Interactive Tutorial on

Fundamentals of Signal Integrity

for High-Speed/High-Density Design
Andreas Cangellaris, Jose Schutt-Aine
and Umberto Ravaioli
ECE Department, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
cangella@uiuc.edu, jose@decwa.ece.uiuc.edu, ravaioli@uiuc.edu

Alina Deutsch
IBM Corporation, T.J. Watson Research Center
deutsch@us.ibm.com
DAC 2001

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Outline
Introduction (A. Deutsch)
The interconnect bottleneck in high-speed systems

Interconnect Modeling Fundamentals

(A.Cangellaris/U. Ravaioli)

Time-domain & frequency-domain transmission line analysis

Lossy lines and signal dispersion
Crosstalk for short lengths of coupled interconnects

On-Chip Interconnects (A. Deutsch)

Modeling of on-chip interconnects
Interconnect impact on system performance
Future trends

DAC 2001

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Outline (cont.)
Interconnects at the Package and Board Level
(J.Schutt-Aine/U. Ravaioli)

Multiconductor transmission line theory

Crosstalk modeling and measurement
Lumped vs. distributed modeling of interconnects

Concluding Remarks

DAC 2001

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Fundamentals of
Transmission Line Theory

DAC 2001

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Transmission-line theory quantifies signal propagation

on a system of two parallel conductors with crosssectional dimensions much smaller than their length
Coaxial

Stipline

Microstrip

Familiar
Cross sections

I(z,t)
Generic symbol for
a two-conductor line

V(z,t)

z (direction along interconnect axis)

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DAC 2001

For a uniform transmission line, the electric and magnetic fields

are transverse to the direction of wave propagation (and hence, to
the axis of the line). Thus, transmission line fields are called

Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) Waves

y

Electric field lines

The electric field behaves like an electrostatic field.

Over the cross section, the potential difference between

any two points A and B on the two conductors is constant:

E( x, y, z, t ) dl = V ( z, t )

AB
Magnetic field lines

Over the cross section, the magnetic field looks like a

magnetostatic field. Its line integral around one of the
conductors equals the total current in the conductor.




H ( x, y , z , t ) d l = I ( z , t )

center
conductor

DAC 2001

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In a transmission line configuration as much charge

moves down the active wire that much charge of
negative polarity moves down the return path
Active wire

Active wire

(+++++)
Return path (- - - - -)

Return path

Direction along interconnect

Direction along interconnect

At every cross section of a transmission line the

currents on the active and return wires
balance each other.
This balance leads to field confinement and
reduced interference.

Electric field
between wires

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DAC 2001

Signal propagation is quantified in terms of the

solution of the so-called Telegraphers equations
Time-Domain Form
v ( z , t )
z
i ( z , t )
z

= Ri ( z , t ) L
= Gv ( z , t ) C

Frequency-Domain Form

i ( z , t )

dV ( z , )

dz

v ( z , t )

dI ( z , )

dz

= GV ( z , ) j CV ( z , )

I(z,t) R(z)

I(z,t)
V(z,t)

V(z,t)
z

DAC 2001

= RI ( z , ) j LI ( z , )

L(z)
C(z)

I(z+z,t)
G(z)

V(z+z,t)

z
8

Transmission-Line Parameters

Per-unit-length capacitance C
Per-unit-length conductance G
Per-unit-length inductance L
Loop inductance
Frequency dependence due to

Current Loop

skin effect

Per-unit-length resistance R

Strong frequency dependence

due to skin effect

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DAC 2001

Time-Domain Solution of Telegraphers Equations

Neglecting losses for simplicity:
v ( z , t )
i ( z , t )
= L
2v 1 2v
z
t

=0

i ( z , t )
v ( z , t )
z 2 v 2p t 2
= C
z
t
where v p = 1
is the wave velocity on the line.
LC
General solution: v ( z , t ) = f + ( z v p t ) + f ( z + v p t )
 
forward wave

Current wave: i ( z , t ) =

1 +
1
f ( z v pt )
f ( z + v pt )
Z0
Z0

 

forward wave

where Z 0 =
DAC 2001

backward wave

backward wave

L
is the characteristic impedance of the line.
C
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10

