere, contain atoms, ions
and molecules which absorb certain wavelengths from the continuous spectrum. These same wavelengths are re-emitted in all directions and
produce dark lines at those wavelengths when the stars light is viewed through a spectroscope.
d. (i)
Marking Criteria
An appropriate investigation is described in full with the role of filters related to astronomy
An appropriate investigation is described
An appropriate investigation is identified OR a use of filters in astronomy is identified

Marks
3
2
1

Blue and red coloured filters were, in turn, placed in front of the light-gathering sensor of a light meter or light-probe attached to a data
logger. Light sources such as a globe, a sodium vapour lamp and fluorescent lights had their light intensity measured through both filters,
ensuring that the same distance from the source and same sensor was used for both measurements. The difference between the two light
intensity measurements was related to the colour of the source.
d. (ii)
Marking Criteria
Investigation is compared to the modern-day equivalent of the use of filters
Modern-day use of filters or their equivalent is identified

Marks
2
1

A typical colour index measurement of a star is the blue magnitude minus the yellow (visual) magnitude. Blue and yellow filters have now
been replaced by the use of CCDs which can record the intensities of light at different wavelengths so a colour index can be computed faster
and with more accuracy.
e.
Marking Criteria
A thorough discussion, including the outline of the process of the:

proton-proton chain;

CNO cycle

supernova explosions to produce elements heavier than Fe

is provided showing evidence of a deep understanding of nucleosynthesis in stars.
A discussion of nucleosynthesis, including the outline of two of:

proton-proton chain

CNO cycle

supernove explosions
is provided
Several process or aspects of stellar nucleosynthesis are identified
A process or aspect of the synthesis of elements in stars is identified

Marks
5-6

3-4

2
1

The proton-proton chain allows the step-wise combination of 4 protons to form a helium nucleus (plus energy, positrons and neutrinos) in the
relatively cool (<16 million K) core of stars. The CNO cycle uses carbon as a catalysts in another stepwise reaction to do, overall, exactly
what the proton-proton chain does convert 4 protons into a helium nucleus. This process occurs in hotter cores (> 16 million K). Once the
hydrogen fuel becomes depleted, further fusion processes occur in red giants in layers rather like onion layers He into C and further
processes to produce all the elements up to Fe. Heavier elements cannot be produced as the fusion process for them is not sustainable, being
endothermic. However within the enormously energetic explosion of a supernova, these fusion processes can occur and all of the natural
elements (or more precisely their nuclei) are formed much of which is then scattered throughout the surrounding part of the galaxy.
34

From Quanta to Quarks

a. (i)
Marking Criteria
Bohrs three postulates are defined
One postulate is defined or two are identified

Marks
2
1

1. Electrons can orbit the nucleus only in fixed energy levels or orbitals.
2. Electrons in these orbitals do not radiate energy.
3. Electrons can jump between orbitals by absorbing energy (jump up) or releasing energy in the form of a photon (jump down).
a. (ii)
Marking Criteria
An advance on Rutherfords model is identified

Marks
1

e.g. electrons could orbit without losing energy and spiralling into the nucleus
a. (iii)
Marking Criteria
Two appropriate unexplainable features described
One unexplainable feature described or two identifies

Marks
2
1

Any two of:

The Zeeman Effect splitting of spectral lines when the source is subjected to a magnetic field;

the relative intensities of the spectral lines some lines are more intense than others;

unable to predict the spectra of larger atoms now known to be due to the complicated nature of orbitals in such atoms;

hyperfine spectral lines very fine lines resolved upon close examination of a single line.

Marks
Question 36 Astrophysics (25 marks)

(a)

(b)

(i)

Identify why Galileos use of the telescope to identify features of the

moon caused controversy at the time.

(ii)

Describe how a larger diameter objective lens or mirror affects the

resolution of a telescope.

(iii)

Outline one other method which can be used to improve the resolution of
a telescope.

(i)

The graph below is a plot of the intensity versus wavelength for star A.
intensity

star A

max

(ii)

wavelength

Re-draw the graph in your answer booklet and then sketch the intensity
versus wavelength curve for star B, a star which has a surface
temperature exactly double that of star A but is the same size as star A.
Label both curves.

Given that both stars are the same distance away from earth, identify two
differences in their appearance.

Question 36 continues on page 28.

27

Marks
Question 36 (continued)

(c)

(i)

With reference to examples of types of variable stars, outline the

difference between intrinsic and extrinsic variable stars.

(ii)

The light intensity curve of a star is shown below:

light
intensity

time
Identify the type of star and explain how such a light curve could be
produced.

(d)

A star called Luma has an absolute magnitude of - 4.0. It is 120 pc away. By

first calculating Lumas apparent magnitude, find how much brighter Luma
appears to be than another star with an apparent magnitude of +12.0.

(e)

It is known that stars can end their lives in a variety of ways such as planetary
nebulae, supernovae, white dwarfs, neutron stars or as black holes. With
reference to such endings, explain the concept of star death and how each of
these endings may be reached.

