Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Giao Trinh Xu Ly Anh
Giao Trinh Xu Ly Anh
X L NH
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2006
X L NH
Bin son :
LI NI U
Trong cc trng i hc, cao ng, x l nh tr thnh mt mn hc chuyn ngnh
ca sinh vin cc ngnh Cng ngh Thng tin, Vin thng. Gio trnh v ti liu v lnh vc ny
nc ta cn ang hn ch. p ng kp thi cho o to t xa, Hc vin Cng ngh Bu chnh
Vin thng c gng kp thi bin son ti liu ny cho sinh vin, c bit h o to t xa hc
tp. Trong qu trnh bin son, chng ti c tham kho cc ti liu ca i hc Bch khoa H ni
[1] gio trnh gn gi v tnh cng ngh vi Hc vin. Mt s gio trnh khc ca i hc Quc
gia thnh ph H Ch Minh [2], ti liu trn mng v cc ti liu nc ngoi bng ting Anh [5, 6,
7] cng c tham kho v gii thiu sinh vin o to t xa c thm.
Ti liu ny nhm hng dn v gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn, cc khi nim, nh
ngha tm tt. Mt s thut ng c ch gii bng ting Anh hc vin c bng ting Anh d
dng, trnh hiu nhm khi chuyn sang ting Vit.
Ti liu gm cc chng sau:
-
Chng 1. Nhp mn x l nh
Chng 7. Nn d liu nh
Cn nhiu vn khc nh cc cng c ton hc, k thut bin i nh, truyn nh, cc
phn mm x l v.v cha cp c trong phm vi ti liu ny. ngh cc bn c tm hiu
thm sau khi c nhng kin thc c bn ny.
Tuy c tham gia ging dy mn x l nh cp i hc mt s nm, nhiu lp c trnh
khc nhau; ch nhim mt s ti nghin cu C bn Nh nc, ti cp B lin quan
nhng X l nh l mn hc c s kt hp nhiu gia nhiu lnh vc khoa hc v cng ngh
nn c th coi l mn hc kh. Nhiu c gng cp nht kin thc nhng thi gian, iu kin,
kh nng c hn nn ti liu chc chn cn nhiu thiu st. Chng ti mong nhn c nhiu
kin ng gp ti liu c hon thin hn cho cc ln ti bn sau.
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
CHNG 1: NHP MN X L NH
Hc xong phn ny sinh vin c th nm c:
1. ngha, mc ch mn hc; cc ng dng ca x l nh trong cng nghip, i sng
2. Cc thnh phn: x l v phn tch nh. Cc khi chc nng, ngha ca n trong quy
trnh x l v phn tch nh.
3. Cc khi nim, nh ngha nh s ha. Tng quan v biu din nh.
4. Mt s cng c x l nh. Cc vn t ra vi x l nh.
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
Thu nhn
nh
Tin x
l nh
Phn
on nh
Biu din
v m t
Nhn dng
v ni suy
C s tri thc
Mt s i tng nhn dng kh ph bin hin nay ang c p dng trong khoa hc v
cng ngh l: nhn dng k t (ch in, ch vit tay, ch k in t), nhn dng vn bn (Text),
nhn dng vn tay, nhn dng m vch, nhn dng mt ngi
f) C s tri thc (Knowledge Base)
Nh ni trn, nh l mt i tng kh phc tp v ng nt, sng ti, dung
lng im nh, mi trng thu nh phong ph ko theo nhiu. Trong nhiu khu x l v
phn tch nh ngoi vic n gin ha cc phng php ton hc m bo tin li cho x l,
ngi ta mong mun bt chc quy trnh tip nhn v x l nh theo cch ca con ngi. Trong
cc bc x l , nhiu khu hin nay x l theo cc phng php tr tu con ngi. V vy,
y cc c s tri thc c pht huy. Trong ti liu, chng 6 v nhn dng nh c nu mt vi
v d v cch s dng cc c s tri thc .
g) M t (biu din nh)
T Hnh 1.1, nh sau khi s ho s c lu vo b nh, hoc chuyn sang cc khu tip
theo phn tch. Nu lu tr nh trc tip t cc nh th, i hi dung lng b nh cc ln v
khng hiu qu theo quan im ng dng v cng ngh. Thng thng, cc nh th c c
t (biu din) li (hay n gin l m ho) theo cc c im ca nh c gi l cc c trng
nh (Image Features) nh: bin nh (Boundary), vng nh (Region). Mt s phng php biu
din thng dng:
Cnh quan
(Scene)
Nn
nh
Lu
nh
Truyn
nh
Nng cht
lng nh
Thu
nh
Phn
on
S
ha
nh tng t
nh c
ci tin
Trch
chn
c
trng
nh
s
Thu nhn nh
Khi phc
nh
Phn
tch
thng
k /
cu
trc
M t
v ni
suy
Trch
chn
quan
h
1.2.3 Mc xm ca nh
Mt im nh (pixel) c hai c trng c bn l v tr (x, y) ca im nh v xm ca
n. Di y chng ta xem xt mt s khi nim v thut ng thng dng trong x l nh.
a) nh ngha: Mc xm ca im nh l cng sng ca n c gn bng gi tr s
ti im .
b) Cc thang gi tr mc xm thng thng: 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 (Mc 256 l mc ph
dng. L do: t k thut my tnh dng 1 byte (8 bit) biu din mc xm: Mc xm dng 1
byte biu din: 28=256 mc, tc l t 0 n 255).
c) nh en trng: l nh c hai mu en, trng (khng cha mu khc) vi mc xm
cc im nh c th khc nhau.
d) nh nh phn: nh ch c 2 mc en trng phn bit tc dng 1 bit m t 21 mc khc
nhau. Ni cch khc: mi im nh ca nh nh phn ch c th l 0 hoc 1.
e) nh mu: trong khun kh l thuyt ba mu (Red, Blue, Green) to nn th gii
mu, ngi ta thng dng 3 byte m t mc mu, khi cc gi tr mu: 28*3=224 16,7 triu
mu.
