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Giao Trinh Dien Tu Hoc.5260
Giao Trinh Dien Tu Hoc.5260
TRNG I HC A LAT
IEN T HOC
a Lat 2006
TRNG I HC A LAT
IEN T HOC
a Lat 2006
-2-
IEN T HOC
LI NOI AU
Giao trnh ien t hoc c bien soan theo chng trnh khung cua
Bo Giao duc & ao tao ban hanh nam 2004 danh cho he ao tao c nhan Vat
ly, da vao cac bai giang ma tac gia a trnh bay cho sinh vien khoa Vat ly
trng ai hoc a lat trong nhng nam gan ay va da vao cuon giao trnh
ien hoc ma tac gia a viet nam 1987. e giup cho sinh vien de dang nam
bat c cac van e cot loi cua kien thc ve ien t hoc, tai lieu c trnh
bay ngan gon, xuc tch, chu trong nhieu en ban chat vat ly cua hien tng
ma khong i sau vao mo ta cac qua trnh thc nghiem cung nh nhng minh
hoa kem theo (sinh vien co the tm oc trong cac tai lieu tham khao). Nhng
tnh toan ly thuyet trong giao trnh s dung cac kien thc toan hoc giai tch toi
thieu ma sinh vien a c trang b trong cac hoc phan ve toan hoc. Cac v du
trong sach ngoai viec minh hoa ng dung cac nh luat con nham muc ch
ren luyen ky nang tnh toan, cung co kien thc va kha nang giai quyet cac bai
toan thc tien. Noi dung giao trnh c chuan b cho 5 n v hoc trnh tng
ng vi 75 tiet len lp, trong o co 60 tiet ly thuyet va 15 tiet bai tap. Noi
dung bai tap sinh vien se c trang b trong cac sach bai tap rieng.
Giao trnh la tai lieu hoc tap cho sinh vien khoa Vat ly, ong thi co the
s dung e tham khao cho sinh vien cac nganh ky thuat khi hoc chng trnh
Vat ly ai cng.
a lat, 2006
TAC GIA
IEN T HOC
-3-
Chng 1.
(a) ien tch nguyen to la mot trong cac hang so vat ly quan trong cua t nhien.Hien
nay, khoa hoc a biet rang cac hat quark la thanh phan cuoi cung cua vat chat hat
nhan. Chung mang cac ien tch e / 3 hoac 2e / 3 . Nhng cac hat nay (cac
hat thanh phan cua proton va ntron) khong the ton tai mot cach rieng biet, nen
khong the lay chung lam ien tch nguyen to.
Lu The Vinh
-4-
IEN T HOC
ien tch cua mot vat bao gi cung bang mot boi so nguyen lan ien
tch nguyen to e :
/q/ = ne, (n = 1, 2, 3 )
(1.2)
II. nh luat bao toan ien tch.
Moi hien tng ve ien c biet cho en nay eu tuan theo nh luat
bao toan ien tch: Trong mot he co lap tong ien tch cua he la mot lng
bao toan.
III. Vat dan ien va vat cach ien.
Vat dan ien la nhng vat co cha cac hat tch ien (cac electron, cac
ion am, ion dng), cac ien tch nay co the di chuyen de dang ben trong vat.
Chang han trong kim loai, do cau truc cua nguyen t mot so electron nam
lp ngoai cung lien ket yeu vi hat nhan co the bt ra khoi nguyen t tr
thanh ien t t do. Cac ien t nay co the chuyen ong t do ben trong khoi
kim loai. Ta noi kim loai la vat dan ien. Trong chat ien phan cac hat tai
ien la cac ion dng va cac ion am. v.v .
Vat cach ien la vat ma trong no khong cha cac ien tch t do.
1.2. TNG TAC TNH IEN, NH LUAT COULOMB.
1. ien tch iem. Nhng vat tch ien ma co kch thc nho hn rat nhieu
so vi khoang cach gia chung.
2. Tng tac tnh ien. nh luat Coulomb .
Thc nghiem chng to rang: Cac ien tch cung dau th ay nhau, cac
ien tch khac dau th hut nhau. Nam 1785 C. A. Coulomb bang thc nghiem
tren can xoan a tm ra nh luat tng tac gia hai ien tch iem q1 va q2
at cach nhau mot khoang r (Hnh 1.1):
qq
F = k 122
(1.3)
r
Trong o k la he so ty le, co gia tr phu thuoc vao he n v o.
Trong he CGSE :
k =1
1
Trong he SI :
k =
= 9.109 N. m2/ C2
4 0
Trong o: 0 = 8,86.10 12 C2 / N. m2 : Hang so ien.
Bieu dien ca ve phng chieu va o ln:
(1.4)
IEN T HOC
-5-
F12 = k
q1 q2 r12
: Lc q1 tac dung len q2.
r122 r12
(1.5)
F21 = k
q1 q2 r21
(1.6)
F21
q1
q1
q2
F21
F12
F12
q2
F12 = - F21
Hnh 1.1
nh luat coulomb: Lc tac dung tng ho gia hai ien tch iem co o
ln ty le nghch vi bnh phng khoang cach gia chung, ty le vi tch o ln
cua cac ien tch; co phng la ng thang noi hai iem tch, co chieu phu
thuoc vao dau cua hai ien tch.
3. Ap dung.
Ta hay so sanh tng tac tnh ien va tng tac hap dan. nh luat
Coulomb (1-3) co dang toan hoc giong het nh nh luat van vat hap dan. Tuy
nhien cng o cua chung lai rat khac nhau. Ta ap dung cho trng hp tng
tac gia 2 electron.
Hang so hap dan G = 6,67.10-11 N. m2/ kg2
Hang so tng tac tnh ien: k = 9.109 N. m2/ C2
ien tch cua electron: e = 1,6.10-19C.
Khoi lng cua electron: m = 9,1.10-31kg.
Tng tac hap dan gia 2 electron:
m m
m2
Fg = G 1 2 2 = G 2
r
r
Tng tac tnh ien gia 2 electron:
q1 q2
e2
Fc = k 2 = k 2
r
r
Lu The Vinh
-6-
IEN T HOC
2
Fc e k 1,6 10 19
= =
Fg m G 9,1 10 31
9 10 9
42
6,67 10 11 = 4,2 10
Ket qua cho thay cng o tng tac hap dan vo cung be so vi tng
tac tnh ien. ieu nay giai thch tai sao khi nghien cu chuyen ong cua cac
ien tch ta khong quan tam ti tng tac hap dan.
1.5. IEN TRNG TRONG CHAN KHONG
1. Khai niem ien trng.
e giai thch c che tng tac gia cac ien tch trong lch s Vat ly
hoc xuat hien 2 thuyet:
Thuyet tac dung xa: Cho rang tng tac gia cac ien tch khong can
mot moi trng vat chat trung gian nao va tng tac c truyen i mot
cach tc thi. Khi ch co mot ien tch th moi trng xung quanh khong
xay ra bien oi nao.
Thuyet tac dung gan: Cho rang tng tac gia cac ien tch phai thong
qua mot moi trng vat chat trung gian bao quanh cac ien tch. Lc
tng tac c truyen t phan nay sang phan khac cua moi trng vi
van toc hu han (van toc truyen tng tac). Khi ch co mot ien tch th
moi trng xung quanh a co nhng bien oi.
Theo quan iem duy vat bien chng ta thay ro thuyet tac dung xa a
cong nhan ton tai chuyen ong phi vat chat. ieu nay khong the co c. Vat
ly hoc hien ai a bac bo thuyet tac dung xa va cong nhan thuyet tac dung
gan. e giai thch c che tng tac gia cac ien tch can phai cong nhan mot
thc the vat ly lam moi trng trung gian truyen tng tac gia chung. Thc
the vat ly nay chnh la ien trng. Khi co mat ien tch th xung quanh no
xuat hien mot ien trng. ien trng nay lan truyen trong khong gian vi
toc o hu han.
Tnh chat c ban cua ien trng: tac dung lc len bat ky ien tch
nao at trong no. C che tac dung nay c giai thch nh sau: Moi ien tch
tao ra xung quanh no mot ien trng, ien trng nay tac dung lc len ien
tch at trong no va ngc lai.
Trong phan sau khi nghien cu t trng va trng ien t ta se thay
ien trng ch la mot bieu hien cua trng ien t. o la mot dang cua vat
chat co ay u cac thuoc tnh xac nh ma con ngi co the nhan thc c:
nang lng, khoi lng va xung lng.
IEN T HOC
-7-
Nh vay: Cng o ien trng tai mot iem la mot ai lng vat ly
ac trng cho trng ve phng dien tac dung lc, co o ln bang lc tac
dung len 1 n v ien tch dng at tai iem o va co hng cua lc nay
(hnh 1-2).
n v cua ien trng: Von / met (V/m)
Lu The Vinh
-8-
IEN T HOC
M
Q>0
+1
uur
E
Q<0
uur
E
+1
Hnh 1-2
3. ng sc ien trng.
a)
b)
Hnh 1-3
- -
c)
Xet mot he ien tch iem q1. q2. qi , , qn . Lc tac dung cua he len
mot ien tch th q0 bang tong vec t cac lc thanh phan:
r
r
r
r
F = Fi = qi E i = qi E i
r
r
Hay:
(1-9)
E = Ei
IEN T HOC
-9-
Neu he ien tch phan bo lien tuc tren mot mien S nao o th ien trng
cua he se la:
uur
uur
E = dE
(1-10)
Neu ien tch phan bo doc mot day dan vi mat o dai : =
uur
E =
dl ur
4 0
dq
dl
(1-11)
Neu ien tch phan bo tren be mat vat dan vi mat o ien mat =
1
uur
E =
4 0
dS r
r3
dq
ds
(1-12)
Neu ien tch phan bo theo the tch vat dan vi mat o ien khoi =
uur
E =
1
4 0
d r
r3
dq
d
(1-13)
dE = k
dq
l2
= k
rdrd
l2
uur
dE co phng la ng thang noi dS va M, chieu hng t dS en M
neu > 0 va ngc lai.
ien trng do toan mat phang gay ra tai M la:
uur
r
r
r
E = dE = dEn + dEt
Lu The Vinh
- 10 -
IEN T HOC
Do tnh chat oi xng nen de thay rang: Neu lay mot nguyen to dS oi
xng vi dS qua O th trng do no sinh ra la d E ' co cung o ln vi d E
r
r
nhng khac phng chieu. Phan tch d E ' = dEn' + dEt' . De thay rang:
r
r
dEt' = dEt
r
Xet cho toan mat phang th: dEt = 0 . T o:
S
E = d E n , va E = dE n
dE
d En
d E'
dEt
dEt
dS
dS
Hnh 1-4
h
r 2 + h2
rdrd
l2
ta co:
. cos
IEN T HOC
- 11 -
dEn = k
rdrd
(r + h )
2
.h
2
Va:
rdr
1
h
h 2
E =
2
d
=
2
2 32
4 0 0
4 0
r 2 + h2 0
0 (r + h )
E=
2 0
(1-14)
ri
i =1 i
4 0
r 2i r
(1-15)
c) ien trng gay ra bi mot qua cau tch ien eu tren be mat vi mat o
ien mat trung vi ien trng gay bi mot ien tch iem q at tai tam
qua cau:
1 q r
E =
(1-16)
4 0 r 2 r
d) ien trng gay bi lng cc ien.
Lng cc ien la he hai ien tch bang
nhau ve o ln nhng ngc nhau ve dau at
cach nhau mot khoang co nh l (hnh 1-5).
3( Pe r ) r
Pe
E =
4 0
4 0 r 3
E+
M
E
E_
(1-17)
l
Hnh 1-5
+q
- 12 -
IEN T HOC
E=
(1-18)
f) ien trng gay bi mot qua cau tch ien eu theo the tch vi mat o
ien khoi :
R 3r
r R: E =
( ) r
3 0 r
(1-19)
r
r R: E =
r
3 0
r
Ngoai vec t cng o ien trng E , khi xac nh ien rtrng trong
mot moi trng bat kyr ngi ta thng s dung vec t ien dch D (con goi la
vec t cam ng ien D ).
r
r
D = 0 E .
- Trong chan khong:
r
r
r
- Trong moi trng bat ky: D = 0 E + P
r
Trong o P la vec t phan cc ien moi ( xem trong chng ien moi).
2) ien dch thong.
n
Dn
dS
Hnh 1-6
r r
= d = D dS = DdS cos .
S
r
D
(1-21)
Neu ien trng la eu va mat phang S vuong goc vi ien trng th:
= DS
(1-22)
IEN T HOC
- 13 -
3) nh ly Oxtrogratxki - Gauss
r
Bai toa
n
c
ba
n
cu
a
tnh
ie
n
la
xa
c
nh
c
n
g
o
ie
n
tr
n
g
E
va
r
ien dch D tai moi iem cua trng tao bi he ien tch a cho. Trong nhieu
trng hp khi he ien tch co tnh chat oi xng, e tnh ien trng ngoai
phng phap dung nguyen ly chong chat ta co the s dung nh ly O-G.
Xet mot ien tch iem q > 0. Bao quanh ien tch bang mot mat cau 1
co tam tai iem at ien tch (hnh 1-7).
Do tnh chat oi xng nen ta
thay ien trng tai moi iem cua
mat cau la nh nhau va co phng
vuong goc vi mat cau. Gia tr cua
vec t ien cam D tai moi iem cua
mat cau la:
D =
q
4 0
2
q
= 0E
Dn dS =
Hnh 1-7
D n dS =
4 r 2 = q
4 r
Gia tr cua ien dch thong khong phu thuoc vao ban knh cua mat cau
r. Do o ien dch thong i qua moi mat cau ong tam eu nh nhau.
Xet mot mat kn 2 bat ky bao quanh ien tch q. De thay rang ien
dch thong qua no cung bang q, khong phu thuoc vao v tr cua ien tch q ben
trong no.
Neu xet mot mat kn 3 khong bao quanh ien tch q, ta thay rang co
bao nhieu ng sc i vao th cung co bay nhieu ung sc i ra khoi no. Do
vay ien dch thong toan phan qua 3 la bang 0.
Tom lai: ien dch thong qua mot mat kn bat ky khong phu thuoc vao
v tr cua ien tch at trong no. Ket qua tren cung ung vi trng hp khi co
nhieu ien tch cha trong mat kn vi q = qi.
Ta co nh ly Oxtrogratxki Gauss: Dong vec t ien dch gi qua mot
mat kn bat ky bang tong ai so cac ien tch t do cha trong mat kn o.
r r
= D dS = q i
(1-23)
S
Lu The Vinh
- 14 -
IEN T HOC
M (x,y,z)
y
Hnh 1-8
d1 = Dx dy dz
(co dau v cos = 1)
D x
d 2 = D x +
dx dydz
d 12 = D x dxdy + D x +
d x d y d z =
dV
x
x
x
y
z
IEN T HOC
- 15 -
Neu trong the tch dV cha ien tch vi mat o ien khoi = (x,y,z)
th o ln ien tch cha trong dV la : dq = dV.
Ap dung nh ly O-G ta co:
Hay:
D y D z
D
dV = dV
+
d = x +
x
y
z
r
div D =
(1-23)
a) Tnh ien trng cua mot mat phang tch ien eu vo han vi mat o ien
mat .
Do tnh chat oi xng cua he, ta chon mat kn la mat tru ng co cac
ng sinh vuong goc vi mat phang, hai ay co dien tch S song song va
cach eu mat phang (hnh 1-9).
ien dch thong toan phan qua
mat tru bang tong ien dch thong i
qua 2 ay:
= 2 D S.
E
+
+
S
Hnh 1-9
= 2DS = S
T o:
D =
; E =
2 0
b) Tnh ien trng cua hai mat phang song song vo han tch ien eu trai
dau (hnh 1-10).
Ve ng sc ien trng cua 2 mat phang tch ien ta thay rang co
the ap dung nguyen ly chong chat hoac nh ly O-G e tnh ien trng cua
he. S dung nguyen ly chong chat, t s o ta thay: ben ngoai 2 mat phang
cac ng sc ngc chieu nhau tng oi mot, nen ien trng tong bang
khong.
E=0
.
Lu The Vinh
- 16 -
IEN T HOC
Ben trong 2 mat phang cac ng sc cung chieu nen ien trng tang
len gap oi. Do o:
E =
+ + + + + + + +
- - -
- -
Hnh 1-10
c) Tnh ien trng cua mot qua cau tch ien eu theo the tch vi mat o
ien khoi .
Do tnh chat oi xng cau nen ta chon mat phang lay tch phan la mat
cau co tam trung vi tam qua cau.
Theo nh ly O-G ta co:
=
r r
D
dS =
DdS
qi
D1 dS
1 =
Hay:
D1 =
4
= D1 4 r 12 = r 13
3
r 1 , va E1 =
r1
3 0
ien trng trong qua cau la ham tuyen tnh cua r (hnh 1-11)
2- Neu r > R (ben ngoai qua cau).
2 =
D2 dS
S
T o ta co:
4
= D2 4 r 22 = R 3 = q
3
D2 =
R3
r 22
q
4 r22
IEN T HOC
- 17 -
E2 =
q
4 0 r22
ien trng ben ngoai trung vi ien trng cua mot ien tch iem q
at tai tam qua cau.
r1
r2
Hnh 1-11
Lng cc ien la mot he 2 ien tch cung o ln, ngc dau, at cach
nhau mot khoang co nh l (hnh 1-12).
r
r
Lng cc ien c ac trng bang momen lng cc p = q l . Trong
r
o l la vec t hng t ien tch q en ien tch +q.
-q
r
l
r
l
+q
ur
f
-q
Hnh 1-12
Lu The Vinh
+q
ur
f
- 18 -
IEN T HOC
r
r
Moi ien tch chu tac dung cua mot lc f = q E . Cac lc tac dung len 2
ien tch co o ln bang nhau, nhng ngc hng nhau, nen tao ra mot ngau
lc co momen:
rr
M = q E l sin ( l E )
(1-24)
uuur
ur uur
Hay di dang vec t M = P E
Ngau lc lam cho lng cc quay trong ien tr
r ng,r co xu hng sao
cho vec t lng cc ve song song vi ien trng. ( P E ) .
uuruur
r
r
Neu = P E = 0, ta co trang thai can bang ben: ( P E ) .
r
r
Neu = , ta co trang thai can bang khong ben: ( P E ) .
a- Lng cc trong ien trng khong eu..
r
f1
-q
r
l
r
f2
+q
r
f
r
E'
r
E
Hnh 1-13
r
E
la bien thien cua cng o ien trng doc theo truc lng cc.
l
Lc tong hp at len lng cc se la:
IEN T HOC
- 19 -
r
r
r
r
r
r
r E r E
r
r E r
f = f 1 + f 2 = q E + q E +
l = ql
= p
l
l
r
rr
Hay:
f = grad ( p E )
(1-25)
Lc nay co hng ve pha ien trng manh nen tac dung cua no se
keo lng cc ve pha ien trng manh .
Trong trng hp tong quatr, khi lng cc co v tr bat ky trong ien
rr
trng th ngoai tac dung cua lc f = grad ( p E ) , lng cc con chu tac dung
cua mot ngau lc lam cho no quay ve hng song song vi ien trng.
Noi cach khac, khi at trong ien trng, lng cc se b quay ve hng
song song vi ien trng va b hut ve pha ien trng manh. ieu nay giai
thch hien tng hut gia vat tch ien va vat trung hoa, chang han ua thuy
tinh hay Ebont nhiem ien co the hut c cac vat nhe.
1.6. IEN THE.
1) Cong cua lc ien trng.
Xet chuyen ong cua mot ien tch th q0 trong ien trng do ien tch
iem q tao ra theo mot ng cong MN (hnh 1-14).
r
F
q0
r1
r
dl
r +dr
r1
Hnh 1-14
Lc ien trng tac dung len ien tch q0 la:
r
r
qq 0
F = q0 E =
4 0 r 2
Cong nguyen to trong di chuyen vo cung be dl :
r r
r r
dA = F dl = Fd l cos ( F dl ) = F d r = q 0 E d r
Lu The Vinh
- 20 -
IEN T HOC
r2
qq 0
A = dA = F dr =
4 0
r1
MN
dr
r2
r1
qq 0
4 0
1 1
r1 r2
(1-26)
Bieu thc (1-26) cho thay cong A khong phu thuoc vao dang ng i,
ch phu thuoc vao iem au va iem cuoi ng i ( r1 & r2). ien trng co
tnh chat cua mot trng the.
r
Lu so cua vec t E . Xet trng hp ien tch th q0 di chuyen theo
mot ng cong khep kn.
Cong nguyen to trong di chuyen vo cung be dl la:
r r
r r
r r
dA = F dl = Fdl cos ( F dl ) = q0 Edl cos ( E dl )
Cong di chuyen mot n v ien tch dng theo mot cong tua kn L la:
r r
A =
Edl
= Edl cos(Edl) = El dl
L
(1-27)
viet:
Trong trng hp tong quat, tnh chat the cua trng tnh ien c
r
rot E = 0
(1-28)
ien tch at trong ien trng se co the nang (tng tac). Cong di
chuyen ien tch trong ien trng bang o giam the nang cua no.
(1-29)
A = W1 W2
Trong o: W1 the nang cua ien tch q0 tai iem M
W2 the nang cua ien tch q0 tai iem N
T (1-29) va (1-26) ta co:
A = W1 W2 =
Hay
W1 =
qq 0
4 0 r1
+ C1
qq 0
4 0 r1
& W2 =
qq 0
4 0 r2
qq 0
+ C2
4 0 r2
Tong quat, the nang cua ien tch q0 trong trng toa o r la:
IEN T HOC
- 21 -
W=
qq 0
+C
4 0 r
T o:
W=
qq 0
4 0 r
(1-30)
q va q0 cung dau
b. ien the.
Ta hay lan lt a cac ien tch th
q0, q1, q2, vao cung mot iem cua trng
do ien tch q gay ra. Cac ien tch se co
the nang tng ng W0, W1, W2, khac
nhau. Tuy nhien ta thay cac ty so:
q va q0 khac dau
Hnh1-15
W0
W
W
= 1 = 2 = .... = const
q0
q1
q2
Ty so tren khong oi tai moi iem cua trng, no ac trng cho trng ve
mat nang lng, ngi ta s dung ai lng nay va goi la ien the:
W
q0
4 0 r
(1-31)
1 2 =
Neu q0 = +1 th 1 2 = A
Lu The Vinh
A
q0
(1-32)
- 22 -
IEN T HOC
Nh vay: Hieu ien the gia hai iem co gia tr bang cong cua lc tnh
ien lam di chuyen mot n v ien tch dng gia hai iem o.
Ta lai co:
1 2 =
AMN
.
q0
AM
. Tong quat ta co:
q0
AM
q0
(1-33)
Vay: ien the tai mot iem co gia tr bang cong cua lc trng khi di
chuyen mot n v ien tch dng t iem ta xet ra vo cung.
3) Mat ang the.
Quy tch hnh hoc cua nhng iem co cung ien the c goi la mat
ang the. Phng trnh cua mat ang the:
r
(r ) = ( x, y, z ) = const
(1-34)
r
E
r
E
a)
b)
Hnh 1-16
IEN T HOC
- 23 -
Quy c: Mat o ng ang the cho biet s bien thien cua ien the
trong khong gian. Khi o ta co:
ien trng eu: Mat ang the la cac mat phang song song cach
eu, vuong goc vi cac ng sc ien trng (hnh 1-16, a).
Mat ang the cua ien trng do ien tch iem tao ra la mat cau
ong tam (hnh 1-16, b).
4) Lien he gia ien the va ien trng.
r
Vec t cung o ien trng E ac trng cho ien trng ve phng
dien tac dung lc.
ien the ac trng cho trng ve mat cong, nang lng.
Do vay hai ai lng nay phai co moi lien he vi nhau.
Xet 2 mat ang the rat gan nhau 1 va 2, cach nhau mot khoang dx .
Gia s co mot ien tch th q0 di chuyen theo ng sc ien trng t mat 1
sang mat 2 (hnh 1-17).
dA = Fx dx = qo Exdx
Mat khac: dA = q0 (1 2) = q0d.
d
dx
(1-35)
d
bieu dien s bien thien cua
dx
ien the theo phng x c goi la gradien
(grad) ien the theo phng x. Trong trng
hp tong quat ta co:
uuuuur
r
E = grad
qo
dx
Ty so
(1-36)
Gia cac ien tch iem luon luon co tng tac Coulomb. Khi di chuyen
cac ien tch can thc hien cong. Do o cac ien tch co d tr nang lng
di dang the nang tng tac, no chnh bang cong e thiet lap nen he.
Xet he 2 ien tch iem q1 va q2 .
Khi 2 ien tch cach xa nhau ( r12 = 0) the nang tng tac gia chung
bang 0.
Lu The Vinh
- 24 -
IEN T HOC
Khi a chung lai gan nhau ta phai thc hien mot cong e thang cong
can cua lc trng. Cong nay se bien thanh the nang cua he ien tch.
Ta co: cong thc hien e a ien tch q1 t ve cach q2 mot oan r12 la:
A1 = q1 ( 1) = q11
Trong o 1 la ien the tai iem at q1 do q2 gay ra.
q2
1 =
4 0 r12
q1 q 2
(1-37)
Do o:
A1 =
4 0 r12
Tng t, cong e a ien tch q2 t ve cach q1 mot oan r12 la:
q1q2
A2 =
(1-38)
4 0 r12
T (1-37) va (1-38) ta co:
A1 = A2 = the nang tng tac Wt cua he 2 ien tch.
A1 = A2 = q11 = q22 = Wt
(1-39)
Trong o: 3
q1
q2
(1-41)
+
A3 = q 3 3 = q 3
r
4
r
0 13
0 23
q1
q2
=
+
la ien the do q1 va q2 gay ra tai
4 0 r13 4 0 r23
iem at q3.
Cong toan phan hp nen he 3 ien tch bang the nang tng tac cua he,
co gia tr:
Wt = A = A1 + A3 = A2 + A3 =
=
q1
q1 q 2
q2
+ q3
+
=
4 0 r12
4
r
4
r
0 13
0 23
q1
q1
q3
q3
q 2
1 q2
+ q 2
+ q 3
+
+
+
q1
2 4 0 r12 4 0 r13
4
r
4
r
4
r
4
r
0 12
0 23
0 13
0 23
Wt =
1
(q1 1 + q 2 2 + q 3 3 ) .
2
(1-42)
IEN T HOC
- 25 -
Tong quat, trng hp he gom n ien tch , the nang tng tac cua he:
Wt =
1 n
1 n n qi q k
q
=
i i 2 4 r . (i k).
2 i =1
i =1 k =1
0 ik
(1-43)
ien the do toan bo he ien tch gay ra tai iem at cua dV va dS.
6) Nguyen ly chong chat ien the .
Xet mot he ien tch iem q1, q2, , qi, ., qn . Gia s co mot ien
tch th q0 di chuyen trong ien trung do he gay ra. Lc tong hp cua trng
tac dung len q0 la:
r
r
r
r
r
f = f 1+ f 2 + + f n = f i
i
MN
MN
MN
qi
qi
Ai = q 0
4 0 ri1 4 0 ri 2
qi
qi
q0
Mat khac: AMN = W M W N = q 0
4 0 ri1
4 0 ri 2
= q0 (M N).
T o ta co:
qi
i =1
4 0 ri1
M =
qi
i =1
4 0 ri 2
, N =
V M va N la bat ky, nen ien the gay bi he ien tch iem tai mot
iem xac nh bi ban knh ri se la:
Lu The Vinh
- 26 -
IEN T HOC
4i r
i =1
(1-45)
0 i
1
4 0
dS
(1-46)
Neu he ien tch phan bo theo the tch vi mat o ien khoi :
4 0
dV
(1-47)
7) Cac v du ap dung.