A voltage signal f (t) launched on a lossless line

propagates unaltered with speed vp dependent on the
transmission-line properties.
I+(z0,t)

vp =

V+(z0,t)

Vs

z
V+(z0,t)

LC

V + ( z, t )
L
=

Z
0
I + ( z, t )
C

Vs(t) = f (t)
t

Characteristic
Impedance

I+(z0,t)
t

Time of
flight

t0 = z0/vp

t
11

DAC 2001

The characteristic impedance dictates the

amplitude of the voltage waveform launched
on the line
+
RS I (0,t)

Vs

V+(0,t)

To infinity (or matched)

VS (t ) = V + (0, t ) + I + (0, t ) RS
Z0
+

=
(0,
)
(
)
V
t
V
t

S
Z 0 + RS
V + (0, t ) = Z 0 I + (0, t )

DAC 2001

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12

Discontinuities in the characteristic impedance

of a transmission line give rise to reflections
At the junction it is:
Z01

V1 = V + + V = V2 = V ++

Z02
(V ++, I ++)

1
V ++
+

I1 =
V V = I2 =
Z 01
Z 02

V = V +
V ++ = TV +

V and ++ V ++

I =
I =
Z01
Z02

Z02 Z01
Z02 + Z01

2Z02
Transmission Coefficient: T =
Z02 + Z01

(V +, I +)

(V , I )

Reflection Coefficient:

Maintaining a fairly constant value of the characteristic impedance

along an interconnect path is essential for reflection suppression.
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DAC 2001

13

Source and load impedances impact transmission line

performance of the interconnect

Vs

ZS(f)

Z0

Load reflection coefficient:

Source reflection coefficient

S ( f ) =

ZL(f)

Z S ( f ) Z0
Z S ( f ) + Z0

L ( f ) =

ZL ( f ) Z0
Z L ( f ) + Z0

Load transmission coefficient:

2Z L ( f )
TL ( f ) = 1 + L ( f ) =
Z L ( f ) + Z0
DAC 2001

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14

Example: Unterminated interconnect (ZL=) driven by high

source impedance driver with ZS>>Z0 (e.g. unbuffered CMOS)
Source (S 1)

Load (L = 1)

Excitation: Step Pulse of amplitude V0

V+

V + = V0

T=d / v
(One-way
Delay)

LV+

L =

Z0
Z Z0
<< V0 , S = S
1
Z S + Z0
ZS + Z0

Z L Z0
= 1, TL = 2
Z L + Z0

2T
SLV+

VL(t )
3T

L SL

Slow response

V+
4T

~6V+
~4V+

2V+

Bounce diagram

Steady-state value V0

3T

5T

t
15

DAC 2001

Example: Unterminated interconnect (ZL=) driven by low

source impedance driver with ZS<Z0 (e.g. ECL or strong TTL)
Source (S 1)

Load (L = 1)

V + = V0

V+
LV+

Excitation: Step Pulse of amplitude V0 ; Z0 = 7ZS

T=d / v
(One-way
Delay)

L =

7
Z0
Z Z
V0 , S = S 0 = 0.75
ZS + Z0 8
ZS + Z0

ZL Z0
= 1, TL = 2
ZL + Z0
VL(t )

2T

Overshoot & Ringing

2V+

SLV+ = - 0.75 V+

1.625V+

3T
L SLV+ LV+ = -0.75 V+

SteadyState: V0

0.5V+
4T

Bounce diagram

DAC 2001

t
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3T

5T

16

A capacitor CL represents the load at the gate

input of the receiver. Its presence adds delay.
VL = V + + V

(V+, I+)

IL =

(V-, I-) C
L

1
V + V )
(
Z0

I L = CL

Interconnect delay = T

dVL
, VL (t = T ) = 0.
dt

VL (t ) = V + (1 exp( (t T ) / ) ) , t > T
where =Z 0 C .
Let Td be the time at which VL (t = Td ) = 0.9V + .
Td = T + 2.3
Extra delay due to the capacitor is 2.3Z 0 C
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DAC 2001

17

Delay is introduced by all capacitive and inductive

discontinuities present in a signal path

Wire bonds
(primarily inductive)