Chng ta c c thm sch tham kho c thm thng tin v cc khi nim ny.
1.2.4 nh ngha nh s
nh s l tp hp cc im nh vi mc xm ph hp dng m t nh gn vi nh tht.
ng
Ty
Nam
(x -1, y-1)
(x, y-1)
(x+1, y-1)
(x -1, y)
(x, y)
(x+1, y)
Bc
(x-1, y+1)
(x, y+1)
(x+1, y+1)
u o
B s ha
My tnh s
B hin th
Hnh 1.3 Cc thnh phn chnh ca h thng x l nh.
Theo quan im ca quy trnh x l, chng ta th hin cc khi c bn trn Hnh 1.1,
cc khi chi tit v lung thng tin trn Hnh 1.2. Theo quan im ca h thng x l trn my
tnh s, h thng gm cc u o (thu nhn nh); b s ha ; my tnh s; B hin th; B nh.
Cc thnh phn ny khng nhc li y (c thm gio trnh cu trc my tnh).
Mt h thng x l nh c bn c th gm: my tnh c nhn km theo v mch chuyn
i ho VGA hoc SVGA, a cha cc nh dng kim tra cc thut ton v mt mn hnh
c h tr VGA hoc SVGA. Nu iu kin cho php, nn c mt h thng nh Hnh 1.4. bao gm
n thit b
nhn nh
Mn hnh
ho v
vn bn
Thit b
nhn nh
n m
n hnh
video
Mn
hnh
video
My tnh c nhn
1.3.2 Nn nh
nh d dng no vn chim khng gian nh rt ln. Khi m t nh ngi ta a k
thut nn nh vo. Cc giai on nn nh c th chia ra th h 1, th h 2. Hin nay, cc chun
MPEG c dng vi nh ang pht huy hiu qu. Mt s phng php, thut ton nn cp
cc chng 7.
CU HI N TP
1. Trnh by cc thnh phn v lu thng tin gia cc khi trong qu trnh x l nh.
2. Nu khi nim v nh ngha im nh.
3. Th no l phn gii nh, cho v d?
4. Trnh by nh ngha mc xm, cho v d.
5. Nu quan h gia cc im nh.
6. Trnh by v khong cch o v phn loi khong cch gia cc im nh.
7. Nu ngha ca cc php bin i nh, lit k mt s php bin i v cho v d.
2.1.1 B cm bin nh
My chp nh, camera c th ghi li hnh nh (phim trong my chp, vidicon trong
camera truyn hnh). C nhiu loi my cm bin (Sensor) lm vic vi nh sng nhn thy v
hng ngoi nh: Micro Densitometers, Image Dissector, Camera Divicon, linh kin quang in
bng bn dn. Cc loi cm bin bng chp nh phi s ho l phim m bn hoc chp nh.
Camera divicon v linh kin bn dn quang in c th cho nh ghi trn bng t c th s ho.
Trong Micro Densitometer phim v nh chp c gn trn mt phng hoc cun quang trng.
Vic qut nh thng qua tia sng (v d tia Laser) trn nh ng thi dch chuyn mt phim hoc
quang trng tng i theo tia sng. Trng hp dng phim, tia sng i qua phim.
By gi chng ta cp n tt c cc khi trong h thng.
Thit b nhn nh.
Chc nng ca thit b ny l s ha mt bng tn s c bn ca tn hiu truyn hnh cung
cp t mt camera, hoc t mt u my VCR. nh s sau c lu tr trong b m chnh.
B m ny c kh nng c a ch ha (nh mt PC) n tng im bng phn mm. Thng
thng thit b ny c nhiu chng trnh con iu khin c th lp trnh c thng qua ngn
ng C. Khi mua mt thit cn ch ccc im sau:
1. Thit b c kh nng s ha nh t nht 8 bit (256 mc xm) v nh thu c phi c
kch thc t nht l 512512 im hoc hn.
2. Thit b phi cha mt b m nh lu tr mt hoc nhiu nh c phn gii
512512 im nh.
3. Thit b phi c km mt b y th vin cc chng trnh con c kh nng giao
din vi cc chng trnh C vit bng Turbo C hoc Microsoft C.
4. S tay hng dn s dng phi c km theo, gm c dng cha trn a v khi in.
2.1.2 H ta mu
a) Khi nim
T chc quc t v chun ha mu CIE (Commission Internationale dEclairage) a ra
mt s chun biu din mu. Cc h ny c cc chun ring. H chun mu CIE-RGB dng 3
mu c bn R, G, B v k hiu RGBCIE phn bit vi cc chun khc. Nh nu trn, mt
mu l t hp ca cc mu c bn theo mt t l no . Nh vy, mi pixel nh mu k hiu Px,
c vit: (T: trong cng thc d y l k hiu chuyn v)
x
P = [red , green,
blue]
Blue (l)
(0,0,1) l
(1,0,1) tm
(0,1,1) tm xanh
(1,1,1) trng
(0,0,0) en
(0,1,0) lc
Green (lc)
Red ()
RCIE
R NTSC
Px =
G v Px ' = G NTSC
CIE
BCIE
B NTSC
Cng thc chuyn i c vit di dng ma trn:
RCIE
1.167
G =
CIE
0.001
0.059
1.128
B NTSC
2.2 LY MU V LNG T HA
2.2.1 Gii thiu
Mt nh g(x, y) ghi c t Camera l nh lin tc to nn mt phng hai chiu. nh cn
chuyn sang dng thch hp x l bng my tnh. Phng php bin i mt nh (hay mt hm)
lin tc trong khng gian cng nh theo gi tr thnh dng s ri rc c gi l s ho nh. Vic
bin i ny c th gm hai bc:
Bc 1: o gi tr trn cc khong khng gian gi l ly mu
Bc 2: nh x cng (hoc gi tr) o c thnh mt s hu hn cc mc ri rc gi
l lng t ho.
