Department of

Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Circuits and Measurements (C&M) Laboratory

(Code: EE-242)
Manual cum Observation book

Name

: ...

Roll No.

: ...

Class

: ...

Semester : ...
Year

Circuits and Measurements (C&M) Laboratory

(Code: EE-242)

List of Experiments
Cycle-I
1. Calibration of single phase Energy meter by Phantom Loading.
2. Measurement of inductance by Maxwells & Andersons Bridge.
3. Frequency response of RLC series circuit.
4. Network theorems :
a. Verification of Thevenins theorem
b. Super position theorem,
c. Maximum Power Transfer theorem.
5. Application of PSPICE to Electrical Circuits.

Cycle-II
6. Transient response of RLC circuit.
7. Calibration of Three phase energy meter by direct loading.
8. Measurement of Low resistance by Kelvins Double Bridge.
9. Measurement of Capacitance by Desautys bridge.
10. Parameters of Two port network.
Additional Experiments
11. Frequency and step response of RLC Series circuit using PSPICE.
12. Use of DC Potentiometer for Measurement of Unknown Voltage and Impedance.

Index
S. No

Name of the Experiment

Date
Conducted

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Grade

Initial of
Incharge

Experiment: 1

Date:
CALIBRATION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER
BY PHANTOM LOADING

Aim: To Determine the Meter Constant of a Single Phase Energy Meter.

Apparatus:
1-Phase Auto Transformer

(230V/0-270V, 20A)

1 No

1-

(240V, 20A)

1 No

Ammeter

(0-10A) M-I type

1 No

Voltmeter

(0-300V) M-I type

1 No

UPF Wattmeter

(300V, 20A)

1 No

Energy Meter

Variable Resistor

1 No

Stop Watch

1 No

Connecting wires

As required

Theory:
The Energy Meter can be tested by
Direct Loading
Indirect Loading (Phantom Loading)
Direct Loading: The Energy meter is used to measure the energy consumed by the
load through the meter constant. The direct loading test is not economical as
considerable amount of power is wasted and hence this type of test is used for small
load capacity only.
Phantom Loading: When the capacity of the meter is high, considerable power will
be wasted if direct loading arrangement is made. Phantom (Fictitious) Loading is
employed to avoid wastage of power. In this arrangement the pressure coil of energy
meter is energized from a circuit of rated voltage and the current coil of the meter
under test is connected across a low voltage supply. With this load arrangement
5

requires only a comparatively small amount of power i.e. sum of power supplied to
pressure coil and that due to load current at low voltage.
CircuitDiagram:

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set Auto Transformer at zero voltage position before switching on the supply.
3. Gradually increase the voltage using the auto-transformer till the voltmeter reads
230V.
4. Now apply the Load at certain value (i.e. 2A )
5. Time taken for 25 rev. of the disc of the energy meter in the forward direction is
noted
6. Record the Voltmeter, Ammeter, & Wattcmeters are noted.
7. The experiment is repeated for different values of current (i.e. 4A, 6A, 2A) at
constant voltage.
8. After noting the values slowly decrease the auto transformer till Voltmeter comes
to zero voltage position and switch off the supply.
Precautions:
1. There should not be any loose connections.
6

2. Meter readings should not be exceeded beyond their ratings

3. Observe the ammeter reading. Apply the voltage slowly so that the current is
within the limited range of ammeters, wattmeter and energy meter.
4. If the energy meter rotate in reverse direction, change either its current coil
terminals or pressure coil terminal or pressure coil terminal but not both.
Readings and Calculations:
S.No

V
(Volts)

I
(Amps)

Sample Calculations:
Number of revolutions (N)

Power
factor(Pf)

Time of revolutions (T)

Voltage applied (V)

=:

Current passed (I)

Watts W

=V*I

Meter constant (K)

= N/ W*T=

Result: (to be written in the main laboratory)

W
(watts)

Time
(secs)

K=N/W*T

Short answer questions:

1. Is the meter constant is constant for all the readings
2. If the meter constant for an revolutions of 15, compute the load in KW in 30 seconds
3. If the disc makes 2208 rev allowing 4 amp of load for 6 hours what is the power
factor.
4. What is Creep, how do it is prevented?
5. How do you compute the speed of disc if the energy supplied and meter constant is
known
6. What is phantom loading, how is it advantageous over direct loading?
7. What do you do if the disc is rotating in opposite direction?
8. How do you term the meter as fast or slow.
9. How a low lagging power factor is compensated
10. What are the various Adjustments available in motor meter
11. What is balance expression for the steady speed of rotation
12. What is the use of phase shifting transformer?

