1) critical-mindedness looks for inconsistencies consults a number of authorities challenges the validity of statements

2) suspended judgment (restraint) recognizes the restrictions in generalizations and theories generalizes only to the
degree justified by available evidence
3) respect for evidence looks for evidence (empirical approach) to support or contradict statements demands
interpretations that fit the evidence collects as much evidence as possible
4) honesty reports all evidence even when it contradicts hypothesis or expectations acknowledges the work of others
5) objectivity considers all pros and cons considers all evidence available considers and evaluates statements by others
6) willingness to change opinions recognizes all hypotheses, generalizations and theories as being tentative evaluates
evidence which contradicts prediction alters hypotheses when necessary to accommodate empirical evidence
7) open-mindedness considers several possible options when investigating a problem considers and evaluates ideas
presented by others
8) questioning attitude looks for inconsistencies challenges the validity of unsupported statements asks many questions
starting with who, where, when and how 9) tolerance of uncertainty accepts that there is always some uncertainty strives
for greater and greater certainty

1.PONOLOHIYA
- (mula sa salitang Griyego: "tunog, boses") ay sangay ng lingguwistika (linguistics) na nag-aaral ng mga tunog
o ponema (phonemes) ng isang wika, ang pagkukumpara ng mga ito sa mga tunog ng iba pang wika at ang
sistema ng paggamit ng mga tunog na ito upang makabuo ng yunit ng tunog na may kahulugan.
2. Ponema- ay ang makabuluhang tunog. Binubuo ng 20 ponema ang Filipino, ito ay may 15 katinig at 5
patinig.
Mga katinig
=B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P,Q,R,S,T,V,W,X,Y,Z
Mga patinig
A, E, I, O, U
3.Diptonggo- Ang Diptonggo ay ang mga patinig na may karugtong na malapatinig na w at y.
Halimbawa: araw,pakay,kahoy,kasuy,reyna,sila'y
4.Morpolohiya-Ang Morpolohiya ay isang lawak ng karunungang pangwika na nagsisiyasat at nag-aaral sa
pagkakabuo ng salita gayundin ang estruktura't ugnayan nito sa mga kapwa salita.
5.Morpema-Ang Morpema ay ang pinakamaliit na yunit ng isang salita na nagtataglay ng kahulugan, maaaring
salitang ugat o panlapi at ponema.
6.Kayarian ng mga salita
a.Payak- Ito ay ang salitang-ugat lamang
Halimbawa: basa, tulog, init
b.Inuulit- Ito ay kung inuulit ang kabuuan nito ang isa o higit pang patinig.
Dalawa ang uri ng pag-uulit.
1.Pag uulit na ganap- Ito ay ang inuulit ang salitang-ugat.
Halimbawa: araw-araw, gabi-gabi
2.Pag-uulit na di-ganap- Ito ay ang inuulit ay bahagi lamang ng salita.
Halimbawa: kakanta,lulundag,at lalakad
c. Maylapi- Ito ay binubuo ng salitang-ugat na may isa o higit pang panlapi.
f. Unlapi- ito naman ay ang mga salitang mayroong panlapi sa unahan ng salita. (ma-, ni-, etc.)
g.Hulapi- ito ay mga salita na dinadagdagan ng mga panlapi tulad ng ng -in,-an,-han.
7 .Klaster- Ang klaster ay magkasunod na dalawang magkaibang katinig sa loob ng isang pantig. Maaari itong
matagpuan sa unahan/inisyal, gitna/midyal o hulihang/final na pantig ng salita.
halimbawa. Unahan,trak,droga,kwintas,gitna,eskwela,
huli,nars,at kard.
8. Mga bahagi ng pananalita
1) Pangngalan- ay mga pangalan ng tao, hayop, pook, bagay, pangyayari. Ito ay ginamit sa pagtawag sa
pangalan ng mga hayop, tao, lugar at pangyayari.
Halimbawa:
a Bogart ang panagalan ng aso nila.

b Si Angelina ang pinakamabait sa lahat.