2.2.2 Ly mu
Ly mu l mt qu trnh, qua nh c to nn trn mt vng c tnh lin tc c
chuyn thnh cc gi tr ri rc theo ta nguyn. Qu trnh ny gm 2 la chn:
- Mt l: khong ly mu.
- Hai l: cch th hin dng mu.
La chn th nht c m bo nh l thuyt ly mu ca Shannon. La chn th hai
lin quan n o (Metric) c dng trong min ri rc.
Khong ly mu (Sampling Interval)
nh ly mu c th c m t nh vic la chn mt tp cc v tr ly mu trong khng
gian hai chiu lin tc. u tin m t qua qu trnh ly mu mt chiu vi vic s dng hm
delta:
(x x
khi x 0
=
0 khi x = 0
0
x0+
(x x0)
dx
x0
( x x 0 ) dx =
1
(2-1)
(2-2)
vi r l s nguyn, x : khong ly mu
Comb( x) = ( x
rx)
(2-3)
r =
(2-4)
g s ( x) = g
x)comb( x) = g ( x) ( x rx)
r =
(2-5)
hoc tng ng
g s ( x) =
rx)
g (rx) ( x
(2-6)
r =
(2-7)
Gs ( x ) =
1
k
G( x )
x K =
x
(2-8)
x 1
2x
(2-9)
comb(x,y)=
( x nx)( y
(2-10)
my)
n=m=
g s ( x, y) = g ( x, y)comb( x, y) = g ( x, y)
( x nx, y
(2-11)
my)
n=m=
v x, y
s:
1
x 1 ; y
2x
2y
(2-12)
(2-13)
Cc dng ly mu (Tesselation)
Dng ly mu (Tesselation) im nh l cch bi tr cc im mu trong khng gian hai
chiu. Mt s dng mu im nh c cho l dng ch nht, tam gic, lc gic. Mi mt mu,
ngoi vic th hin hnh dng cn cho bit c im lin thng ca chng. V d, mu ch nht c
lin thng 4 hoc 8 (ni v cc mu lin k); mu lc gic c lin thng 6; mu tam gic c lin
thng 3 hoc 6.
a) Mu im nh ch nht
b) Mu im nh tam gic
c) Mu im nh lc gic
2.2.3 Lng t ha
Lng t ho l mt qu trnh lng ho tn hiu tht dng chung cho cc loi x l tn
hiu trn c s my tnh. Vn ny c nghin cu k lng v c nhiu li gii l thuyt
di nhiu gi nh ca cc nh nghin cu nh Panter v Dite (1951), Max (1960), Panter (1965)
[5].
Cc gi tr ly mu Z l mt tp cc s thc t gi tr Zmin n ln nht Zmax. Mi mt s
trong cc gi tr mu Z cn phi bin i thnh mt tp hu hn s bit my tnh lu tr hoc x
l.
nh ngha: Lng t ho l nh x t cc s thc m t gi tr ly mu thnh mt gii
hu hn cc s thc. Ni cch khc, l qu trnh s ho bin .
Zmin
l1
Zmax
l2
l3
l4
lN-1 lN
(2.14)
2.3.1 M lot di
Phng php ny hay dng biu din cho vng nh hay nh nh phn. Mt vng nh R
c th biu din n gin nh mt ma trn nh phn:
1 khi (m, n)
u(m, n) =
R
0 khc
(2.15)
2.3.2 M xch
M xch thng c dng biu din bin ca nh. Thay v lu tr ton b nh, ngi
ta lu tr dy cc im nh nh A, BM. Theo phng php ny, 8 hng ca vect ni 2 im
bin lin tc c m ha. Khi nh c biu din qua im nh bt u A cng vi chui cc
t m. iu ny c minh ha trong hnh di y:
3
2
1
0
5
1
A
2
0 1
7
6
5 4
2.3.3 M t phn
Theo phng php m t phn, mt vng nh coi nh bao kn mt hnh ch nht. Vng
ny c chia lm 4 vng con (Quadrant). Nu mt vng con gm ton im en (1) hay ton
im trng (0) th khng cn chia tip. Trong trng hp ngc li, vng con gm c im en v
trng gi l vng khng ng nht, ta tip tc chia thnh 4 vng con tip v kim tra tnh ng
nht ca cc vng con . Qu trnh chia dng li khi mi vng con ch cha thun nht im en
hoc im trng. Qu trnh to thnh mt cy chia theo bn phn gi l cy t phn. Nh vy,
cy biu din nh gm mt chui cc k hiu b (black), w (white) v g (grey) km theo k hiu
m ha 4 vng con. Biu din theo phng php ny u vit hn so vi cc phng php trn,
nht l so vi m lot di. Tuy nhin, tnh ton s o cc hnh nh chu vi, m men l tng i
kh khn.
2.4 CC NH DNG NH C BN
2.4.1 Khi nim chung
nh thu c sau qu trnh s ha thng c lu li cho cc qu trnh x l tip theo
hay truyn i (xem li Hnh 1.2). Trong qu trnh pht trin ca k thut x l nh, tn ti nhiu
nh dng nh khc nhau t nh en trng (vi nh dng IMG), nh a cp xm cho n nh
mu: (BMP, GIF, JPEG). Tuy cc nh dng ny khc nhau, song chng u tun theo mt cu
trc chung nht. Nhn chung, mt tp nh bt k thng bao gm 3 phn:
- Mo u tp (Header)
- D liu nn (Data Compression)
- Bng mu (Palette Color)
a) Mo u tp:
Mo u tp l phn cha cc thng tin v kiu nh, kch thc, phn gii, s bit dng
cho 1 pixel, cch m ha, v tr bng mu
b) D liu nn:
S liu nh c m ha bi kiu m ha ch ra trong phn Header.
c) Bng mu:
Bng mu khng nht thit phi c v d khi nh l en trng. Nu c, bng mu cho bit
s mu dng trong nh v bng mu c s dng hin th mu ca nh. Mt s cc nh dng
khc, cu hnh, c trng ca tng ng dng v cc tham s, hc vin c th tham kho thm ti
liu khc (v d [1]).