V du 1. Tnh cng o ien trng gia 2 ban phang song song vo han, tch
ien eu vi hieu ien the U = 1 - 2. (hnh 1-18).
Ta co mat ang the la cac mat
phang song song cach eu nhau va
vuong goc vi cac ng sc ien
trng. Ap dung cong thc:
r
E = grad
Ta co:
Hnh 1-18
d
E=
Edn = d
dn
E d = 1 2 , hay E =
Edn = d
1 2
d
U
d
V du 2
Tnh cng o ien trng gay bi lng cc ien tai mot iem ben
ngoai cach xa lng cc (hnh 1-19).
ien the gay bi lng cc tai M la:
4i r
i =1
0 i
4 0
q 1 1
4 0 r2 r1
r1 r2
r1 r2
IEN T HOC
- 27 -
r r
r1 r2 l cos; r1 r2 r2, vi = ( p, r )
ta co:
1
4 0
p cos
r
Er
Et
, (p = ql)
r
Theo he thc E = grad , taco:
r r
r
E = E r + Et
Trong o:
Er =
va
d
.
dt
Et =
p cos
d
=
dr
2 0 r 3
E r2 + E t2 =
+q
Hnh 1-19
p sin
d
=
.
rd
4 0 r 3
E =
r
l
Vay:
r2
T o: E t =
r1
1 + 3 cos 2
4 0 r
r
Vec t E hp vi phng r mot goc , vi tg = Et / Er = 1/2 tg.
3
E =
p
2 0 r 3
E =
Lu The Vinh
p
4 0 r 3
- 28 -
IEN T HOC
Chng 2.
E 0
Trong vat dan can bang tnh ien khong cha ien tch phan bo theo
the tch. Cac ien tch phan bo thanh mot lp mong tren be mat vat dan. V
mat vat dan la mat ang the nen vec t cng o ie
n trng phai vuong goc
vi be mat vat dan tai moi iem. Gia tr cua vec t E tai mot iem sat be mat
vat dan bang bao nhieu?
Ta hay chon mat kn bao gom:
E
mot mat tru thang ng, vuong goc
vi mat vat dan;
A
B
co ay AB i qua M, ay kia la mot
M
phan mat ACB tuy y bao ben trong
vat dan (hnh 2-1).
A
B
Tnh ien dch thong toan phan i qua
C
mat kn .
Qua mat ben cua hnh tru ien dch
thong bang 0.
Qua mat ay ACB ien dch
tho
ng cung bang 0 v trong vat dan
Hnh 2-1
E 0.
ien dch thong toan phan qua mat bang ien dch thong i qua
mat ay AB:
IEN T HOC
- 29 D S q S
D ; va nh vay: E
.
0
ien trng sat mat vat dan co gia tr ln gap 2 lan ien trng do
mot mat phang mang ien gay ra.
Nguyen nhan. Moi mot phan cua dien tch S luon gay ra ve 2 pha mot
ien trng co gia tr / 2 0 . Nhng cac ien tch trong vat dan phai phan bo
sao cho ien trng do chung sinh ra trong vat dan phai bang 0. Muon the cac
ien tch ben ngoai S phai gay ra mot ien trng / 2 0 ngc chieu vi
ien trng do cac ien tch S gay ra trong vat dan lam triet tieu no. Ben
ngoai vat dan 2 ien trng trung nhau. Ket qua ien trng tong cong ben
ngoai vat dan tang len gap oi.
2.1.2. Hien tng ien mui nhon.
trang thai can bang tnh ien cac ien tch phan bo thanh mot lp
mong tren be mat vat dan, nhng s phan bo nay phu thuoc vao hnh dang be
mat vat dan. Thc nghiem cho thay rang ien tch phan bo tap trung nhieu
nhat tai nhng cho loi (mui nhon) cua vat . Do o, cng o ien trng co
gia tr cc ai tai cho mui nhon. Hien tng tren dan en hieu ng ro ien
mui nhon.
Nguyen nhan: Tai mui nhon do E ln, gay ion hoa khong kh xung
quanh lam xuat hien cac ion dng (+) va cac ion am (). Cac ion cung dau
vi ien tch mui nhon b lc ay Coloumb se i ri xa no, ngc lai cac ion
khac dau vi ien tch cua mui nhon se b hut va lam trung hoa dan ien tch
cua mui nhon (hnh 2-2). Ket qua, ien tch cua mui nhon se mat dan.
++
+ +
+ +
+
a)
b)
- 30 -
IEN T HOC
Chong set;
Chong ro ien trong cac may, ong c lam viec vi ien cao the, cac
bo phan kim loai cua ong c c che tao di dang tron, nhan.
2.1.3. Man chan tnh ien Noi at.
trang thai can bang tnh ien ben trong vat dan khong cha ien tch
ien trng trong long vat dan bang 0. Ket qua nay ung ca oi vi vat dan
rong gia va khong phu thuoc vao cach lam xuat hien ien tch tren vat
dan.
V du: Mot vat dan rong at trong ien trng, trong vat dan se xuat
hien cac ien tch hng ng. Cac ien tch nay phan bo tren be mat cua vat
dan o ma khong gay ra ien trng ben trong vat. Nh vay, mot vat dan rong
+
+
+ + +
+
+
+ + +
E0
-
a)
+
+
++
++
Hnh 2-3
b)
co tac dung nh mot man chan tnh ien (hnh 2-3,a). Chung bao ve cho cac
dung cu at ben trong phan rong se khong chu tac dung cua ien trng.
Hieu ng tren con c dung trong viec truyen ien tch t vat dan nay
sang vat dan khac. V du, can truyen ien tch cho mot tnh ien ke, ta noi
ien ke vi mot hnh tru kim loai (hnh tru Faraday). a vat tch ien vao
trong long hnh tru. ien tch se chay het ra ngoai hnh tru roi truyen cho ien
ke (hnh 2-3,b).
ng dung na trong ky thuat la noi at . Thng noi at vo may e
phong khi b ro ien th ien the gia vo may va at bang nhau, tranh b ien
giat khi s dung.
2.2. IEN DUNG TU IEN.
2.2.1. ien dung cua vat dan.
IEN T HOC
- 31 -
Khi truyen cho vat dan mot ien tch q th mat o ien mat cua vat dan
ty le vi ien tch q.
= kq
k he so ty le, no la mot ham cua toa o iem be mat vat dan.
ien the tao ra bi cac ien tch la:
1
dS
q
kdS
(2-1)
4 0 S r
4 0 S r
Vi mot vat dan co lap tch ien, ien the cua no ty le vi ien tch q.
1
kdS
q
; hay : C 4 0
(2-2)
C
r
S
C c goi la ien dung cua vat dan co lap, co gia tr bang ien tch can
truyen cho vat dan e lam tang ien the vat dan len 1 von.
V du: ien dung cua mot qua cau co lap ban knh R co gia tr:
C = 40 R
(2-3)
2.2.2. Tu ien.
He thong 2 vat dan at cach ien, gan nhau, tch ien trai dau co cung
o ln, sao cho ien trng tao bi he tap trung trong mien khong gian gii
han bi chung tao ra mot tu ien. Hai vat dan goi la 2 ban tu.
ien trng gia 2 ban tu luon ty le vi o ln cua cac ien tch:
E q.
Ma theo theo (1-36) th E grad , tc ien the hay hieu ien
the U ty le vi ien tch q. Ta co the viet:
q = C (1 2) = C U
He so C ac trng cho kha nang tch ien cua tu c goi la ien dung
cua tu:
q
q
C
(2-4)
1 2
U
Neu 1 2 = 1V th C = q. Nh vay:
ien dung cua tu ien co tr so bang bang ien tch tren tu khi the hieu
gia hai ban la 1 von.
n v: Trong he SI ien dung C co n v la Fara (F).
1 Fara (F) = 1 Culong tren von (C/V).
ien dung phu thuoc vao v tr, hnh dang, kch thc cua cac ban tu,
vao moi trng cach ien gia hai ban tu. Khi gia 2 ban tu la chat ien moi,
ien dung cua tu ien tang len lan. ( c goi la hang so ien moi).
Lu The Vinh
- 32 -
IEN T HOC
U Ed
d
0
q=S
S
q
T o:
C
0
U
d
Neu gia 2 ban la ien moi () th:
0S
C
d
(2-5)
R1
R2
a)
b)
Hnh 2-4
Vec t E trung phng vi phap tuyen cua mat ang the va trung
phng ban knh cua 2 mat cau nen:
d
d
1
q
E
2
dn
dr
4 0 r
T o:
dr
4 0 r 2
IEN T HOC
- 33 -
1 2
R2
q
40
dr
R1r
1
1
40 R1 R2
q
4 0
q
1
1
1 2
R1 R2
(2-6)
0 S
R1 R2
r2
C 4 0
4 0
.
R2 R1
d
d
Trong o: S = 4 r2 dien tch cua mat tu. Ket qua tren trung vi ien
dung cua tu ien phang.
3) Tu ien hnh tru (hnh 2-5).
Goi ien tch tren 1 n v dai cua hnh tru la +q va q . ien the tren 2
ba
n tu la 1 va 2 . Dung nh ly Gauss va bieu thc lien he (1-36)
E grad , ta co:
1 2
Va:
q
2 0
ln
R2
R1
R1
2 0
q
R
1 2
ln 2
R1
(2-6)
R2
Lu The Vinh
2 0
R
ln 2
R1
Hnh 2-5
(2-7)
- 34 -
IEN T HOC
C1
C2
Cn
a)
C2
b)
Cn
Hnh 2-6
Thc vay, do hng ng toan phan nen ien tch cua cac tu eu bang
nhau va bang Q va bang ien tch cua bo tu.
Q1 = Q2 = . = Qn = Q = QAB
Hieu ien the tren tng tu la:
U1
(2-8)
Q
Q
Q
, U2
, , Un
C1
C2
Cn
UAB = U1 + U2 + + Un
1
1
1
UAB = Q
C2
Cn
C1
Q
C AB
1
1
1
C1
C2
Cn
C
i1
(2-10)
IEN T HOC
- 35 -
Ghep song song nham lam tang ien dung tng ng cua bo tu. Thc
vay, gia s ta co n tu ghep song song vi nhau. Tat ca cac tu eu chu cung
mot hieu ien the U.
U1 = U2 = = Un = U = UAB
(2-11)
Ta lan lt co:
Q1 = C1 U, Q2 = C2U, , Qn = CnU.
ien tch cua bo tu bang tong cac ien tch rieng phan:
QAB = Q1 + Q2 + + Qn = Q
(2-12)
QAB = (C1 + C2 + + Cn ) U = CABU
Trong o CAB la ien dung tng ng cua bo tu:
n
C AB C1 C 2 C n C i
(2-13)
I 1
1
qi i 2
i 1
n
i 1 k 1
qi q k
4 0 rik
(i k )
(2-14)
i ien the tai iem at ien tch qi do toan he (tr qi) gay ra.
rik khoang cach gia cac ien tch qi va qk.
2.3.2. Nang lng cua vat dan tch ien.
La the nang tng tac gia cac ien tch nh x trong vat dan. Neu vat
dan khong chu tac dung cua trng ngoai (co lap) th nang lng rieng tng
ng cua cac ien tch trong no la:
1
q2
1
W
q
C 2
2
2C
2
(2-15)
- 36 -
IEN T HOC
Ta co:
q = Cu, dq = C du.
Cong cua nguon e a them mot ien tch dq ti ban tu la:
dA = u dq = Cu du
Cong toan phan e thiet lap nen he ien tch tren tu la:
U
1
A dA Cu du CU 2
2
1
(2-16)
Cong nay bien thanh the nang cua he ien tch tren tu, tc nang lng
cua tu ien.
1
1 Q2
1
2
W CU
QU
(2-17)
2
2 C
2
2.3.4. Nang lng cua ien trng.
Mot he ien tch bat ky eu co mang nang lng. Nang lng nay c
nh x au? Ba
ng thc nghiem va ly thuyet khi nghien cu trng ien t (
gom ca E va H bien thien theo thi gian) chng to rang trng ien t co
mang nang lng.
Nang lng cua mot he ien tch nh x trong khoang khong gian co
ien trng. Noi cach khac ien trng mang nang lng.
Xet ien trng eu gia 2 ban cua mot tu ien phang. Nang lng cua
he theo (2-17) la:
1
1 0S 2
W CU 2
U
2
2 d
2
1
S 2 1
1
U
W 0 U 0 Sd 0 E 2 V
hay
2
d
2
2
d
Trong o V = Sd the tch cua mien khong gian cha ien trng.
Nh vay, nang lng cua mot ien trng eu la:
W
1
0 E 2V
2
(2-18)
W 1
0 E2
V
2
(2-19)
Vi ien trng khong ong nhat gia tr mat o nang lng trng thay
oi t iem nay sang iem khac. Nang lng toan phan cua trng c xac
nh bang bieu thc:
IEN T HOC
- 37 WE
dW
1
0 E 2 dV
2 V
(2-20)
+q
h
h
-q
Hnh 2-7
Neu bay gi ta thay MN bang mot mat phang dan vo han va noi at mat
phang dan (e tao the MN = 0) th ta thay phan ien trng gia ien tch +q
va mat phang khong thay oi. Hieu ng nay cho phep ta n gian hoa viec
tnh toan cng o ien trng gia mot ien tch +q va cac ien tch cam ng
tren mat phang dan. Co the xem q la anh gng cua ien tch +q qua mat
phang dan: ien trng gia ien tch iem va mat phang dan vo han trung
vi ien trng tao bi ien tch khao sat va anh gng cua no qua mat phang
dan.
Noi cach khac: Tac dung gia mot ien tch iem vi cac ien tch cam
ng cua no tren mat phang dan co the thay the bang tac dung gia ien tch
khao sat vi anh gng cua no qua mat phang dan.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 38 Chng 3.
(3-2)
IEN T HOC
- 39 -
uur
uur
uur uur
E
F = grad p E = p
l
(3-3)
uur
E
bien thien cua ien trng doc theo truc lng cc.
Trong o:
l
uur
uur
Lc F hng doc theo vec t E l va keo lng cc ve pha ien trng
manh.
uur
The nang cua lng cc cng trong trng ngoai E la:
uur uur
(3-4)
Wt = p E = pE cos
uur uur
Trong o = p , E goc gia truc lng cc va hng cua ien
uur
trng E . Dau () chng to v tr can bang ben cua lng cc ng vi v tr
Phan cc ion: Xay ra vi cac ien moi tinh the nh NaCl, CsCl, co
cau truc mang tinh the ion. Khi at trong trng ngoai, hai mang ion trai dau
se dch chuyen ngc chieu nhau va xuat hien momen ien.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
e o
r mc o phan cc ien moi ngi ta a vao khai niem vec t
phan cc P co gia tr bang tong momen ien trong mot n v the tch.
n
uur
P =
uur
pi
i =1
(3-5)
Trong o: uunr so phan t (lng cc) cha trong the tch ien moi V
pi momen lng cc cua phan t ien moi th i
Vi ien moi ong chat, ang hng loai khong co cc khi at trong
ien trng eu th:
uur
ur
u
P = n0 p
nuu0r mat o phan t chat ien moi.
p momen ien cam ng cua mot phan t.
ur
ur
Theo (3-1) ta co p = 0 E , nen co the viet:
ur
ur
ur
P = n0 0 E = 0 E
(3-6)
Trong o: = n 0 he so nhiem ien hay o cam ien
Vi ien moi co cc, ong chat at trong ien trng eu :
ur
ur
P = n0 p
(3-7)
Trong o: p gia tr trung bnh doc theo hng ien trng cua momen
ien rieng cua cac phan t tnh theo phan bo Boltzmann oi vi cac hat trong
trng lc:
p i2
p =
E
(3-8)
3k T
Khi cha phan cc mat o ien tch lien ket khoi va be mat cua ien
moi la bang khong. Qua trnh phan cc xay ra s dch chuyen cua cac ien
tch lien ket. Gia tr cua vec t mat o ien tch lien ket khoi va be mat
IEN T HOC
- 41 -
r
phu thuoc vao vec t phan cc P . Cac ien tch lien ket tng ng vi s
phan cc goi la ien tch phan cc.
ien tch phan cc the tch xuat hienuurkhi ien moi khong ong nhat:
' = div P
(3-9)
+
P
+
p = S l
V = S l cos
o ln cua vec t phan cc:
P=
'Sl
p'
'
=
=
V
S l cos
cos
Hnh 3-1
(3-10)
Hay:
' = P cos = Pn
(3-11)
r
Vi Pn Hnh chieu cua vec t P tren phap tuyen ngoai ay hnh tru.
Theo (3-11) ta co:
Tren ay phai < 2 cos > 0 > 0.
Tren ay trai > 2 cos < 0 < 0.
r
Khi xet lien he gia ien tch phan cc vi vec t ien trng E ta co:
(3-12)
' = P e cos = 0 E cos = 0 E n
Theo (3-12) ta co:
Tai ni ng sc i vao: > 2, En < 0 , xuat hien < 0
Tai ni ng sc i ra: < 2, En > 0 , xuat hien > 0
3.2. IEN TRNG TRONG CHAT IEN MOI.
Khi phan cc ien moi do xuat hien cac ien tch lien ket + va -
r
nen se rhnh thanh mot ien trng phu E ' hng ngc chieu vi ien trng
ngoai E 0 . Ket qua ien trng trong chat ien moi se la tong hp cua 2 ien
IEN T HOC
- 42 r
r
r
E = E0 + E '
(3-13)
Xet khoi ien moi ong chat gia 2 ban cua mot tu ien phang. Cac
ban tu c tch ien eu trai dau vi mat o ien mat la + va .
Lp ien moi c phan cc vi mat o ien mat tng ng la + va
. Ta co:
'
E 0 = , va E ' =
' Pn
P
=
=
0
0
0
v = Pn = P ( cos = 1). Do o:
0 E
E (1 + ) 0 = .
0
E
E=
=
= 0
0 (1 + )
0
E=
Hay:
(3-14)
'
=
0
0
( 1) = ' ' =
(3-17)
IEN T HOC
- 43 -
r
Khi vit nh ly Ostrogradsky - Gauss cho vec t cam ng ien D trong
mot moi trng bat ky ta co:
(3-18)
Dn dS = qi tdo
i
r
Nu viet cho vec t cng o ien trng E th:
0 E n dS = qi tdo + qk lien ket
S
Hay
Trong o:
r
1
( t do + lien ket )
div E =
(3-20)
Dn dS
(3-19)
qi tdo
qk lien ket
k
= Pn dS
(3-21)
rS
Pn hnh chieu cua vec t phan cc P tren phng phap tuyen ngoai
cua nguyen to dien tch be mat dS.
3.2.4. ien trng gay bi mot vat mang ien hnh cau at trong ien moi
ong chat va ang hng.
Xet mot vat mang ien hnh cau tch ien +q at trong mot chat ien
moi ong chat, ang hng, vo han, co hang so ien moi . Tm cng o
ien trng tai iem M cach tam qua cau mot khoang r.
Do phan cc nen lp ien moi
sat be mat qua cau xuat hien mot lp
ien tch phan cc co mat o co
gia tr:
' = 0 E (a) = ( 1) 0 E (a )
Trong o E(a) cng o ien
trng trong ien moi tai mot iem
cach tam qua cau mot khoang a, vi a
la ban knh qua cau.
ien tch lien ket toan phan:
E(a)
+q
Hnh 3-2
IEN T HOC
- 44 -
=
( 1) E (r )
4 0 r 2 4 0 r 2 4 0 r 2
E (r ) =
q
E (r )
=
2
4 0 r
(3-22)
Nh vay: ien trng trong chat ien moi ong chat gay bi mot vat
mang ien hnh cau nho hn trong chan khong lan.
Gia tr cua vec t ien cam D:
D = 0 E =
q
4 r 2
D0
E0
(3-23)
C
A
+
+
Hnh 3-3
Neu ien moi khong lap ay tu ien th ket qua
tren se khong ung. V du tren hnh ve (3-3) ta thay tai B th E < E0, con tai A
& C th E > E0.
3.3. LC TAC DUNG LEN IEN TCH AT TRONG IEN MOI.
Trong chan khong lc tac dung cua ien trng len ien tch q la:
r
r
f = qE
Trong ien moi. Khi mang mot ien tch vao trong ien moi ta phai tao
mot lo hong trong ien moi o. Neu ien moi long va kh th lo hong se co
dang be mat cua vat mang ien. Tren be mat lo hong se xuat hien cac ien
tch lien ket. Ket qua ien trng tac dung len ien tch se khac trong chan
khong.
IEN T HOC
- 45 -
Neu ien moi ran th hnh dang lo hong do ta quyet nh. S phan bo
cac ien tch lien ket phu thuoc hnh dang lo hong, cho nen lc tac dung len
ien tch trong tng trng hp cu the se khac nhau.
oi vi ien moi long va kh con xay ra hien tng ien giao, la hien
tng ien moi khi b phan cc se bien dang.
Nguyen nhan: Khi phan cc cac phan t tr thanh cac lng cc ien.
Trong ien trng (noi chung la khong eu) cac lng cc se chu tac dung
cua nhng lc ien. Ket qua trong chat ien moi va mat gii han chat ien
moi va vat mang ien se xuat hien cac lc c hoc.
V du: Xet mot tu ien phang cha ay ien moi long hoac kh. Tren be
mat ien moi co cac ien tch lien ket (Hnh 3-4). Tnh lc tac dung gia 2
ban tu.
Khi cha co ien moi, ien trng cua moi
ban tu sinh ra la eu va co gia tr:
E0 =
=
2 0 2 0 S
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
Hnh 3-4
Khi lap ay ien moi vao tu, lc F se thay oi. Ta dung phng phap
cong ao e tnh lc nay. Ta co nang lng cua tu ien la:
W=
Q2
Q2 d
=
2C 2 0 S
Gia s di chuyen mot ban tu sang phai mot oan d, nang lng tu se
bien thien mot lng:
W =
Q2
2 0 S
Bien thien nang lng cua tu bang cong di chuyen ban tu:
Fd = W = A
Hay:
F =
F
W
Q2
=
= 0
d
2 0 S
(3-24)
Nh vay: Lc tac dung gia cac ban tu nho hn trong chan khong lan.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 46 -
oi vi ien moi ran: Tuy thuoc vao hnh dang lo hong tao ra ben trong
ien moi. Ta xet mot so trng hp sau ay:
Lo hong co dang mot hnh tru ng dai.
Gia s trong ien moi ong chat, phan cc eu, ta tao mot lo hong co
dang mot hnh
tru ng dai, co ay nho va co ng sinh song song vi vec t
r
phan cc P (hnh 3-5, a).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
a)
++
Eph
+
+
+
b)
Hnh 3-5
Tren 2 ay xuat hien cac ien tch phan cc mat o + va -, vi
=Pn=P.
at mot ien tch th q = +1 n v vao gia hnh tru. V ay hnh tru
be va cach xa ien tch q nen tac dung cua cac ien tch lien ket len q rat nho
so vi tac dung cua trng ngoai. Do o lc at vao ien tch q co the xac
nh theo bieu thc:
r
r
(3-25)
F = qE
r
Trong o E la cng o ien trng trong chat ien moi.
r
Lo hong co dang mot hnh tru ng ngan, ay rong va vuong goc vi P
(hnh 3-5, b) th khi o tac dung cua cac ien tch lien ket len ien tch q
khong the bo qua . Tren ay co cac ien tch lien ket :
= Pn = P.
V ay rong va khoang cach gia 2 ay be nen cac ie
r n tch lien ket
gay ra gia hnh tru mot ien trng phu co hng trung vi E va co gia tr:
E ph =
'
P
=
0
0
IEN T HOC
- 47 -
Do vay cng o ien trng toan phan tac dung len ien tch th at
tam hnh tru co gia tr:
r
r
r P
E' = E +
( 3-26)
r
r
r P
F = q E +
0
(3-27)
r
r
Mat khac: P = 0 E nen:
r
r
r
r
D
F = q (1 + ) E = q E = q
(3-28)
Tren be mat ca
r u xuat hien ien tch lien ket co gia tr phu thuoc vao
vr tr ta xet, bi v P co gia tr va phng chieu nh nhau, nhng thanh phan
Pn tren mat cau thay oi theo v tr tren mat cau.
ur
P
dS
uur
d E//
+
+
+
uur
d P
r
d E ph
Hnh 3-6
IEN T HOC
- 48 -
r
r
P
Cac thanh phan dE ph// song
song
v
i
se cong lai vi nhau. Do vay
r
ta ch can xet cac thanh phan dE ph// .
Xet mot vi phan be mat dS = R2sin d d co cha ien tch lien ket la
q = dS = R2sin d d
(3-31)
ien tch nay gay ra tai tam hnh cau mot ien trng nguyen to:
r
dE ph =
' dS
4 0 R
4 0
Hay:
dE ph =
Va
dE ph // =
E ph =
dE ph //
( Mat cau )
' R 2 sin dd
4 0
4 0
1
4 0
' sin dd
(3-32)
P cos 2 sin dd
1
4 0
E ph =
P sin dd cos
P cos sin d
0
1 P
3 0
(3-33)
2
d
0
(3-34)
(3-35)
Ket qua nay ac biet quan trong khi xet cac chat ien moi ran co cau
truc tinh the lap phng. Moi phan t ien moi nam gia cac phan t khac
mot cach trung bnh co the xem nh phan t nam tam mot lo hong hnh cau.
Ket qua tren c ap dung e tnh lc tac dung len mot phan t chat ien moi
phan cc eu.
3.4. BIEN THIEN CUA IEN TRNG MAT GII HAN CHAT IEN MOI.
r
r
r r
e bieu dien ien trng co the dung vec t E hoac D = 0 E + P . Trong
ien moi khong ong chat gia tr cua hang sor ienr moi thay oi t iem nay
en iem khac dan en gia tr cua cac vec t E va D cung thay oi.
IEN T HOC
- 49 -
1'
2'
E1 =
; E2 =
0
0
2+
-
2-1-+
1 -
+r
uu
E2'
-
+uur
E1'
-
(3-36)
uur
E0 uuur
E0 t
uuur
E0 n
Hnh 3-7, a
r
Neu E 0 hp vi phap tuyen mat gii han mot goc nao o ta co:
r
r
r
Eo = Eon + Eot
1'
o
2'
'
= Eon E2 = Eon
o
Thanh phan tiep tuyen phu thuoc vao ien tch lien ket nen:
E ot = E1t = E 2 t
Mat khac
Hay:
(3-37)
(3-38)
(3-39)
(3-40)
(3-41)
Eon
Eon
E2 n =
=
1 + 2 2
Nh vay: Khi i qua mat phan cach thanh phan phap tuyen cua vec t
r
E thay oi, con thanh phan tiep tuyen cua no khong thay oi.
r
Xet vec t D. r
r
Ta co:
D = o E , trong o:
D1n = 1oE1n = oEon
D2n = 2oE2n = oEon
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
Nh vay ta co:
D1n = D2 n &
D1t 1
=
D2 t 2
(3-42)
E1n 2
E1t = E2 t &
=
E2 n 1
r r
(3-42) c goi la cac ieu kien bien cua cac vec t E & D.
Y ngha: T cac phng trnh (3-42) ta tha
r y rrang: Khi qua mat phan
cach cac lp ien moi bien thien cua cac vec t
r E&
r D la khac nhau.