2) Pangatnig- ay ginagamit para ipakita ang relasyon ng mga salita sa pangungusap.
Halimbawa:
a Magkaisa kayo upang umunlad ang bansa natin.
b Mahal ka niya dahil mabait at maganda ka.
3) Panghalip- ay ginagamit sa pagpapalit o paghalili sa pangngalan.
Halimbawa:
a Ako ang mamumuno sa bayan na ito.
b Tayo ay magtulungan.
4) Pang-ukol- ay ginagamit kung para kanino o para saan ang kilos.
Halimbawa:
a Bumili siya ng libro para kay Carlo.
b Ipinasa niya lahat ang kanyang marka liban sa Math.
5) Pandiwa- bahagi ng pananalita na nagsasad ng kilos.
Halimbawa:
a Sumasayaw ng low ang mga bata.
b Kumakanta si Dexter ng fall for you.
6) Pang-angkop- bahagi ng pananalita na ginagamit para maging maganda pakinggan ang pagkakasabi ng
pangungusap.
Halimbawa:
a Magandang bata si Elena.
b Masipag na estudyante si Melvin.
7) Pang-uri- naglalarawan ng karakter o katangian ng pangngalan o panghalip.
Halimbawa:
a Mayabang si Chris Michael.
b Malago ang puno.
8) Pang-abay- naglalarawan kung paano ginawa ang kilos o pandiwa o naglalarawan din ng kapwa pang-abay.
Halimbawa:
a Mabilis tumakbo si Lydia de Vega.
b Ang buong mag-anak ay nagsimba kahapon.
9. Sintaksis- tumutukoy sa estruktura ng mga pangungusap ng mga tuntuning nagsisilbing patnubay sa
pagsasabi ng kawastuhan ng isang pangungusap.
10.Punto at paraan ng artikulasyon- naiilarawan kung paanong lumalabas ang hinihinga (sa bibig o ilong) sa
pagbigkas ng isang katinig.
Mga Paraan ng Artikulasyon:
1. Pasara - /b,t,k,p,d,g/
2. Pailong - /m,n,ng/
3. Pasutsot - /s,h/
4. Pagilid - /l/
5. Pakatal - /r/
6. Malapatinig - /w,y/

Teorya ng Wika - Pinagmulan ng wika

>Teoryang Ding Dong - bagay. Ipinalagay sa teoryang ito na ang lahat ng bagay sa kapaliran ay may sariling
tunog na siyang kumakatawan sa nasabing bagay. Mga tunog ang nagpapakahulugan sa mga bagay tulad ng
kampana, relo, tren, at iba pa.
>Teoryang Bow Wow - kalikasan. Dito ang tunog ng nalikha ng kalikasan, anuman ang pinagmulan ay ginagad
ng tao. Halimbawa, ang tunog-kulog, ihip ng hanging, at iba pa.
>Teoryang Pooh Pooh - tao. Ipinalalagay na ang tao ang siyang lumikha ng tunog at siya ring nagbibigay ng
kahulugan. Dito ang tunog mula sa mga tao.
>Teoryang Yo-he-ho - pinaniniwalaan ng mga nagmungkahi ng teoryang ito na ang tao ay natutong magsalita
bunga diumano ng kanyang pwersa pisikal.
>Teoryang Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay. ang wika raw ng tao ay nag-ugat sa mga tunog na kanilang nililikha sa mga
ritwal na ito na kalauna'y nagpapabagu-bago at nilapatan ng iba't ibang kahulugan.
>Teoryang Ta-ta - ang kumpas o galaw ng kamay ng tao na kanyang ginagawa sa bawat partikular na okasyon
ay ginaya ng dila at naging sanhi ng pagkauto ng taong lumikha ng tunog at kalauna'y nagsalita.

Binary classification
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Binary or binomial classification is the task of classifying the elements of a given set into two
groups on the basis of a classification rule. Some typical binary classification tasks are:

medical testing to determine if a patient has certain disease or not the classification
property is the presence of the disease;

A "pass or fail" test method or quality control in factories; i.e. deciding if a specification has or
has not been met: a Go/no go classification.

An item may have a qualitative property; it does or does not have a specified characteristic
information retrieval, namely deciding whether a page or an article should be in the result
set of a search or not the classification property is the relevance of the article, or the
usefulness to the user.

An important point is that in many practical binary classification problems, the two groups are not
symmetric rather than overall accuracy, the relative proportion of different types of errors is of
interest. For example, in medical testing, a false positive (detecting a disease when it is not present)
is considered differently from a false negative (not detecting a disease when it is present).
Statistical classification in general is one of the problems studied in computer science, in order to
automatically learn classification systems; some methods suitable for learning binary classifiers
include the decision trees, Bayesian networks, support vector machines, neural networks, probit
regression, and logistic regression.
Sometimes, classification tasks are trivial. Given 100 balls, some of them red and some blue, a
human with normal color vision can easily separate them into red ones and blue ones. However,
some tasks, like those in practical medicine, and those interesting from the computer science point
of view, are far from trivial, and may produce faulty results if executed imprecisely.
Contents
[hide]