Experiment: 2

Date:

MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE USING MAXWELLS & ANDERSONS

BRIDGE
A) Measurement of Inductance Using Maxwells Bridge
Aim: To determine the value of Unknown Inductance using Maxwells Bridge.
Apparatus:
Maxwells Bridge Circuit Board
CRO or Head Phones
Unknown Decade Inductance box
Digital Multimeter
Patch Chords
Theory:
Bridge circuits are extensively used for measuring components value, such as
resistance, inductance or capacitance and of other circuit parameters directly derived
form component values such as frequency, phase angle and temperature. The AC
Bridge in its basic form can be used for measurement of unknown inductance or
capacitance. A basic inductance comparison bridge also known as Maxwells bridge is
as shown in the circuit diagram.
One of the ratio arms has a variable resistance and a capacitance in parallel. The
opposite arm is the unknown inductance and the other two arms are pure resistance. The
general equation for bridge is
At balance

Z1 Zx = Z2 Z3

From above diagram:

1
1
jwC 1 Y1 = Admittance of Z1 =
R1
Z1
Z2 = R2
Z3 = R3
Zx = Rx + jLx
Substitution of these values in the bridge balance equations

Y1 =

1
jwC 1 )
R1
Separating real and imaginary parts, we have,

Rx + jwLx = 2R2R3 (

Lx= R3L2 /R4

Rx=((R2 +r2 )R3/R4

Circuit Diagram:

g
Procedure:
1. Connect the Circuit as shown in fig (1).
2. Switch on the power Supply and see that indicator glows.
3. Connect 1KHZ Oscillator across the bridge. Through patch cord.
4. Connect unknown Inductance or resistance at the terminals marked Lx Rx.
5. Select correct multiplier arm (R3).
6. Connect CRO at the R1 &R2 junction (GND) & other on Lx Rx & multiplexer arm
(R3) junction.
7. Keep R2 & R3 fully on clockwise direction.
8. The sine wave will be observed, now move slowly move R1 anti clock wise. If the
amplitude of the wave decreases, then that is the correct R3 value.(or connect other
resistor)
9. The wave form decreases and comes to a point where 180 o phase shift takes place
with R1 pot adjust small amplitude at CRO with very low amplitude (almost DC line).
10. Now adjust with R2 pot move in anti clock wise direction (which is at max clockwise
Direction). It will also show 180o phase shift with detector at no load.
10

11. Once exact null position is achieved i.e. DC line, remove all connections with DMM
switch OFF the unit, measure and note the following
a. R1 = ______ ohm

R3 (multiplier arm)

b. R2 = _______ohm

C1 = 0.1mf

12. Calculate the unknown Inductance & its resistance using the formula:
Lx=R3L2 /R4

Rx= (R2 +r2 )R3/R4

Readings and Observations:

S.
No

R1

R2

R3

L1

Lx=R3L2 /R4 Rx=(R2+r2)R3/R4

Vector Diagram:

Sample Calculations:
Capacitance (C1) =
Resistance (R2) =
Resistance (R3) =
Inductance (Lx) =
Result:

Discussion questions:
Mention the conditions for AC bridge balance.
Draw the vector diagram for Maxwells bridge.

11

B) Measurement of Inductance Using Andersons Bridge

Aim: To determine the value of Unknown Inductance using Anderson Bridge.
Apparatus:
Anderson Bridge Circuit Board
Head Phones
Galvanometer
3 V DC Power Supply

1 No

AC Supply 1 KHz

1 No

Theory:
Alternating current (AC) bridges are used for measurement of Inductance,
Capacitance, factor etc. The AC bridges are natural outgrowth of a wheat stone bridge
with four arms, source and detector. The various types of detectors are Head Phones,
vibration galvanometer and tunable amplifiers.
At balance

Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
or

(Z1

1)(Z4

i.e Z1
and

4)

= (Z2

Z4 = Z2
+

2)(Z3

3)

Z3
3

Anderson Bridge is used to measure Self-Inductance in terms of a standard capacitor.