Z0

Interconnect bends
(primarily capacitive)

Z0

Z0

Via
(primarily inductive)

Z0

Equivalent circuit for SPICE-based transient simulation

DAC 2001

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18

The delay due to a capacitive o an inductive

discontinuity depends on the values C or L and Z0
Inductive Discontinuity

Capacitive Discontinuity
(V+, I+)

Z0

(V++, I++)

(V+, I+)

Z0

Z0

(V++, I++)

Z0

(V-, I-)

(V-, I-)

V ++ (t ) = V + (1 exp( t / C ) )

V ++ (t ) = V + (1 exp( t / L ) )

CZ 0
2
++
V (t ) reaches 0.9V + at t = 2.3 C

where L =

V ++ (t ) reaches 0.9V + at t = 2.3 L

Hence, the capacitor adds a delay of

Hence, the inductor adds a delay of

Td = 1.15CZ 0 .

Td = 1.15 L / Z 0

(C=1 pF, Z 0 = 50 Ohm; Td = 57.5 ps)

( L = 2.5 nH, Z 0 = 50 Ohm; Td = 57.5 ps)

where C =

L
2Z0

19

DAC 2001

Slots in ground planes increase interconnect delay and

enhance noise generation and interference

The slot in the ground plane

acts as a slot antenna.
interconnect
The return current in the ground plane
flows around the slot. Hence,
Extra L extra delay
Unbalanced currents lead to
enhanced emissions
Interference (crosstalk) with
other wires beyond immediate
neighbors
DAC 2001

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Ground plane
Interference occurs on
either side of the plane
20

Transmission line models of interconnects

predict only differential-mode currents
Displacement
current (radiation)

I1
+
-

Transmission-Line
Model

Conduction (return)
current
I2
ID

+
-

- ID

Radiated emissions calculation

can be grossly incorrect if the
common-mode current is not
taken into account
DAC 2001

I1 I 2
2
I +I
Common-mode current: I C = 1 2
2
I1 = I C + I D
Differential-mode current: I D =

I 2 = IC I D

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21

The input impedance of a match-terminated interconnect with a

continuous return path remains essentially contact over a broad
frequency range







'(




 





)(








 !"#$%&

Plots generated using UIUCs fast time-domain solvers (Prof. E. Michielssen)

DAC 2001

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22

The disruption of the return path caused by the slot manifests itself
as an added inductance at lower frequencies and radiated emissions
(radiation resistance) at higher frequencies





*

*

'(

)(



*




 +,)


 +,",)


 !"#$%&

Plots generated using UIUCs fast time-domain EM solvers (Prof. E. Michielssen)

SEMCHIP

DAC 2001

23

Mesh (Grid) Planes in PCBs increase the

characteristic impedance of the lines

Return current

Per-unit-length inductance, L, increases.

Per-unit-length capacitance, C , decreases.
Z0 =

DAC 2001

L
increases
C
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24

In the case of mesh (grid) planes, high-speed lines

should be routed right above the plane metallization
interconnects

Grid Plane
(cross section)

Advantages
-Better impedance control
-Reduced cross-plane interference

DAC 2001

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25

Lossy Transmission Lines

Ohmic loss in the metallization
Frequency-dependent R and L (skin effect)

Insulating substrate loss

Frequency-dependent G

Semiconductor substrates
Frequency-dependent R and L
Frequency-dependent G and C

DAC 2001

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26

Frequency-Domain Solution of Telegraphers Equations

In the frequency domain, interconnect loss can be accounted for easily.
dV ( z , )

= [ R ( ) + j L ( )] I ( z , )
d 2V ( z , )

dz

Z ( )Y ( )V ( z , ) = 0

2
dI ( z , )
dz

= [G ( ) + j C ( )]V ( z , )

dz
where Z ( ) = R ( ) + j L ( ) is the per-unit-length impedance of the line

and Y ( ) = G ( ) + j C ( ) is the per-unit-length admittance of the line.