2.5.2 K thut in nh
Ngi ta dng k thut na cng th hin nh trn sch bo, tp ch. Theo k thut
ny, mt nh to nn bi mt chui cc im in trn giy. Thc cht, mi im nh thng gm
mt hnh vung trng bao quanh mt chm en. Do vy, nu chm en cng ln nh s cng xm
mu. Mu xm c th coi nh chm en chim na vng trng. Vng trng l vng gm mt
chm cc im nh c rt t hoc khng c chm en.
T c im cm nhn ca mt ngi, s thay i cng chm en trong cc phn t
nh trng to nn m phng ca mt nh lin tc. Nh vy, mt ngi cm nhn t mt nh m
mu bin i t en qua xm ri n trng. Tng s cng duy nht hin din s xc nh cc
kch thc khc nhau ca chm en. Thng thng, bo nh to nh na cng vi phn
gii t 60 n 80 dpi (dot per inchs : s im nh trn mt inch), sch c th in n 150 dpi.
Tuy nhin, cc my in ghp ni vi my tnh khng c kh nng sp xp cc chm en c
kch thc khc nhau ca nh. Do , ngi ta dng mt s k thut bin i nh: phn ngng,
chn mu, dithering (dithering s nh ngha di y).
a) Phn ngng:
K thut ny t ngng hin th cc tng mu lin tc. Cc im trong nh c so
snh vi ngng nh trc. Gi tr ca ngng s quyt nh im c c hin th hay khng.
Do vy nh kt qu s mt i mt s chi tit. C nhiu k thut chn ngng p dng cho cc i
tng khc nhau :
- Hin th 2 mu: ch dng nh en trng c 256 mc xm. Bn cht ca phng php ny
l chn ngng da trn lc mc xm ca nh. n gin c th ly ngng vi gi tr l
127. Nh vy :
Mn hnh monochrome
(n sc)
Mn hnh
mu
en
en
Xm m
Xm nht
Xanh
Trng
Vng
10
12
14
11
15
13
Pixel
or PEL
2.6.1 nh en trng
2.6.2 nh mu
nh mu theo l thuyt ca Thomas l nh t hp t 3 mu c bn: (R), lc (G), l (B)
v thng thu nhn trn cc di bng tn khc nhau. Vi nh mu, cch biu din cng tng t
nh vi nh en trng, ch khc l cc s ti mi phn t ca ma trn biu din cho ba mu ring
r gm: (red), lc (green) v lam (blue). biu din cho mt im nh mu cn 24 bit. 24 bit
ny c chia thnh ba khong 8 bit. Mi mu cng phn thnh L cp mu khc nhau (thng
L=256). Mi khong ny biu din cho cng sng ca mt trong cc mu chnh.
Do , lu tr nh mu ngi ta c th lu tr tng mu ring bit, mi mu lu tr
nh mt nh a cp xm. Do , khng gian nh dnh cho mt nh mu ln gp 3 ln mt nh a
cp xm cng kch c.
CU HI N TP
1. Trnh by cc thit b thu nhn nh .
2. Th no l ly mu v lng t ha nh?
3. Trnh by phng php m ha lot di.
4. Trnh by cc phng php m ha m xch, m t phn.
5. Trnh by cc phng php m ha t phn.
6. Nu cc nh dng nh c bn.
7. Trnh by khi nim nh en trng v nh mu.
8. Mc xm l gi? K thut th hin mc xm vi nh a cp xm v nh mu ?
9. K thut ti hin nh l g? Trnh by cc k thut ti hin nh
(3-1)
u<
u
f (u) =
(u a) + va a
au<
(u b) + v b
b
u<
L
(3-2)
00u<a
f (u) = u a u < b
ub
L
(3-3)
f (u) = L to m bn
u
4) Ct theo mc
(3-4)
Lau
b f (u) =
0
5) Trch chn bit.
f (u) = (i n 2in 1 )
L
], n=1, 2, , B
n 1
vi in = Int it / 2
(3-5)
nh kt qu trng vi nh gc
dn tng phn.
co tng phn
Vb
va
f (u) = ( X [m,
n])
(3-6)
Lc xm
f (u) = L
u
v
(3.7)
C nn:
Khng nn:
L
f (u) =
khi a u
b
L
f (u) =
khi a u
b
(3-8)
a) Khng nn
b) C nn
(3-9)
trch chn bit c ngha nht: bit th n v hin th chng, dng bin i sau:
L
f (u) =
0
khi k n =
1
(3-10)
D thy: kn = in - 2in-1.
3.1.6 Tr nh
Tr nh c dng tch nhiu khi nn. Ngi ta quan st nh 2 thi im khc nhau,
so snh chng tm ra s khc nhau. Ngi ta dng thng 2 nh ri tr i v thu c nh mi.
nh mi ny chnh l s khc nhau. K thut ny hay c dng trong d bo thoi tit, trong y
hc.