It can also be used for measurement of capacitance.
At balance

I2 = I 4

And

I2 R = Ic 1/j c

and

I3 = Ic + I1

The other balance equations are

I2(S+ j L) = Ic r + I3 Q
And

Ic(r+ 1/j c) = (I3 - Ic)

L = CR(Q+2r)

12

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect the Circuit as shown in fig (1). The resistance part of the inductance is
balanced by varying resistances for zero deflection in galvanometer.
2. Make the connections as per circuit (2), retaining the value of resistances. The
resistance r and capacitance C are varied to obtain balance. At balance the noise
will be minimum.
3. The value of unknown Inductance is given by L = CR (Q+2r)
Precaution
1. There should not be any loose connections.
2. Handle the Bridge very carefully.
Readings and Observations:
SNo

Capacitance (C)

Resistance
(R)

Resistance (r)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
13

Unknown Inductance
(L) = CR(Q+2r)

Vector Diagram:

Sample Calculations:
Capacitance (C)
=
Resistance (R) =
Resistance (r) =
Unknown Inductance (L) = CR (Q+2r) =
8. Result:

9. Discussion questions:
What are the various types of detectors and give their frequency ranges.
What is difference between AC Bridge & DC Bridge?
What are the various AC bridges and mention their applications.

14

Experiment: 3

Date:
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

Aim: To obtain Frequency response of an RLC Series Circuit.

Apparatus:
Function generator
Decade resistance Box
Decade Capacitance Box
Decade Inductance Box
Ammeter
Theory:
Frequency response is the variation of current through an RLC circuit with respect to
frequency.
The impedance of an RLC circuit is given by
Z = R+ j (XL - XC) when XL = XC i.e.

L = 1/ C and Z = R (minimum)

Impedance is minimum (Z=R only) hence the current I = V/R is maximum. The
frequency at which XL = XC is known as Resonant Frequency.
XL = XC
2 f L = 1/2 f C
f2 = 1/4

LC

f=1/2 LC
Circuit Diagram:

15

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the frequency.
3. Tabulate the current and frequencies.
4. Obtain resonant frequency.
5. Plot the curve current Vs frequency.
Readings and calculations:
S. No

Frequency

Current

Expected Graphs:

Result:
Discussion questions:
What is Q factor?
What is parallel resonance? At resonance what will be the values of current,
admittance, power factor etc.
Explain the graphical representation (variations in different quantities w.r.t
frequency) for series and parallel resonant circuits.
16

Experiment: 4

Date:

NETWORK THEOREMS: VERIFICATION OF 1) THEVENINS THEOREM

2) SUPER POSITION THEOREM 3) MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
Aim: To Verify 1) Thevenins theorem, 2) Super position theorem, 3) Maximum Power
transfer theorem
Apparatus:
Circuit Board
Decade Resistance Box
Connecting wires
Ammeter, Voltmeter
DC Regulated Power Supply.
Theory:
Thevenins Theorem:
This theorem is applied to find the correct values of Voltages and currents in a
restricted portion of networks rather than in all the branches of the network.
Statement:
Thevenins theorem states that the current IL, which flows from a given linear active
network A to a passive network B usually referred as the load, is same as one,
which flows to the same network B when connected to a Thevenins equivalent
circuit constituted by a voltage source Voc with an equivalent resistance Rth of
network A, when Rth is the resistance obtained by looking back from the load
terminals with all the energy sources replaced by their internal impedances.
Superposition Theorem:
The significance of super position theorem is it permits the solution of network
without setting up large number of Simultaneous equations. Only one source need be
considered at a time. Further if new voltages are introduced it obviates the need of
solving the network afresh.
Statement:
The theorem states that in a linear network containing several sources, the overall
response (loop current or node voltage) at any point in the network equals the sum of
response of each individual source considered separately with all the other sources
considered separately with all the other sources made in operative replaced by their
internal impedances.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
Statement:
A resistive load extracts maximum power from a network when the load resistance
equals the resistance of the network as viewed from the output terminals, with all
energy sources removed leaving behind their internal resistances.