28

No dangerous radiation (no X-rays or gamma rays) like in X-rays, radioisotope use or PET scans;
Real-time images (functional MRI) possible e.g. within the brain
Many real and clear benefits functions observed, no radiation incurred, no need to supply radioisotopes, no danger of exposure
to workers

36

Astrophysics

a. (i)
Marking Criteria

Marks
1

One point of controversy identified

Galileo identified that the Moon had mountains and was therefore not a perfect heavenly body.
a. (ii)
Marking Criteria
Resolution is improved proportionally to the diameter of the lens/mirror
Resolution is improved

Marks
2
1

The resolution of an optical device is proportional to the diameter of the collecting lens or mirror. A larger lens or mirror
therefore improves the resolution of the device.
a. (iii)
Marking Criteria

Marks
2
1

One valid method outlined clearly

One valid method identified

e.g. Interferometry: placing separate collecting devices (e.g. radiotelescopes) at separate locations and linking them using fibre optics to
merge the data gives resolution as if there was one large dish with a diameter approaching that of the distance between the telescopes.
b. (i)

Marking Criteria
curve peak wavelength and maximum intensity are appropriate
either curve peak wavelength or maximum intensity appropriate

Marks
2
1

intensity
star B

star A

maxB

maxA

wavelength

b. (ii)

Marking Criteria
Two appropriate differences identified
One appropriate difference identified

Marks
2
1

Star B will appear brighter and its colour will be more white or blue than star A.
c. (i)
Marking Criteria
Difference is outlined with reference to examples of both types of variables

Difference is outlined without examples OR Difference outlined with example of one type of
variable only

Marks
2
1

Intrinsic variable stars such as Cepheid variables vary in luminosity, i.e. actual light output, whereas extrinsic variables have their observed
brightness varied by an external factor such as an eclipsing binary system.
c.(ii)
Marking Criteria

Star type identified

Cause of light curve provided

Plausible explanation of light curve given with reference to size of stars involved
TWO of the above

Star type identified OR Cause of light curve provided

Marks
3
2
1

The light curve is an example of that of an eclipsing binary system where one star periodically passes in front of the other, eclipsing or
blocking some of the light from the other star. The eclipsing star blocks only some of the light from the other, so is probably smaller than its
companion star.

d. (i)

Marking Criteria
value of m for Luma calculated
Lumas brightness ratio with other star is found
Lumas brightness ratio calculated with one error in calculations
value of m for Luma calculated
attempt to obtain brightness ratio made
value of m for Luma calculated but with an error

d
m 5log

10
120
4.0 =m 5 log

10
m=
4.0 + 5log12
= 1.4

Marks
4
3
2
1

M=

IA
= 100 ( mB mA ) / 5
IB
= 100 (12.0 1.4 ) / 5
= 100 2.12
= 132

Therefore Luma is 132 times brighter than the other star.

e.

Marking Criteria
Concept of star death explained
Each listed ending described
Cause of each listed ending outlined
Response is constructed in a logical and coherent manner with evidence of thorough
understanding of the death of stars
Concept of star death explained
Most of the listed endings described
Cause of most listed endings outlined
Concept of star death outlined
Some of the listed endings described
Cause of some endings outlined
Concept of star death identified OR One of the listed endings described

Marks

6-7

4-5

2-3
1

stars deplete their reserves of hydrogen when on the main sequence

after going through one of several pathways depending upon their mass, the star will cease to fuse lighter nucleii into heavier,
and die:
larger stars can begin to fuse heavier elements producing heavier elements up to Fe
when fusion can no longer take place, the stars core collapses, releasing huge amounts of energy
smaller stars will simply puff off their outer layers and collapse back to a white dwarf, with a resulting planetary nebulae being
observed as the gas spreads out into space
larger stars will explode violently, becoming supernova
the left over material collapses under its gravity, forcing electrons into the nucleii (protons) to form neutrons a neutron star
the largest stars may continue the collapse beyond the neutron star stage to become black holes as their gravity can trap even
light from escaping

37

From Quanta to Quarks

a. (i)
Marking Criteria

Marks
1

Both products identified

A beta particle (i.e.an electron from the nucleus) and Bismuth-214.
a. (ii)

Marking Criteria
unidentified particle emission
conservation of energy requirement
an unknown/unidentified particle emitted

Marks
2
1

Pauli suggested that the differences in energies could be accounted for if an as-yet unidentified particle (now called the neutrino) was
emitted when beta particle emission occurred. This other particle would have varying kinetic energy, but in each case make up for the
difference.
a. (iii)

Marking Criteria
mass deficit identified and outlined
mass deficit identified

Marks
2
1

The binding energy is found by measuring the mass of the entire nucleus. This mass is slightly less than the sum of its constituents masses
(protons and neutrons), and by E=mc2, the binding energy is calculated.
b.
Marking Criteria
Marks
4

fuel, moderator and control rods described