Ta hay xet thong lng cua cac vec t E & D qua mot dien tch dS nam
tai phan gii cua 2 lp ien moi (hnh 3-7, b).
D2n
2
1
dS2
D2
2
D1
D1n
dS1
D2t
D1t
a)
Hnh 3-7, b
r
Xet vec t E, ta co:
r r
Bay gi ta hay viet nh ly O-G cho cac vec t E & D.
r
r
Vi vec t D. Do ng sc lien tuc, o ln cua D ch phu thuoc
vao cac ien tch t do, nen ta co :
r r
N DS = DdS = q t do
r S
diV D = t
do
(3-45)
IEN T HOC
- 51 -
r
Vi vec t E. ng src b gian oan do b anh hng cua cac ien
tch lien ket, do o o ln cua E phu thuoc ca vao cac ien tch t do va ca
cac ien tch lien ket, nen ta co :
r r
1
N Es = EdS =
qt do + qlien ket
NE =
o V
t do
r
1
diV E =
t
do
+ lien ket
+ lien ket
(3-46)
D
D1t
; tg 2 = 2 t
D2 n
D1n
tg 1 D1t D2 n D1t 1
=
=
=
tg 2 D1n D2 t D2 t 2
(3-47)
uur
Cac bieu thc (3-47) con c goi la nh luat khuc xa oi vi vec t D .
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 52 -
r
mot truc a hoac b cua tinh the : E // a , hoac b . Cac tnh chat cua hieu ng the
hien nh sau :
1. Trong mot khoang nhiet o xac nh nao o, hang so ien moi ac biet
ln, co the at ti khoang (103 104). Tren hnh (3-9,a) bieu dien s
phu thuoc cua hang so ien moi cua titanat bari (BaTiO3) vao nhiet
o. o th cho thay trong khoang 1200C , co gia tr gan 2000. Khi giam
nhiet o ti 800C hang so ien moi tang vot ti gan 6000, sau o neu
tiep tuc giam nhiet o th lai giam xuong.
5500
4500
3500
2500
1500
500
40
60
80
100
120
140 C
a)
b)
Hnh 3-9
r
2. Hanrg so ien moi va do
o
ve
c
t
ie
n
ca
m
D
trong ien moi khong
r
t le vi E ma phu thuoc vao E mot cach phc tap. Gia tr cua hang so ien
moi khong phai la hang so (xem hnh 3-9,b).
3. S phan c
r c ien moi khong ch
phu thuoc vao E ma con phu thuoc vao
P
trang thai phan cc trc o cua ien
moi. Hien tng nay goi la hien tng
Pd
ien tre. o phan cc P khi thay oi
Ek
E
tuan hoan r ien trng phan cc phu
O
thuoc vao E theo mot ng cong khep
kn chu trnh ien tre (hnh 3-10).
Trong o :
Pd o phan cc d
EK ien trng kh phan cc.
4. Hieu ng xenhet phu thuoc rat
Hnh 3-10
nhieu vao nhiet o, no ch xay ra trong
IEN T HOC
- 53 -
mot khoang nhiet o xac nh gii han bi cac iem Curie. V du vi muoi
xenhet, hieu ng ch xay ra trong khoang nhiet o gia +22,5oC va 15oC.
Ngoai khoang nhiet o tren xenhet tr thanh ien moi thng.
Mot so chat nh phot phat kali (KH2PO4) ; Asenat kali (KH2AsO4) ;
Titanat bari (BaTiO4) la nhng chat xenhet.
ng dung. Cac chat xenhet c s dung rong rai trong ky thuat ien va vo
tuyen ien. Vi hang so ien moi ln xenhet c s dung nh mot chat ien
moi co cao e che tao cac tu ien co kch thc nho nhng ien dung ln.
3.5.2. Giai thch.
Nguyen nhan cua hieu ng xenhet ien la do s phan cc t phat trong
tng mien rieng biet cua ien moi (goi la cac omen). Trong moi omen cac
momen ien sap xep sao cho ve toan bo momen cua ien moi bang 0. (V du
mot phan bo the hien nh hnh 3-11).
r
E
a)
b)
Hnh 3-11
IEN T HOC
- 54 -
Tinh the thach anh co dang luc lang vi 2 au la 2 hnh chop oi xng
nh tren hnh 3-12, a, Moi tinh the thach anh co 3 truc, ma moi truc co nhng
hieu ng ac biet gan vi cac hien tng quang, ien va c. Truc quang hoc Z
la truc i qua 2 nh hnh chop. Truc ien X i qua canh cua lang tru va vuong
goc vi truc quang. Truc c Y la truc hng vuong goc vi mat ben cua lang
tru.
a)
b)
c)
Hnh 3-12. Tinh the thach anh va cac truc cua no:
truc quang Z, truc ien X va truc c Y
Neu cat t tinh the thach anh ra mot khoi hnh hop, co cac canh nh
hng theo cac truc X, Y nh hnh 3-12, b th khi tac dung lc Px len tinh the
doc theo hng truc ien X, tren 2 be mat oi dien cua tinh the se xuat hien
cac ien tch trai dau (hieu ng doc):
Qx = D Px
(3-48)
Sy
Sx
(3-49)
Trong o Sy va Sx tng ng la cac dien tch be mat ban tinh the vuong
goc vi cac truc Y va truc X.
Dau cua cac ien tch xuat hien se thay oi khi chuyen t bien dang
nen sang dan va ngc lai.
Hieu ng ap ien thuan noi tren c s dung e che tao cac bo
chuyen oi o lng e o chan ong, o o rung, o ap lc. u iem la rat
IEN T HOC
- 55 -
b) Nguyen nhan:
Cac ien moi tinh the co cau truc mang tinh the ion, chung do nhieu
mang n gian hp thanh, cac mang nay c cau thanh t cac ion cung loai
at lech nhau trong khong gian. Khi b bien dang c hoc trong tinh the xay ra
2 bien oi:
au tien moi o c ban b bien dang, chang han khi b nen o hnh lap
phng bien thanh o hnh hop xien.
Sau o cac mang n gian b dch chuyen tng oi vi nhau va lam
xuat hien momen ien. Ket qua ien moi b phan cc.
Theo vat ly chat ran, s dch chuyen tren ch xay ra vi cac tinh the co
cau truc mang vi tam khong oi xng. Do o hien tng ap ien ch xay ra
vi cac tinh the co bac oi xng thap.
c) Hieu ng ap ien nghch.
La hien tng tinh the ap ien khi at trong ien trng bien thien se b
bien dang. Chieu bien dang phu thuoc vao chieu ien trng. Nh vay neu
ta dan 2 la kim loai vao 2 ma cua mot ban thach anh va at vao mot ien
trng bien thien tuan hoan th ban thach anh se b phan cc va bien dang
mot cach tuan hoan , tc la ban thach anh se dao ong. Dao ong se cang
manh neu tan so kch thch bang tan so dao ong rieng cua ban thach anh.
Hieu ng ap ien nghch c ng dung e che tao cac bien t trong
may phat song sieu am, tao dao ong thach anh trong cac may phat dao
ong, chuan tan so.
d) Tnh chat vat ly cua cac vat lieu dung trong chuyen oi ap ien.
1.Thach anh.
Hang so ap ien:
D = 2,1.10-12 C/N
Hang so ien moi: = 39,8 F/m
Mo un an hoi oi vi tinh the thach anh theo hng vuong goc vi
truc quay la 70 90 kN/mm2.
ng suat c hoc cho phep oi vi ban thach anh phu thuoc vao chat
lng mai mat tac dung va co the at (0,71,0).108 N/m2 hay (70100) N/mm2.
ien tr suat cua ban tinh the thay oi theo cac hng truc (bang 3-1).
Bang 3-1
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 56 Nhiet o (oC)
20
100
200
300
ien tr suat (. m)
Doc truc quang
Vuong goc vi truc quang
1.1012
2.1014
8.109
7
7.10
3
6.10
Ta thay ien tr suat cua thach anh doc theo truc quang phu thuoc
nhieu vao nhiet o trong khi khong thay oi doc theo phng vuong goc vi
truc quang. ien tr suat doc theo truc quang nho hn nhieu theo phng
vuong goc vi no.
Hang so ap ien D thc te khong phu thuoc vao nhiet o trong pham vi
en 200oC. Trong khoang t 200oC 500oC gia tr cua D thay oi khong
nhieu. Khi nhiet o ln hn 500oC hang so D giam nhanh va nhiet o 573oC
thach anh b mat tnh chat ap ien.
2. Muoi xe nhet. La loai co o nhay ap ien ln nhat ( D 300. 10-12 C/N),
tuy nhien no co tnh chat hut am ln, o ben c hoc nho va ien tr suat thap,
nen han che viec s dung.
Chuyen oi ap ien dung xenhet ch c dung trong cac phep o lc
va ap lc thay oi nhanh trong cac moi trng co o am nho va nhiet o
trong phong.
3. Titanatbari. Khong s dung loai n tinh the ma thng s dung gom
phan cc titanatbari. Tnh chat ap ien cua gom titanatbari khong nhng phu
thuoc vao thanh phan va phng phap san xuat, ma con phu thuoc ca vao
ien ap phan cc va ng suat c hoc gay ra bi ai lng can o. Ngoai ra
con xay ra s thay oi tnh chat cua no theo thi gian, tc s gia hoa (thng
khoang 20 % sau 2 nam).
Lc c hoc nen at theo phng phan cc, ien tch phan cc xuat hien
tren mat vuong goc vi phng phan cc. Khi o hang so ap ien cua gom
titanatbari co gia tr D = 107. 10-12 C/N. Hang so ien moi = 1240. 10-11
F/m. Moun an hoi E = 115 G N/m2 = 115 kN/mm2. Gom ap ien co o ben
c hoc cao va khong phu thuoc o am.
Chng 4.
IEN T HOC
- 57 -
- 58 -
IEN T HOC
IEN T HOC
- 59 -
Vi mot oan mach dan ong chat, neu at gia 2 au cua no mot hieu
ien the U = 1 2 th trong mach se xuat hien mot dong ien co o ln ty le
vi U.
I = U
(4-4)
he so ty le goi la ien dan cua vat.
4.2.2. en tr.
Trong bieu thc cua nh luat Ohm, ai lng nghch ao cua ac
trng cho mc o can tr dong ien c goi la ien tr cua vat dan :
1
R =
(4-5)
Vi khai niem ien tr, bieu thc cua nh luat Ohm (4-4) c viet lai :
U
(4-6)
I=
R
Gia tr cua R phu thuoc vao hnh dang, ban chat, kch thc trang thai
cua vat dan. oi vi mot vat dan hnh tru ong chat ta co :
l
1 l
=
(4-7)
S
S
Trong o : ien tr suat, ac trung cho ban chat cua vat dan.
l chieu dai day dan.
S tiet dien ngang day dan.
ien dan suat cua mach.
Khi nhiet o thay oi, ien tr suat cua vat se thay oi va c ac
trng bang he so nhiet ien tr :
1 d
(4-8)
=
dt
Gia tr cua cho biet so gia cua khi nhiet o tang len 10C, no co gia
tr khac nhau trong nhng khoang nhiet o khac nhau, ieu o chng to s
phu thuoc cua theo nhiet o la khong tuyen tnh. Tuy nhien vi mot so chat
nh kim loai th s bien thien nay khong ln, va trong mot khoang nhiet o u
nho co the xem = const. Ta co the viet :
R =
= 0 (1 + t).
(4-9)
Gia tr cua co the am, co the dng. oi vi kim loai >0, con vi
cac chat ban dan va chat ien phan co < 0.
n v : Trong he SI n v cua ien tr c nh ngha :
[U ]
= V / A = Ohm ( )
[ R] =
[I ]
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 60 oi vi ien tr suat :
[] = m
nh luat Ohm bieu dien theo (4-4) hoac (4-6) ap dung oi vi mot
oan day dan ong chat. e tm bieu thc cua nh luat oi vi tng iem cua
mot moi trng dan bat ky, ta phai viet bieu thc di dang vi phan. Tng
tng tach ra mot oan ong dong co chieu dai vo cung be dl gii han bi hai
tiet dien ngang dS cac ien the tng ng la 1 va 2 (vi 1 > 2 ) at
vuong goc vi cac ng dong (hnh 4-2).
dl
r
J
r
E
dS
Hnh 4-2
r
Neu J la mat o dong tai iem ang xet, ta co dong i qua dS se la :
r r
I = J dS = J dS
(4-10)
r r
The hieu gia 2 au ong la : 1 2 = E dl = Edl
(4-11)
dl
dS
Theo nh luat Ohm ap dung cho oan ong dong ta co:
ien tr cua oan ong dong :
R =
1 2 = RI
(4-12)
(4-13)
r
r
J = E
(4-14)
IEN T HOC
- 61 -
1. Trng tnh ien khong tao ra c dong ien khong oi trong mach. e
duy tr dong ien can tac dung len cac ien tch mot lc co ban chat phi tnh
r
ien goi la cac lc la F * . Lc la nay do nguon ien tao ra.
r
Trng tao ra cac lc la goi la trng lc la E . Nh vay trong mot
oan mach co nguon ien tac dung, qua mach co dong ien khong oi chay
qua, tai moi iem cua mach luonr ton tai 2 trng :
Trng lc Coulomb : E .
r
+
Trng lc la : E .
E
2. nh luat Ohm trong trng hp nay
dl
se co dang :
r
r r
1
2
I
(4-15)
J = (E + E )
Xet mot oan mach vi phan dl
co dong ien khong oi I chay qua.
Hnh 4-3
Khi o co the viet phng trnh (4-15)
di dang vo hng :
J = (E + E*)
Bay gi nhan hai ve cua phng trnh (4-15,a) vi dl ta co :
I
dl = dl E + E = Edl + E dl
S
2
2
2
dl
= Edl + E dl
I
S
1
1
1
IR12 = 1 2 + E
Trong o : R12 =
dl
(4-15,a)
12
(4-16)
(4-17)
12
r
E
dl Suat ien ong tac dung tren oan 1-2.
1
Nh vay ta co :
1 2 = IR12 E
12
(4-18)
Bieu thc (4-18) bieu dien nh luat Ohm di dang tong quat.
Quy c ve dau : Khi i t 1 en 2 : I >0 neu cung chieu, ngc lai I <0.
E 12 >0 neu i t 1 en 2 i t cc (+) sang cc (-), ngc lai E 12 <0.
V du : Vi mach ien tren hnh 4-4 ta co :
1 2 = I ( R1 + R2 + r1 + r2 ) e1 + e2
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 62 -
e1 r1
R1
e r
2 2
2
Hnh 4-4
3. Vi mach ien kn 1 = 2 do o ta co the viet :
I=
Trong o
ei
ei
(4-20)
R+r
Ik = 0
(4-21)
I2
I1
M
Hnh 4-5
I3
I4
IEN T HOC
- 63 -
Ta hay khao sat mot mach phan nhanh phc tap nh tren hnh 4-6. Xet
mach vong ABCD. Viet bieu thc cua nh luat Ohm tong quat cho tng oan
mach theo chieu dng cua mat ta co :
R
e
A B = I 1 R1 + e1
3
3
A
C
B C = I 2 R2 e2
C A = I 3 R3 e3
I
R
Ii Ri = eI
i
1
e
I1
e1
I2
2
1
e
4
(4-22)
Hnh 4-6
Quy c : I >0 neu chay cung chieu dng cua mat, ngc lai I<0 ;
e>0 neu tac ong theo chieu dng cua mat, ngc lai e<0.
4.5. CONG VA CONG SUAT CUA DONG IEN.
4.5.1. Cong va cong suat cua dong ien.
Xet mot oan mach khong cha nguon ien gia hai iem 1-2 at vao
hieu ien the U12.
A A
(4-23)
U12 = 1 2 = =
q It
A = (1 2 )I t = U12It
(4-24)
Neu oan mach co cha nguon, cong di chuyen ien tch q bao gom ca
cong cua trng lc la va cong cua lc ien Coulomb :
(4-25)
A = U12 I t + E I t = (U12 + E) I t
Neu mach kn U12 = 1 2 = 0 . Ta co cong trong mach do nguon ien
sinh ra : A = E I t .
A
= UI
t
(4-26)
(4-27)
(4-28)
IEN T HOC
- 64 -
Tac dung nhiet cua dong ien do Joule va Lenx tm ra. Gia s tren
oan mach 1-2 co dong chay qua. Neu day dan ng yen, cong c hoc se
bang 0 va neu khong xay ra mot phan ng hoa hoc nao th cong cua dong
ien hoan toan bien thanh nhiet :
Q = A = U I t = I 2 Rt ( J ) = 0,24 I 2 Rt (Cl)
(4-29)
Neu dong qua mach bien thien theo thi gian th nhiet lng toa ra
trong thi gian t se la :
t
Q = i 2 R dt
(4-30)
Xet mach kn cha nguon (E,r) va mach ngoai co ien tr R. Dong trong
mach :
E
E = IR+ Ir
I=
R+r
E I = I2R + I2r
(4-32)
Pe = E I Cong suat toan phan do nguon sinh ra.
Po = I2R Cong suat thoat ra mach ngoai (cong suat hu ch).
Pi = I2r Cong suat tieu hao trong nguon (cong suat vo ch).
*Hieu suat :
Po I 2 R
ER
R
= =
=
=
(%)
Pe E I E ( R + r ) R + r
(4-33)
IEN T HOC
- 65 Chng 5.
no =
(5.1)
W =
1
3
mvT2 = kT
2
2
(5.2)
Moi nguyen t kim loai cho mot electron t do, mat o electron t do
xap x bang mat o nguyen t trong kim loai:
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 66 -
IEN T HOC
N
1022 1023 cm 3
(5.3)
A
5.1.3. Giai thch ve tnh dan ien va ien tr kim loai
Bnh thng cac electron t do trong kim loai chuyen ong nhiet hon
loan khong co phng u tien. Khi co ien trng ngoai tac dung chung se
tham gia chuyen ong nh hng di tac dung cua lc ien trng.
Khi chuyen ong nh hng cac electron va cham vi nut mang tinh
the. Nang lng cua no truyen cho nut mang va bien thanh nhiet nang. o
chnh la nguyen nhan gay ra ien tr cua kim loai. Moi kim loai co cau truc
mang tinh the khac nhau nen tac dung ngan can chuyen ong nh hng
cua cac electron cung khac nhau, do o ien tr suat cua cac kim loai khac
nhau.
Khi nhiet o tang lam chuyen ong nhiet hon loan cua cac electron t
do tang len, ong thi nhiet o tang lam cho dao ong cua ion cac nut mang
cung tang len dan ti xac suat va cham gia electron vi cac nut mang tang
len. Do o ien tr kim loai tang theo nhiet o.
5.1.4. nh luat Ohm trong thuyet electron.
no =
m
trong o la khoang thi gian electron i het quang ng .
(5.4)
Trong o:
n0e2 1
=
=
2 mu
(5.7)
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 67 -
(5.8)
Khi va cham, toan bo nang lng nay truyen cho mang tinh the va bien
thanh nhiet. Tronh moi n v thi gian, moi electron chu
va cham (tan so
Nhiet lng toa ra trong mot n v the tch kim loai sau moi giay la:
e2 2 E 2 u n0 e2 2
=
E = E2
Q = n0
2
2 mu
2mu
Q = E2 =
E2
(5.9)
Hoac theo ly thuyet tren th ty nhiet cua nguyen t kim loai (tc nhiet dung
rieng cua nguyen t) cung sai lech xa so vi thc nghiem.
S d co nhng mau thuan o la v trong vat ran chuyen ong cua
electron khong tuan theo cac quy luat cua c hoc co ien, ma no tuan theo
cac quy luat phc tap hn cua c hoc lng t. S phan bo cac electron khong
tuan theo phan bo Maxwell-Boltzmann cua thong ke co ien ma tuan theo
phan bo lng t Fermi-Dirac.
5.2.2. Thuyet mien nang lng ve vat ran.
1. Nang lng cua cac electron trong vat ran (noi rieng kim loai), cung
nh nang lng cua cac electron trong nguyen t b lng t hoa. Chung ch
nhan nhng gia tr gian oan, c bieu dien bang cac mc nang lng xac
nh (hnh 5-1).
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 68 -
IEN T HOC
2. Vi mot nguyen t co lap, nang lng cac electron phan bo tren cac
mc tng ng vi xu hng trang thai co nang lng thap nhat nhng tuan
theo chat che nguyen ly Pauli:
En
Moi mc nang lng ch co the
co toi a 2 electron vi spin oi
song. Do vay cac mc nang
E2
lng c lap ay t di len
E1
tren. Khi b kch thch cac
electron co the nhay len mc
nang lng cao hn.
Eo
3. Xet nguyen t trong
mang tinh the vat ran, cac Hnh 5.1. S lng t hoa cac mc nang lng
electron con tng tac vi cac
nguyen t khac, do o moi mc nang lng se b tach ra lam N mc nho (N la
so nguyen t vat ran). Cac mc cach nhau c 10 22eV. Trong mien nay
electron co the bat ky mot mc nho nao, goi la mien c phep. Gia cac
mien c phep ngan cach nhau mot khoang goi la mien cam. Cac electron
khong the co gia tr nang lng nam trong mien cam (hnh 5.2).
E
McFermi
Mien c phep
Mien cam
N mc
Hnh 5.2. S tach cac mc nang lng
4. Theo thuyet electron co ien, 00K van toc cua cac electron trong
kim loai bang 0, va do o electron se nam mc nang lng thap nhat. Tuy
nhien theo thuyet lng t, s phan bo cac electron tuan theo nguyen ly Pauli,
do o cac electron se lap ay cac mc nang lng t di len. Cac mc tren
ch co 1 electron hoac bo trong hoan toan. Do o trang thai cua electron trong
ho the nang b lng t hoa, va khoang cach t mc cao nhat b electron
chiem ti b ho the se nho hn chieu sau ho the. Do vay cong thoat be mat
cua electron se nho hn nhieu chieu sau ho the. Mc cao nhat b electron
chiem goi la mc Fermi (hnh 5-3).
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 69 -
5. Theo thuyet lng t 00K cac electron chuyen ong vi van toc rat
ln. mv fermi van toc cua electron c 106m/s. Trong khi theo ly thuyet
electron co ien van toc nay ch co the co nhiet o 5.104K.
5.2.3. Phan loai vat dan va ien moi theo thuyet mien nang lng.
Theo thuyet mien nang lng th tnh chat ien cua vat ran khac nhau
do hai nguyen nhan:
- Th nhat: do chieu rong cua mien cam
- Th hai: do s lap ay cac electron trong mien c phep khac nhau.
ieu kien e mot vat ran dan ien la phai ton tai cac mc nang lng
t do e cho cac electron co the chuyen ong t do gia cac mc o.
- Trong kim loai: cac electron hoa tr cha chiem het cac mc nang lng
trong mien c phep, con trong cac mc nang lng cao hn va mien c
phep nay tr thanh mien dan. Ngha la khi co ien trng tac dung cac
electron de dang nhay len cac mc nang lng cao hn, tc la chuyen ong
nh hng, do o kim loai la vat dan ien.
- Trong ien moi. (v du NaCl) 00K cac mien nang lng c phep pha
di (ng vi nang lng thap) b lap ay hoan toan. Cac mien pha tren bo
trong (mien t do). Be rong mien cam kha ln (tren 3 eV). Do vay khi co ien
trng, cac electron cha u nang lng e
nhay qua mien cam len mien t do tr
Mien dan
thanh electron dan. Ket qua khong co s
dch chuyen electron, va ien moi la chat
Mien cam
cach ien. Tuy nhien neu ien trng at
vao ien moi qua ln, luc o electron co
Mien ay
the u nang lng e nhay qua mien cam
len mien t do tr thanh electron dan, luc
Hnh 5.4. Ban dan tinh khiet
o ta noi ien moi b anh thung.
5.3. S DAN IEN CUA CHAT BAN
DAN
- 70 -
IEN T HOC
ban dan co lan tap chat nho th tnh chat ien cua no thay oi rat ln. Tuy
thuoc vao loai tap chat ma co 2 loai ban dan p va n.
5.3.2. S dan ien cua ban dan tinh khiet.
Theo thuyet mien nang lng, be rong mien cam cua cac ban dan
khong ln lam. V du, vi Ge khoang 0,72V, vi Si khoang 1,1V. Do vay,
trang thai bnh thng cac mc nang lng mien c phep a b lap ay,
nhng mot so electron mc cao nhat cua mien ay co the nhay qua mien
cam len mien dan tr thanh electron t do. Tuy nhien khi electron nhay len
mien dan no e lai mot lo trong, di tac dung cua ien trng ngoai mot
electron mc di co the de dang nhay len chiem cho lo trong o, va ban
than no lai e lai lo trong, mot electron ben di lai san sang nhay len
chiem cho v tr o. C nh the s dch chuyen cua electron len pha tren
tng ng vi s dch chuyen lo trong theo chieu ngc lai. Qua trnh o
hnh thanh nen s dan ien cua ban dan theo 2 cach:
- Dan ien bang electron dan tren mien t do (vi cac electron a nhay
len mien dan)
- Dan ien bang lo trongtrong mien ay (hnh 5.4)
5.3.3. Ban dan loai n va loai p.
Khi b pha tap tnh chat ien cua ban dan thay oi rat manh, tuy thuoc
vao loai tap chat ma co hai loai ban dan loai p va n.
a) Ban dan loai n. Xay ra khi pha mot lng nho Asen (As) vao Gecmani
(Ge) tinh khiet. Ge co 32 electron vi 4 electron hoa tr. Trong mang tinh the
moi nguyen t Ge dung 4 electron hoa tr e lien ket vi nhau tao thanh tng
cap lien ket ong hoa tr. Asen co 33 electron, trong o co 5 electron hoa tr.
Khi lot vao mang tinh the Ge no gop 4 electron hoa tr vao lien ket, con lai
electron th 5 se tha, do o se lien ket rat yeu vi hat nhan va de dang bt
ra khoi nguyen t e tr thanh electron t do, ban dan co kha nang dan ien.
IEN T HOC
Ge
- 71 -
Ge
Mien dan
0,015 eV
Mien donor
As
Ge
Ge
Mien cam
Mien ay
a)
b)
Hnh 5.5. C che dan ien cua ban dan n
c) Nguyen t As trong mang tinh the Ge
d) Gian o nang lng cua ban dan n
Theo thuyet mien nang lng, khi pha As vao Ge trong s o nang
lng xuat hien mot mien nang lng hep nam gan sat di mien dan c
0,015eV. Mien nay cha ay cac electron hoa tr cua As. Cac mc nang lng
mien nay goi la mc cho (donor). nhiet o bnh thng cac electron
mien nay co the de dang nhay len mien dan e tr thanh t do. Qua trnh nay
khong kem theo viec xuat hien lo trong trong mien ay, nen s dan ien
cua ban dan chu yeu la bang electron (hnh 5.5). V cac electron la cac hat
tch ien am nen ban dan loai nay goi la ban dan n (negative).
b.Ban dan loai p. Neu pha lan vao Ge mot lng nho In th ta se c
ban dan loai p. V In hoa tr 3 nen khi tham gia mang tinh the vi Ge no se bo
trong mot moi lien ket. Do trong moi lien ket nay nen In de dang nhan them
mot electron t mot nguyen t Ge ben canh neu ta cung cap cho no nang
lng c chng 0,015 eV. Nhng khi electron va nhay i se e lai mot lo
trong va mot electron khac lai de dang nhay vao chiem v tr o. Dong
electron nhay i nay tng ng vi mot dong lo trong theo chieu ngc
lai (hnh 5.6,a).