17

4. Circuit Diagram:
Thevenins Theorem

Superposition Theorem

Maximum Power Transfer theorem

Procedure:
Thevenins Theorem
1) To find Thevenins Resistance (Rth):
Short circuit the source terminals if it is a voltage source and find out the Thevenins
resistance looking back in to the circuit from the terminals where the load resistance (R L) is
to be connected.
2) To find Thevenins Voltage (Vth):

18

Apply Voltage at the source terminals and keep the load resistance terminals open
find the voltage across the terminals where the load resistance is to connect (with out
connecting the load resistance). Note down the applied voltage and Thevenins voltage.
3) To find Load Current (IL):
Now apply the same voltage find the load current (I L) through the load resistance
connecting the load resistance in series with Thevenins.
4) Verification:
Apply Thevenins voltage across the circuit IL where the load resistance and
Thevenins resistance are connected in series (i.e., the equivalent circuit).
Superposition Theorem
Connect the circuit on a board as shown in figure.
After ensuring proper connections, switch on DC voltage sources set V1 = V2= 2V. Note
down current I.
Replace V2 voltage source by a short circuit. Note down I 1 with V1 voltage source at 2V.
Restore back the V2 voltage source and replace V1 voltage source by a short circuit.
Note down current I2 with V2 voltage source at 2V.
Repeat above for 4V,6V,8V,10V & 12V. Record observations. Verify the theorem with the
help of observations.
Maximum Power Transfer theorem
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
Find the internal resistance i.e. Thevenins Resistance.
Set load resistance RL (DRB) to 1K and apply 10V to voltage source.
4) Vary the RL in steps of 1K and note the current in ammeter.
5) Repeat the above step till R L is 5K.
6) Tabulate the observations, calculate power dissipated across RL.
7) Verify the theorem experimentally.
Theoretical Calculations:
Thevenins Theorem

19

Superposition Theorem

Maximum Power Transfer theorem

Readings and Calculations:

Thevenins Theorem
S.No

V-applied (Volts)

1
2
3
4

10
15
20
25

Vth (Volts)

IL (Amps)

20

Rth (Ohms)

IL (Amps)
Verification

Superposition Theorem
S.No

V2 = 0
V1 (V)

V2 = 0
I1 (mA)

V1 = 0
V2 (V)

V1 = 0
I2 (mA)

I = I1 + I2
(mA)

V1 = V2
I (mA)

1
2
3
4

5
Maximum Power Transfer theorem
S.No
1
2
3
4
5

RL (K Ohms)

IL (mA)

PL = IL2 RL

(mW)

Result:

Discussion Questions:
What is the ohms law
Define KCL & KVL
What is the difference between the current source and voltage source
What is the importance of superposition theorem
What is the advantage of Thevenins theorem
What is the importance of maximum power transfer theorem in electronics circuits
If AC voltage is applied to the circuit, what is the parameter we get and if same
amount of DC voltage is applied want is the difference we can find
If two or more voltage sources are connected in series then what is the net voltage
applied to the circuit and voltage sources are connected in parallel what is the net
voltage applied to the circuit
What is the difference between the resistance, reactance and impedance of circuit
element and how they are measured?
Why voltage source should be short circuited and current source open circuited while
applying Super Position theorem Explain.

21

Experiment : 5

Date:

APPLICATION OF PSPICE TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Aim: To verify Thevenins and Nortons theorems using PSPICE.
Apparatus:
PSPICE Software
Personal Computer
Circuit diagram:

Program:
V1 1 0 DC 10V
R1 1 2 1000OHM
R2 1 3 220OHM
R3 2 0 470OHM
R4 3 0 1000OHM
.TF V[2,3] V1
.END
Result:
Output:
**** CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
**************************************************************************
V1 1 0 DC 10V
R1 1 2 1000OHM
R2 1 3 220OHM
R3 2 0 470OHM
R4 3 0 1000OHM
.TF V[2,3] V1
22

**** 12/14/110 02:10:19 ******** NT Evaluation PSpice (July 1997) ************

**** SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION
TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C
***************************************************************************
NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE
( 1) 10.0000 ( 2) 3.1973 ( 3) 8.1967
VOLTAGE SOURCE CURRENTS
NAME
CURRENT
V1
-1.500E-02
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 1.50E-01 WATTS
**** SMALL-SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
V(2,3)/V1 = -4.999E-01
INPUT RESISTANCE AT V1 = 6.667E+02
OUTPUT RESISTANCE AT V(2,3) = 5.001E+02
JOB CONCLUDED
TOTAL JOB TIME
.03 sec

23

Experiment: 6

Date:

TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

Aim: To observe the Transient response of an RLC Series Circuit.
Apparatus:
Function generator
Decade resistance Box
Decade Capacitance Box
Decade Inductance Box
Oscilloscope
Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
The complete Current responses in the RLC series circuit can be found by apply
Kirchoffs Voltage law.