3.1.7 Nn di sng.
i khi do di ng ca nh ln, vic quan st nh khng thun tin. Cn phi thu nh di
sng li m ta gi l nn gii sng. Ngi ta dng php bin i logarit sau:
v(m,n) = c log10( + u(m,n))
(3-11)
f (u) =
( xi )
(3-12)
x1 =0
h( x )
vi Pu ( xi ) = L 1 i
h( xi )
(3-13)
i =0
1/n
Pu ( x1 )
x1= 0
f (u) = L 1
vi n = 2, 3,
1/n
Pu ( x1 )
(3-14)
x1=0
f (u) = log(1 + u) ; u0
f(u) = u1/n
u 0, n = 2, 3,
(3-15)
(3-16)
b lc tuyn tnh (lc trung bnh, thng thp) hay lc phi tuyn (trung v, gi trung v, lc ng
hnh). T bn cht ca nhiu (thng tng ng vi tn s cao) v t c s l thuyt lc l: b lc
ch cho tn hiu c tn s no thng qua do , lc nhiu ngi ta thng dng lc thng
thp (theo quan im tn s khng gian) hay ly t hp tuyn tnh san bng (lc trung bnh).
lm ni cnh (ng vi tn s cao), ngi ta dng cc b lc thng cao, lc Laplace.
Trc khi xem xt chi tit cc k thut p dng, cn phn bit cc loi nhiu hay can thip
trong qu trnh x l nh. Trn thc t tn ti nhiu loi nhiu; tuy nhin ngi ta thng xem xt
3 loi nhiu chnh: nhiu cng, nhiu nhn v nhiu xung:
Nhiu cng
Nhiu cng thng phn b khp nh. Nu gi nh quan st (nh thu c) l Xqs, nh gc
l Xgc, nhiu l , nh thu c c th biu din bi:
Xqs = Xgc +
(3-17)
Nhiu nhn
Nhiu nhn thng phn b khp nh v nh thu c s biu din vi cng thc:
Xqs = Xgc *
(3-17)
Nhiu xung
Nhiu xung thng gy t bin ti mt s im nh.
3.2.1 Lm trn nhiu bng lc tuyn tnh: lc trung bnh v lc di thng thp
Do c nhiu loi nhiu can thip vo qu trnh x l nh nn cn c nhiu b lc thch hp.
Vi nhiu cng v nhiu nhn ta dng cc b lc thng thp, trung bnh v lc ng hnh
(Homomorphie); vi nhiu xung ta dng lc trung b, gi trung v, lc ngoi (Outlier).
a. Lc trung bnh khng gian
Vi lc trung bnh, mi im nh c thay th bng trung bnh trng s ca cc im ln
cn v c nh ngha nh sau:
v(m, n) =
a(k , l ) y(m k , n
(3-18)
l)
( k ,l ) W
Nu trong k thut lc trn, ta dng cc trng s nh nhau, phng trnh trn s tr thnh:
v(m, n) =
)
1
N
y(m k , n l
(3-19)
( k ,l ) W
1
v Nw l s im nh trong ca s lc W.
Nw
Lc trung bnh c trng s chnh l thc hin chp nh u vo vi nhn chp H. Nhn chp
H trong trng hp ny c dng:
1 1 1
=1
H=
1 1 1
1 1
Trong lc trung bnh, thng ngi ta u tin cho cc hng bo v bin ca nh khi b
m khi lm trn nh. Cc kiu mt n c s dng ty theo cc trng hp khc nhau. Cc b
lc trn l b lc tuyn tnh theo ngha l im nh tm ca s s c thay bi t hp cc im
ln cn chp vi mt n.
Gi s u vo biu din bi ma trn I:
4
5
I = 6
3 7
7 1 7
6 1 8
7
5 7
6 1
1
3
1
2
23
35
1
Y = 36
9
36
26
39
43
48
35
31
46
49
48
33
19
31
34
34
22
16
27
27
22
11
Mt b lc trung bnh khng gian khc cng hay c s dng. Phng trnh ca b lc
c dng:
1
1
Y[m, n] =
X [m, n] + {X [m, n] + X [m 1, n] + X [m + 1, n] + X [m, n 1] + X
[m, n +
1]} (3-20)
2
4
0 1 0
1
=
H t1 =
1 1
2 0
8
0 1
b 1
=
1 2
1
Hb =
b b b
(b + 2)2
1 b 1
Ta d dng nhn thy khi b =1, Hb chnh l nhn chp Ht1 (lc trung bnh). hiu r hn
bn cht kh nhiu cng ca cc b lc ny, ta vit li phng trnh thu nhn nh di dng:
Y [m, n]
=
1
Nw
hay: Y [m, n]
=
2n .
(3-21)
X qs (m k , n l) + [m,
(3-22)
n]
k ,l W
1
Nw
n
X qs (m k , n l ) +
(3-23)
Nw
k ,l W
(3-24)
(3-25)
R rng, nhiu nhn c trong nh s b gim. Sau qu trnh lc tuyn tnh, ta chuyn v nh
c bng php bin i hm e m.
(3-26)
))
K thut ny i hi gi tr cc im nh trong ca s phi xp theo th t tng hay gim
dn so vi gi tr trung v. Kch thc ca s thng c chn sao cho s im nh trong ca s
l l. Cc ca s hay dng l ca s c kch thc 3x3, hay 5x5 hay 7x7. Th d:
Nu y(m) = {2, 3, 8, 4, 2} v ca s W=(-1, 0, 1), nh thu c sau lc trung v s l:
v(m) = (2, 3, 4, 4, 2).