Theo thuyet mien nang lng, khi pha In vao Ge tren s o nang lng
xuat hien mot mien nang lng hep nam sat ngay pha tren mien ay, cach no
c 0,015 eV. Mien nay gom cac mc nang lng bo trong goi la mien nhan
(acceptor). Cac electron mien ay de dang nhay len chiem cac mc nay.
Qua trnh o lam xuat hien cac lo trong ma khong lam xuat hien cac
electron dan. Do vay ban dan loai nay dan ien chu yeu bang lo nen goi la
ban dan loai p (positive)(hnh 5.6,b).
- 72 -
IEN T HOC
Ge
Mien dan
Ge
In
Ge
Mien cam
Ge
Ge
Mien acceptor
0,015 eV
Mien ay
a)
b)
Hnh 5.5. C che dan ien cua ban dan n
a) Nguyen t As trong mang tinh the Ge
b) Gian o nang lng cua ban dan n
5.4. HIEN TNG IEN CHO TIEP XUC GIA CAC KIM LOAI
IEN T HOC
- 73 -
1
mv 2 A = e
2
(5.11)
UT
eUi
- 74 -
IEN T HOC
n = no
U
T
e kT
vi UT la the nang cua phan t kh. V tap hp cac electron t do trong kim
loai c xem nh la kh electron nen trong trng hp 2 kim loai tiep xuc ta
co UT = eUi. T o ta co:
n1 = n2e
Hay:
Ui =
eUi
kT
kT n2
ln
e
n1
(5.11)
IEN T HOC
- 75 -
eUa
e2
e1
e1
e2
eUi
a)
b)
Hnh 5.9. C che hnh thanh hieu ien the tiep xuc ngoai
eUa = e2 e1 eUi
Do o:
(5.12)
Ua = 2 1 Ui
Lay dau + hoac phu thuoc vao dau cua Ui. V gia tr cua hieu ien the
tiep xuc Ui rat nho ch c 10-2 en 10-3V, trong khi gia tr cua cac ien the
thoat lai co gia tr c vai von nen co the coi gan ung:
U a = 2 1
(5.13)
Ly thuyet lng t ve kim loai chng to cong thc tren la ung.
Neu oan mach gom nhieu kim loai ghep noi tiep th hieu ien the gia
hai au cua mot oan mach ch phu thuoc vao ban chat cua kim loai hai au
ma khong phu thuoc vao ban chat cac kim loai gia mach.
That vay. Gia s xet oan
mach gom co bon kim loai 1,2,3,4
ghep vi nhau (hnh 5.10). Ta hay
cat tng tng chung theo cac
ng aa va bb. Hieu ien the tiep
xuc gia cac au t do theo (5.13) se
lan lt la:
U12 = 2 1
U23 = 3 2
Hnh 5.10. Hieu ien the tiep xuc ngoai
U34 = 4 3
Hieu ien the tiep xuc cua ca
mach ien la:
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 76 -
IEN T HOC
(5.15)
ay 12 = - 21 goi la he so Peltier.
Chu y rang hien tng Peltier khac hien tng toa nhiet Joule-Lenx:
Nhiet lng Joule ty le vi I2 va khong phu thuoc vao chieu dong ien I, trong
khi nhiet lng Peltier th ty le vi I va phu thuoc vao chieu dong ien. Nhiet
lng Joule phu thuoc vao ien tr R con nhiet lng Peltier th khong.
Nguyen nhan: Do ton tai the hieu tiep xuc trong. Neu ien trng tai
moi han cung chieu dong ien no se can tr chuyen ong cua cac electron
lam ong nang cua chung giam. Cac electron phai lay them nang lng
mang tinh the, ket qua lam cho moi han lanh i. Ngc lai, neu ien trng
ngc chieu dong ien, cac electron se c gia toc them, chung tang ong
nang va nhng bt nang lng cho mang tinh the, ket qua lam cho moi han
nong len.
5.5.2.Hien tng Thomson
Khao sat cac hien tng nhiet ien Thomson nhan thay rang: Ngay ca
trong mot vat dan ong nhat, neu nhiet o tai cac phan khac nhau cua vat dan
la khac nhau, th khi cho dong ien mot chieu chay qua vat dan se xay ra hien
tng co mot nhiet lng phu toa nhiet (hay hap thu) ngoai nhiet lng Joule.
Hien tng nay goi la hien tng Thomson.
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 77 -
Nhiet lng Thomson toa ra trong mot n v the tch trong mot n v
thi gian ty le vi gradient nhiet o dT/dx va vi mat o dong i:
QT =
dT
i
dx
(5.16)
(5.18)
dE
) , co gia tr phu thuoc vao ban
dT
chat cua kim loai. Bang (5.1) cho gia tr cua tnh ra microvon tren o
(V/K) mot so kim loai oi vi Platin 0oC.
la he so nhiet ien vi phan ( =
Bang 5.1
Kim loai
Bixmut
Sat
ong
(V/K)
-65,0
+16,0
+7,40
Kim loai
Ken (Ni)
Antimoni
Constantan
(V/K)
-16,4
+47,0
-34,4
- 78 -
IEN T HOC
sang kim loai kia. V du, cap Sat Constantan dong ien moi han nong
chay theo chieu t constantan (=-34,4V/K) sang Sat (=19,0V/K).
c) Nguyen nhan cua hien tng Seebeck.
Hien tng Seebeck xuat hien do hai nguyen nhan sau ay:
- Ton tai hien tng khuech tan u tien cac electron t au nong sang au
lanh, lam cho au nong tch ien dng, au lanh tch ien am.
- S phu thuoc cua hieu ien the tiep xuc vao nhiet o lam cho tong hieu
ien the tiep xuc trong khac khong:
ET = Ui1 + Ui 2 =
(5.19)
Vat lieu
Vat lieu
Nicrom
Mangan
ong
Crom
+2,2
+0,76
+0,76
+2,4
Constantan
Copen
Niken
Alumen
-3,4
-3,6
-1,5
-1,7
IEN T HOC
- 79 -
Hay:
Tk
2
e
3k
(5.20)
Gia tr cua cong thoat e oi vi cac kim loai nam trong khoang t 1
en 4,5 eV. Neu = 2V th Tk 15000K.
Trong thc te, nhiet o phong cung a co mot so electron phat xa ra
khoi be mat kim loai, va bat au nhiet o 1000 3000K a co mot lng
ang ke cac electron thoat ra khoi be mat kim loai. S d nh vay la v trong
kim loai luon ton tai mot so electron co nang lng ln hn nang lng
chuyen ong nhiet trung bnh va chung co the de dang thoat ra khoi kim loai
nhiet o khong cao lam.
Hien tng phat xa nhiet electron ong mot vai tro ac biet quan trong
trong ky thuat ien va ien t (che tao en ien t, en ong tia am cc,)
5.6.2. Phat xa quang electron.
Phat xa quang electron la hien tng quang ien ngoai. Khi chieu anh
sang vao be mat kim loai, neu thoa man ieu kien quang ien cac electron s
bt ra khoi be mat kim loai.
ieu kien phat xa la:
hf e
Hay:
e
h
(5.21)
- 80 -
IEN T HOC
N2
N1
(5.22)
phu thuoc vao be mat kim loai, vao ong nang cua electron s cap.
Vi kim loai max < 2 , vi ban dan > 10 hoac hn.
Hien tng phat xa th cap c dung trong cac ong nhan quang ien
e khuech ai tn hieu anh sang yeu trong viec o bc xa vi o nhay cao.
5.6.4. T phat xa electron hay phat xa catot lanh.
La hien tng phat xa electron khoi be mat kim loai khi co mot ien
trng rat manh tac dung. Neu be mat kim loai co mot ien trng tang toc
th no se hut cac electron trong nguyen t mat ngoai kim loai lam chung
vt qua hang rao the nang va bt ra khoi kim loai.
Hien tng phat xa electron sinh ra do hang rao the tren mat kim loai b
bien oi khi chu tac dung cua mot ien trng rat manh be mat. S bien
oi o dan ti lam giam o cao cua hang rao the (ho the), tc lam giam cong
thoat e, mat khac lam thu hep be rong cua ho the, lam tang xac suat chuyen
electron qua hang rao the. S bien oi cong thoat di tac dung cua ien
trng ngoai goi la hieu ng Shottky. Theo c hoc lng t o la hieu ng
ng ham (tunen) co mot xac suat e cac electron co the chui qua hang rao
the, mac du nang lng cua no nho hn be cao ho the.
Mat o dong phat xa J phu thuoc vao cng o ien trng ngoai theo
bieu thc:
Trong o:
j = e Eo / E
(5.23)
8
2mA3
Eo =
(5.24)
3he
A cong thoat be mat: A = e
- he so ty le phu thuoc vao ban chat be mat phat xa.
ieu kien bnh thng chat kh la chat cach ien tot, trong chung hau
nh khong co cac phan t mang ien (ien tch, ion). Trong nhng ieu kien
xac nh chat kh b ion hoa va tr thanh chat dan ien.
TS. Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 81 -
Trong s phong ien cua chat kh luon co 2 qua trnh xay ra:
Qua trnh ion hoa phan t trung hoa.
Qua trnh tai hp cac ion va cac electron thanh phan t trung hoa.
Goi no' la so ion tai hp thanh phan t trung hoa th
no' = no2 .
Vi no la mat o ion dng (hay am). Khi khong co dong ien, so ion
sinh ra no se bang so ion tai hp. Tc la ta co:
no = no2
(5.25)
- Vi ion am:
u = uo E
Bieu thc nh luat Ohm cho s dan ien khong t lc cua chat kh:
J = E = eno (u+o + uo )E
(5.26)
Trong o: = eno (u+o + uo ) la ien dan suat cua chat kh. Trong bang
(5.3) cho gia tr o linh ong cua ion mot so chat kh.
Bang 5.3
Chat kh
TS. Lu The Vinh
- 82 -
IEN T HOC
p=700mmHg va T = 18oC
u+o
uo
Hydro (H2)
Oxy (O2)
Nit (N2)
Cacbon Oxyt (CO2)
Clo (Cl)
5,91
1,29
1,27
1,10
0,65
8,26
1,79
1,84
1,14
0,51
Bieu thc (5.26) ch ung khi mat o dong ien nho. Neu mat o dong
ien ln ti mc s tai hp khong kp xay ra th dong ien se khong phu thuoc
vao hieu ien the, dong c goi la bao hoa. o th J = J(E) bieu dien ac
tuyen vol-ampe cua s phong ien khong t
lc ch ra tren hnh 5.11.
- oan oa: tuan theo nh luat Ohm
- oan ab: khong tuan theo nh luat Ohm.
- oan bc: dong bao hoa
- oan cd: dong tang ot ngot, ng vi s
ion hoa do va cham rat manh cua cac electron
va ion do ien trng rat ln gia toc. Sau o
la s anh thung chat kh khi ien trng ng
vi the hieu no Ud. Luc o chat kh tiep tuc
Hnh 5.11. ac tuyen Von-Ampe
dan ien khi a ngat tac nhan ion hoa.
5.6.6. nh luat Paschen
S dan ien t lc ch bat au xay ra mot ien the nao o goi la ien
the chay (no) Ud. Da vao thc nghiem Paschen a a ra nh luat sau:
oi vi moi chat kh neu o dai cua khoang phong ien d va ap suat chat
kh p bien oi sao cho tch so d.p khong thay oi th o ln cua hieu ien the
chay (no) gi nguyen khong oi.
Ud = F (p.d)
(5.27)
nh luat nay cho biet, neu ap suat giam i bao nhieu lan va khoang
cach gia hai cc tang len bay nhieu lan th hieu ien the no Ud at vao hai
cc khong thay oi gia tr.
nh luat nay co the c giai thch n gian nh sau: ap suat thap,
quang ng t do trung bnh cua cac electron ln, do o no van co the d tr
u nang lng e ion hoa chat kh ngay ca khi ien trng tang toc be.
IEN T HOC
- 83 -
- 84 -
IEN T HOC
chuyen ong ve pha anot, chung c tang toc manh trong vung giam the
catot, nen khi va cham vi cac phan t kh chung tiep tuc ion hoa chat kh tao
ra cac ion dng mi, cac ion nay en lt chung lai chuyen ong ve catot va
lai gay ra phat xa electron th cap mi. Qua trnh c nh the tiep dien va s
phong ien trong ong c duy tr.
Mien toi Crookes hnh thanh do cac electron th cap t catot chuyen
ong tren oan ng cha xay ra va cham vi cac phan t kh, va chung
cung cha u nang lng e ion hoa chat kh. Chieu rong mien toi Crookes
xap x quang ng t do trung bnh cua electron.
Mien sang catot la mien trong o xay ra va cham manh nhat cua
electron vi cac phan t kh. Nang lng ma electron truyen cho cac phan t
kh khi va cham khong an hoi se gay ra s ion hoa hay kch thch phan t
kh. Anh sang xuat hien do ket qua s kch thch cac phan t kh. Qua trnh
ion hoa trong mien nay tao ra cac ion dng can thiet e duy tr s phong
ien. Do o khi ta rut ngan khoang cach gia cac ien cc cho en khi khong
con mien sang nay na th s phong ien se ngng.
Cac electron th cap t catot sau khi va cham vi cac phan t kh trong
mien sang am cc se b giam van toc rat nhieu. Cac electron mi sinh ra
trong qua trnh ion hoa cung cha co u nang lng e ion hoa hoac kch
thch phan t phat sang, do vay mien tiep theo la mien toi Faraday. Trong
mien nay cac electron di chuyen ve Anot vi van toc be hn trong mien toi
Crookes.
S phan bo mat o ion dng va electron trong cac mien cua ong rat
khong eu. V ion dng chuyen ong rat cham so vi electron nen gan
catot mat o ion dng rat ln so vi mat o electron, do o gan catot xuat
hien ien tch khong gian dng rat ln, dan en o giam the ln gan catot
ma ta goi la o giam the am cc UK. Ngc lai trong cot sang dng ccth
mat o ion dng va electron gan bang nhau, nen ay khong co ien tch
khong gian. Do mat o electron ln nen cot sang dng cc co tnh dan ien
tot va o giam the mien nay rat nho. Trong mien nay xay ra s tai hp rat
manh cua ion dng va cac electron giai phong ra nang lng di dang
photon, do vay mien nay phat sang thanh cot sang dng cc.
Hien tng phong ien thanh mien c ng dung rong rai e che tao
cac loai en ong: en neon, en thuy ngan,
IEN T HOC
- 85 -
I(A)
U(V)
a)
b)
Hnh 5.13. S phong ien ho quang
- 86 -
IEN T HOC
Trong s phong ien hnh tia ta quan sat thay cac thac electron tao
thanh cac ong dan ien, van toc lan truyen thac electron nho hn van toc tao
thanh ong dan ien. ieu o lien quan ti s quang ion hoa chat kh. Cac
nguyen t b kch thch bi cac thac electron se phat ra cac photon. Nhng
photon nay v chuyen ong vi van toc anh sang nen vt qua thac va ion hoa
cac nguyen t tren ng lan truyen.
Hien tng phong ien hnh tia thng gap trong ieu kien kh quyen la
set. Set la mot tia la ien khong lo do s phong ien gia mot am may va
mat at hoac gia hai am may tch ien trai dau khi gia chung ton tai mot
ien trng u manh (c 2.105 en 3.105V/m). Cng o dong ien trong set
rat ln co the at ti 10.000 en 50.000 A. Hieu ien the gia am may va
mat at trc luc phat sinh ra set at ti 108 109V. Set la tia la hep o 20
en 30cm, con chieu dai co the ti hang chuc kilomet. Trong dai hep o mot
ap suat rat cao cua chat kh c tao thanh gay ra s no. Sau khi set anh lam
gay ca dai nay do o sinh ra sam.
Set co the gay ra nhieu thiet hai cho nha ca, cong trnh kien truc va co
khi nguy hiem en tnh mang con ngi. Do vay cac cong trnh can co thiet b
chong set. Mot trong cac thiet b chong set la cot thu loi. o la mot cot kim
loai nhon c noi at va gan len cho cao nhat cua cong trnh. Do hieu ng ro
ien cho mui nhon (xem chng 2) ma ngan nga c set cho cong trnh.
5.6.9. Platxma.
Plaxma la mot trang thai ac biet cua vat chat trong o moi trng b
ion hoa cao o, mat o ion dng xap x mat o electron.
Trong ong phong ien thanh mien plaxma tao ra trong cot sang dng
cc, con trong s phong ien thanh tia, plaxma c tao ra trong ng phong
ien chnh. Plaxma phat sinh do chat kh b ot nong cao o goi la plaxma
nhiet o cao (hay plaxma ang nhiet), v du trong long mat tri, cac v sao
nhiet o hang chuc trieu o cac chat eu trang thai plaxma ang nhiet. Cac
lp kh quyen tren cao b ion hoa manh bi cac tia bc xa mat tri va vu tru
cung dang plaxma.
5.7. HIEN TNG IEN PHAN
IEN T HOC
- 87 -
NaCl
Na + + Cl
H 2 SO4
2 H + + SO4
(5.28)
S phan ly cac phan t thanh cac ion goi la s ien ly. Cac dung dch
tren goi la chat ien phan (hay vat dan ien loai 2). Thc nghiem con cho
thay s phan ly xay ra oi vi ca cac muoi khi b un nong chay.
5.7.2. S ien phan. nh luat Faraday.
a) S ien phan.
Trong cac chat ien phan do ton tai cac ion dng, ion am, nen khi at
trong ien trng cac ion se chuyen ong co hng tao thanh dong ien. Khi
co dong ien chay qua dung dch se xay ra hien tng ien phan hien tng
thoat ra ien cc mot thanh phan cau thanh nen dung dch chat ien phan.
Xet trng hp bnh ien phan co cac ien cc bang ong (Cu) nhung
trong dung dch ong sunfat (CuSO4). Khi co dong ien chay qua bnh ien
phan, cac ion Cu++ chay ve catot nhan them 2 electron tr thanh nguyen t
trung hoa Cu bam vao ien cc. Ngc lai cac ion SO - - chay ve anot, tai ay
chung tac dung vi mot nguyen t ong ien cc e tao thanh CuSO4 va
nhng 2 electron cho anot. Muoi CuSO4 va tao ra lai tan ngay vao dung
dch. Hien tng tren lam cho dng cc b mon dan (hien tng dng cc
tan) trong khi am cc c boi ap them (hien tng ma ien). Ta co the coi
dong ien a co tac dung chuyen ch ong t cc dng sang cc am.
b) nh luat Faraday th nhat
Khoi lng m cua chat thoat ra ien cc ty le vi ien lng q chuyen
qua chat ien phan:
m = kq = kIt
(5.29)
- 88 -
IEN T HOC
- 88 -
IEN T HOC
Chng 6.
T TRNG TRONG CHAN KHONG
r12
1
O
I1dl1
Hnh 6-1
I2dl2
dF12
IEN T HOC
- 89 -
Bang thc nghiem cho thay lc tac dung cua phan t dong ien I1 dl1
len phan t dong ien I2 dl2 co gia tr:
1
dF12
I1dl1 I 2 dl2
r122
sin 1 sin 2
dF12
Hay ta viet:
dF12 = k
(6-1)
ur
r
Phng cua d F12 ( I 2 dl2 , n)
ur
r
Chieu: nhn t mut cua d F12 thay dl 2 quay cung chieu kim ong ho ve
r
trung vi n theo goc be nhat. Nh vay rta co the
t bieu thc vec t:
r vie
r
ur
[I dl 2 [I1dl1 r12 ]]
(6-2)
d F12 = k 2
r123
Trong o: k la he so ty le co gia tr phu thuoc vao he n v. Trong he
SI ta co:
k=
0
, vi 0 = 4 10 7 H / m hang so t.
4
(6-3)
4
r123
Chu y. Khai niem phan t dong ien ch co y ngha thuan tuy toan hoc, no
giup cho viec tnh toan thuan li. V dong ien bao gi cung khep kn, nen lc
tac dung len toan dong ien se la:
r
r
F=
d
F
(6-4)
e giai thch c che tng tac t trong lch s Vat ly hoc a xuat hien 2
quan iem khac nhau:
Thuyet tac dung xa: cho rang tng tac t c truyen i mot cach tc
thi gia cac dong ien va khong can thong qua mot moi trng vat chat
trung gian nao. Khi ch co mot dong ien th moi trng xung quanh khong
xay ra mot bien oi nao.
Thuyet tac dung gan: cho rang tng tac t phai thong qua mot moi
trng vat chat trung gian bao quanh cac dong ien. Lc tng tac c
Lu The Vinh
- 90 -
IEN T HOC
truyen t phan nay sang phan khac cua moi trng vi van toc hu han (van
toc truyen tng tac). Khi ch co mot dong ien th moi trng xung quanh a
co nhng bien oi.
Theo quan iem duy vat bien chng ta thay ro thuyet tac dung xa a
cong nhan ton tai chuyen ong phi vat chat. ieu nay khong the co c. Vat
ly hoc hien ai a bac bo thuyet tac dung xa va cong nhan thuyet tac dung
gan. e giai thch c che tng tac t gia cac dong ien can phai cong nhan
mot thc the vat ly lam moi trng trung gian truyen tng tac gia chung.
Thc the vat ly nay chnh la t trng. T trng ton tai xung quanh cac dong
ien, thong qua t trng ma t lc c truyen i vi van toc truyen tng
tac hu han bang van toc cua anh sang trong chan khong.
Tnh chat can ban cua t trng: tac dung lc t len mot dong ien bat ky
nao at trong no. T trng la dau hieu tong quat nhat e nhan biet dong
ien.
Trong phan sau ta se thay t trng cung nh ien trng ch la mot
bieu hien cua trng ien t. o la mot dang cua vat chat co ay u cac
thuoc tnh xac nh ma con ngi co the nhan thc c: nang lng, khoi
lng va xung lng.
r
r
6.2.2. Cam ng t B va cng o t trng H .
e ac trng nh lngr cho trng ve mat tac dung lc ngi ta a ra
khai niem vec t cam ng t B .
T bieu thc cua nh luat Ampere (6-3) neu tach rieng vec t :
r
r 0 [I1dl1 rr12 ]
dB1 =
(6-5)
4
r123
uur
r
Ta thay dB1 ch phu thuoc vao I1 dl1 va v tr ta xet r12. No co the dung
uur
uur
r
e ac trng cho I1 dl1 ve mac tac dung lc len I 2 dl 2 . dB1 c goi la vec t
uur
cam ng t nguyen to do I1 dl1 gay ra tai toa o r12.
r
Cam ng t nguyen to dB do mot phan t dong ien bat ky gay ra:
r r
r
0 I [dl r ]
(6-6)
dB =
4
r3
Bieu thc (6-6) c goi lar nh ly Biot-Savart-Laplace. Chieu cua vec
r
r
t dB la chieu cua tch vec t [dl r ] .
n v. Trong he SI cam ng t o bang Tesla (T).
Nguyen ly chong chat t trng.
IEN T HOC
- 91 -
Cung giong nh ien trng, t trng tuan theo nguyen ly chong chat.
Do dong ien bao gi cung khep kn, nen cam ng t do toan bo dong ien
gay ra tai mot iem nao o se bang tong cac cam ng t nguyen to do tat ca
cac phan t dong ien tao ra: ur
uur
B =
dB
(6-7)
ur
ur
r
Do tnh oi xng co the phan tch : dB = d B n + d B t (hnh 6-2, a):
ur
r
r
r
B = dB = dBn + dBt
L
Ta co:
r
dB
t =0 ;
r
dB
n=
r
dB
cos .
ur
V tat ca cac vec t d B n eu cung phng chieu nen co the viet:
Lu The Vinh
- 92 -
IEN T HOC
Idl
dBt
dB
ur
Pm
ur
B
dBn
a)
b)
Hnh 6-2
B=
Hay:
0 I R
I
3 dl = 0 3 2 R 2
4 r L
2 r
0 Pm
B = 0 3 IS =
2 r
2 ( R 2 + h2 )3/ 2
dB cos =
(6-11)
Vi : uP
r m = ISr momen t cua dong ien tron (hnh 6-2, c) ur
P m = IS n vec t momen t song song cung chieu vi B .
P
B0 = 0 m3
(6-12)
Neu h = 0 :
2 R
P
Neu R << h :
B = 0 m3
(6-13)
2 h
2) Mot cach tng t ta co the tnh c t trng cua mot dong ien thang
dai vo han gay ra tai mot iem cach dong ien mot khoang r:
B=
I
0 I
; H=
.
2 r
2 r
(6-14)
Phng va chieu tuan theo quy tac van nut chai: Cho cai van nut chai
tien theo chieu dong ien th chieu quay cua cai can van nut chai ch chieu
cua t trng
6.3. T thong nh ly Oxtrogratxki Gauss cho t trng.
6.3.1. ng cam ng t
Tng t nh trong ien trng, e mo ta hnh anh t trng ngi ta
dung khai niem ng sc t trng hay ng cam ng t. ay la nhng
ng ve trong trng ma tiep tuyen tai moi iem trung vi vec t cam ng t
tai iem o, co chieu la chieu cua t trng.
IEN T HOC
- 93 -
a)
Hnh 6-3
b)
6.3.2. T thong.
ur
La thong lng cua vec t cam ng t B gi qua mot dien tch nao o.
Ta hay xet mot dien tch dS at trong trng. T thong gi qua dS co gia tr:
ur r
d = B d S = B dS cos
(6-15)
r
r
Trong o: dS = dS n r vec t dien tch co o ln bang dS, co hng
cua phap tuyen vi dien tch n
T thong toan phan gi qua mot mat hu han nao o co gia tr:
ur r
= d = B dS
S
n v: Trong he SI t thong co n v la
Webe (Wb). Do o ta nh ngha n v cua
cam ng t B la Tesla t cong thc nh
ngha t thong nh sau:
[B] =
[ ] Wb
=
=T
[S ] m 2
(6-16)
r
n
Bn
dS
Hnh 6-4
r
B
- 94 -
IEN T HOC
2
B
P
Hnh 6-5
BdS cos1
MNP
BdS cos 2 = 0
PQM
ur r
BdS = 0
(6-17)
Bieu thc (6-17) the hien nh ly O-G cho t trng, no cho thay t
trng la mot trng xoay.
Trong giai tch toan ta a chng minh c rang:
ur r
ur
BdS = divB dV
(6-18)
IEN T HOC
- 95 -
Y ngha: Cac bieu thc (6-17, 6-19, 6-20) cho rang thay rang t trng la mot
trng xoay. ay la iem cho thay s khac biet c ban gia t trng va
trng tnh ien. ng sc ien trng la nhng ng cong h, chung bat
au va ket thuc tren cac ien tch (hay vo cc). Cac ng sc t trng
khong co iem bat au va iem ket thuc, chung la nhng ng cong kn.
ieu o chng to rang trong t nhien khong ton tai khai niem t tch .
6.3.4. nh ly dong toan phan (nh ly ve lu so vec t B)
ur
a) nh ly: Trong tnh ien ta co lu so cua vec t cng o ien trng E
ur r
ur r
c nh ngha la tch phan Edl . Vi mot ng cong kn th: Edl = 0
Ta hay xet mot ng cong phang, kn L bao quanh mot dong ien
thang dai vo han (hnh 6-6, a). ng cong nam trong maturphang vuong goc
vi dong ien. Chon chieu dng L la chieu cua t trng B , ta co:
2
ur r
r r
Bdl = Bdl cos( B, dl ) = Brd = Brd
Trong o:
T o:
B=
0 I
;
2 r
2
ur r
0 I
Bdl =
d = 0 I
2
(6-21)
De thay, neu chieu dng cua L ngc lai th goc > /2 khi o gia
tr cua dlcos = rd < 0.