Differentiating we get

the two roots corresponding to equations are

The circuit is Over damped if

(R/2L) 2 > 1/LC

Critically damped if

(R/2L) 2 = 1/LC
Under damped if
24

(R/2L) 2 < 1/LC

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Give an input square wave from function generator and voltage of 2V peak to peak.
3. Vary the resistance and capacitance while observe the output wave forms on CRO
for different transient states.
4. Plot the waveforms.
Expected Graphs:

Result: (to be written in the main laboratory)

Discussion Questions:
What do you understand by the terms steady state and transient response.
Draw the response of an RL circuit for a unit step input.
Write conditions for RLC series circuit to be
o Over damped.
o Under damped
o Critically damped

25

Experiment: 7

Date:

CALIBRATION OF 3-PHASE ENERGY METER BY DIRECT LOADING

Aim: To Calibrate the given 3-Phase Energy meter by Direct Loading using Resistive Load.
Apparatus:

Ammeter (0-10A)

- 1 No.

Voltmeter (0-600V)

- 1 No.

Wattmeter (3- , 10A, 600V)

- 1 No

Energy Meter (3- , 10A, 440V)

- 1 No.

Resistive Load (3- , 5.7 Kw, 10A,) - 1 No.

3- Auto Transformer

- 1 No.

Theory:
The Energy Meter can be tested by two methods namely
a) Direct Loading, b) Indirect Loading (Phantom Loading) Phantom loading is
economical as the power consumed is very small.
In Direct Loading energy meter is connected across the load. At different load
currents the (3- wattmeter reading) time taken (t) for certain no of revolutions made
by the energy meter are recorded. In these method precision grade indications
instruments are used as reference standard for calibration purpose.
Energy recorded by meter under test = Rn / Kn Kwh
Energy computed from the readings of indicating instruments = Kw x t
Where

Rn = number of revolutions made by disc under test.

Kn = meter constant
Kw = wattmeter reading
T

= time in hours.

Rn K n K w t
x 100
Kw t
Calibration means to check the instrument against a known standard and subsequently
to find errors and accuracy.

% error =

26

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply the rated voltage to the energy meter through variac.
3. Vary the load so that rated current passes through the energy meter.
4. Note the time taken by the disc for 20 revolutions.
5. Note down the wattmeter reading.
6. Repeat steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 for half and one fourth of rated current.
7. Calculate the meter constant in each case and check with specified value.
Readings and Calculations:
S.No

Rated Voltage

Current
(Amps)

Wattmeter
reading (Kw)

No. of
revolutions
t (secs)

27

Time taken for

no. of
revolutions

Error =

Rn K n K w t
Kw t

x 100

Result:

Discussion questions:
What is phantom loading, how is it advantageous over direct loading
What do you do if the disc is rotating in opposite direction?
What is the various adjustments available
Explain the construction of 3-phase energy meter.
What is the function of brake magnet?
What is the practical unit of energy?
What is the advantage of using the 3phase energy meter instead of using three single
phase energy meters
Draw the equivalent circuit diagram wattmeter if voltmeter and ammeter are used

28

Experiment: 8

Date:

MEASUREMENT OF LOW RESISTANCE BY KELVINS DOUBLE

BRIDGE
Aim:To measure the low value of unknown resistance and resistance of connecting leads
using a Kelvins double bridge.
Apparatus Required:
Portable Kelvins double bridge Kit

01

Dry Cells -- (1.5Volts)

02

Unknown Resistance

01

Connecting wires

As required

Theory:
This is a portable bridge with built in taut suspension galvanometer and a 1.5 Volts
dry battery (3 cells of 1.5 V each in parallels) This Bridge is useful for the
measurement of low resistance.
Main dial : There are 10 coils of 0.1 ohm each.
Slide wire: - 100 divisions of slide wire are equal to 0.1 ohm; each main division is to
0.001 ohm. Each sub division is to 0.0005 ohm, the reading to the left of zero is to
be subtracted from main dial reading and that to the right of zero is to be added to
main dial reading.
Rang switch: - A range multiplier switch furnishers 5 range of X100, X10, x1, x0.1,
x0.01. The value of unknown resistance is given by sum of main dial and slide wire
reading multiplied by range used.
Method for Measurement of low resistance:The methods for measurement of low resistance are:1. Ammeter Voltmeter method.
2. Kelvins Double bridge method.
29

3. Potentiometer method.
4. Ducter.
Kelvins Double Bridge
This bridge is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge and provides greatly increased
accuracy in measurement of low value resistance an understanding of the Kelvins
bridge arrangement may be obtained by a study of the difficulties that arise in a
Wheatstone bridge due to leads and the contact resistances while measuring low
valued resistors. Two actual resistance units of correct ratio are connected between
points m and n in the Galvanometer be connected to the function of the resistors. This
is the actual Kelvin bridge arrangement. The Kelvin double bridge incorporates the
idea of a second set of ratio arms-hence the name double bridge and the use of four
terminals resistors for the low resistance arms. The first of ratio arms P and Q is used
to connect the galvanometer to a point C at the appropriate potential between points
M and N to eliminate the effect of connecting lead of resistance R between the known
resistance, R and the standard resistance S as shown.