V ( z , ) = V + ( ) exp( z ) + V ( ) exp( z )

General solution :
1
+

I ( z , ) = Z ( ) V ( ) exp( z ) V ( ) exp( z )
0

( ) = [ R ( ) + j L ( )][G ( ) + j C ( )] is the complex propagation constant ,

and Z 0 ( ) =

R ( ) + j L ( )
is the characteristic impedance.
G ( ) + j C ( )

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DAC 2001

27

The characteristic impedance of a lossy line

is a complex number!
When G 0 it is the per-unit-length ohmic loss in the wires that
dominates the loss; hence,
Z 0 ( ) =

R ( ) + jL ( )
=
j C

L ( )
R ( )
1 j
L ( )
C

For the interconnect structures of interest , L is in the order of nH/cm;

hence, for f < a few tens of MHz, L << R (especially for thin-film wire).
1 j R ( )
C
2
Notice that the real and imaginary parts are of the same magnitude.
On the other hand , for high frequ e ncie s such that R << L ,
Thus, for low frequenc ies: Z 0 ( )

Z 0 ( ) =

1 R ( )
L
1 j

2 L ( )
C

Notice that, since at high frequencies R ( ) , the characteristic

impedance is predominantly real.
DAC 2001

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28

The presence of loss is responsible for signal attenuation

and distortion
The propagation constant becomes frequency dependent:

( )= [ R ( ) + j L ( )][G ( ) + j C ] = ( ) + j ( ).
( ) is the attenuation constant; ( ) is the phase constant.
V + ( , z ) = V0+ exp( ( ) z ) exp( j ( ) z )


 

attenuation

phase shift

The characteristic impedance and the phase velocity are frequency dependent:
Z 0 ( ) =

R ( ) + j L( )
, v p ( ) =
G ( ) + j C
( )

Different frequencies in the spectrum of a pulse propagate at

different speeds and suffer different attenuation.
This results in pulse distortion often referred to as dispersion
Input
Pulse

Output
Pulse

Lossy line

29

DAC 2001

Input Impedance of a Transmission Line

(or, how long wires transform load impedances)
Z in ( d ) =

V (d )
Z + Z 0 tanh d
= Z0 L
I (d )
Z 0 + Z L tanh d

Neglecting losses, = j , Z 0 is real, and it is:

Z in ( d ) = Z 0

Z L + jZ 0 tan d
Z 0 + jZ L tan d

I(d)

Periodic function with period / 2

1+
max( Z in ) = Z 0

Z L Z0
Z L + Z0

Z Z0
1 L
Z L + Z0

ZL

Z0,

V(d)

d
1

Z L Z0
Z L + Z0

1+

Z L Z0
Z L + Z0

; min( Z in ) = Z 0

Matched Load: Z L = Z 0 Z in ( d ) = Z 0
Shorted Line: Z L = 0 Z in ( d ) = jZ 0 tan d
- A shorted line of length equal to an odd multiple of / 4 has infinite input
impedance and th us appears as an open circuit.
DAC 2001

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30

Grounding wires running some distance along a

ground plane or chassis exhibit transmission-line
behavior at RF frequencies.
d

Zg

Z0

Safety earth is not an RF ground.

At high frequencies, the claim that
everything is connected to earth
through safety earth is
meaningless

At high frequencies, single point

ground is meaningless

DAC 2001

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31

Skin-Effect Resistance
Skin effect

At frequencies such that the skin depth is

larger or comparable with the conductor
thickness, the current distributes uniformly
over the conductor cross section.

Skin depth: =

At high frequencies, where the skin

depth is smaller than the conductor
thickness, current crowding around
the perimeter occurs.

At f = 1 GHz, for aluminum with conductivity = 4107 S/m and

permeability = 4 10-7 H/m, the skin depth is 2.5 m.

For high enough frequencies, the p.u.l. resistance increases as f

DAC 2001

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32

Frequency dependence
of the p.u.l. resistance
(top) and inductance
(bottom) of the single
stripline configuration
with w=50 m, t=10 m,
g=10 m, and h=100 m.