do :
v[0]= 2 <gi tr bin>;
v[1]=Trungvi(2,3,8)=3;
v[3]= Trungvi(8,4,2)=4;
v[2]=Trungvi(3,4,8)=4;
khi | u ( m , n ) (
w)
(3-27)
(3-28)
Lc thng cao
Lc thng thp
(3-29)
(3-30)
(3-31)
u(m,n)
Lc thng thp
v(m,n)
1
1
(1) 1 9
1
1 1
1
0 1 0
(2) 1 5
1
0 1 0
(3) 2 5 2
1 2 1
chp vi mt n H. Mt n H
1 1
H =
1
1
Kt qu thu c : v(m,n) = u(k,l) vi k=[m/2] v l=[n/2]
Chn hng 0, ct
0
1 3 2
4 5 6
1
1
1 3 3
1 3 3
4 5 5
4 5 5
1
0
2
2
2
6 6
6 6
0 3 0 2 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 5 0 6 0
0 0 0 0 0
Chp H
(3-32)
(3-33)
(3-34)
(3-35)
vi 0mM-1, 0nN-1,
Nu dng mt n dng:
1 / 1 / 4 1 / 4
4
1
/
2
1
H = 1 / 1 / 2 1 / 4
2
1 /
4
{tnh OR logic}
if
then ImaOut(x,y)<-1
FOR(x, y)
v(m, n) =
(m, n)
trong :
N 1 M 1
u (m, n)h(m k , n l ) +
(3-36)
k=0 l=0
u(m, n)
l nh gc;
v(m, n)
l nh ghi c;
h(m k , n l
)
V = Hu +
(3-37)
(3-38)
(3-39)
Nhiu (m, n) c th gm hai phn: nhiu tch 1(m, n) , nhiu cng 2 (m.n) u c
gi
thit l nhiu trng Gauss c lp tng h vi trung bnh 0:
(3-40)
trong : cc hm g(.), f(.) l cc bin i (ni chung l phi tuyn) c trng cho qu trnh pht
hin v lu tr nh. T (3-40) m hnh c biu din theo hnh khi nh sau:
U(m,n)
h(m,n)
W(m,n)
g(.)
f(.)
1(m,n)
2(m,n)
v(m,n)
(3-41)
(m, n)
=
g (m, n) 1 (m, n)
2
(3-42)
(3-43)
gi tr
trung bnh khng gian w thay cho w tc l:
= W (m, n)
(3-44)
khi :
(3-45)
(3-46)
Trong phm vi ti liu ny khng m t chi tit v dng nhiu ny. ngh tham kho cc
ti liu [1, 4, 5].
3.3.2 Cc b lc
a) K thut lc ngc (Inverse Filter)
U(m,n
)
h(.,.)
w(m,n
)
g(.,.)
v(m,n)
-1
g (.,.)
W(m,
-1
n)
h (.,.)
u(m,n
)
g T ( x) = g 1 [ g ( vi g 1 ( x) =
x)]
x
h T ( x, y, k , l) = h 1 ( x, y, k
,l)
+
(3-47)
(3-48)
(3-49)
v = Hu +
(3-50)
hay = v Hu
(3-51)
y(u ) =
= v Hu
min
(3-52)
= ; v hu
Hu )
'
= (v Hu ) (v
(3-53)
(3-54)
y(u)
= 2HT (v Hu ) = 0
(u )
Gi s ta c:
u = (H T H ) 1 H
T
v
(3-55)
u = H 1 (H T ) 1 H T v
(3-56)
CU HI N TP CHNG 3
Cho nh s v cc nhn chp sau:
5
I =6
7 2 7 1
7 1 7 13
6 30 8 3 ;
7 6 1 2
7 6 1 2
1 1
H tt = 1 9 1
1 1 1
;
1
H tc
2 1
1
4 2
= 2 1
2
1
a, ng bin l tng
b, ng bin bc thang
c, ng bin thc
nh u ra
ca tin x l nh
Trch chn
c trng
Phn on
Phn loi
Gii thch
f ( x + dx, y) f ( x,
f (x, y )
= f'x
y)
x
dx
f (x, y ) f '
= y f ( x, y + dy) f ( x,
y
y)
dy
(4-1)
(4-2)
Trong dx, dy l khong cch gia 2 im k cn theo hng x, y tng ng (thc t chn
dx= dy=1). y l phng php da theo o hm ring bc nht theo hng x, y.
Gradient trong ta gc (r,), vi r l vc t, : gc
df (r, )
dr
f dx
x dr
f dy
= f 'x cos + f y' sin
y dr
(.)
f(.) t cc i khi
=
0
df
dr
tc:
(4-3)
f()
fy
sin f ' x
=
cos f ' y
fx
x
f'x
r = arctg v f max = f ' x2 + f ' y2
f ' y
(4-4)
(4-5)
(4-6)
(4-7)
Ro
be
rt
p
d
y+1
g x = I ( x + 1, y) I (
x, y)
g y = I ( x, y + 1) I ( x, y)
(4-8)
0 1
Hx =
1 0
1 0
Hy =
0 1
Hng dc (y)
(4-9)
(4-10)
g
Ton t (mt n) Sobel.
Ton t Sobel c Duda v Hart [5] t ra nm 1973 vi cc mt n tng t nh ca
Robert nhng cu hnh khc nh sau:
1 0 1
H x= 1 0 1
1 0 1
1 1
0
1
0
Hy = 0
1
1
1
Hng dc (y)
Mt n Prewitt
Ton t c Prewitt a ra vo nm 1970 c dng:
1 0 1
H x= 2 0 2
1 0 1
Hng ngang (x)
1 2 1
Hy = 0 0
0
1
2
1
Hng dc (y)
Mt n ng hng:
Mt mt nn khc cng c nu nh di y gi l mt n ng hng (Isometric).