Lu The Vinh
- 96 -
IEN T HOC
r
dl
a
d
r d
ur
B
a)
b)
ur
B
Hnh 6-6
ur
Nh vay lu so cua vec t B co the co dau dng hoac am tuy thuoc
vao chieu cua dong ien. I>0 neu chieu cua L va I thuan chieu theo quy tac
van nut chai va ngc lai.
Neu ng cong L khong bao quanh dong ien I (hnh 6-6, b) ta co:
Tren phan (abc) th goc < /2 nen dlcos = rd > 0.
Tren phan (cda) th goc > /2 nen dlcos = rd < 0.
I
ur r
0 I
Bdl =
d +
d = 0 [ ] = 0
Do o:
2
2
L
( cda )
( abc )
Ket qua:
ur r
Bdl
= 0 I neu L bao quanh dong ien I.
ur r
Bdl = 0 neu L khong bao quanh dong ien I.
IEN T HOC
- 97 I
dlt
r
dl
dln
ur
B
Hnh 6-7
Tong quat: Xet cho trng hp co nhieu dong ien xuyen qua L ta co the ap
dung nguyen ly chong chat t trng. nh ly Amprere ve dong toan phan
c phat bieu nh sau:
Lu so cua vec t cam ng t theo mot ng cong kn bat ky bang tong
ai so cng o dong ien xuyen qua dien tch gii han bi ng cong o
nhan vi 0.
ur r
(6-22)
Bdl = 0 I k
Quy c:
Ik > 0 neu thuan chieu L theo quy tac van nut chai.
Ik < 0 neu ngc chieu L. theo quy tac van nut chai.
B=
Lu The Vinh
0 I
I
; H=
.
2 r
2 r
(6-23)
- 98 -
IEN T HOC
I
Ir 2
2
I'=
r = 2
R2
R
Ir 2
B ' 2 r = 0 2
R
Nh vay:
Bmax
B' =
0 I r
;
2 R 2
(6-24)
I r
H'=
2 R 2
Hnh 6-8
B=
0 NI
.
2 r
(6-25)
IEN T HOC
- 99 -
0 NI
2 R1
NI
= B2 = 0
2 R2
B1 B2 R2 R1
(6-26)
=
B1
R2
Bmin
V du 3. Tnh t trng cua ong day ien thang (xolenot) (hnh 6-10) .
Bmax = B1 =
Hnh 6-10
T trng trong long ong day c xem nh eu, va co the ap dung ket
qua (6-25) e tnh t trng:
NI
(6-27)
B = 0 = 0 nI
2 r
N
so vong tren mot n v dai;
Trong o: n =
2 r
nI so ampevong/met.
Trong thc te, nhng ong day co chieu dai ln hn mi lan ng knh
cua no co the xem t trng trong long ong la eu va co the ap dung ket qua
(6-27) e tnh.
6.4. Tac dung cua t trng len dong ien.
6.4.1. Tac dung cua t trng len mot phan t dong ien
Lu The Vinh
Hnh 6-11
- 100 -
IEN T HOC
chieu t co tay ti ngon tay la chieu dong ien th chieu doai ra cua ngon cai
ch chieu t lc (hnh 6-11).
6.4.2. Tac dung gia hai dong ien thang song song, dai vo han.
Xet hai dong ien thang song song dai vo han, at cach nhau mot
khoang d, co cac dong ien I1 va I2 chay qua (hnh 6-12).
Moi dong ien tao ra xung quanh
mot t trng va tac dung lc t len
I1
I2
dong ien kia. Cam ng t do dong ien
I1 gay ra
uur ta
uri iem at cua mot phan t
ur
bat ky I 2 dl2 co gia tr:
d F12
I
B1 = 0 1
2 d
uur
B1
Co phng vuong goc vi mat
phang cha hai dong ien, co chieu xac
nh theouurquy
d
ur tac can nut chai (xem
hnh ve). I 2 dl2 chu tac dung t lc:
ur
r ur
d F12 = I 2 [dl 2 B1 ]
Hnh 6-12
Co o ln:
dF12 =
0 I1I 2 dl2
.
d
2
ur
ur
(6-28)
ur
Phng cua d F12 vuong goc vi B1 va dl2 , tc nam trong mat phang
cha hai dong ien va co chieu xacurnh theo quy tac ban tay trai. Neu dong
I2 chay cung chieu vi I1 th lc d Fur
12 hng ve pha dong I1 (b hut), ngc
lai neu hai dong trai chieu nhau th d F12 se hng ra xa (b ay).
ur r Mot cach tng t, lc tac dung cua dong I2 len mot phan t dong ien
I1dl1 co gia tr:
I I dl
dF21 = 0 1 2 1 = dF21
(6-29)
d
2
ur
ur
Ve mat phng chieu:
d F12 = d F 21
ur
Sau khi xac nh ve mat phng chieu cua d F12 theo nh tren ta i en
ket luan rang neu hai dong ien I1 va I2 cung chieu chung se hut nhau, ngc
chieu chung se ay nhau.
Tng tac gia hai dong ien thang dai vo han c dung e nh ngha
n v o cng o dong ien: Ampe.
Ampe la cng o cua mot dong ien khong oi theo thi gian, khi
chay qua hai day dan thang, song song, dai vo han, co tiet dien nho khong
IEN T HOC
- 101 -
ang ke, at trong chan khong cach nhau 1 met, th gay ra tren moi met dai
cua moi day dan mot lc bang 2.107 Niutn .
T nh ngha Ampe, ta co the xac nh hang so 0 nh sau:
1.1
2.10 7 = 0
1
2 .1
0 = 4.10 7 n v SI
T o:
6.4.3. Mach ien kn trong t trng eu.
ur
at trong t trng euurB mot khung day dan hnh ch nhat (a,b) co
dong ien I chay qua, sao cho B b. Gia s khung cng khong b bien dang.
(hnh 6-13).
Hnh 6-13
ur
r ur
r
uur
uur
Cac canh a se chu cac lc : f a = I [a B] , vi a = a.dl , trong o dl la
ur
vec t hng doc canh a theo chieu dong ien. Chieu cua cac lc f a co xu
hng keo dan khung.
Cac canh b nam vuong goc vi t trng, nen moi canh se chu tac
dung mot lc co o ln:
f = I bB
Cac lc nay vuong goc vi b va hng ngc chieu nhau tao thanh mot
ngau lc, co tac dung quay khung ve v tr sao cho khung vuong goc vi t
trng. Ngau lc M co o ln:
M = f.a.sin = IB ab sin = IBS sin
M = PmB sin .
Vi Pm = IS momen t cuauurkhung.
ur
e y en phng chieu cua M & P m ta co the viet:
uur
ur ur
M = P m B
(6-30)
Lu The Vinh
- 102 -
IEN T HOC
Momuen
r ngau lc M co xu hng quay khung
ur sao cho vec t momen t
cua khung P m ve
ur trungur vi phng cua t trng B .
Neu P
ur m uBr , = 0 ta co v tr can bang ben;
Neu P m B , = Ta co v tr can bang khong ben.
Ket qua tren ung vi mot khung day kn, phang, co hnh dang bat ky.
That vay, ta hay chia nho khung thanh cac dai hnh ch nhat nho, sao cho
dong chay tren cac khung o cung chieu vi vong day. Cac dong ien cua cac
khung day pha trong se triet tieu lan nhau tng oi mot (hnh 6-14) v chung
chay ngc chieu nhau. Tren moi khung hnh ch nhat se chu tac dung cua
mot momen ngau lc:
Mk = IBSk sin
Trong o Sk dien tch cua khung th
k. Do hng cua cac momen Mk la trung
nhau nen momen toan phan tac dung len
vong day se la:
Hnh 6-14
IEN T HOC
- 103 ur
d Ft
ur
dF
ur
d Fn
ur
Fn
ur
Pm
ur
B
Hnh 6-15
Ta co:
ur
Fn =
ur
d
Fn
B
B
, vi
gradien t trng theo
n
n
phng phap tuyen n. Nh vay ta co the viet di dang vec t:
ur
ur ur
F = grad P m B
(6-31)
Ve o ln cua lc :
Fn = Pm
ng dung. Ket qua nghien cu tren giup ta giai thch c tai sao mot nam
cham hay mot cuon day co dong ien chay qua hut c cac mat sat. Di tac
dung cua t trng cua nam cham cac mat sat b t hoa, bien thanh cac nam
cham nho, co momen t xac nh, va chung b hut ve pha nam cham ni co t
trng manh.
Lc tac dung cua t trng len dong ien c ng dung nhieu trong ky
thuat o lng va trong ky thuat ien e che tao may ien.
6.5. Cong cua lc t.
6.5.1. Cong cua lc t khi di chuyen mot phan t dong ien
ur
r ur
Dong ien at trong t trng se chu tac dung cua lc t F = I dl B .
Lu The Vinh
- 104 -
IEN T HOC
dx
ur
B
ur
F
Hnh 6-16
urLc tac dung luon vuong goc vi t trng, nen lc do thanh phan song
song B t gay ra vuong goc vi dch chuyen dx nenur cong cua no bang khong.
Cong cua lc t la cong do thanh phan vuong goc B n gay ra, do vay:
dA = I Bn dS = I d
(6-32)
A = dA = I d = I ( 2 1 ) = I
(6-33)
(6-34)
IEN T HOC
- 105 -
oan mach cda chu tac dung cua t lc F2 tao vi hng dch chuyen
mot goc nhon, nen cong sinh ra co dau dng. Cong nay co gia tr bang cng
o dong ien chay trong mach, nhan vi t thong do phan mach nay quet
trong qua trnh di chuyen, tc la:
A2 = I (0 + 2)
(6-35)
(6-36)
Ket qua tren ung cho trng hp mach kn di chuyen trong mot t
trng eu bat ky. T o ta co the ket luan:
Cong cua lc t khi di chuyen mot mach ien kn trong t trng co gia
tr bang tch so gia cng o dong ien chay trong mach va o bien thien
cua t thong gi qua dien tch cua mach kn.
a
a
0
b
F2 b
2
d
F1
ur
c
Hnh 6-17
Lu The Vinh
- 106 -
IEN T HOC
Chng 7.
dB =
4
r3
Mat khac: Ir = J.S r
J = n0ev , do o:
I dl = n0 e v . S.dl = N.e v
Trong o : N = n0 . S dl = n0.V So ienrtr cha trong the tch V.
ur
[v . r ]
d B = 0 Ne 3
(7-2)
T o:
4
r
o ln:
v sin
dB = 0 Ne
.
(7-3)
4
r
Cam ng t do mot hat gay ra se la:
rr
ur
0
[v .r ]
B =
e 3
(7-4)
4
r
ur
B la phng
Ve phng va chie
u
cu
a
ur uur
chieu cua tch vec t [v .r ] va phu thuoc vao
dau cua ien tch e.
r
v
Chu y: Ket qua tren co c khi xet day
r
dan ng yen vi ng
r i quan sat co dong
r
ien chay qua. Do o v la van toc tng oi
cua ien tch oi vi ngi quan sat. Noi
cach khac o la van toc tng oi cua ien
tch trong he quy chieu ma ta o t trng.
ur
Ket qua tren ch ung vi v << c va r khong
B
ln. Trong trng hp tong quat ta phai xet
Hnh 7-1
en s lan truyen cua song ien t.
IEN T HOC
- 107 -
7.2. Tac dung cua ien trng va t trng len ien tch chuyen ong.
ur
Trong ien trng E ien tch chu tac dung cua lc Coulomb:
ur
ur
(7-5)
F e = eE
ur
Trong t trng B ien tch chu tac dung cua lc Lozentx
ur
r ur
(7-6)
F L = e [v B ]
Chieu cua lc Lozentx phu thuoc vao dau cua ien tch e (hnh 7-2)
Neu ien tch chuyen ong trong khong gian ton tai ca ien trng va
t trng th lc tac dung len hat se la:
ur
ur r ur
F = e { E + [v B]}
(7-7)
ur
B
ur
B
ur
FL
ur
FL
e>0
a)
e<0
b)
Hnh 7-2
7.3. Chuyen ong cua ien tch trong ien trng va t trng.
Khi mot hat mang ien tch e chuyen ong trong khong gian, o ton
tai ca ien trng va t trng th no se chu tac dung cua ca lc ien va lc
t, xac nh theo (7-7). Phng trnh chuyen ong cua hat se co dang:
r
ur
r ur
dv
m
= e E + e [v B ]
(7-8)
dt
r
trong o m la khoi lng cua hat, v la van toc cua hat.
Phng trnh (7-8) co the phan tch thanh 3 phng trnh vo hng dien
ta chuyen ong cua hat theo cac truc toa o tng ng. Ta se xet mot so
trng hp n gian sau ay.
Lu The Vinh
- 108 -
IEN T HOC
r
r r
F = e[v B ]
(7-9)
Ne
r u hat bay vao t trng er u theo phng vuong goc vi vec t cam
ng t B . Theo (7-9) lc Lorentz F se co gia tr:
r
r V phng cua lc F luounr luon vuorng goc vi phng cua vec t van
toc v va phng cua t trng B , do or F se ong vai tro tac dung cua mot
lc hng tam. Di tac dung cua lc F , hat se chuyen ong theo mot qu
ao tron co ban knh r xac nh nh sau: (hnh 7-3).
v2
m
= evB
r
T o:
r =
x
e>0
x
rx
r
r
F
(7-10)
e
B
m
x
r
v
ur
B
x
Hnh 7-3
Chu ky quay:
2 r
2
=
e
v
B
m
2
e
=
= B.
T
m
T=
(7-11)
(7-12)
IEN T HOC
- 109 -
e
m
v
r B
(7-13)
Cong thc (7-13) cho ta c s e co the o ien tch rieng cua electron
e/m bang thc nghiem.
Trong thc nghiem, chum electron c tao ra t ong phong electron.
Cac electron sau khi c bc xa t Katot se c gia toc bi ien trng
gia Anot va Katot nh gia chung co mot mot hieu ien the gia toc U.
ong nang cua electron thu c trong ien trng la:
1 2
(7-14)
mv = eU
2
T o van toc ma electron thu c se la:
2 eU
v =
(7-15)
m
Thay bieu thc cua v vao (7-13) ta c :
e
2U
=
m
B 2r
(7-16)
vt = v cos
vn = v sin
Lc Lorentz tac dung len ien tch
c xac nh theo phng trnh:
r
r r
r r
r r
F = e [v B ] = e [vn B ] + e [vt B ]
Hnh 7-4
ur
ur
r r
r r
Thanh phan F t = e[vt B] = 0. Thanh phan F n = e[vn B] co o ln
Ft = evB sin lam cho hat chuyen ong theo quy ao tron.
Do o chuyen ong cua hat se la tong hp cua 2 chuyen ong:
Lu The Vinh
- 110 -
IEN T HOC
ur
1 Chuyen ong tron eu trong mat phang vuong goc vi t trng B , vi
van toc vn = v sin . Ban knh quy ao, chu ky va tan so xac nh theo cac
bieu thc (7-10, 7-11 va 7-12) giong nh khi hat bay vao theo phng vuong
goc vi t trng.
ur
2 Chuyen ong eu theo quan tnh doc theo t trng B vi van toc vt
= v cos.
Ket qua quy ao cua hat se la mot ng xuan oc (hnh 7-4).
Bc ng xuan:
= vt .T =
2 v cos 1
e
B
m
(7-17)
Neu hat bay vao t trng khong eu theo mot hng tuy y, quy ao
cua hat se kha phc tap. Trong mot so trng hp khi t trng co tnh chat
oi xng se tao ra cac hieu ng rat ac biet.
IEN T HOC
- 111 -
Moi khi co s bung no cua Mat Tri, se co them cac electron va proton
nang lng cao ri vao vanh ai bc xa va hnh thanh mot ien trng ni
ma bnh thng electron van b phan xa. ien trng nay lam cho cac
electron khong b phan xa na ma b ay thang vao kh quyen, tai ay chung
va cham vi cac phan t, nguyen t kh. Qua trnh ion hoa va lam phat quang
sinh ra hien tng cc qnang ky v. Anh sang cc quang giong nh mot bc
rem sang, treo t o cao khoang 100 km ru xuong. Nguyen t Oxy phat ra
anh sang xanh luc, nguyen t Nit phat ra mau hong; nhng thng cac anh
sang nay m ti mc ta cam nhan nh mot mau trang ma quai .
Hien tng cc quang trai rong thanh cung tren cao tao ra cai goi la
vong cc quang. Tren hnh (7-6) mo ta hnh anh vong cc quang Bac cc
(Bac Greenland). a cc t Bac tng ng vi cc t Nam, cac ng sc
hoi tu vao theo chieu thang ng. Cac electron t ben ngoai khi i vao Trai
at se b bay va chuyen ong xoan oc quanh cac ng sc t nay va i
vao kh quyen Trai at cung v o phat sinh ra cc quang.
7.3.3. S lech cua hat mang ien trong ien trng va t trng.
1- Trong ien trng.
Xet chuyen ong cua mot hat mang ien (e>0) khi bay vao trong ien
trng eu gia hai ban cua mot tu ien phang,urdoc theo
ur truc Ox vi van toc
ban au v0. Lc ien trng tac dung len hat la F = e E . Phng trnh chuyen
- 112 -
IEN T HOC
uur
ur
dv
m
= eE
dt
Chieu (7-18) len 2 truc toa o Ox va Oy ta co:
dvx
ax =
= 0
dt
dvy
eE
ay =
=
dt
m
Tch phan (7-19) ta co:
vx = const = v0
vy =
(7-18)
(7-19)
(7-20)
eE
t
m
Hnh7-7
eE l1
m v0
Bat au t o, hat chuyen ong thang eu theo phng cua van toc
tong hp, lap vi truc Ox mot goc xac nh bi:
IEN T HOC
- 113 -
tg =
vy
vx
e l1 E
m v02
(7-21)
Neu khoang cach t tu ien en man chan la l2 th sau khi bay ra khoi
tu, hat b lech theo phng Oy mot khoang y2 na:
e ll E
y2 = l2 tg = 1 22
m v0
o lech tong cong cua hat la:
e
l 1
E 12 l 1+ l 2
(7-22)
m
v0 2
Hay:
y = tg l1 + l2
(7-22,a)
2
Ket qua tren cho thay, sau khi ra khoi tu ien hat chuyen ong thang
giong nh no a xuat phat t gia tu ien, vi phng chuyen ong hp vi
truc Ox mot goc .
y = y1 + y2 =
2-Trong t trng.
ur
Bay gi xet s lech cua hat khi bay vao mot t trng eu Buur theo
phng vuong goc. Gia s hat co van toc ban au theo phng Ox la v0 . T
trng tac dung trong khoang chieu dai l1 (hnh 7-8),
Lc t tac dung len hat :
ur
r r
F = e [ v0 B ]
uur ur
V v0 B nen o ln cua t lc la:
F = e v0 B
Lc nay tac dung theo phng Oy
va gay ra gia toc cho hat :
a=
F e
= v0 B
m m
y = y1 + y2 =
Hnh 7-8
e
l 1
B 1 l 1+ l 2 = tg l 1+ l 2
m
v0 2
(7-23)
- 114 -
IEN T HOC
Mot chum electron trong chan khong co the b t trng lam lech. Cac
electron trong vat dan co dong ien cung b t trng lam lech. Nam 1879
Edwin H Hall, mot sinh vien cao hoc mi 24 tuoi tai trng ai hoc Johns
Hopkins a tm ra hieu ng nay.
Khi at mot vat dan co dong
uur
ien chay qua trong mot t trng
B
theo phng vuong goc vi dong ien,
1
uur
J
ngi ta thay gia hai mat vat dan
xuat hien mot the hieu. Hien tng
d
2
tren goi la hieu ng Hall, va the hieu
goi la the hieu Hall (hnh 7-9).
Thc nghiem cho thay o ln
cua the hieu Hall: U j , d, B
U=RdjB
Hnh7-9
(7-24)
Trong o R la he so t le, phu thuoc vao ban chat cua vat dan goi la
hang so Hall.
Giai thch.
Hieu ng Hall chnh la he qua cua lc Lozentx. e n gian ta gia thiet
cac hat mang ien trong vat dan chuyen ong vi van toc nh nhau, bang van
toc trung bnh cua chuyen ong nh hng v.
Khi aturvat darn urtrong t trng cac hat mang ien se chu tac dung cua
lc Lozentx F = e [v B] nen se co them chuyen ong phu theo phng cua t
lc. Chieu chuyen ong phu thuoc vao dau cua ien tch e. (hnh 7-10)
Hnh 7-10
Ket qua lam cho mot mat vat dan tch ienurdng, mat kia tch ien am
va ben trong vat dan xuat hien mot ien trng E . ien trng nay tac dung
IEN T HOC
- 115 -
ur
lc ien eE len cac ien tch co chieu ngc vi chieu t lc. Khi lc ien va
ur
r ur
lc t can bang trang thai cua he se c xac lap: eE = e [v B] .
Hay:
T o:
The hieu Hall co gia tr:
eE = e v B
E=vB
U = Ed = v Bd =
j
1
Bd =
d j B
n0e
n0e
(7-25)
Ket qua nay trung vi cong thc thc nghiem (7-24). Do o hang so
Hall co gia tr:
1
R =
(7-26)
n0 e
ng dung. Hieu ng Hall cho phep ta xac nh c ban chat cua cac hat tai
ien trong vat dan mang ien tch dng hay am. Xac nh c mat o ien
tch n0. Co the dung hieu ng Hall e o toc o hat ta
ur i ien. ng dung heu
ng Hall trong viec che tao cac cam bien o t trng B .
7.3.5. May gia toc xyclotron.
Khi bay vao t trng theo phng vuong goc hat se chuyen ong theo
mot quy ao tron. Theo (7-11) th chu ky quay cua hat khong phu thuoc vao
van toc cua no. Tnh chat nay c ap dung e tao nen nhng may gia toc hat
goi la xyclotron . May gia toc hat c s dung e tao ra nhng hat co nang
lng ln dung trong nghien cu hat nhan.
Nguyen ly cau tao cua xyclotron
c mo ta nh hnh 7-11. Bo phan chnh
cua no gom hai ien cc e gia toc hat lam
bang ong la co dang la hai na hnh tru
tron (goi la Duan hay cc D). Hai ien cc
c at gia 2 cc cua mot nam cham
ien ln co t trng (B=1,5 T) hng
vuong goc vi be mat ien cc. Gia hai
ien cc at vao mot the hieu xoay chieu
cao tan c vai chuc kilovon do mot may
phat xoay chieu cung cap. Hat can gia toc
c cung cap t nguon at gia tam
cua Xyclotron.
Lu The Vinh
Hnh 7-11
- 116 -
IEN T HOC
Qua trnh gia toc hat c thc hien nhieu lan lien tiep. Gia s mot
proton c phong ra tam xyclotron. Hat c ien trng gia 2 ban cc
gia toc va bay ve pha ban am. Khi bay vao khe cua ien cc am th hat se
chu tac dung cua t trng hng theo phng vuong goc nen quy ao cua
hat se la mot ng tron co ban knh t le vi van toc cua hat tnh theo bieu
thc (7-10): r = mv/eB .
Neu ta chon tan so cua the hieu xoay chieu at vao bang tan so
xyclotron (7-12) cua hat th sau khi hat quay c na vong tron en khe h
gia hai cc, ung luc the hieu oi dau (sau mot na chu ky) va at gia tr cc
ai. Hat lai c gia toc bi ien trng gia 2 khe va bay vao trong ien cc
th 2 vi van toc ln hn. Quy ao cua hat co ban knh ln hn trc, nhng
thi gian chuyen ong cua hat trong ien cc van khong thay oi (bang na
chu ky). Qua trnh c tiep noi lien tuc nhieu lan, van toc cua hat se tang len
mai.
Goi U la the hieu gia hai cc, moi lan qua khe hat thu them nang
lng bang eU. Neu hat qua khe n lan th nang lng cua hat se la neU.
Nang lng cc ai co the cung cap cho hat phu thuoc vao o ln cua
cam ng t B, vao ban knh cc ai rmax cua hat, tc ban knh ien cc R.
Theo (7-10) ta co:
v max
rmax = R =
e
B
m
ong nang cc ai ma hat thu c la:
m v2max
1 e2 2 2
=
R B
2
2m
Nang lng cua hat tnh ra eV se la:
1e 2 2
R B (eV )
(7-27)
W =
2m
V du . Dung Xyclotron e gia toc hat proton. Cho biet ban knh cc D la
R=0,5m. Cam ng t cua nam cham la B = 1T. Tnh nang lng cc ai hat
thu c.
Ta co, proton mang ien tch nguyen to dng, co khoi lng gap 1837
lan electron, do o:
e
1,6.10 19 C
=
= 0,96.108 C / kg
31
m 9,1.10 .1837 kg
IEN T HOC
W=
- 117 -
1 e 2 2 1
R B = 0,96.108 0,52 1 12.10 6 eV = 12 MeV .
2m
2
Tuy nhien ta khong the c tiep tuc mai qua trnh gia toc. e tao hat co
nang lng rat cao, may xiclotron bnh thng khong the ap ng do khong
the tang B va R len mai. Nguyen nhan la khi van toc cua hat tang len th khoi
lng cua hat cung tang len do hieu ng tng oi tnh lam cho ty so e/m
giam. Khi van toc cua hat at gia tr u ln th tan so xyclotron cua no se
giam va mat ong bo vi hieu ien the cao tan ta at vao. Qua trnh gia toc se
ngng lai.
e giai quyet mau thuan nay ngi ta dung bien phap ieu chnh tan so
cua ien trng gia toc sao cho no luon luon phu hp vi s bien oi cua ty so
e/m cua hat (trong cac may nh xincro-xyclotron hay phazotron). Trong may
xincrotron cho proton ngi ta ieu chnh ca t trng B va tan so cua ien
trng gia toc. Bang cach nh vay co the thc hien c:
o Tan so cua proton luon ong bo vi tan so cua trng gia toc.
o Proton se chay theo quy ao tron thay cho quy ao xoan oc.
Nh vay th cau truc cua ien cc se co dang vong ong tru thay cho
hnh tru va ch can at nam cham doc theo quy ao tron cua ong ma khong
phai at nam cham tren toan bo dien tch bao bi vong gia toc (hnh 7-12).
Tuy nhien neu can nang lng cao th chieu dai cua vong ong gia toc
cung phai rat ln. Trong may xincrotron dung cho proton phong th nghiem
quoc te mang ten Fermilab ng ong gia toc co kch thc 2 inch vi chu vi
tong cong ti 4 dam (6,3km). Tren hnh 7-13 la anh chup toan canh t tren
khong vong t cua Fermilab va cac toa nha cua phong th nghiem gan vi no.
Proton phai thc hien khoang 400000 vong e co nang lng toan phan la 1
TeV (1012eV).
Nhu cau ve proton co nang lng cao hn na trong nghien cu vat ly
nang lng cao. Tren hnh 7-14 cho thay hnh anh vong t cua Fermilab (vong
nho) va vong t cua may gia toc tai trung tam nghien cu hat nhan chau Au
CERN (vong to hn ngay ben canh). Vong ln nhat la cua may sieu va cham
sieu dan (SSC) co the c xay dng Texas, no se cho phep tao ra qua trnh
va cham proton phan proton nang lng 20TeV. Vong t chu vi c 52
dam
Lu The Vinh
- 118 -
IEN T HOC
Hnh 7-12. Quang canh doc theo ng ham cua Xincrotron e gia toc proton
Fermilab. Chu vi ng ham dai 6,3 km.
