UNIT II Research Design And Measurement

Research Design Definition: Research design expresses both the

structure of the research problemthe frame-work, organization,
or configuration of the relationships among variables of a study
and the plan of investigation used to obtain empirical evidence
on those relationships. Essentials of Research Design: An
activity- and time-based plan; plan always based on the research
question; A guide for selecting sources and types of information;
A framework for specifying the relationships among the studys
variables; A procedural outline for every research activity.
Types of Research Design: 1) Descriptive Detailed descriptions
of specific situations using interviews, observations, document
overview, numerical descriptions; e.g., case-study, naturalistic
observation, survey; 2) Correlational Quantitative analyses of
the strength of relationships between two or more variables e.g.,
case-control study, observational study; 3) Semi-experimental
Comparing a group that gets a particular intervention with
another group that is similar in characteristic but did not receive
the intervention. e.g., field experiment, quasi-experiment; 4)
Experimental Assigning an intervention to selected groups by
random assignment e.g., experiment with random assignment; 5)
Meta-analytic e.g., meta-analysis.
Descriptors of research design: 1) The degree to which the
research question has been crystalized Exploratory Study,
Formal Study. 2) The method of data collection Monitoring,
Communication study. 3) The power of researcher to produce
effects in the variables under study Experimental, Ex post facto.
4) The purpose of the study Reporting, Descriptive, Casual
Explanatory, Predictive. 5) The time dimension Cross-sectional,
Longitudinal. The topic scope breadth and depth of the study
Case & Statistical Study. 6) The research environment - Field
setting, Laboratory research, Simulation. 7) The participants
perceptions of research activity - Actual routine, Modified routine.
Definitions: Exploratory studies: tend toward loose structures
with the objective of discovering future research tasks. The
immediate purpose of exploration is usually to develop
hypotheses or questions for further research. Formal Study: it
begins with a hypothesis or research question and involves
precise procedures and data source specifications. The goal of a
formal research design is to test the hypotheses or answer the
research questions posed. Monitoring: includes studies in which
the researcher inspects the activities of a subject or the nature of
some material without attempting to elicit responses from
anyone. Communication study: the researcher questions the
subjects and collects their responses by personal or impersonal
means. Experiment: the researcher attempts to control and/or
manipulate the variables in the study. Ex post facto design:
investigators have no control over the variables in the sense of
being able to manipulate them. They can only report what has
happened or what is happening. Reporting study provides a
summation of data, often recasting data to achieve a deeper
understanding or to generate statistics for comparison. CausalExplanatory: a study is concerned with learning whythat is,
how one variable produces changes in another. CausalPredictive: attempts to predict an effect on one variable by
manipulating another variable while holding all other variables
constant. Cross-sectional studies: are carried out once and
represent a snapshot of one point in time. Longitudinal
studies: are repeated over an extended period. Statistical
studies: are designed for breadth rather than depth. They
attempt to capture a populations characteristics by making
inferences from a samples characteristics. Hypotheses are tested
quantitatively. Generalizations about findings are presented
based on the representativeness of the sample and the validity of
the design. Case studies: place more emphasis on a full
contextual analysis of fewer events or conditions and their
interrelations. Although hypotheses are often used, the reliance
on qualitative data makes support or rejection more difficult. An
emphasis on detail provides valuable insight for problem solving,
evaluation, and strategy. This detail is secured from multiple
sources of information. It allows evidence to be verified and
avoids missing data. Designs also differ as to whether they occur
under actual environmental conditions (Field conditions) or
under
staged
or
manipulated
conditions
(Laboratory
conditions). Simulation: To replicate the essence of a system
or process. Participants perceptual awareness: when people
in a disguised study perceive that research is being conducted.
Participants perceptual awareness influences the outcomes of
the research in subtle ways or more dramatically.
Exploratory and Casual Research Design: Exploratory research
design relies heavily on Qualitative techniques and these are the
four exploratory techniques: a) Secondary data analysis:
Doing study on the studies made by others for their own
purposes; b) Experience surveys: seek Interviewee ideas about
important issues or aspects of the subject and discover what is
important across the subjects range of knowledge; c) Focus