Kit Diagram:

30

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in fig.
2. Across the terminals X meant for the unknown resistance, Connected whose shunt
resistance can be measured
3. The ratio (P/Q) is adjusted to a particular value.
4. For the ratio, balancing resistance is varied until Galvanometer shows null
deflection.
5. The balance is similarly obtained for different ratios of (P/Q)
6. The resistance since it includes the resistance of the leads.
7. The lead resistance is measured by shorting the leads.
8. To obtain ammeter shunt resistance, the resistance of the leads is subtracted from
the total resistance.
Precautions:
1. There should not be any loose connections.
2. 2. Meter readings should not be exceeded beyond their Ratings
3. Handle the Bridge very carefully
Theoretical Calculations:
R= (P/Q) x S

Where

R= Unknown Resistance
P= Variable resistance
31

Q= Variable resistance
S= Standard resistance
Observation Table:
Resistance of the given connecting wire:
S.
Observed Resistance
Calculated resistance
No.
in Ohms
in Ohms

% Error

Standard
Deviation

% Error =

Observed Resistance - Calculated resistance

--------------------------------------------------------Calculated resistance
Model Graph:
A graph is drawn between % Error Vs Measured Value

Result:
Discussion questions:
1. Why it is called as double bridge.
2. What is the ranges of resistance that can be measured using The bridge.
3. What are the ranges of resistances for low, medium and high resistances?
4. What is sensitivity of bridge?
5. What are the detectors used for DC Bridge.
6. Why the low resistances are four terminal resistances.
7. Why the methods used for medium resistances are not suitable for measurement of
low resistances.
8. What are the other instruments to measure the resistance?
9. What is a megger?
32

10. How megger is work?

33

Experiment: 9

Date:

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE USING

DESAUTYS BRIDGE
Aim: To determine the value of Unknown Capacitance using Desautys Bridge.
Apparatus:
Desautys Bridge Circuit Board
Head Phones or CRO
Patch Cords
Digital Multimeter
Theory:
The AC Bridge in its basic form can be used for measurement of unknown
Capacitance. A basic capacitance bridge shown in the circuit diagram is known as
Desautys bridge.
One of the ratio arms has a variable resistance in series with a capacitance. The
adjacent arm is the unknown capacitance arm of the other two arms one is multiplier
arm and the other has the variable resistor.
The general bridge balance equation is
Z1
Z3

Z2
Z4

From the below bridge circuit:

Z1

R1

Z2

Rm

j
j
Z 3 R2
C1
Cx
Substitution of these values in the bridge balance equation gives:
Rm
R1
Rx j
R2 j
Cx
C1
Z4

Where

Rx

Rx = Ohmic resistance of capacitance C x.

34

Rm = selected Multiplier
Separation of real and imaginary parts yields.
Rm R2
R1C1
Rx
Rm
R1
where the resistance expressed in ohms and capacitance in farads.
Cx

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect the jumper links to connect the 1KHZ oscillator to the bridge.
2. Connect unknown capacitance of say 0.01F at the terminals marked C xRx.
3. Select any multiplier arm (Rm) for example say 1K.
4. Connect the required supply to the unit and switch ON the unit.
5. Connect CRO at the other junction of the bridge i.e. GND of CRO at the junction of
R1 and C1R2 and input pin of CRO at the junctions of multiplier arm (R m) and
unknown capacitance CxRx.
6. Now slowly adjust R1 by moving it either clockwise or anti-clockwise as required
such that null point is achieved on CRO. Null point means that waveform observed
on CRO decreases when pot moved in any one direction for example if it is moved in
clockwise direction then the amplitude of the waveform on CRO decreases and a
point is reached where it is maximum. If the pot is further isolated in the same
direction then the amplitude increases again. The minimum point is called the null
point. The null point does not mean that amplitude is zero but minimum.
35