R per-unit-length (Ohms/cm)

The contribution of the return path to interconnect

resistance may need to be taken into account
4
3
2

PEC reference planes

Copper reference plane

1
0
-2
10

-1

10

10

10



L per-unit-length (Ohms/cm)

Frequency (GHz)

3.4
3.2
3
2.8
-2
10

-1

10

10

10

Frequency (GHz)

DAC 2001

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33

Extraction of the frequency-dependent p.u.l. interconnect

resistance must take into account the presence of
adjacent conductors (proximity effect)

DAC 2001

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34

The per-unit-length resistance matrix has non-zero off-diagonal

elements. Taking these off-diagonal elements into account is
important, especially for the tightly coupled wires
5

Per-unit-length Resistance (Ohms/cm)

4.5

g
w
1

t
h

s
2

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5

R12

R11

1
0.5

0
-4
10

10

-3

-2

-1

10
10
Frequency (GHz)

10

10

3.5

w= 50 m, t=10 m, s= 30 m
h= 110 m, g= 10 m, r=4
Aluminum: =3.3E7 S/m
Copper: =5.8E7 S/m

L11

Per-unit-length Inductance (nH/cm)

2.5

1.5

L12
1

0.5
-4
10

DAC 2001

10

-3

-2

-1

10
10
Frequency (GHz)

10

3510

Impact of different metallization on delay

Vs

length=20 cm

Zo

1 pF

Zo

Risetime=50 ps

1 pF

g
Far-end Voltage of Victim line

Far-end Voltage of Driven line

0.2

90%

0.15

Voltage (V)

Voltage (V)

0.8

0.6

0.1

0.05

0.4

~ 1 ns

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6
Time (sec)

DAC 2001

0.8

1
x 10

-0.05

-8

SEMCHIP

0.2

0.4

0.6
Time (sec)

0.8

1
x 10

36

-8

Impact of frequency-dependent loss on

interconnect transient response





Cross-section of a stripline
geometry.
s=50 m, w=50 m,
t=10 m, g=10 m,
h=200 m and r=4.
Copper metallization.
Constant Model (Rdc, L
, C)
Frequency dependent model: PEC reference planes (R(f), L(f), C)
Frequency dependent model: Copper reference plane (R(f), L(f), C)
37

DAC 2001

The effect of frequency-dependent loss is

particularly apparent in the cross-talk levels





Constant Model (Rdc, L
, C)

Frequency dependent model: PEC reference planes (R(f), L(f), C)
Frequency dependent model: Copper reference plane (R(f), L(f), C)
DAC 2001

38

Insulating Substrate Loss

Characterized in terms of the substrate material
conductivity or loss tangent

( )
( ) = ( ) j ( ) = ( ) 1 j
= ( ) (1 j tan ( ) )
( )

( )
( ) + j ( ) = j ( ) 1 j

( )

( ) ( )
tan ( ) =
=
( ) ( )

Transverse electric field between conductors results in a

transverse leakage current and, thus, ohmic loss

E

J

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DAC 2001

39

The assumption of constant loss tangent leads to

physically inconsistent models for G
Coaxial

2a

2
2
, G=

ln(b / a )
ln(b / a)
G
G
= = tan
C
C

C=

2b

Assuming tan is constant yields G()

Such a behavior violates causality!
For a causal circuit
Re{Y ( )} is an even function of frequency
Im{Y ( )} is an odd function of frequency
DAC 2001

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Y()

40

Simply assuming the loss tangent to remain constant

over a broad (multi-GHz) frequency range leads to
a non-physical behavior of G()
A physically correct model needs to start with a physicallycorrect description of the frequency dependence of the complex
permittivity.
Use measured data for the complex permittivity to synthesize a Debye
model for it
Use the synthesized Debye model for the extraction of C() and G()
K
k