Hnh 7-14.
Vong tron ln nhat la cua may sieu va cham sieu dan (SSC) ang chuan b xay dng
ve e len anh thanh pho Washington chup t ve tinh. Vong trung gian gia la cua may
gia toc tai CERN Thuy s. Vong nho nhat la cua may gia toc tai Fermilab.
IEN T HOC
- 119 -
7.3.6. Xac nh ien tch rieng cua cac ien tch, khoi pho ky.
T hnh ve ta thay rang bat luan hat mang ien dau g th ien trng
va t trng eu lam no lech theo hai chieu ngc nhau. Cac th nghiem cua
Thomson thc hien cac bc sau:
1- Cho E=0, B=0 ghi lai v tr vet sang tren man huynh quang.
2- Cho ien trng E tac dung, o o lech cua vet sang.
3- Gi nguyen ien trng E, cho t trng B tac dung. ieu chnh t
trng sao cho vet sang lai tr ve v tr ban au.
Quan sat chieu lech cua ien tch bc th 2 ta biet c dau cua hat
chuyen ong. e xac nh van toc cua hat, t bc th 3 ta thay mun e hat
khong b lech tac dung cua ien trng len hat la eE phi can bang vi tac
dung cua t trng evB , tc la:
eE = evB
Lu The Vinh
- 120 -
IEN T HOC
T o:
v =
E
B
(7-28)
Bay gi ch can cho ien trng E, hoac t trng B tac dung rieng biet
va quan sat o lech cua chum tia. o goc lech cua chum tia va tnh ty so e/m
theo cac cong thc (7-21) hoac (7-23).
T ty so e/m Thomson a xac nh c ban chat cua tia am cc chnh
la dong cac electron chuyen ong.
1) Xac nh ien tch rieng cua Ion.
e xac nh ien tch rieng cua cac
ion noi chung, nam 1907 J. Thomson a
e xuat phng phap parabol nh sau:
Cho chum ion bay qua mot khu vc
co chieu dai l1 trong o co ca ien trng
va t trng tac dung theo cung mot
hng song song song vi nhau, sau o
chuyen ong t do tren mot quang ng
l2. Cac vec t ien trng va t trng
song song vi nhau va vuong goc vi
Hnh 7-16
phng cua chum ion (hnh 7-16). Gia s
chuurm tiaurchay doc theo truc Oz, cac vec
t E va B hng theo phng Ox. Theo ket qua (7-22) va (7-23) neu v la van
toc cua hat, va gia s hat la ion dng th di tac dung cua ien trng hat b
lech theo phng truc Ox mot oan:
x=
l
e
E 12
m
v
l 1+ l 2
2
(7-29)
y=
l
e
B 1
m
v
l 1+ l 2
2
(7-29,a)
Cac bieu thc (7-29) la toa o tren mat phang vuong goc vi truc Oz
cua nhng hat co e/m va v xac nh . Kh v t (7-29) ta c phng trnh quy
ao cua cac ion cung gia tr e/m la mot ng parabol.
IEN T HOC
- 121 -
m 2
E
x=
y
2 1
l1 B ( l 1+ l 2 ) e
(7-30)
Neu ta at mot knh anh e hng vet cua chum tia, th tren knh anh
nhng ion co ty so e/m khac nhau nam tren nhng parabol khac nhau. Biet cac
thong so cua th nghiem (l1, l2, E, B) ta co the xac nh c ty so e/m.
Da tren c s cua phng phap tren Axtn a che tao ra khoi pho ky
e xac nh ien tch rieng cua hat. S o nguyen tac cua khoi pho ky cho
tren hnh (7-17).
Cac ion c phong qua nhng khe hep e tao ra chum tia manh, sau
o lan lt cho i qua mot ien trng va t trng c bo tr sao cho tac
dung lam lech cua chung theo hai hng ngc nhau. Khi qua ien trng hat
co cung e/m b lech cang nhieu neu van toc cua no cang nho. Nh vay sau khi
ra khoi ien trng chum tia b phan ky thanh nhieu dai theo van toc. Khi bay
vao t trng quy ao cua ion b cong cang nhieu neu van toc cua no cang
nho. Ket qua sau khi ra khoi t trng, cac ion cung loai se hoi tu tai mot
iem. cac ion khac loai se hoi tu tai nhng iem khac nhau. Dung knh anh e
hng anh cua cac vet tng ng vi cac ion co e/m khac nhau.
Nh khoi pho ky ta co the xac nh mot cach chnh xac ien tch rieng
cua cac ion.
Lu The Vinh
- 122 -
IEN T HOC
Chng 8.
T TRNG TRONG VAT CHAT
8.1. S t hoa cac chat Phan loai t moi.
8.1.1. S t hoa cac chat.
Moi dong ien luon sinh ra xung quanh no mot t trng. Gia tr cua t
trng trong chan khong khac vi t trng trong moi trng vat chat. ieu
o c ly giai la ban tha
ur n moi trng a b t hoa va ban than no cung sinh
ra mot t trng phu B ' . Ket qua t trng tong cong se khac trong chan
khong. Cac chat co kha nang t hoa
ur c goi la t moi (hay vat lieu t).
Theo Ampere, t trng phu B ' la do cac dong ien phan t khep kn
trong pham vi tnguur
phan t (nguyen t) gay ra. Moi dong ien phan t co mot
momen t rieng Pm i . Bnh thng do chuyen ong nhiet nen chung nh
hng hon loan khong co phng u tien, do o t trng tong theo mot
phng nao o la bang khong. Khi at trong t trng ngoai, cac momen t
phan t c nh hng u tien theo phng cua t trng. Ket qua t trng
tong theo phng trng ngoai khac khong. T moi a b t hoa.
8.1.2. Vec t t hoa.
Khi b t hoa cac momen t rieng cua cac dong ien phan t c nh
hng theo phng cua t trng. Cng o t trng cang manh th nhng
dong ien phan t c nh hng cang manh. Do o tong cac momen t
phan t trong mot n v the tch t moi cang ln. V vay e ac trng cho
mc o t hoa t moi ngi ta a vao khai niem vec t t hoa. No co gia tr
bang tong momen t trong mot n v the tch.
N
ur
Pm i
uur
J = i=1
(8-1)
V
Trong ourN so phan t (nguyen t) trong the tch V
P mi momen t cua nguyen t th i.
Neu vat b t hoa khong eu th ta xet vec t t hoa tai moi iem cua
moi trng bang cach xet gii han cua (8-1).
uur
1
J = lim
V 0 V
i =1
ur
Pm i
(8-1,a)
IEN T HOC
- 123 -
uur
uur
J = m H
(8-2)
m o t hoa t moi, co gia tr phu thuoc vao ban chat cua t moi.
8.1.3. T trng trong t moi.
uur
Khi b t hoa t trng trong t moi se la chong chat cua t trng B0
uur
vi t trng B ' :
uur
uur uur
B = B ' + B0
(8-3)
uur
e tien viec khao sat, trong t moi ngoai vec t cam ng t B ngi
uur
ta thng s dung vec t cng o t trng H , c xac nh bi:
uur
uur B
uur
H =
J
(8-4)
0
uur
Trong chan khong J = 0 nen ta co:
uur
uur B
uuur
H =
= H0
T o:
uur
uur B
uur
H =
m H
0
uur
ur
u
uur
B
B
H =
=
( m + 1)0
0
(8-5)
- 124 -
IEN T HOC
ay chnh la bieu thc cua nh ly O-G cho t moi. Ket qua nay mot
lan na cho thay trong t nhien khong ton tai t tch.
8.2.2. nh ly dong toan phan.
Trong chan khong ta co lu so cua vec t cam ng t theo mot ng
cong kn bat ky co gia tr bang:
ur r
Bdl = 0 I k
trong o
Ik
la tong ai so cac dong ien xuyen qua dien tch gii han bi
ng cong kn o.
uur
Trong t moi , nh ly ve lu so cua vec t B se co dang:
n
m
ur r
B dl = 0 ( I k t do + Ii phan t )
trong o
Ii phan t
k =1
(8-8)
i =1
i =1
dl
Hnh 8-1
Tren hnh 8 -1 cho thay rang so dong ien bao quanh dl bang tat ca cac
dong ien phan t co tam nam trong hnh tru co truc trung vi dl, co ay S
IEN T HOC
- 125 -
(8-9)
( bao quanh dl )
trong o n la mat o phan t t moi. I la cng o cua mot dong ien phan
t. Nh vay, tong cac dong ien phan t bao quanh toan bo ng cong kn L
se la:
m
ur uur
(8-10)
Ii phan t = J dl
i =1
dl
=
(
0 I k t do +
k =1
dl =
0
L
uur
uur uur
B
Ma
J = H nen ta co:
uur uur
H dl =
uur uur
J
dl )
I k t do
k =1
I k t do
(8-11)
k =1
uur
Nh vay, trong t moi cung nh trong chan khong lu so cua vec t H
ch phu thuoc vao dong t do ma khong phu thuoc vao cac donuu
grien phan t.
Do vay khi giai cac bai toan trong t moi, viec s dung vec t H lam cho bai
toan tr nen n gian hn.
uur
uur
8.2.3. ieu kien bien cua cac vec t B va H .
Khi i qua mat phan cach cua hai moi trng cac ng sc t cung
giong nh cac ng sc ien trng se b khuc xa (H. 8-2). Ap dung cac nh
ly O-G va nh ly dong toan phan ta tm c uu
quy
r lua
uurt thay oi cua cac thanh
phan phap tuyen va tiep tuyen cua cac vec t B va H nh sau:
B
B1n = B2 n ; 1t = 1
(8-12, a)
B2 t
2
H1t = H 2 t ;
Lu The Vinh
H1n
= 2
H2 n
1
(8-12,b)
- 126 -
IEN T HOC
= 1
2
tg 2
(8-13)
H2
H2n
2
1
1 H1n
H2t
1
H1
H1t
Hnh 8-2
(8-15)
a dong
Neu goi S = r2 la dien tch cuuur
ien tron th momen t quy ao Pm ac
trng cho tac dung t cua dong ien nay la:
uur
Pm
Hnh 8-3
IEN T HOC
- 127 -
uur
ur ev
ur
Pm = I S n =
r2 n
2 r
uur
ur
1
Pm = evr n
2
ur
Trong o n la vec t phap tuyen n v cua mat S.
(8-16)
h
= n h.
2
(8-20)
Vi n = 1 ta co:
e
h
1,6.10 19.6,625.10 34
=
= 0,927.10 23 J / T
Pm =
34
2 m 2
2,9.1.10 .2
(8-21)
B =
Lu The Vinh
eh
= 0,927.1023 J/T .
2m
(8-22)
- 128 -
IEN T HOC
uuur uuur
( Pmi + Pms i )
(8-24)
i =1
uur
Pm co the ac trng cho mot dong ien tron khep kn. o chnh la dong
ien phan t theo gia thiet cua Ampere.
8.3.2. Hieu ng nghch t.
Chuyen ong cua electron xung
uur quanh
hat nhan vi momen ong lng L giong
nh chuyen ong cua mot con quay. Do o
khi co ngoai lc tac ong co the phat sinh
hieu ng tien ong.
Gia s mat phang quy ao chuyen
ong cua electron nam nghieng so vi
phng cua t uu
tr
r ng uurngoai. Khi o truc
cha cac vec t Pm va L lap vi phng cua
uur
t trng B mot goc 0 .
Chuyen ong cua electron tren quy
ao tng ng mot dong ien tron co
momen t:
uur
1 e uur
Pm =
L
2 m
B
Pm
M
O
Hnh 8-4
L
dL
IEN T HOC
- 129 -
uur
Trong t trng B electron chu tac dung cua momen lc :
uuur
uur uur
M = [ Pm B ]
uuur
Di tac dung cua M mat phang quy ao cua electron se b chao i
uur
uur
chao lai, con cac vec t Pm va L se ao xung quanh xung quanh phng cua
uur
t trng B nhng van gi mot goc nghieng khong oi . Qua trnh nay lam
uur
uur
cho cac vec t Pm va L vach thanh hai mat non tron xoay co nh O la goc
uur
cua cac vec t va hai ay vuong goc vi t trng B (hnh 8-4).
uur
Theo nh ly ve momen ong lng, trong khoang thi gian dt vec t L
uur uuur
se nhan gia so d L = M dt . Ve o ln:
dL = Pm B sin dt
uur
uur
Trong thi gian dt mat phang cha vec t L quay quanh B mot goc:
P B sin dt Pm
dL
d =
B dt
= m
=
L sin
L sin
L
T o van toc goc cua chuyen ong tien ong se la:
P
d
e
B = B
L =
= m B =
dt
L
2m
Neu xet ca phng va chieu cua cac vec t ta co the viet:
uuur
ur
u
L = B
(8-25)
uuur
Vec t van toc goc L c goi la vec t van toc goc Larmor (hay tan
uur
uur
so Larmor). Chuyen ong cua cac vec t Pm va L xung quanh t trng goi
la chuyen ong tien ong Larmor.
ur
B
Do chuyen ong tien ong Larmor cua nen
L
gay ra chuyen ong phu cuuuu
ar electron xung quanh
hng t trng. V vec t L luon song song cung
r
uur
chieu vi B ma electron mang ien tcb am nen
v
chuyen ong phu nay tng ng
uur mot dong ien co
I
S
momen t phu ngc chieu vi B (hnh 8-5).
uuur
Pm '
Gia s rang r la khoang cach trung bnh t
uur
electron en truc quay la khong oi. Chuyen ong
B'
tien ouu
nrg cua electron xay ra theo chieu thuan xung
Hnh 8-5
quanh B (ng tron khong co gach cheo) se tng
ng mot dong ien tron I:
Lu The Vinh
- 130 -
IEN T HOC
I' = e
L
2
(8-26)
uur
uur
Dong I co momen t phu Pm' ngc chieu vi B (ng tron co gach
uur
Pm' goi la momen t cam ng.
L
r '2
2
(8-27)
Nh vay, di tac dung cua trng ngoai, tat ca cac electron trong
nguyen t eu tham gia chuyen ong tien ong vi tan so Larmor nh nhau.
lam phat sinh cac dong ien phu co momen t cam ng ngc vi hng
trng ngoai. Ve mat toan bo, nguyen t khi at trong trng ngoai co mot
momen t phu la:
Z uuur
uur
'
Pm =
Pm' i
(8-28)
i =1
i =1
Cac chat nghch t trong thc te nh cac kh hiem (He, Ne, Ar, Xe, Rn)
hoac cac ion (Na+ , Cl- ) co cac lp electron giong nh kh hiem.
Khi at trong t trng ngoai, do hieu ng nghch t, nguyen t co mot
momen t phu luon ngc hng vi trng ngoai. Ket qua toan bo khoi t
moi co mot momen t tong cong khac khong va ngc hng vi trng
ngoai.
Z uuur
uur
Pm =
Pmi' 0
(8-30)
i =1
IEN T HOC
- 131 -
Lu The Vinh
- 132 -
IEN T HOC
a)
b)
Hnh 8-6
Tren hnh 8-7 la s phu thuoc cua cac ham so (B0) va m (B0). Thoat
au va m tang t gia tr ban au ti mot gia tr cc ai, sau o giam dan
va giam tiem can ti gia tr n v, con m th giam dan ti 0.
ac iem s phu thuoc cua vao
B0 cho thay ch nen dung loi sat t trong
mot gii han bien thien cua t trng.
Qua gii han nay se giam nhanh khi
t trng B0 tang. Thc nghiem cho
thay ch nen dung chat sat t khi can co
t trng nho hn 2 Tesla, con neu can
tao t trng ln hn na th thc te
viec dung loi sat t cung vo ch.
IEN T HOC
- 133 -
m =
Lu The Vinh
C
T TQ
(8-32)
- 134 -
IEN T HOC
Cam ng kh t Bk
Cam ng t d Bd
5. 10-3 T
0,6 T
(46). 10-3 T
(0,90,7) T
(68). 10-3 T
(1,050,85) T
(68). 10-3 T
(1,150,95) T
(23). 10-3 T
(0,90,8) T
0,025. 10-4 T
0,2 T
0,5. 10-4 T
0,84 T
0,7. 10-4 T
1,5 T
0,35. 10-4 T
0,5 T
0,06. 10-4 T
0,5 T
- Sat non
Vi cac chat sat t co cau truc tieu tinh the va neu nhng tieu tinh the
trong no phan bo hoan toan hon loan thl tnh ba
uurt ang hng cua vat sat t
khong the hien. oi vi loai nay vec t t hoa J khong phu thuoc vao hng
cua trng ngoai.
uur
Neu chat sat t la mot tinh the thong nhat th vect t hoa J phu thuoc
vao hng cua trng ngoai oi vi truc tinh the, do o ng cong t hoa se
khac nhau theo cac hng t hoa khac nhau. Tren hnh (8-9) mo ta mot o c
ban cua tinh the sat. No cho thay hng t hoa de nhat la theo ng canh
cua o c ban [100], con hng t hoa kho nhat la theo ng cheo khong gian
[111].
IEN T HOC
- 135 -
ng cheo canh
[100]
ng cheo mat
[110]
Trong ien moi chung ta a biet hien tng ien giao, la hien tng
ien moi b bien dang khi phan cc. oi vi cac chat sat t xay ra mot hien
tng tng t, o la chat sat t b bien dang khi t hoa chung. Hien tng
nay goi la hien tng t giao c Joune phat hien t the ky th XIX. o ln
cua hieu ng va chieu bien dang phu thuoc vao o ln va hng cua t trng
t hoa ben ngoai.
8.5. Giai thch s t hoa cua chat sat t.
e giai thch ban chat cua cac chat sat t ngi ta a da tren cac c s
thc nghiem tin cay va ly thuyet hien ai ve vat lieu t la thuyet mien t hoa
t nhien. Theo thuyet nay th trong vat lieu sat t ton tai cac mien rieng biet
trong o xay ra s t hoa t phat goi la cac omen. Trong moi omen co s
nh hng rat manh cac momen t rieng en mc bao hoa ma khong can g
en t trng ngoai. Khi cha b t hoa cac omen nay phai phan bo sao cho
momen t tong cong cua vat sat t la bang khong. Tren hnh 8-10 cho ta hnh
anh mot kieu thc sap xep cac omen, trong o cac mien a c t houur
a en
mc bao hoa va momen t cua moi mien eu bang nhau va bang 1 4 Pm .
uur
ay Pm la momen t toan phan cua vat sat t trang thai bao hoa.
Khi at vat sat t vao t trng ngoai th nang lng cua cac mien se
khong nh nhau. Cac mien co vec t t hoa lap vi B0 mot goc nhon se co nang
lng nho hn cac mien co goc tu. Do o se xay ra qua trnh dch chuyen ranh
gii gia cac omen e phan bo lai nang lng. Cac mien co nang lng nho se
Lu The Vinh
- 136 -
IEN T HOC
n ra va cac mien co nang lng ln b thu hep lai (H. 8-10, b). Luc nay momen
t cua vat sat t bat au khac khong, sat t bat au b t hoa. Giai oan nay co
tnh chat thuan nghch (ng vi oan 1 cua ng cong t hoa tren H 8-10, f) .
1
B0
Pm
a)
b)
Pm
c)
J
1
Pm
d)
e)
f)
B0
Hnh 8-10
Khi t trng ngoai B0 tang en mot gia tr nao o th cac mien b thu hep
se khong con na (H. 8-10, c) va giai oan dch chuyen ranh gii ket thuc. Neu
tiep tuc tang B0 th bat au mot giai oan mi. giai oan nay cac momen t
trong tng mien se quay ve theo hng song song vi t trng (H. 8-9, d). Khi
t trng ngoai u manh th tat ca cac momen t trong cac omen eu nh
hng song song vi t trng (H. 8-10, e). Vat sat t at trang thai bao hoa t
(oan 3 tren H. 8-10, f).
ac tnh cua qua trnh t hoa t au giai oan 2 tr i khong co tnh thuan
nghch. ieu o ly giai nguyen nhan gay ra hieu ng t tre. Khi bo t trng
ngoai B0 , cac momen t rieng trong tng omen khong the quay tr lai trang thai
ban au, lam cho chat sat t co mot lng t d. Khi nung nong vat sat t qua
nhiet o Curie TQ , th do chuyen ong nhiet cua cac nguyen t manh en mc
khong nhng lam mat het t tnh cua vat ma con pha v hoan toan cac mien t
hoa t nhien. Khi o vat sat t tr thanh vat thuan t bnh thng.
IEN T HOC
- 137 -
V du, cac hp chat cua Mangan (MnO, MnS), cua Crom (NiCr, Cr2O3),
cua Vanai (VO2), v.v la cac chat phan sat t.
8.6.2. Ferit.
Trong mot so hp chat ban dan sat t, tng tac trao oi cung tao nen
s nh hng oi song cua cac Spin electron, nhng momen t do chung tao
ra theo hai chieu khong triet tieu lan nhau (H. 8-11, b). Cac hp chat nay goi
la cac Fert t. o la cac hp chat co cong thc hoa hoc tong quat la
MOFe2O3, trong o M la mot ion kim loai hoa tr hai nao o, chang han ong
(Cu++ ), kem (Zn++), ken (Ni++), Coban (Co++) v.v .
a)
Hnh 8-11
b)
Fert c che tao bang cach thieu ket nhiet o 900 14000C nhng
manh nho oxyt a tron that eu. ac iem cua Fert la co cam ng t d ln,
cam ng kh t nho, ong thi co ien tr suat rat ln (co the ti 104 m).
Nh cac tnh chat o ma Fert c s dung nhieu trong cac thiet b cao tan
e lam loi cac cuon day t cam do chung co ton hao Fucco be va cong khi t
hoa ngc nho.
Cac Fert magie-mangan va mot so vat lieu khac co chu trnh t tre gan
giong hnh ch nhat c s dung lam cac phan t nh hoac s dung lam cac
phan t logc trong ky thuat so.
Lu The Vinh
- 138 -
IEN T HOC
8.7. Mach t.
Mach t la tap hp cac vat hoac mot phan khong gian ma trong o tap
trung t trng. Mach t la mot bo phan quan trong cua hau het cac may ien
va cac thiet b ien (khung bien the, khung ong c, may phat ien, .).
Dong t trong mach t ong vai tro tng t nh dong ien trong mach
ien. S dung cac nh ly va cac phng trnh c ban cua t hoc va s tng
quan gia mach t va mach ien ta co the giai c cac bai toan ve mach t.
8.7.1. Mach t khong phan nhanh.
Xet mach t khong phan nhanh n gian nh hnh 8-12. Mach gom 2
phan: phan mach trong khung sat t co tiet dien ngang S va o t tham , va
oan mach la khe h khong kh nho co cung tiet dien va o t tham k. Ap
dung nh ly dong toan phan cho ng cam ng t chnh gia ta co:
uur uur
uur uur
uur uur
H dl =
H dl + H dl = Hl + H k lk = NI
(8-33)
khung sat
khe
Hnh 8-12
V tai moi tiet dien ngang cua mot mach t khong phan nhanh dong t
la nh nhau, nen ta co:
H =
0 S
; Hk =
k 0 S
(8-34)
IEN T HOC
- 139 -
NI
0 S
lk
k 0
Em
E
= m
rm + rmk
Rm
(8-35)
Cong thc (8-35) co dang giong nh nh luat Ohm cho mach kn, trong
o Em = NI co vai tro giong nh suat ien ong, nen ta goi la la suat t ong
cua mach. ai lng Rm co vai tro giong nh ien tr toan phan cua mach va
c goi la t tr toan phan cua mach.
Rm = rm + rmk =
0 S
lk
(8-36)
k 0
Mot trong nhng ng dung cua mach t khong phan nhanh la che tao
cac nam cham ien, ma ng dung cua no het sc rong rai trong cong nghiep
ien: lam cuon day trong relay ien t, cuon day nam cham ien trong cac
thiet b nang cua can cau v.v. Lc cc ai ma nam cham ien co the nang
trong vat (H.8-13) tnh gan ung theo cong
thc:
F =
1
2 0
B2 S
(8-37)
0 k
= H0
s
k
(8-38)
Hnh 8-13
Xet mot mach t phan nhanh nh tren hnh 8-14. Goi S1 va l1 tng ng
la tiet dien ngang va chieu dai cua oan loi gia BC. Tiet dien ngang va
chieu dai tong cong cua khung CDAB ben ngoai tng ng la S2 va l2. Ta co:
Lu The Vinh
- 140 -
IEN T HOC
H1 =
1 0 S1
, H2 =
(8-39)
2 0 S2
uur uur
H dl =
1 0 S1
l1 +
1 0 S2
(8-40)
l2 = N1 I1
E
R1
R2
R2
b)
a)
Hnh 8-14
l1
1 0 S1
= R1 ;
l2
1 0 S2
= R2
la t tr tng ng
R = E
i
(8-42)
Quy c ve dau: I > 0 neu cung chieu dng a chon, Ek > 0 neu cuon
day sinh ra t thong cung chieu dng cua mach.
Cong thc (8-42) co dang giong bieu thc cua nh luat Kirchhoff viet
cho mat mang. Mot cach tng t, khi viet nh luat cho nut cua mach t ta
cung co bieu thc tng t nh luat Kirchhoff cho nut:
= 0
(8-43)
IEN T HOC
- 141 -
Nh vay, bai toan tnh t thong cua mot mach t bat ky cung tng t
nh bai toan tnh dong ien trong mach ien, trong o moi mach t co the so
sanh vi mach ien tng ng (8-12, b va 8-14, b).
8.8. Hien tng sieu dan.
8.8.1. Hien tng..
Hien tng sieu dan c nha bac hoc ngi Ha lan Kamerlingh-Onnes
phat hien ra lan au tien vao nam 1911. Khi nghien cu ien tr cua thuy
ngan ong thay rang nhiet o 4K ien tr cua thuy ngan ot ngot giam xuong
en 0. Sau o hien tng nay c phat hien nhieu kim loai va cac hp kim
khac (bang 8-2).
Tc
T
Hnh 8-15
Bang 8-2
STT
Chat
Tc, (K)
STT
Chat
Tc, (K)
Vonfram (W)
0,01
10
Indi (In)
3,40
Irii (Ir)
0,14
11
Thiec (Sn)
3,72
Hafni (Hf)
0,16
12
4,15
Titan (Ti)
0,49
13
Vanai (V)
5,13
Caimi
0,52
14
Ch (Pb)
7,23
Zirconi (Zr)
0,55
15
Niobi (Nb)
9,26
Kem (Zn)
0,85
16
Nb-N
14,7
Molpen (Mo)
0,93
17
V3Si
17,0
Nhom (Al)
1,19
18
Nb3Sn
18,2
- 142 -
IEN T HOC
Vat trang thai sieu dan co nhng tnh chat rat ac biet, khac han nhng
vat dan thong thng. Cac tnh chat ac biet o la:
Vat sieu dan la mot vat dan ien ly tng. Do ien tr bang khong, nen
neu trong vat sieu dan co dong ien th no co the ton tai rat lau, v khong co
s ton hao nhiet Joune-lenx.
Tnh sieu dan chu anh hng ln cua t trng. Khi co t trng tac
ong th nhiet o ti han Tc ha xuong, ngha la vat tr nen sieu dan nhiet o
thap hn. Neu t trng u manh no co the lam mat tnh sieu dan cua vat. Gia
tr cua t trng lam mat tnh sieu dan mot nhiet o nao o goi la t trng
ti han Hc.