groups: Group of people and a Moderator meet and Moderator

use group dynamics principles to focus or guide the group in
exchange of ideas, feelings and experience on a specific topic; d)
Two-stage designs: (i) clearly defining the research question
and (ii) developing the research design.
Casual Research Design: The essential element of causation is
that A produces B or A forces B to occur. The ideal standard
of causation requires that one variable always causes another
and no other variable has the same causal effect. Method of
Agreement: (John Stuart Mill) When two or more cases of a
given phenomenon have one and only one condition in common,
then that condition may be regarded as the cause (or effect) of
the phenomenon. Method of Difference: (John Stuart Mill) If
there are two or more cases, and in one of them observation can
be made, and if variable C occurs when observation Z is made,
and does not occur when observation Z is not made; then it can
be asserted that there is a causal relationship between C and Z.
Causal Hypothesis Testing: 1.Covariation between A and B, 2.
Time order of events moving the hypothesized direction, 3. No
other possible causes of B. Random Assignment: All factors
(except DV) must be held constant and not go against another
variable & each factor must have equal chance. Relationship
between two variables: 1) Symmetrical: is one in which two
variables fluctuate together; 2) Reciprocal: when two variables
mutually influence or reinforce each other; 3) Asymmetrical:
Changes in one variable (IV) responsible for changes in another
variable (DV); Types of Asymmetrical: Stimulus-Response;
Property-Disposition(nature);
Disposition-Behavior;
PropertyBehavior.
Descriptive and Experimental Design: Descriptive is a more
formalized study and its objectives are 1. Descriptions of
phenomena or characteristics associated with a subject
population (the who, what, when, where, and how of a topic).2.
Estimates of the proportions of a population that have these
characteristics. 3. Discovery of associations among different
variables.
Experimental Design: Experiments are studies involving
intervention by the researcher beyond that required for
measurement. The usual intervention is to manipulate some
variable in a setting and observe how it affects the subjects being
studied (e.g., people or physical entities). The researcher
manipulates the independent or explanatory variable and then
observes whether the hypothesized dependent variable is
affected by the intervention. Advantages: 1) the researchers
ability to manipulate the independent variable; 2) contamination
from extraneous variables can be controlled; 3) the convenience
and cost of experimentation are superior to other methods; 4)
replicationrepeating an experiment with different subject
groups and conditions. Disadvantages: 1) The artificiality of the
laboratory; 2) generalization from nonprobability samples; 3)
Sometimes Outrun the budget; 4) It is only effectively targeted at
problems of the present or immediate future; 5) Sometimes the
study is not so ethical. Steps for conducting an experiment:
1. Select relevant variables. 2. Specify the treatment levels. 3.
Control the experimental environment. 4. Choose the
experimental design. 5. Select and assign the subjects. 6. Pilot
test, revise, and test. 7. Analyze the data.
Different types of experimental design: 1) Repeated measures
design (or within-subjects design) requires one group of samples
or participants. This same group is exposed to all of the levels of
the independent variable of interest. 2) Independent samples
design (or between-subjects design), the samples or participants
are assigned into equally sized groups and each group receives a
different treatment. 3) Matched pairs design the samples or
participants are matched into pairs with most similarity to each
other and each member of the pair is randomly assigned to a
different experimental condition. 4) Factorial design is used
where there are several independent variables and the
researcher is interested in their combined effect on the
dependent variable.
The many experimental designs vary widely in their power
to control contamination of the relationship between
independent and dependent variables. The most widely
accepted designs are based on this characteristic of control: (1)
preexperiments: After-only study, One-goup pretest-posttest
design, Static group comparison;
(2) true experiments:
Pretest-posttest control group design, Posttest-only control group
design;
(3)
field
experiments
(quasior
semi-):
nonequivalent control group design, Separate sample pretestposttest design, Group time series design.
Validity of findings: Mechanism to check whether results are true
and whether a measure accomplishes its claims. Internal Validity:
Checking whether he conclusions we draw about a demonstrated
experimental relationship truly imply cause. Threats to Internal
Validity:
HistoryMaturationTesting
Instrumentation
Selection Statistical regression Experimental mortality

External validity: Does an observed causal relationship generalize

across persons, settings, and times. Threats to External
Validity: Reactivity of testing on X Interaction of selection and
X Other reactive factors.
Variables in Research: Refer cheatsheet of Unit I.
Measurement and scaling: Measurement in research consists of
assigning numbers to empirical events, objects or properties, or
activities in compliance with a set of rules. 3-Step Process of
Measurement: 1. Selecting observable empirical events. 2.
Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme for assigning
numbers or symbols to represent aspects of the event being
measured. 3. Applying the mapping rule(s) to each observation of
that event. Variables being studied in research may be classified
as objects or as properties. Objects include the concepts of
ordinary experience, such as tangible items like furniture.
Properties are the characteristics of the object. Mapping rule
assumptions for Measurement Scales: 1. Numbers are used
to classify, group, or sort responses. 2. Numbers are ordered. 3.

Differences between numbers are ordered. 4. The number series

has a unique origin indicated by the number zero. Different
Scales: 1) Nominal: Just a classification but no order, distance,
or natural origin (e.g., Gender) 2) Ordinal: Classification and
order but no distance or natural origin (e.g., Rice Variety) 3)
Interval: Classification, order, and distance, but no natural origin
(e.g., Temperature) 4) Ratio: Classification, order, distance, and
natural origin (e.g., Age in Years). Construction of Measurement:
is based on the following questions: 1) Is distribution expected to
be normal?; 2) What is my expected sample size?; 3) How many
groups will be compared?; 4) Are groups related or independent?
Sources of Error in Measurement: 1) The respondent; 2)
Situational factors; 3) The measurer; 4) The instrument.
Characteristics of good measurement: Validity; Reliability;
Practicality. Validity & Reliability of Instrument: Validity: Content;
Criterion-Related; Concurrent; Predictive; Construct. Reliability:
Stability; Equivalence; Internal Consistency.