( ) = ( ) j ( ) = +
k =1 1 + j k
K

tan ( ) =

( )
=
( )

k k

1+
k =1

2 2
k

k
2 2
k =1 1 + k
K

G ( ) tan even function of frequency

41

DAC 2001

Capacitive and Inductive Crosstalk

in Short Interconnects
y

V1

V2

V3

VN

Reference
conductor

V1 R11 R12

d V2 R21 R22
=

dz

VN RN1 RN 2
I1 G11 G12

d I2 G21 G22
=

dz

IN GN1 GN2
DAC 2001

 R1N I1
L11

 R2N
I2 + j L21

 RNN
IN
LN1
 G1N V1
C11

 G2N
V2 + j C21

 GNN VN
CN1

L12  L1N I1

L22  L2N
I2



LN 2  LNN
IN
C12  C1N V1

C22  C2N
V2

CN2  CNN VN
42

Crosstalk in Coupled Lines

For interconnects with more than two (active) conductors,
crosstalk analysis is most effectively performed in terms of a
circuit simulator that can support MTL models (*).
Most common (and computationally efficient) SPICE
equivalent circuits for MTL assume lossless transmission
lines.
Models for MTLs with losses (including frequency-dependent
losses associated with skin effect) are available also. They are
essential for accurate analysis of interconnect-induced delay,
dispersion, and crosstalk at the board level for signals of GHz
bandwidths.
It is assumed that the interconnect structure is uniform
enough for its description in terms of per-unit-length L,C,R,
and G matrices to make sense.
(*) V.K. Tripathi and J.B. Rettig, A SPICE Model for Multiple Coupled Microstrips and Other
Transmission Lines, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 33(12), pp. 1513-1518,
Dec. 1985.

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DAC 2001

43

For the case of a three-conductor, lossless line in

homogeneous dielectric, with resistive terminations,
an exact solution is possible.
Exact solutions are useful because:
they help provide insight into the crosstalk mechanism;
they can be used to validate computer-based simulations.

The following results were first published by C.R. Paul (C.R.

Paul, Solution of transmission line equations for threeconductor lines in homogeneous media, IEEE Trans. On
Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. 20, pp. 216-222, 1978.
Rs
Vs ~

IG (0)
RNE
IR (0)

DAC 2001

IG (d)

l
VG (0)

VG (d ) RFE

VNE

VFE

SEMCHIP

RL

IR (d)

44

Exact solution for crosstalk in a lossless, threeconductor line with resistive terminations
L M
CG
=
Per unit length parameters: L = G
,
C

C
M LR
M
Near - end and far - end crosstalk voltages :
VNE =

S RNE
j 2 l /
LG S IGDC +
j Ml C +

D RNE + RFE
1 k 2

S RNE RFE
j 2 l / 1
j CM l C +

D RNE + RFE
1 k 2 LG

VFE =

CM
CR

S VGDC

R R
S
RFE
j MlI GDC + NE FE j CM lVGDC

D RNE + RFE
RNE + RFE

where, C = cos l , S =

Inductive &
Capacitive
Coupling
Coefficients

sin l
M
CM
, k=
=
1, and
l
LG LR
CG CR
45

DAC 2001

Exact solution for crosstalk in a lossless, threeconductor line with resistive terminations

(1 SGLR )(1 LGSR ) + + ;

D = C 2 S 2 2 G R 1 k 2
j CS ( G R )
(1 + SRLR )(1 + SGLG )

R
R
R
R
SG = S , LG = L , SR = NE , LR = FE ;
ZCG
ZCG
ZCR
ZCR
ZCG = LG / CG , ZCR = LR / CR are the characteristic impedances of each
line in the presence of the other one;

G =

LGl
RR
LRl
R R
+ CGl S L , R =
+ CRl NE FE ,
RS + RL
RS + RL
RNE + RFE
RNE + RFE

are the time constants of the coupled lines;

VGDC =

RL
VS
, are the voltage and current of the
VS , IGDC =
RS + RL
RS + RL

generator circuit under dc excitation (no coupling to the receptor circuit).

DAC 2001

46

Under the assumptions of electrically short lines, and weak

coupling, the crosstalk equations simplify considerably
A line is said to be electrically short if its length is a small fraction of
the wavelength at the highest frequency of interest.
Package interconnects fall in this category
Two lines are said to be weakly coupled if the coupling coefficient,
k , is sufficiently smaller than 1.