Vat sieu dan la vat nghch t ly tng. trang thai sieu dan, moi ng
sc t eu b ay ra ngoai vat dan, tr mot lp rat mong ben ngoai be mat,
ngha la t trng trong long vat sieu dan luon luon bang khong. o t hoa
cua vat sieu dan = 1, va o t tham = 1+ = 0. Hien tng nay goi la
hieu ng Meissner c Meissner va Ochsenfeld phat hien ra vao nam 1933.
ay la thuoc tnh c ban th hai cua sieu dan ben canh tnh dan ien ly tng.
Do tnh nghch t ly tng nen khi at trong t trng vat sieu dan se chu tac
dung cua nhng lc co xu hng ay no ra khoi t trng. Ngi ta a lam
cac th nghiem chng minh hien tng nay, trong o mot mau oxyt ong, bari,
yttri sieu dan b ay noi bong benh ben tren mot thanh nam cham vnh cu.
8.8.3.ng dung cua sieu dan.
Do cac tnh chat ac biet ke tren, vat lieu sieu dan ngay t khi mi phat
hien a c trien khai ap dung, mac du gia thanh rat cao do phai lam cac he
thong lam lanh phc tap. ng dung cua sieu dan cc ky phong phu trong viec
thay the cac kim loai thong thng bang vat lieu sieu dan e tao ra cac may
moc thiet b hieu ng cao. Co the chia lam 2 nhom sau:
1. Cac thiet b, may moc co kch thc ln nh che tao cac nam cham sieu
dan cc manh dung cho may gia toc hat trong nghien cu hat nhan; cac
ong c, may phat ien hieu suat cao; tau hoa chay tren em t , v.v.
2. Cac thiet b, may moc kch thc nho, tinh xao dung trong ky thuat ien
t, may tnh; cac may o co o nhay cao dung trong ky thuat o lng.
ieu khien, t ong hoa, v.v
Cac may moc thiet b lam bang vat lieu sieu dan co nhng ac tnh quy
gia nh :
a) Hieu suat cao. Do ien tr bang khong nen khong tieu ton nang lng
ien. Do tnh nghch t ly tng nen co the giam ma sat ti mc toi a. Nh
IEN T HOC
- 143 -
vay chi ph ton hao nang lng giam en mc thap nhat, va hieu suat co the
at ti 98,8%.
b) Chat lng cao. Cac may moc che tao bang vat lieu sieu dan se cho o
chnh xac toi a, o nhay cao, toc o lam viec ln vi o on rat thap. Tan so
lam viec cua cac chuyen mach sieu dan at ti 1010 Hz
c) Gon nhe. Cac linh kien sieu dan kch thc nho, do khong toa nhiet nen co
the at sat nhau. Chang han, mot nam cham thng muon tao t trng 1,5 T
co khoi lng ti 16 000 tan, trong khi mot nam cham sieu dan e tao t
trng 12,5 T co khoi lng nho hn 1 tan.
8.8.4. Sieu dan nhiet o cao.
Ngay sau khi phat hien ra hien tng sieu dan thuy ngan, nhieu
nguyen to khac trong bang tuan hoan a c khao sat va cho thay hien tng
nay con xay ra nhieu kim loai va cac hp kim khac (bang 8-2). ieu ac
biet ly thu la qua trnh tm kiem cac chat sieu dan ma co nhiet o ti han Tc
ln. Theo khoang nhiet o trong o ton tai trang thai sieu dan, ngi ta chia
cac chat sieu dan ra hai loai:
Sieu dan nhiet o thap. Cho cac chat co nhiet o ti han Tc < 20 K
Sieu dan nhiet o cao. Cho cac chat co nhiet o ti han Tc 80 K.
Nam 1987 ngi ta a tao ra sieu dan trong khoang nhiet o t 8090K.
Nam 1988 a at c Tc trong khoang 120130 K. Ngi ta hy vong vao
nhng nam ti co the tao ra c cac chat sieu dan nhiet o tu lanh ( 250
K) va nhiet o phong (300 K). ( Bang 8-3).
Bang 8-3
Nam
Tc (K)
Nam
Tc (K)
1911
Hg
4,1
1973
Nb3Ge
1913
Pb
7,2
1986
La2 xSrxCuO4
40
1930
Nb
9,2
1987
Yba2Cu3O7-
94
1954
Nb3Sn
18,1
1988
BiSrCuCa2Ox
110
1966
Nb3(Al0,75Ge0,25)
20-21
1988
Tl2Ba2Cu2Ox
125
1971
Nb3Ga
20,3
Lu The Vinh
23,2
- 144 -
IEN T HOC
Chng 9.
CM NG IN T
9.1. Hin tng cm ng in t
9.1.1. Th nghiem Faraday.
Sau khi tm ra tac dung t cua dong ien th mot van e at ra la : dong
ien sinh ra t trng, vay ngc lai nh t trng co sinh ra dong ien hay
khong? Faraday a chng minh bang thc nghiem va sau o Maxwell a
chng minh bang ly thuyet rang t trng bien thien se sinh ra dong ien
(hoac ien trng).
Trong th nghiem cua mnh Faraday a s dung hai vong day at gan
nhau. Mot vong day mac vi nguon ien mot chieu (goi la mach nguon).
Vong th 2 noi vi mot ien ke G (goi la mach th) (hnh 9-1). Khi thay oi
cng o dong ien trong mach nguon th thay trong mach th xuat hien dong
ien. Dong ien trong mach th xuat hien khong phu thuoc vao cach ta lam
bien oi dong trong mach nguon, nh bang cach ong hay ngat nguon hoac
ieu chnh bien tr trong mach. Nh vay s bien thien cua dong trong mach
nguon a tao ra khong gian xung quanh mot t trng bien thien, va s bien
thien cua t trng a lam xuat hien dong trong mach th.
Hieu ng tren cung xay ra khi ta gi nguyen dong trong mach nguon va
di chuyen v tr tng oi gia mach nguon va mach th, hoac thay the mach
nguon bang mot thanh nam cham vnh cu va di chuyen v tr tng oi cua
thanh nam cham so vi mach th.
G
R
+
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 145 -
Phan tch cac ket qua th nghiem ta thay rang: moi khi t thong gi qua
mot mach kn thay oi, trong mach xuat hien mot dong ien cam ng. Hien
tng tren goi la hien tng cam ng ien t.
9.1.2. Quy tac Lenx.
Trong th nghiem cua Faraday, s xuat hien dong cam ng trong mach
khong phu thuoc vao cach gay ra s bien thien t thong. Tuy nhien chieu cua
dong cam ng lai phu thuoc chat che vao s tang hay giam cua t thong qua
mach. Lenx a tm ra quy tac tong quat e xac nh chieu cua dong ien cam
ng, goi la quy tac Lenx:
Dong ien cam ng phai co chieu sao cho t trng do no sinh ra co tac
dung chong lai nguyen nhan sinh a ra no.
9.1.3. Suat ien ong cam ng. nh luat Faraday.
Maxwell, sau khi phan tch cac th nghiem cua Faraday va quy tac
Lenx, a trnh bay nh luat c ban cua hien tng cam ng ien t di dang
toan hoc:
dF
Ec = (9-1)
dt
Trong o Ec la suat ien ong cam ng xuat hien trong mach. Cong thc
(9-1) la dang toan hoc cua nh luat Faraday. No cho thay trong moi trng
hp suat ien ong cam ng co gia tr bang va nguc dau vi toc o bien
uur uur
thien cua t thong gi qua mach kn. V F =
B dS , nen:
dF
d uur uur
Ec = = (9-1,a)
B dS .
dt
dt
Phng
trnh (9-1,a) cho thay e thay oi t thong co the thay oi t
uur
trng B hay thay oi dien tch S.
Dau (-) trong cong thc the hien nh luat Lenx.
- 146 -
IEN T HOC
Khi chuyen ong trong t trng vi van toc v cac ien tch t do trong
uur
ur uur
vat dan se chu tac dung cua t lc Lorentz FL = e [v B ] . Di tac dung cua
t lc cac ien tch khac dau se dch chuyen ve hai au vat dan lam gia hai
au xuat hien mot hieu ien the.
Neu mach ien kn, trong mach se xuat hien dong cam ng, tc la xuat
hien suat ien ong cam ng.
Viec xuat hien suat ien ong cam ng trong mach kn cung nh uuu
the
r
hieu hai au mach h chng to trong vat dan a phat sinh trng lc la E * .
Trong trng hp nay, ban chat lc tac dung cua trng lc la chnh la lc
Lorentz. Do vay ta co the viet:
uur
uur
ur uur
FL
E* =
= [v B ] .
(9-2)
e
Mat khac ta biet rang suat ien ong trong mach kn co gia tr bang lu
so vec t trng lc la. Do o:
uur ur
ur uur ur
Ec = E * dl =
[v B ] dl
(9-3)
Cong thc (9-3) cho phep ta tnh suat ien ong cam ng trong moi
trng hp.
9.1.3. ng dung.
1) T thong ke.
Hien tng cam ng ien t c
ng dung e che tao t thong ke e o t
trng. Nguyen ly cau tao cua t thong ke
rat n gian, no gom mot au o co dang
mot vong day dan noi vi mot ien ke. Khi
t trng gi qua vong day dan bien thien
trong vong day se xuat hien suat ien ong
cam ng (hnh 9-2). Qua mach co dong
cam ng:
I =
uur
B
S
G
Hnh 9-2
Ec
1 d
=
R
R dt
Trong o R la ien tr cua toan mach. Neu giam t thong qua mach t
gia tr ve 0, ien lng chuyen qua mach se la:
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 147 0
1 d
1
q = I dt =
dt =
d =
R dt
R
R
(9-4)
q =
BS
qR
=
B =
R
S
R
d
d
= ( B S cos t ) = BS sin t
dt
d
(9-4)
(9-4,a)
Ec = E0 sin t
Noi vi mach ngoai Z. Trong mach se co dong xoay chieu:
i =
Ec
Z
E0
sin ( t i )
Z
(9-5)
n
S
uur
B
=t
uur
B
Hnh 9-3
- 148 -
IEN T HOC
9.2.2. He so t cam.
Ta biet dong ien phat sinh ra xung quanh no mot t trng co o ln ty
le vi cng o dong ien. Ma t thong ty le vi t trng B tc la phai ty
le vi dong ien i :
= Li
(9-6)
L la he so ty le goi la he so t cam hay o t cam cua mach. o t
cam L phu thuoc vao hnh dang, kch thc va vao o t tham cua moi
trng bao quanh mach. Neu mach khong co loi sat th L=const, va khi o
ty le thuan vi I.
Khi dong ien trong mach bien thien th suat ien ong t cam xuat
hien tnh theo cong thc:
Ec =
d
di
=L
dt
dt
(vi L = const)
(9-7)
Ec =
d
di
dL
di
dL di
( Li) = L i
= (L + i
)
dt
dt
dt
dt
di dt
Ec = ( L + i
dL di
)
di dt
(9-8)
V du:
1) Tnh o t cam cua mot xolennot co chieu dai l gom N vong day tiet dien S.
Neu coi chieu dai l cua xolenot u ln th co the xem t trng ben
trong xolenot la eu
B = 0
N
I
l
(9-9)
N2
N2
= B S N = 0
IS = 0 2 I Sl = 0 n 2 I V
l
l
L =
= 0n 2 V
I
(9-10)
L =
0
R
l ln 2
2
R1
(9-11)
IEN T HOC
- 149 -
L =
0
d
l ln
R
(9-13)
Trong o, d la khoang cach gia hai truc day dan, R la ban knh tiet
dien ngang cua day dan (d/R >> 1).
9.2.2. Hien tng t cam khi ong mach va khi ngat mach.
La hien tng phat sinh dong t cam trong mach co o t cam L, nguon
suat ien ong E , ien tr R khi ong mach va khi ngat mach. S o th
nghiem hien tng t cam ch ra tren hnh (9-4).
R
i
k
i c
ic
i
L
k
b)
a)
Hnh 9-4
dic R
+ ic = 0
dt L
E ( t to )
ic = e L
R
Lu The Vinh
(9-15)
- 150 -
IEN T HOC
R
( t to )
E
i = (1 e L
)
R
Do o:
(9-16)
o th bieu dien (9-16) tren hnh 9-5, a. Ta thay do t cam nen dong
ien trong mach khong at ngay ti gia tr cc ai Io .
2) T cam khi ngat mach.
Khi ngat mach bong en loe len roi mi tat (H. 9-4, b). Neu ngay sau
khi ngat mach , tc bo suat ien ong trong mach, ta ong mach lai ngay th
theo nh luat Ohm ta co:
IR0 = L
i
I0 =
(9-17)
E
R
di
dt
R1 R2
>
L1 L2
R1 R2
>
L1 L2
to
to
a)
t
b)
Hnh 9-5
Trong o Ro la ien tr cua mach khi khong co suat ien ong. Lay tch
phan phng trnh (9-17) va chu y cac ieu kien ban au:
i
Ta co:
t = t0
E
= I0
R
i = I0 e
R
( t t0 )
L
(9-18)
o th bieu dien tren hnh (9-5, b) . Neu mach khong b noi tat ma e
h th RO , va:
R
( t to )
E
di
Ec = L
= R0 (1 e L
)
dt
R
R0
>> E
R
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 151 -
Nh vay, khi ngat mach, suat ien ong t cam trong mot khoang thi
gian ngan trong mach rat ln. Hien tng nay lam phat sinh tia la ien do
phong ien cho tiep xuc lam chay tiep xuc. e loai tr ngi ta thng mac
song song vi cong tac mot tu ien.
9.3. Dong ien Foucault.
Khi at mot vat dan ac trong mot t trng bien thien th trong vat dan
xuat hien nhng dong ien cam ng khep kn goi la cac dong ien xoay hay
dong Foucault.
Cac dong xoay gay hieu ng nhiet Joule-lenx lam ot nong vat dan.
Ngi ta li dung tnh chat nay e che tao cac lo ien cam ng co the nau
chay kim loai va san xuat cac hp kim trong chan khong. Nh o hp kim
tranh c s oxy hoa trong khong kh.
Dong Foucault cung phat sinh khi mot vat dan ac chuyen ong trong t
trng. Chieu cua dong cam ng tuan theo nh luat Lenx nen t trng do no
sinh ra co tac dung chong lai nguyen nhan a sinh ra no, tc la chong lai s
chuyen ong cua vat dan, nh vay phat sinh lc can bang t trng. Li dung
tnh chat nay ngi ta che tao cac bo phan can du bang t trng dung rong
rai trong cac dung cu o ien.
Tuy nhien trong nhieu trng hp, dong Foucault gay tac hai do ot
nong vat dan lam ton hao nang lng. Chang han, trong cac may bien the, cac
ong c, may phat ien loi sat chu tac dung cua t trng bien oi lam
phat sinh dong Foucault nen b ot nong. Ket qua, ton hao nang lng vo ch
va lam giam hieu suat cua may.
e giam tac hai do dong Foucault, ngi ta khong e nguyen ca khoi
kim loai uc loi thep ma dung nhieu la kim loai sn cach ien ghep lai vi
nhau, mat khac dung thep ky thuat co ien tr suat ln e giam dong. Do be
day moi la rat mong, ien tr ln nen cng o dong Foucault la rat nho, lam
giam hau het ton hao Foucault.
9.4. Hieu ng Skin (hieu ng lp da)
Khi qua vat dan co dong bien thien chay qua se lam phat sinh suat ien
ong t cam va dong ien xoay (H. 9-6). Cac dong ien xoay phai co chieu
sao cho t trng do no sinh ra chong lai s bien thien cua t trng sinh ra
no. Nh vay, doc theo truc vat dan dong cam ng co chieu ngc vi chieu
bien thien cua dong xoay chieu. Do hieu ng o, ien tr cua vat dan ben
trong loi ln hn ien tr tren be mat. Mat o dong xoay chieu cc ai tren
Lu The Vinh
- 152 -
IEN T HOC
be mat vat dan. Tan so bien oi cua dong xoay chieu cang cao th tac dung
cua cac dong t cam trong day cang manh, phan dong ien chay trong ruot
day dan cang yeu. Bang thc nghiem chng to rang khi tan so cua dong cao
tan c 1000Hz th dong ch chay tren mot lp mong cua be mat chng 2mm.
Con vi tan so 100.000 Hz dong ch chay tren lp be mat day 0,2 mm. Hieu
ng tren goi la hieu ng Skin (hay hieu ng lp da).
iC
di
>0
dt
iC
iC
Hnh 9-6
iC
di
<0
dt
Do hieu ng Skin nen khi dung dong ien cao tan ngi ta che tao cac
day dan rong e tiet kiem kim loai. Hieu ng Skin dan en dong cao tan ch
toa nhiet tren mot lp mong be mat vat dan. He qua nay c ng dung e
toi be mat cac chi tiet may bang thep. Cong thc gan ung mo ta hieu ng
Skin trong mot day dan hnh tru ong chat nh sau:
k4
khi k < 1
1 +
3
R
(9-19)
= 0,997 K + 0,277 khi 1,5 < k < 10
R0
1
3
k + +
khi k > 10
4 64 k
Trong o:
R la ien tr hieu ng cua vat dan co ban knh r oi v dong xoay
chieu tan so .
R0 la ien tr cua vat dan oi vi dong khong oi.
1
r
, vi = 2(2 0 ) 2 .
k =
2
ien tr suat cua vat dan vi dong khong oi.
Be sau cua hieu ng : khoang cach tnh t be mat vat dan ti iem
ma dong giam i e lan so vi dong tai be mat.
9.5. Ho cam.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 153 -
La hien tng xuat hien suat ien ong cam ng trong cac mach ien
at gan nhau. S bien thien dong ien trong mach nay se gay ra s bien thien
t thong gi qua mach kia va tao ra trong mach o mot suat ien ong cam
ng.
Khao sat hai vong day dan kn co cac dong ien I1 va I2 tng ng at
gan nhau (H. 9-7).
I1
I2
Hnh 9-7
12 = M12 I1
(9-20,a)
21 = M21 I2
(9-20,b)
d 12
= M12
dt
d 21
= M21
E1 =
dt
E2 =
Lu The Vinh
dI 1
dI
= M 1
dt
dt
dI 2
dI
= M 2
dt
dt
(9-22)
- 154 -
IEN T HOC
oi vi dong ien khong oi, khi cho chay qua mot day dan th cong
suat cua nguon se bien thanh nhiet Joule-Lenx. oi vi dong ien bien oi,
do ton tai hien tng t cam cho nen qua trnh xay ra co khac. Khi dong ien
ang tang, trong mach xuat hien dong t cam co chieu ngc lai, lam cho
dong ien thc te qua mach nho hn gia tr thc. Ket qua, ch co mot phan
ien nang do nguon sinh ra bien thanh nhiet nang. Ngc lai, neu dong qua
mach ang giam, dong t cam xuat hien cung chieu lam cho nhiet lng toa
ra trong mach ln hn phan nang lng do nguon cung cap.
Theo nh luat bao nang lng, phan cong khi dong ien tang thieu hut
ch co the bien thanh mot dang nang lng khac e khi dong trong mach giam
no c giai phong ra. V rang khi dong ien tang t trng do no tao ra cung
tang va ngc lai khi dong ien giam th t trng cung giam, nen ro rang
phan nang lng nay la nang lng cua t trng.
e tnh nang lng t trng ta hay tr lai hnh (9-4) trong bai hien
tng t cam khi dong mach. Xet qua trnh thiet lap dong khi dong ien trong
mach ang tang, nguon ien phai thc hien mot cong e chong lai cong can
do xuat hien suat ien ong t cam. Neu goi E c la suat ien ong t cam
trong mach th cong thiet lap dong ien se co gia tr:
I
A = E c i dt =
0
d
i dt =
dt
Li dt =
1
LI 2
2
(9-23)
Cong nay bien thanh nang lng cua ong day trong mach:
A =W=
1
LI
2
(9-24)
Cong thc (9-24) bieu dien nang lng t trng cua ong day co dong
ien theo nhng tham so ac trng cho mach ien: cng o dong ien I va
o t cam L. Do o ngi ta con goi no la nang lng rieng cua dong ien.
Trong c hoc ta biet rang ong nang cua mot vat co khoi lng m
chuyen ong vi van toc v co gia tr la 1/2 mv2 , trong o m ac trng cho
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 155 -
quan tnh cua vat. So sanh vi nang lng cua ong day ta co khai niem tng
t la: o t cam L ac trng cho quan tnh cua mach ien.
9.6.2. Nang lng t trng.
Trong tnh ien ta biet rang nang lng ien trng nh x trong
khoang khong gian co ien trng. Ly thuyet va thc nghiem a chng to
rang nang lng t trng cung c phan bo trong khoang khong gian co t
trng, ngha la nh x trong t trng.
Ta hay xet nang lng t trng cua mot ong day theo (9-24), khi thay
gia tr cua ien cam L:
L = 0
ta co:
N2
N2
S = 0 2 Sl = 0 n 2V
l
l
W =
1
1
L I 2 = o n 2VI
2
2
Neu ong day u dai, t trng trong ong day la eu va co gia tr:
H = nI,
do o:
H
n
I =
2
1
1
2 H
W = o n 2 V = o H 2 V
2
2
n
T o:
(9-25)
V co the coi t trng tap trung trong long ong day, cong thc (9-25)
cho thay rang toan bo nang lng t trng phan bo eu trong the tch V vi
mat o nang lng w:
w =
W
1
1
= 0 H 2 = B H
2
2
V
(9-26)
oi vi t trng khong eu, ta hay chia nho mien khong gian cha
trng ra cac the tch nguyen to dV, trong o cha nang lng nguyen to dW.
Nang lng t trng nh x trong toan bo the tch V se la:
W =
dW
V
Lu The Vinh
wdV = 2 mm0 H
V
dV =
1
2
B HdV
V
(9-27)
- 156 -
IEN T HOC
Chng 10.
IEN T HOC
- 157 -
Co the dien at nh lng ket luan cua Maxwell bang toan hoc. Theo
nh luat cam ng ien t Faraday suat ien ong cam ng xuat hien trong
mach co gia tr bang toc o bien thien cua t thong qua dien tch gii han:
Ec = -
Trong o: F =
ur uur
B dS
dF
dt
Mat khac, ta a biet rang suat ien ong trong mach co gia tr bang lu
so vec t trng lc la doc theo mach:
uur uur
E =
E * dl
uur
B
uur
E
Hnh 10-1
- 158 -
IEN T HOC
trng xoay. Noi cach khac no neu len moi lien he gia t trng bien thien
va ien trng. No cung dien ta tnh chat xoay cua ien trng. That vay, v
uur
ur uur
B
E dl 0 . ieu
t trng bien thien nen
0 , do o t (10-1) ta co:
t
L
uur
o chng to rang E la mot trng xoay.
(10-1, a)
Phng trnh (10-1) la mot trong nhng phng trnh c ban cua thuyet
Maxwell. No c rut ra t nh luat cam ng ien t Faraday va co ten goi
la phng trnh Maxwell Faraday.
10.2. DONG IEN DCH, PHNG TRNH MAXWELL - AMPERE
10.2.1. Dong ien dch.
Tren ay, ta a thay rang moi t trng bien thien theo thi gian eu
lam xuat hien ien trng xoay. Phan tch cac hien tng ien t khac nhau,
Maxwell a i en ket luan rang phai ton tai hien tng ngc lai la: Moi
ien trng bien thien theo thi gian eu lam xuat hien t trng.
V t trng la dau hieu c ban va tat yeu cua moi dong ien, cho nen
neu nh ien trng bien thien lam phat sinh t trng th no cung co tac
dung giong nh mot dong ien. Maxwell goi dong ien o la dong ien dch.
e phan biet no vi dong ien dan la dong chuyen ong cua cac ien tch.
Dong ien dch cung co tnh chat c ban giong dong ien dan cho no
gay ra t trng trong khong gian quanh no, nhng khac dong ien dan cac
tnh chat khac.
e lam sang to ban chat khai niem dong ien dch, chung ta hay xet th
nghiem sau ay. Mac mot mach ien nh hnh (10-1) gom mot tu ien C c
noi vi nguon ien mot chieu U thong qua mot khoa chuyen mach S (la ao
ien cho phep oi chieu nguon ien trong mach). e phat hien trong mach co
dong ien hay khong ta dung mot bong en lam ch th. V tu C lam h
mach nen bong en khong sang, trong mach khong co dong ien.
Tuy nhien neu ta xet trong khoang thi gian ngan khi bat au ong
mach hien tng se khac. Khi ong cong tac, tu se c nap, dong nap cho tu
chay qua day dan va lam cho bong en loe sang. Dong nap se giam ve 0 khi
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 159 -
tu a nap ay. Bay gi neu ta ao chieu nguon ien nh ao mach th cac ban
tu se c nap ien ngc lai. Trong mach lai co mot dong ien chay qua
nhng theo chieu ngc lai. Neu ta ao chieu nguon ien mot cach lien tuc
th trong mach se co mot dong ien xoay chieu chay qua vi tan so bang tan
so cua chuyen mach. Neu tan so chuyen mach bang 50Hz th dong ien trong
mach tng ng nh dong ien xoay chieu cong nghiep.
Ta thay trong qua trnh ao chieu
nguon ien, ien trng gia 2 ban tu
bien thien lien tuc vi cung tan so.
Dong ien dan trong mach c khep
kn mach bang ien trng bien thien
gia 2 ban tu, v ly do o nen Maxwell
a goi ien trng bien thien nay la
dong ien dch. Nh vay, khac vi dong
ien khong oi, dong ien bien thien co
the chay qua c tu ien nh dong
ien dch.
- -
uur
E
U
-
(10-2)
D = .
(10-3)
E=
Cam ng ien (hay ien dch):
(10-4)
dQ
d
= S
dt
dt
Lu The Vinh
(10-5)
- 160 -
IEN T HOC
i =
I
d
=
S
dt
(10-6)
V tu ang phong ien nen ien trng gia 2 ban cung bien thien:
dD
d
=
dt
dt
(10-7)
dD
dt
(10-8)
uur
gr
uu
D
= D
t
(10-10)
ur
Maxwell a goi id la mat o dong ien dch. La ai lng co o ln va
uur
hng cua ao ham vec t D theo thi gian, tc la:
uur
gu
ur
ur
D
id =
= D
(10-10)
t
Vi khai niem dong ien dch ta thay rang trong trng hp tong quat
dong ien trong mach bao gi cung c khep kn bang dong ien toan phan.
Dong ien dch khong ch xuat hien trong lp ien moi gia 2 ban tu ma ngay
ca trong vat dan. That vay, neu trong day dan co dong ien bien thien tc la
co t trng bien thien th co ien trng bien thien ngha la co dong ien
dch. Dong ien toan phan co mat o bang tong mat o dong ien dan va
dong ien dch:
ur
i tp
gr
r ur
r
uu
= i + id = i + D
(10-11)
IEN T HOC
- 161 -
Giong nh dong ien dan, dong ien dch cung gay ra t trng ma
chieu cua no cung c xac nh bang quy tac van nut chai. Tren hnh ve 10-3
minh hoa cac ng sc t gay ra bi dong ien dch gia hai ban cua mot tu
ien ng vi trng hp tu ang tch ien (a) va ang phong ien (b).