1 0
H x = 2 0
2
1
1 2
Hy = 0 0
1
2
0
1
Hng dc (y)
-1
Theo hng x
-1
Theo hng y
Ty-Bc
ng-Bc
Ty
ng
Ty-Nam
ng-Nam
Nam
2
2
H x = 2
1 0 1 2
1 0 1 2
10 1
1 0 1 2
2 10 1 2
2 2
1 1
2
0
0
1
1
1
Hy =
0
1
2
2 2
1 1
0
0
1
1
5
H B =
3
3
H ng
Nam
5
3 5
= 3 0
5
3
;
3
3
5
5
0 3 H ng
B
;
3
3
3 3 3
= 3 0
5 ;
H
5
Nam
3
3
5
3
H Ty = 5
3 ;
0 3
5 3
3 3
3
0 3 ;
= H
3
5
5
5
H Ty
B
H ng
3 5
3
0 5 ;
= 3 5
3
Ty
Nam
3 3 3
= 5 0 3 ;
= 5
5
3
0 3
3
3
3
i=1, 2, , 8.
(411)
Ton t la bn khc:
Ngoi ton t la bn Kirsh, mt s ton t la bn khc s dng b mt n 8 hng khc nh:
Bc
=1
1
1
1
2
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 ;H
1
=
1
1
;
2
H ng
ng Bc= 1
;
1
1 1 1
1
1
1
H ng
Nam
H Ty
hoc:
1
1
1 1
1 1
= 1 2 1 H Nam = 1 2 1 H Ty
Nam
1 ;
1
;
1
1
1
1
=
1
1 1
2 1
;
1
1
H Ty
B
1 1
1 2 1
=
1
1
1 1
1 1 1
= 2 1 ;
1
1 1
1
1
1 2
H B =
0
0 H ng
B
;
0
1 2 1
2
H ng
Nam
H Ty
1 0
1
0
1 ; H Nam
0 1 2
1 2
1
=
0
0
H Ty
0
1 0
= 2 0
1
0
0 1 2
10 1
= 0 1 ; H ng = 2 0 2 ;
1
1 0 1
2 0
= 1 0
1 ;
Nam
;
2
2 1
2 1
=
H Ty
B
0 1 .
1 2
A( x, y) =
Max(
T
Wi I ( x, y) vi i=1, 2, , n.
)
(4-12)
2f =
f f
2 +
2
x
y
(4-13)
0 1 0
H =
1
1 4 1
;
0
1 0
1
1
H2 = 1 8
1
;
1
1
1 2 1
H 3 = 2 5 1
f = 2 f ( x, y) f ( x 1, y) f ( x + 1, y)
2
x
2
f = 2 f ( x, y) f ( x, y 1) f ( x, y + 1)
2
y
do :
f=
f f = 4 f ( x, y) f ( x 1, y) f ( x, y 1) f ( x + 1, y) f (
2 +
2
x
y x, y + 1)
(4-14)
f = (G I ) = f x + f
(4-15)
f = (G I ) x + (G I ) y = (G x I ) + (G y
I)
(4-16)
Ly o hm ring theo x v y ca G ta c:
x2+ y2
x
exp
2
2 2
Gx(x, y) =
(4-17)
G y(x, y) =
Gx(x)
2
2
exp x + y
2
2
2
(4-18)
G(y)
fx
Arctan fy / fx
I(x,y)
fy
Gy(x)
f x2 + fy
G(x)
T ta c:
G x ( x, y) = G x ( x) G( v G y ( x, y) = G y ( y) G(
y)
x)
f x ( x, y) = G x ( x) G( y) I f ( x, y) = G ( y) G( x) I )
y
y
v
(4-19)
(4-20)
Vi bin v hng tnh theo cng thc trn, thut ton c minh ha trn Hnh 4.9.
B
C
S (x1 ,..., x N , N ) = g ( x k )
( x k ) ( x k 1 )
(4-21)
d ( x N , x N 1 )
k =1
k =1
k =2
vi:
xk, k=1, , N: biu din cc nh ca th trong chng th k;
d(x ,y): khong cch gia 2 nh x v y tnh theo cc nh ngha tng ng v khong
cch;
|g(xk)| v (xk) l Gradient bin v Gradient hng nh xk.
v l cc hng s khng m.
ng bao ti u s nhn c bng cch ni cc nh x k , k =1, , N no sao cho
S(x1,, xN, N ) t cc i.
nh ngha hm nh sau:
{s( x1 ,..., x N ,
N )}
x1,..., xN 1
( x N , N ) = Max
(4-22)
( xk , k ) =
Max
{S ( x1 ,..., x k , k ) +
x1,..., xN 1
f ( x k 1 , x k )}
(4-23)
(4-24)
= Max
, x k )}
{ ( xk 1 , k 1) +
x1,..., xN 1
f ( x k 1
(4-25)
( xk , k
)
4 E 7
6
A5
D(11,12 E(16
F
5
2
2
F(23)
A(5
I(8
)
6
G(8)
3
1
H(8,10)
J(13,10)
P6(x,y)=xP5(x,y);
P7 (x,y)=yP3(x,y);
2
; P4(x,y)=xy;
3
2
P5 ( x, y) = y 2 ;
3
P8(x,y)= P5(x,y)P3(x,y)
I ( L G ) ( x, y) = a n Pn ( x,
y)
(4-26)
n =0
Pn ( x, y)I LG ( x,
y)
an =
Pn 2 (i,
(4-27)
j)
i
A h( x)dx
n0
(4-28)
h 2(
x)dx
A h' (0)
=
n0
h 2 ( x)dx
(4-29)
h' 2 (
x max = 2 x)dx
(4-30)
h' ' 2 (
x)dx
Rng buc u tin () nhm tm hm h(x) phn i xng sao cho t s gia tn hiu v
nhiu l cc i. Rng buc th hai ( ) nhm cc tiu ha phng sai. Rng buc th ba nhm
hn ch im cc tr cc b vi mc ch cung cp ch mt ng bao.
CU HI V BI N TP
1, Hy vit biu thc tnh o hm bc hai mt theo mt n.
2, Cho nh s I:
1
I = 11
2 1 1 2
5 5 7 3
5 5 7
5 7 7
8 7 6 3
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
L mc xm
dng mt cch quy phng php trn cho n khi tt c cc min u tha mn iu kin.