7. If null point is not achieved with multiplier arm as 1K then change the multiplier arm
till you get the exact null point.
8. Once exact null point position is achieved, switch OFF the unit, remove all
connections, measure with DMM and note the following:
9. R1 =__________Ohms

Rm (multiplier arm) =__________

10. R2 = 100 ohms

C1 = 0.1 F

11. Calculate the value of unknown capacitance and resistance using the formula:
a. C x

R1C1
Rm

Rx

Rm R2
R1

12. Change the value of unknown capacitance and repeat the above procedure.
13. Instead of connecting CRO for observing null point, headphones can be used.
Readings and Observations:
S.No

R1

R2

Rm

C1

Cx = C1 R1
Rm

Rx = Rm R2
R1

Value of
Unknown
Capacitance

Sample Calculations:

Result:

Short answer questions:

What are the various types of detectors and give their frequency ranges.
What is difference between AC Bridge & DC Bridge?
What are the various AC bridges and mention their applications.

36

Experiment: 10

Date:

PARAMETERS OF TWO PORT NETWORK

Aim: To measure Z and Y parameters of given two port network.
Apparatus:
Regulated DC Power Supply

1 No.

Circuit Board

1 No.

Ammeter

1 No.

Voltmeter

1 No.

Theory:
Two port network is a network having two ports through which power can be fed and
power can be tapped.. The general port parameters are port voltages and port currents

V1

Two-Port Network

V2

Various parameters are Y parameters, Z parameters, H parameters, ABCD

parameters. The theme of the experiment is to find these parameters and to know the
relation between the input and output through these port parameters.
In general any two port network can be characterized with the help of network
parameters, For a resistive two port network with the help of Z-parameters & Yparameters.
Z- Parameters are known as open circuit impedance parameters. The relation between
voltage & current of a resistive two port network in terms of Z parameters can be
written as
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2
Where
Z11 = (V1 / I1) at I2 = 0,

Z12 = (V1 / I2) at I1 = 0.

Z21 = (V2 / I1) at I2 = 0,

Z22 = (V2 / I2) at I1 = 0,

37

Similarly Y- parameters are known as short circuit admittance parameters. The

relation between voltage and current of a resistive two port network in terms of Y
parameters can be written as
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
Where
Y11 = (I1 / V1) at V2 = 0,

Y12 = (I1 / V2) at V1 = 0.

Y21 = (I2 / V1) at V2 = 0,

Y22 = (I2 / V2) at V1 = 0,

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
Z-Parameters:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Open circuit the port 2 by removing the V2 voltage supply.
3. Apply V1 = 2V and note I1 current and open circuit Voltage V2. at port 2.
4. Replace V2 voltage supply and open circuit port 1 by disconnecting V1 voltage
supply.
5. Apply V2 = 2V and note I2 current and open circuit Voltage V1. at port 1.
6. Calculate the Z parameters and tabulate the readings & calculations.
7. Repeat the above procedure for different voltages.
Y-Parameters:
1. Short port 2 by replacing a voltage source by a short.
2. Apply V1= 2V and note down currents I1 & I2.
3. Restore back the V2 source and replace V1 voltage source with a short circuit.
38

4. Apply V2 = 2V and note down currents I1 & I2 .

5. Calculate the Y parameters and tabulate the readings & calculations.
6. Repeat the above procedure for different voltages.
Sample calculations:

Readings and Calculations:

Parameters:
S.No

At I2 = 0
V1
V2

I1

At I1 = 0
V1
V2

I1

I2

At V1 = 0
V2
I1

I2

Y-Parameters:
S.No

At V2 = 0
V1
I1

Result:
Discussion questions:
What is the other name for Z- Parameters and Y-parameters? Why it is called so.
Give the relationship between Z and Y parameters.
39

Experiment: 11
Date:
STEP RESPONSE OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT USING P-SPICE
AIM:
To obtain the transient response of RLC series circuit for step input
APPARATUS
PSPICE Software
PC
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -

PROGRAM
VI1 1 0 PWL(0 0 1NS 1V 1MS 1V)
VI2 4 0 PWL(0 0 1NS 1V 1MS 1V)
VI3 7 0 PWL(0 0 1NS 1V 1MS 1V)
R1 1 2 2OHM
L1 2 3 50UH
C1 3 0 10UF
R2 4 5 1OHM
L2 5 6 50UH
C2 6 0 10UF
R3 7 8 8OHM
L3 8 9 50UH
C3 9 0 10UF
.TRAN 1US 400US
.PROBE
.END
40