D
t
a)
D
t
b)
Hnh 10-3
Trong o Itp la cng o dong ien toan phan xuyen qua dien tch gii
han bi ng cong kn L
uur
uur uur
r
D uur
I tp = itp ds = i +
(10-13)
Ta co:
dS
Do o:
Lu The Vinh
ur ur
H dl =
uur
r
D uur
i +
dS
t
(10-14)
- 162 -
IEN T HOC
Theo luan iem cua Maxwell th t trng bien thien theo thi gian lam
xuat hien ien trng xoay, ngc lai ien trng bien thien theo thi gian
lam phat sinh ra t trng, en lt mnh t trng bien thien lai lam phat
sinh ra ien trng. C nh the ien trng va t trng lien he chat che vi
nhau, chuyen hoa lan nhau, chung ong thi ton tai trong khong gian trong
mot trng thong nhat la trng ien t. Khai niem trng ien t c
Maxwell a ra lan au tien, no la mot dang ton tai cua vat chat, co nhng
tnh chat hoan toan xac nh.
10.3.1. He phng trnh Maxwell.
1) He phng trnh Maxwell th nhat.
S
L
uur uur
D dS = q
(10-15)
uuur
uur
D = 0 E
ur
uur
J = E
Hoac bieu dien di dang vi phan:
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 163 uur
r
D
rot H = i +
t
uur
div D =
uuuur
uur
D = 0 E
uur
uur
J = E
(10-15,a)
ur uur
E dl =
uur uur
B dS = 0
B uur
dS
t
(10-16)
ur
uur
B = mm0 H
uur
ur
B
rot E = t
ur
div B = 0
uur
uur
B = mm0 H
(10-16,a)
Thuyet Maxwell ve ien t trng co vai tro ac biet quan trong trong
s phat trien cua ien t hoc. Trc Maxwell, nhng hieu biet cua con ngi
ve cac hien tng ien va t con ri rac. Ngay en khoang nam 1820, ngi
ta van con quan niem rang ien va t la hai hien tng khac nhau, khong co
lien he g vi nhau.
Nam 1820, th nghiem cua Osted a chng to rang gia ien va t co
lien quan vi nhau, dong ien cung sinh ra t trng. Sau o la nhng nghien
cu cua Ampere ve cac hien tng ien t, ong a a ra gia thuyet ve s ton
tai cua cac dong ien phan t la nguyen nhan gay ra t tnh cua cac nam
cham vnh cu.
Lu The Vinh
- 164 -
IEN T HOC
ur
v
uur
E
Hnh 10-4
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 165 -
ur
Gia s co mot ien tch q >0 chuyen ong vi van toc v trong mot t
uur
trng B (hnh 10-4). Neu ngi quan sat ng yen so vi t trng th ien
tch q se chu tac dung mot lc Lorenzt:
ur
ur r
f = q[ v B ]
(10-17)
r
Trong o v la van toc chuyen ong tng oi cua ien tch q oi vi t
r
r
trng, con vec t cam ng t B = 0 H .
Neu ngi quan sat chuyen ong cung vi ien tch th oi vi ngi
quan sat ien tch q la ng yen, nen trong he quy
ur chieu cua ngi quan sat
ien tch q se tao ra quanh no mot ien trng E . Mat khac van ton tai lc
ur
tac dung f nh the len ien tch. ieu o chng to rang oi vi ngi quan
sat ien trng tac dung, co gia tr: ur
ur
ur r
f
E =
= [v B ]
(10-18)
q
ur
r
ien trng nay co phng vuong goc vi v va B .
Nh vay, trng ien t phu thuoc vao he quy chieu ta xet. Neu trong
mot he quy chieu nao o co t trng th trong mot he quy chieu khac chuyen
ong tng oi vi no co ca t trng va ien trng.
1) Bien oi Lorenzt cua trng ien t.
v
O
O
x
z
z
Hnh 10-5
Gia s trong he quy chieu O co mot t trng ma tai mot iem M nao
o co cac gia tr HM (Hx, Hy Hz). Cung tai M nhng neu xet trong he quy chieu
O do chuyen ong tng oi vi O nen se xuat hien ien trng co cac thanh
Lu The Vinh
- 166 -
IEN T HOC
(10-19)
uur
Neu trong he O con co ca ien trng E {E x , Ey , Ez} th trong he O
(10-20)
2) Mot cach hoan toan tng t nh tren ta thay rang trong cac he quy
chieu chuyen ong tng oi oi vi ien trng se xuat hien t trng.
Thc vay, ta hay xet mot ien tch
ur
q chuyen ong vi van v oi vi ngi
quan sat, ien tch nay se sinh ra mot t
trng (hnh 10-6):
ur ur
uur
q [v r ]
H =
4
r3
q>0
ur
v
(10-21)
uur
E =
hay:
ur
r
uur
D =
q
4 0 r 3
uur
D
uur
H
Hnh 10-6
ur
r
q ur
r
4 r 3
(10-22)
(10-22,a)
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 167 -
uur
ur uur
H = [v D ]
(10-24)
H z ' = v Dy
uur
Neu trong he O ngoai ien trng con co ca t trng H tac dung vi
cac thanh phan {Hx, Hy, Hz} th t trng toan phan trong he O se la:
Hx ' = Hx
H y ' = H y + v Dz
(10-25)
H z ' = H z v Dy
Cac cong thc (10-19), (10-20), (10-24) va (10-25) la cac phep bien oi
the hien s bien oi cua ien t trng trong cac he quy chieu quan tnh.
Chung ch ung trong trng hp cac ien tch chuyen ong cham. Do o cac
cong thc tren ch la cac cong thc bien oi trng ien t trong cac he quy
chieu chuyen ong cham (so vi van toc anh sang).
oi vi cac he chuyen ong vi van toc ln, nhng bieu thc tren
khong ap dung c. Trong trng hp o ta phai ap dung cac cong thc bien
oi cua thuyet tng oi. Theo nguyen ly tng oi cua Enstein, cac bieu thc
bien oi phai thoa man nhng ieu kien bat bien tng oi tnh, ma nhng
bieu thc va thu c khong thoa man tnh bat bien nay.
Lu The Vinh
- 168 -
IEN T HOC
E y v Bz
1
H x' = H x , H y' =
v
c2
H y + v Dz
v2
1 2
c
, Ez' =
E z + v Bz
1
(10-26)
v
c2
H z v Dz
, H z' =
(10-27)
v2
1 2
c
Xet mot mach dao ong LC. Gia s cac tham so cua mach la tap trung,
ien tr toan bo day noi la R (hnh 10-7). e n gian ta gia s cac qua trnh
xay ra trong mach la chuan dng, ngha la cac gia tr tc thi cua dong ien la
nh nhau moi iem cua mach, va ta co the ap dung nh luat Kirchhoff cho
cac gia tr tc thi cua cac ai lng ien trong mach.
Gia s mach ang dao ong, xet thi
iem tu ang phong ien, goi dong phong la
i ta co:
R
+
C
dq
i =
dt
uC + i R = L
Hnh 10-7
Thay :
di
dt
q di
d 2q
= 2 ,
uC = ;
C dt
dt
(10-28)
ta c:
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
hay:
at:
- 169 -
d 2q
dq q
L 2 +R
+
= 0
dt C
dt
d 2q
R dq
q
+
+
= 0
2
L dt
LC
dt
R
1
= , 2 =
, ta co:
2L
LC
q&& + 2 q& + 2 q = 0
(10-29)
(10-30)
Phng trnh (10-30) la mot phng trnh vi phan tuyen tnh bac 2 oi
vi q, e giai can xet cac ieu kien ban au sau:
t = 0, q = Q0, i =
dq
dt
=0
t=0
R
= 0,
2L
q&& + 2 q = 0
Nghiem tong quat cua (10-31) co dang:
q = A cos ( t + )
Trong o A la bien o dao ong, la tan so goc =
Chu ky dao ong : T =
= 2
(10-32)
1
.
LC
t=0
= A sin = 0
= 0 , A = Q0
T o, nghiem tong quat cua phng trnh (10-31) se la:
q = Q0 cos t
(10-33)
T (10-33) ta co quy luat bien thien cua ien ap u va dong ien i la:
Lu The Vinh
- 170 -
IEN T HOC
u =
Q
q
= 0 cos t = U 0 cos t
C
C
(10-34)
i =
dq
= Q0 sin t = I 0 sin t
dt
(10-35)
Cac ket qua (10-33) (10-34) va (10-35) cho thay rang trong mach xay ra
qua trnh dao ong cua cac ai lng q, u va i theo quy luat ieu hoa, nhng
dong ien nhanh pha hn hieu ien the mot goc /2. ay la trng hp ly
tng, mach dao ong t do, ieu hoa va khong tat.
2) Xet mach dao ong thc te.
Vi mach dao ong thc te ( R 0) . Phng trnh dao ong cua mach
c viet di dang ay u:
d 2 q R dq
q
+
+
=0
dt 2 L dt LC
hay:
d 2q
dq
+
2
+ 2q = 0
2
dt
dt
(10-36)
Nghiem (10-36) phu thuoc tng quan gia cac ai lng, ta xet cac
trng hp sau:
a. Trng hp : 2 > 2 .
Nghiem (10-36) co dang:
q = Z .e t
(10-37)
Trong o Z la mot ham so phu thuoc thi gian. Lay ao ham bac nhat
va bac 2 cua q theo thi gian t ta co:
dq
dZ t
e
= Z e t +
dt
dt
d2q
dZ t
d2Z t
t
2
Z
e
e
e
=
+
dt
dt 2
dt 2
The vao phng trnh (10-37) va rut gon 2 ve cho e t ta c :
d2Z
+ ( 2 2 ) Z = 0
2
dt
Phng trnh (10-38) co nghiem:
Z = A cos (o t + ) .
(10-38)
(10-39)
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
Vi o =
q = A e t cos (o t + )
(10-40)
q = Q0 e t cos (o t )
(10-41)
Nghiem (10-41) cho thay ay la mot dao ong tat dan vi bien o giam
theo quy luat ham mu. goi la he so tat dan cua dao ong, cang ln dao
ong tat dan cang nhanh. Tren cac hnh (10-8, b, c) cho thay 2 dao ong tat
dan vi khac nhau. Bieu thc co cha cos (o t ) chng to dao ong tat dan
theo quy luat hnh sin. Goi T la chu ky cua dao ong tat dan, ta co:
T =
2
2
2
1 R
LC 2 L
(10-42)
(10-43)
Trong o: k1 = + 2 2 va k2 = 2 2 ; A1 va A2 la cac
hang so c xac nh t ieu kien ban au. Sau khi thay nghiem nay vao
phng trnh (10-36) va thay cac ieu kien ban au noi tren ta co:
A1 = Q0
va:
q =
k1
k1
; A2 = Q0
.
k1 k2
k1 k2
Q0
k t
k t
(k1 e 2 k2 e 1 )
k1 k2
(10-44)
Nghiem (10-44) ng vi mot qua trnh khong dao ong (hnh 10-7, d).
Neu ien tr cua mach rat ln, 2 >> 2 th k1>>k2 nghiem tren tr
thanh:
Lu The Vinh
- 172 -
IEN T HOC
q = Q0 e
k2 t
(10-45)
q = Q0 cos t
a) O
q = Q0 e -t cos t
b) O
c) O
Q0
k t
k t
(k1 e 2 k2 e 1 )
q =
k1 k2
d) O
e) O
k1e k2 t
q = Q0 e
k2 t
f) O
k2 e k1t
Hnh 10-8
Nh vay, ieu kien e mach co the dao ong la: 2 > 2 , tc la:
1
R2
>
LC
4L2
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 173 -
Hay
R < 2
L
C
(10-46)
Xet ve mat nang lng, qua trnh dao ong ien t trong mach LC la
qua trnh xay ra s chuyen hoa gia nang lng ien trng tren tu ien va
nang lng t trng tren cuon day.
Thc vay, xet trng hp mach dao ong ly tng (R=0). Gia s trong
mach ang xay ra dao ong. Goi i la dong trong mach thi iem t tng ng
vi ien tch tren tu ien luc nay la q, ta co nang lng toan phan W trong
mach la:
1 2 1 q2
W = WH + WE = L i +
= const
2
2C
T o:
dW
d 1 2 1 q2
di q dq
=
=0
Li +
= Li +
dt
dt 2
2C
dt C dt
Neu thay :
dq
= i va
dt
(10-47)
di
d 2q
=
ta c:
dt
dt 2
d 2q 1
d 2q 1
q
0,
hay
:
q=0
+
=
+
dt 2 C
dt 2 LC
1
ta se tm lai c phng trnh (10-31):
Bay gi at 2 =
LC
d 2q
+ 2 q = 0, tc la: q&& + 2 q = 0
(10-48)
2
dt
Nghiem cua (10-48) co dang:
q = Q0 cos ( t + )
Dong trong mach tng ng:
dq
i =
= Q0 sin(t + )
dt
- Nang lng ien d tr trong mach dao ong thi iem t:
1 q2 Q02
WE =
cos2 (t + )
=
(10-49)
2 C 2C
- Nang lng t d tr trong mach dao ong thi iem t tng ng:
Q02
1 2 1
2
2
sin 2 (t + )
(10-50)
WH = Li = L sin (t + ) =
2
2
2C
L
Lu The Vinh
- 174 -
IEN T HOC
o th bieu dien cac ham (10-49) va (10-50) tren hnh (10-8) cho thay
quy luat bien thien nang lng ien t trong mach dao ong LC.
WH
WE
Q02
2C
T/2
3T/2
Hnh 10-9. Bien thien nang lng ien t trong mach dao ong
T o th hnh (10-9) ta thay ro qua trnh chuyen hoa nang lng ien t
trong mach dao ong:
1. thi iem t bat ky, tong nang lng ien trng va t trng la
khong oi va co gia tr bang Q2/2C.
2. Cac gia tr cc ai cua WE va WH bang nhau va bang Q2/2C.
3. Khi nang lng t trng at gia tr cc ai th nang lng ien
trng bang khong va ngc lai.
10.5.3. Dao ong cua mach h, anten va s bc xa song ien t.
Mach dao ong LC xet tren la mach dao ong kn. Dao ong trong
mach se khong bc xa nang lng ra ben ngoai, v nang lng ien trng ch
tap trung gia hai ban tu ien, con nang lng t trng ch tap trung trong
long cuon day.
e co the bc xa nang lng ra moi trng xung quanh ngi ta che tao
cac mach dao ong h bang cach lam cho cac ban tu cach xa nhau va cuon
day co cac vong day xa nhau. Vi cach lam nh vay, mot phan ng sc
ien trng va ng sc t trng se i ra ben ngoai mach. Mot phan nang
lng cua mach se bc xa ra khong gian xung quanh. Mach bc xa cang nhieu
neu no cang h. Trong trng hp gii han, mach co dang mot day dan thang
(hnh 10-10), no c goi la anten. Khac vi trng hp mach dao ong kn
la mach co cac thong so (L,C) tap trung. Anten la mot mach dao ong co cac
thong so phan bo. o t cam cua anten xac nh bi o t cam cua tng oan
day dan, con ien dung cua anten c xac nh bi ien dung gia cac phan
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 175 -
cua no. Nh vay anten cung la mot mach dao ong co tan so rieng hoan toan
xac nh.
Hnh 10-10
Khi trong anten co dao ong ien t th co cac ien tch t do dch
chuyen trong no gay ra khong gian xung quanh mot ien t trng bien
thien. ien t trng nay lan truyen trong khong gian vi van toc xac nh
di dang song ien t.
Tren hnh 10-11, a minh hoa hnh anh cac ng sc ien trng trong
mat phang cha anten, con tren hnh 10-11, b cho ta hnh anh ng sc t
trng trong mat phang vuong goc vi truc anten tai mot thi iem nao o.
Co the nghien cu s bc xa song ien t ay u va chnh xac nh viec
giai cac phng trnh cua Maxwell. Bang ly thuyet va thc nghiem co the xac
nh c nhng tnh chat cua song ien t. gan anten song ien t co dang
phc tap, nhng xa anten, trong mien song, trng ien t co dang tng oi
n gian. Mat au song la mat cau, moi iem trong khong gian, vec t ien
ur
uur
trng E va t trng H luon vuong goc vi nhau va vuong goc vi phng
ur uur r
truyen song. Ba vec t E , H , v theo th t hp thanh mot tam dien thuan.
Lu The Vinh
- 176 -
IEN T HOC
Hnh 10-11
10.6.
SONG IEN T T DO
10.6.1. S lan truyen song ien t .
Song ien t khi lan truyen trong khong gian khong co vat dan va ien
tch goi la song ien t t do.
Gia s tai mot iem O nao o trong khong gian, tai o co ien trng t
do E1 . Neu khong co ien tch e duy tr no th ien trng nay se bien mat.
Nhng theo thuyet Maxwell, ien trng E bien rthien gay ra t trng H . V
ur
E
E giam, nen dong ien dch co mat o id = 0
hng ngc chieu E , va
t
ng sc t trng hng theo chieu kim ong ho neu nhn t tren xuong
(hnh 10-12). Nhng v trong moi trng khong co dong ien khong oi e duy
ngc chieu kim ong ho nh hnh ve. E1 lam triet tieu E O va lam xuat
hien ien trng 1. Khi E1 1 bien mat no lam xuat hien t trng H1 cung
hng theo chieu kim ong ho nh H . H1 lam triet tieu H va lam xuat hien
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 177
t trng xa hn. H1 bien mat lam xuat hien E2 v.v Nh vay, ban au O
ta co ien trng bien thien, ngay sau o xuat hien ca t trng va ien
trng khong gian xung quanh. ien trng va t trng lien he chat che
vi nhau, chuyen hoa lan nhau va lan truyen trong khong gian tao thanh song
ien t.
E2
E1
V
0
H1
H2
id
id
id
Hnh 10-12
Ta cung thay rang trong qua trnh chuyen hoa gia ien trng va t
trng cac vec t E va H luon vuong goc vi nhau va vuong goc vi phng
cac vec t E va H ch phu thuoc vao mot toa o khong gian va vao thi gian.
Trng hp nay xay ra khi xet song rat xa nguon, luc nay trong mot mien
u hep, mat au song co the xem la phang.
Gia s xet s truyen song theo phng truc x. Luc nay mat au song la
nhng mat phang vuong goc vi truc x, trong o gia tr cua cac vec t E va H
tai moi iem tren mat phang cung mot thi iem se co gia tr khong oi. Do
Lu The Vinh
- 178 -
IEN T HOC
o ao ham rieng phan cua E va H theo cac bien y va z trong he phng trnh
Maxwellse triet tieu.
Nh vay, he phng trnh Maxwell viet cho song ien t t do phang se
co dang nh sau:
He phng trnh Maxwell th nhat:
Ex
0 = 0 t
uur
ur
H
E
E
rot H = 0
hay z = 0 y
t
t
x
H y
E
= 0 z
t
x
a)
b)
(10-51)
c)
uur
E
div D = 0, hay 0 x = 0
x
(10-52)
H x
0
=
0
uur
ur
Ez
H y
H
hay
rot E = 0
= 0
t
t
x
Ey
H z
= 0
t
x
ur
H x
=0
div B = 0 hay 0
x
a)
b)
(10-53)
c)
(10-54)
E x H x
=
=0
t
t
Ex = const, va Hx = const.
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 179 -
H z
0 t = x
H z = Ey
0
t
x
(10-55)
He th hai lien he thanh phan tren truc z cua ien trng vi thanh
phan tren truc y cua t trng:
Ez H y
0 t = x
H y = Ez
0
t
x
(10-56)
He phng trnh (10-55) cho thay rang bien thien cua ien trng Ey
theo thi gian ch lam xuat hien t trng Hz theo phng truc z, ngc lai,
bien thien theo thi gian cua t trng theo phng truc z ch lam xuat hien
ien trng Ey theo phng truc y. ieu nay co ngha la cac vec t E va H
luon vuong goc vi nhau va vuong goc vi phng truyen song. Ta cung rut ra
ket luan tng t t (10-56).
Hai he phng trnh tren cho ta hai nghiem oc lap. Ta ch gii han xet
song phan cc phang, la song co cac vec t dao ong ( E va H ) luon nam trong
mot mat phang xac nh, vuong goc vi nhau va vuong goc vi phng truyen
song.
Bang cach chon he toa o thch hp ta co the co nghiem cua phng
trnh song trong o vec t E song song vi truc y, va nh the vec t H song
song vi truc z. Ngha la:
Lu The Vinh
- 180 -
IEN T HOC
Ey = E, Ez = 0 va: Hz = H, Hy = 0.
Phng trnh Maxwell cho song phan cc phang nay la:
E
H
0 t = x
H = E
0 t
x
a)
(10-57)
b)
Bay gi lay ao ham hai ve (10-57, a) theo thi gian, sau o nhan hai
ve vi 0 , ta c:
0 0
2E
2H
=
0
x t
t2
2E
2H
= 0
x t
x2
T o rut ra:
2E
1 2E
=
t 2 0 0 x 2
(10-58,a)
2H
1 2H
=
t 2 0 0 x 2
(10-58,b)
Trong c hoc, ta a xet nhng phng trnh vi phan co dang tong quat:
2 A 1 2 A
=
t 2 v2 x 2
ay la phng trnh truyen song, dien ta nhng song lan truyen trong
khong gian vi van toc truyen song la v. Mot ai lng A nao o, neu thoa
man phng trnh truyen song th no dien ta s lan truyen trong khong gian
di dang song. Nghiem cua nhng phng trnh song co dang tong quat:
x
A1 = f ( x )
v
x
A2 = f ( x + )
v
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 181 -
Trong o A1 dien ta song lan truyen theo chieu dng cua truc x, con A2
dien ta song lan truyen theo chieu am.
Nh vay, cac phng trnh (10-58) dien ta qua trnh song, trong o ien
trng E va t trng H lan truyen theo phng truc x. o chnh la song ien
t.
Nghiem cua (10-58) co dang:
x
x
E = f (t m ); H = g(t m )
v
v
at nghiem nay vao phng trnh song ta c:
v=
0 0
0 0
(10-59)
0
va gia tr a biet cua 0:
1
F
9
4 .9.10 m
0 = 4 .10 7
Ta co:
c =
0 0
H
m
3.108 m / s .
(10-60)
Ta thay c co gia tr bang van toc cua anh sang trong chan khong. Nh
vay trong moi trng co hang so ien moi va o t tham , van toc lan
truyen song ien t la:
c
c
v =
=
(10-61)
n
(10-62)
- 182 -
IEN T HOC
E
x
= E0 sin (t )
v
t
x
H
E
= 0
= 0 E0 sin (t )
x
t
v
va
H=
x dx = 0 E0 sin (t v ) dx
x
= 0 vE0 cos (t ) + C ,
v
trong o C la hang so tch phan. Ta ch xet cac qua trnh dao ong nen
co the bo qua C va cho C = 0.
1
, ta co:
Thay gia tr v =
0 0
H=
0
x
E0 cos (t )
v
0
(10-63)
E
O
x
z
H
Hnh 10-13
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 183 -
Tren hnh (10-13) la bc tranh cho ta thay s lan truyen song ien t
theo phng truc Ox.
10.7. NANG LNG SONG IEN T
Song ien t la ien t trng bien thien lan truyen trong khong gian
theo thi gian. V ien trng va t trng la nhng dang ton tai cua vat chat
va chung co nang lng, cho nen song ien t noi rieng hay ien t trng noi
chung co mang nang lng. Qua trnh truyen song chnh la qua trnh truyen
nang lng ien t.
Ta hay tnh nang lng song ien t gi qua mot dien tch S trong mot
thi gian t. Xet mot hnh hop xien, co ay S, canh trung vi phng cua
van toc v va co chieu da cua canh la v.t (hnh 10-14).
The tch hnh hop la: V = S.vt. cos , trong o la goc gia phap
tuyen n cua S va van toc v.
vt
Hnh 10-14
W = wV = w. S.vt cos
Mat o nang lng song ien t bao gom mat o nang lng ien
trng va t trng:
w =
1
( 0 E 2 + 0 H 2 )
2
0 E = 0 H , cho nen:
w = 0 E 2 + 0 H 2 = 0 0 EH
Lu The Vinh
- 184 -
IEN T HOC
Ma: v =
, nen ta co:
0 0
W = E.H.S. cos.t
Nh vay nang lng i qua S trong mot n v thi gian la:
W
= EHS cos
t
Ta co the viet lai ket qua tren bang cach a vao vec t mat o dong
(10-65)
P = [E H ]
(10-66)
trong o Pn = P cos la hnh chieu cua vec t P len phng phap tuyen
cua S. Neu = 0, tc S vuong goc vi phng truyen song th Pn = P.
Viet lai (10-66) vi viec chon t rat be ta co:
W
= Pn S
(10-66a)
t
Nh vay, co the ac trng cho s truyen nang lng mot cach ay u
bang cach dung vec t P . Hng cua P la hng truyen nang lng. Gia tr
cua P bang nang lng truyen qua mot n v dien tch at vuong goc vi
phng truyen song trong mot n v thi gian.
Khai niem vec t mat o dong c Umop a ra khi xet s truyen
nang lng trong cac moi trng, con bieu thc (10-65) c Pointinh a ra
IEN T HOC
- 185 -
Anh sang chnh la song ien t, nen tia sang chnh la ng dong nang
lng cua song anh sang.
Theo nh ngha cua P ta co gia tr cua no la:
c
P = EH = wv =
(10-67)
n
V cac vec t E va H va w luon bien thien, nen tai moi iem xac
nh gia tr cua E, H va w luon thay oi theo thi gian. Do o P cung bien
thien theo thi gian. Goi I = P la cng o song, no chnh bang nang lng
trung bnh truyen qua mot n v dien tch at vuong goc vi phng truyen
song trong mot n v thi gian. Ta co:
c
I = P = w
(10-68)
n
Vi song hnh sin ta co:
2
w = 0 E = 0 H =
I=
0 v
2
0
T
E0 2 =
x
E02 cos2 w(t )dt
v
0 v
2
H02
(10-69)
(10-70)
Lu The Vinh
- 186 -
IEN T HOC
MUC LUC
Chng 1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Chng 2.
2.1
2.2
2.3
Chng 3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Chng 4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Chng 5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
Chng 6
M au
ien trng trong chan khong
ien tch, nh luat bao toan ien tch. Vat dan ien
va vat cach ien
Tng tac tnh ien, nh luat Coulomb
ien trng trong chan khong
ien dch thong, nh ly Ostrogradsky-Gauss
Lng cc ien
ien the
Vat dan ien
Can bang tnh ien, nhng tnh chat cua vat dan can
bang tnh ien
ien dung, tu ien
Nang lng ien trng
ien trng trong chat ien moi
Hien tng phan cc ien moi
ien trng trong chat ien moi
Lc tac dung at len ien tch at trong ien moi
Bien thien cua ien trng mat gii han chat ien moi
Xenhet ien va ap ien
Dong ien khong oi
Nhng khai niem c ban
nh luat Ohm cho oan mach ong chat
Suat ien ong, nh luat Ohm tong quat
Mach phan nhanh, nh luat Kirchhoff
Cong va cong suat cua dong ien
Cac hien tng ien t va ion
Thuyet electron co ien
Ly thuyet lng t ve tnh dan ien cua vat ran
S dan ien cua chat ban dan
Hien tng ien cho tiep xuc gia cac kim loai
Cac hien tng nhiet ien
Cac hien tng phat xa electron
Cac dang phong ien trong chat kh
Hien tng ien phan
T trng trong chan khong
2
3
3
4
6
12
17
19
28
28
30
35
38
38
40
44
48
51
57
57
59
61
62
63
65
65
67
69
72
75
78
80
86
88
Lu The Vinh
IEN T HOC
- 187 -
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Chng 7
88
89
92
99
103
106
7.1
7.2
7.3
Chng 8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
Chng 9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Chng 10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
Lu The Vinh
106
107
107
108
108
123
126
131
135
137
138
141
144
144
146
151
151
153
154
156
156
158
162
164
168
176
183
188
- 188 -
IEN T HOC
Lu The Vinh