Under these assumptions the equations for the near-end and

far-end crosstalk voltages become:
VNE =

1
RNE
RNE RFE RL
j Ml +
j CM l

( RNE + RFE )( RS + RL )
D ( RNE + RFE )( RS + RL )

VFE =

1
RNE RFE RL
RFE
j Ml +
j CM l

( RNE + RFE )( RS + RL )
D ( RNE + RFE )( RS + RL )

DAC 2001

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For weakly coupled, electrically short wires, the crosstalk is a

linear combination of contributions due to the mutual
inductance between the lines (inductive coupling) and the
mutual capacitance between the lines (capacitive coupling).
IND
CAP
+ VNE
=
VNE = VNE

j
RNE
( Ml + (RFE RL )CM l )
D ( RNE + RFE )( RS + RL )

CAP
=
VFE = VFINE D + VFE

j
RNE
( Ml + (RNE RL )CM l )
D ( RNE + RFE )( RS + RL )

Notice that:
The higher the frequency the larger the crosstalk
Inductive coupling dominates for low-impedance loads
Capacitive coupling dominates for high-impedance loads

DAC 2001

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Lumped versus Distributed Modeling

When the interconnect length is much smaller than
the wavelength of interest, lumped models provide
sufficient accuracy and can be used
Typical case for package interconnects at RF
frequencies
Inaccurate for interconnects at the MCM and PCB level

What does interconnect length is much smaller

than the wavelength of interest really mean?
Typical rule of thumb: d < /10
but one can take a closer look at this rule of thumb as
shown next

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DAC 2001

49

There are four possible implementations of lumped

models for a two-conductor interconnect of length d
L/2
C

C = C p.u .l .d

C
Right L - model

T- model
L

L
C/2 C/2

- model

Left L - model
DAC 2001

L = Lp.u .l .d

L/2

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The accuracy of a lumped model can be examined by considering

the input impedance obtained when the model is terminated at the
characteristic impedance of the line
L/2
L/2
(see B. Young, Digital Signal Integrity, Prentice Hall, 2000)
For the model to exhibit "transmission line" behavior,

Z0

Zin

its input impedance should equal the load impedance Z0 :

Zin = j L / 2 +

1
jC +

Z0 + j L / 2

2
L
= Z0 Z0 =
1 , where T =
C
LC
T

For <<T , Z0 Z0
A bandwidth of validity of the T-model can be obtained by finding max such that
Z Z aZ for .
0

max

For a = 0.05, max =

0.62
0.62
=
.
LC d Lp.u.l C p.u.l .

Application: d = 2 cm, Lp.u.l . = 4 nH/cm, C p.u.l = 1 pF/cm; max = 4.9 GHz

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51

5% accuracy bandwidth for the four lumped models

- model

T- model
L/2

L/2
C

LC
L
1
Z0 =

C
2
0.62
max =
LC

1/2

Right L - model
L
C

DAC 2001

2
L LC

1
Z0 =

C 2

0.62
max =
LC

C/2 C/2

Left L - model
2

LC
L
1
Z0 = j L / 2 +

C
2
0.1
max =
LC

LC
L
1
Z0 = jL /2 +

C
2
0.1
max =
LC

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L
C

52

The number of segments is dictated by the

maximum frequency of interest that must be
represented accurately in the simulation
The effective bandwidth criteria described earlier can be used to
select the segment size.
Example : Interconnect lead with total capacitance
C = 20 pF, and (loop) inductance L = 50 nH.
Let f max = 10 GHz be the maximum frequency of interest.
Find the minimum number n of lumped segments required
for accurate modeling.
Lseg = L / n and C seg = C / n.
2 f max

2 f max LC
0.62
0.62 n
d
or n 10
=
n
0.62
min
Lseg C seg
LC

For the given numbers, nmin = 101

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Use of an insufficient number of segments leads to

artificial filtering and phase distortion of the
transmission-line response
The load response for
a source and load
match-terminated, lossless
transmission line is:
2 
VL = 0.5exp j

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If done properly, distributed RLCG circuit

modeling of MTLs works
Such an approach is preferable when:

the wire resistance must be taken into account; (as

already mentioned, some SPICE vendors provide lossy
line modeling through extensions of the exact model
mentioned earlier);
the line is electrically short, and a few lumped-circuit
segments are sufficient for its modeling;
the MTL exhibits non-uniformity (variable cross section)
along its axis;
modeling of radiation coupling to the MTL is desired.

DAC 2001

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