GRAPHS/EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

OUTPUT:**** 12/15/110 01:06:39 ******** NT Evaluation PSpice (July 1997) ************

**** CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
***************************************************************************
***
VI1 1 0 PWL (0 0 1NS 1V 1MS 1V)
VI2 4 0 PWL (0 0 1NS 1V 1MS 1V)
VI3 7 0 PWL (0 0 1NS 1V 1MS 1V)
R1 1 2 2OHM
L1 2 3 50UH
C1 3 0 10UH
R2 4 5 1OHM
L2 5 6 50UH
C2 6 0 10UH
R3 7 8 8OHM
L3 8 9 50UH
C3 9 0 10UF
.TRAN 1US 400US
.PROBE
.END
**** 12/15/110 01:06:39 ******** NT Evaluation PSpice (July 1997) ************
**** INITIAL TRANSIENT SOLUTION
TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C
***************************************************************************
***
NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE
41

(
(
(

1) 0.0000 ( 2) 0.0000 ( 3) 0.0000 ( 4) 0.0000

5) 0.0000 ( 6) 0.0000 ( 7) 0.0000 ( 8) 0.0000
9) 0.0000
VOLTAGE SOURCE CURRENTS
NAME
CURRENT
VI1
0.000E+00
VI2
0.000E+00
VI3
0.000E+00
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 0.00E+00 WATTS
JOB CONCLUDED
TOTAL JOB TIME
.05

42

Experiment : 12

Date:

USE OF DC POTENTIOMETER FOR MEASUREMENT OF

UNKNOWN VOLTAGE AND IMPEDANCE
Aim:
To Measure Unknown Voltage and Resistance using Potentiometer.
Apparatus:
Students Potentiometer

1 No

D.C Power Supply - 0-30V, 2A

1 No

Standard Resistance

1 No

Unknown Resistance

1 No

Galvanometer with Protective resistance

1 No

Double pole double through switch (DPDT) 1 No

Standard Cell

1 No

Connecting Wires

1 No

Theory:
A Potentiometer is basically used for measurement of unknown emf. It can also
be used for measurement of unknown resistance, calibration of ammeters,
voltmeters and wattmeters. A basic Potentiometer consists of long slide wire,
which is not a practical form of construction. A modern potentiometer use
calibrated dial resistors and a small circular slide wire. The potentiometer has to
be standardized initially by using a standard cell. Then a double through switch is
provided for connecting standard cell or unknown emf to the circuit.

43

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
a) Standardization:
1. Connect the DC supply, Standard Cell, Galvanometer with Protective Resistance as
shown in the Circuit.
2. Adjust the Supply Voltage to 2V DC.
3. Set the Combination of Dial Resistor and Slide Wire reading to the Standard Cell
Voltage. i.e,1.0186V
4. Tap the Standardize button for connecting the Standard Cell across Potentiometer.
5. If the voltage across the combination of Dial Resistor and slide wire is equal to
Standard Cell emf, the Galvanometer reads zero. Otherwise adjust the resistance by
using coarse and fine.
6. Short-circuiting the protective resistance makes final adjustment in galvanometer for
null deflection.
b) For measuring unknown resistance:
1. Connect the circuit as shown and apply 2V DC.

44

2. The DPDT switch is thrown to position 1-1 such that potentiometer test terminals
can measure the voltage across resistance R.
3. Obtain zero deflection in galvanometer by adjusting dial resistance & slide wire and
note the reading. (VR)
4. Similarly DPDT switch is thrown to position 2-2 to measure Vs.
5. As two resistance as connected in series, current is same
a. VR/ R = Vs/S
6. Unknown resistance S = Vs/ VR .R
Readings and Calculations:
S. No

R (Known
Resistance)

VR (Voltage across
Known resistance)

Vs (Voltage across
Un Known
resistance)

S (Un Known
Resistance) =
Vs/ VR .R

1
2
3
4
5

Sample Calculations:
Known Resistance: R=
Voltage across Known resistance VR =
Voltage across Unknown resistance Vs =
Un Known Resistance = Vs / VR .R
Result:
Discussion questions:
What is meant by Standardization of Potentiometer
What is the value of standard cell potential
What are the advantages of Null type Instruments
What is volt ration box
What is standard resistance
How does the length of slide wire affect the accuracy of the readings of DC potentiometer
On what basis potentiometers are classified
List the applications of Potentiometer.

45