1 Evaluation of binary classifiers

2 Converting continuous values to binary

3 See also

4 References

5 Bibliography

Evaluation of binary classifiers[edit]

Main article: Evaluation of binary classifiers

From the contingency table you can derive four basic ratios

There are many metrics that can be used to measure the performance of a classifier or predictor;
different fields have different preferences for specific metrics due to different goals. For example, in
medicine sensitivity and specificity are often used, while in information retrieval precision and
recall are preferred. An important distinction is between metrics that are independent on

the prevalence(how often each category occurs in the population), and metrics that depend on the
prevalence both types are useful, but they have very different properties.
Given a classification of a specific data set, there are four basic data: the number of true
positives (TP), true negatives (TN), false positives (FP), and false negatives (FN). These can be
arranged into a 22 contingency table, with columns corresponding to actual value condition
positive (CP) or condition negative (CN) and rows corresponding to classification value test
outcome positive or test outcome negative. There are eight basic ratios that one can compute from
this table, which come in four complementary pairs (each pair summing to 1). These are obtained by
dividing each of the four numbers by the sum of its row or column, yielding eight numbers, which can
be referred to generically in the form "true positive row ratio" or "false negative column ratio", though
there are conventional terms. There are thus two pairs of column ratios and two pairs of row ratios,
and one can summarize these with four numbers by choosing one ratio from each pair the other
four numbers are the complements.
The column ratios are True Positive Rate (TPR, aka Sensitivity or recall), with complement
the False Negative Rate (FNR); and True Negative Rate (TNR, aka Specificity,SPC), with
complement False Positive Rate (FPR). These are the proportion of the population with the
condition (resp., without the condition) for which the test is correct (or, complementarily, for which the
test is incorrect); these are independent of prevalence.
The row ratios are Positive Predictive Value (PPV, aka precision), with complement the False
Discovery Rate (FDR); and Negative Predictive Value (NPV), with complement theFalse Omission
Rate (FOR). These are the proportion of the population with a given test result for which the test is
correct (or, complementarily, for which the test is incorrect); these depend on prevalence.
In diagnostic testing, the main ratios used are the true column ratios True Positive Rate and True
Negative Rate where they are known as sensitivity and specificity. In informational retrieval, the
main ratios are the true positive ratios (row and column) Positive Predictive Value and True
Positive Rate where they are known as precision and recall.
One can take ratios of a complementary pair of ratios, yielding four likelihood ratios (two column ratio
of ratios, two row ratio of ratios). This is primarily done for the column (condition) ratios,
yielding likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing. Taking the ratio of one of these groups of ratios yields
a final ratio, the diagnostic odds ratio (DOR). This can also be defined directly as (TPTN)/(FPFN)
= (TP/FN)/(FP/TN); this has a useful interpretation as an odds ratio and is prevalenceindependent.
There are a number of other metrics, most simply the accuracy or Fraction Correct (FC), which
measures the fraction of all instances that are correctly categorized; the complement is the Fraction
Incorrect (FiC). The F-score combines precision and recall into one number via a choice of weighing,
most simply equal weighing, as the balanced F-score (F1 score). Some metrics come
from regression coefficients: the markedness and the informedness, and their geometric mean,
the Matthews correlation coefficient. Other metrics include Youden's J statistic, the uncertainty
coefficient, the Phi coefficient, and Cohen's kappa.

Converting continuous values to binary[edit]

Tests whose results are of continuous values, such as most blood values, can artificially be made
binary by defining a cutoff value, with test results being designated as positive or
negative depending on whether the resultant value is higher or lower than the cutoff.
However, such conversion causes a loss of information, as the resultant binary classification does
not tell how much above or below the cutoff a value is. As a result, when converting a continuous
value that is close to the cutoff to a binary one, the resultant positive or negative predictive value is
generally higher than the predictive value given directly from the continuous value. In such cases,
the designation of the test of being either positive or negative gives the appearance of an
inappropriately high certainty, while the value is in fact in an interval of uncertainty. For example, with
the urine concentration of hCG as a continuous value, a urine pregnancy test that measured 52
mIU/ml of hCG may show as "positive" with 50 mIU/ml as cutoff, but is in fact in an interval of
uncertainty, which may be apparent only by knowing the original continuous value. On the other
hand, a test result very far from the cutoff generally has a resultant positive or negative predictive
value that is lower than the predictive value given from the continuous value. For example, a urine
hCG value of 200,000 mIU/ml confers a very high probability of pregnancy, but conversion to binary
values results in that it shows just as "positive" as the one of 52 mIU/ml.