Phng php ny c th m t bng thut ton sau :
Procedure PhanDoan(Mien)
Begin
If min ang xt khng tha Then
Begin
Chia min ang xt thnh 4 min : Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4
For i=1 to 4 do
PhanDoan (Zi)
End
Else exit
End
Tiu chun xt min ng nht y c th da vo mc xm. Ngoi ra, c th da vo
lch chun hay chnh gia gi tr mc xm ln nht v gi tr mc xm nh nht. Gi s
Max v Min l gi tr mc xm ln nht v nh nht trong min ang xt. Nu :
|Max Min| < T (ngng)
ta coi min ang xt l ng nht. Trng hp ngc li, min ang xt khng l min ng nht
v s c chia lm 4 phn.
Thut ton kim tra tiu chun da vo chnh lch max, min c vit :
Function Examin_Criteria(I, N1, M1, N2, M2, T)
/* Gi thit nh c ti a 255 mc xm.
(N1, M1), (N2, M2) l ta im u v im cui ca min; T l ngng. */
Begin
1. Max=0 ; Min=255
2. For i = N1 to N2 do
If
Then
If
Then Max=I[i,j] ;
3. If ABS(MaxMin)<T
Then Examin_Criteria=0
Else Examin_Criteria=1 ;
End
a) 4 lin thng
b) 8 lin thng
Thut ton t mu (Blob Coloring) : s dng khi nim 4 lin thng, dng mt ca
s di chuyn trn nh so snh vi tiu chun ni.
M (k , l ) =
(m )
1
(n 2 )r (m, n)
(5.1)
1 =
vi :
mr (m, n) v
n
=
m
nr (m, n)
ACF
u(m,n)
Lc di tng quan
Phn tch lc
c tnh si
(5.3)
Trung bnh :
d = g k hh ( g k ,
d)
(5.4)
k =1
N
Phng sai :
2d = ( g k 2d hg ( g k , d
)
)
(5.5)
k =1
N
tng phn :
c d = g 2k hg ( g k , d
)
(5.6)
k =1
H g = hg ( g k , d ) ln(hg ( g k ,
d ))
(5.7)
k =1
th vi khong cch d trong nh. Cc phn t ck,l ca ma trn xut hin lin hip mc xm cd c
tnh nh sau : cd = (ck,l)
c k ,l = P(k , l, d ) =
n k ,l
n
(5.8)
p d = max ( k ,l ) C k ,l
- Xc sut cc i :
(5.9)
Entropy :
N
H d = C k ,l ln(C k ,l
(5.10)
)
k =1 l =1
D dng thy c entropy cc i khi xc sut lin hip P(k,l,d) c phn phi u.
M men bc m :
N
I d = k l C k ,l
m
(5.11)
k =1 l =1
Id cc tiu khi cc phn t ca ma trn C tp trung trn ng cho chnh v khong cch
|k-l| rt nh, Id nh c ngha l kt cu kh th. Ngi ta cng cn a vo mt s o khc
nh hm t tng quan, ph nng lng.
m
CU HI N TP CHNG 5
1. Th no l vng nh ? Mc ch ca phn vng nh l g ?
2. Th no l phn vng nh theo ngng bin ? Cho v d ?
3. Th no l phn vng nh theo min ng nht ? Cho v d ?
4. Trnh by phng php tch cy t phn phn vng nh ?
5. Trnh by phng php hp phn vng nh ?
6. Trnh by phng php tng hp (tch v hp) phn vng nh ?
7. Th no l phn vng nh da vo kt cu?
Chng 6: X l nh
6.1.1 Khng gian biu din i tng, khng gian din dch
a) Khng gian biu din i tng
Cc i tng khi quan st hay thu thp c thng c biu din bi tp cc c trng
hay c tnh. Gi s i tng nh X (nh, ch vit, du vn tay,) c biu din bi n thnh
phn (n c trng): X={x1,x2xn}; mi xi biu din mt c tnh. Khng gian biu din thng
c gi tt l khng gian i tng X c nh ngha:
X = { X1, X2,Xm}
Chng 6: X l nh
Trong mi Xi biu din mt i tng. Khng gian ny c th l v hn. tin xem
xt chng ta ch xt tp X l hu hn.
b) Khng gian din dch
Khng gian din dch l tp cc tn gi ca i tng. Kt thc qu trnh nhn dng ta xc
nh c tn gi cho cc i tng. Mt cch hnh thc gi l tp tn i tng:
={w1, w2, wk} vi wi, i=1,2k l tn cc i tng.
Qu trnh nhn dng i tng f l mt nh x f:
nh mt phn t trong
X vi
f l tp cc quy lut
tng l bit trc nh trong nhn dng ch vit (c 26 lp t A n Z), ngi ta gi l nhn dng
c thy. Trng hp th hai l nhn dng khng c thy.
Chng 6: X l nh
- P l lut sn xut;
- S l dng (k hiu bt u).
Th d, i tng nh gm mi v tng, mi l mt tam gic gm 3 cnh l 3 on thng,
tng l mt hnh ch nht gm 4 cnh vung gc vi nhau tng i mt s c m t thng qua
cu trc m t da vo vn phm sinh nh ch trong hnh di y:
Nh
(1)
(3)
(6)
(2)
Mi
Tng
(4)
on 1 on 2 on 3 on 3 on 4 on 5 on 6
(5)
Hnh 6.1 M hnh cu trc ca i tng nh
b) Bn cht
Qu trnh nhn dng gm 3 giai on chnh:
- Chn m hnh biu din i tng.
- Chn lut ra quyt nh (phng php nhn dng) v suy din.
- Hc trong nhn dng.
Trong vic la chn biu din i tng, i tng c th c xc nh theo cch
nh lng (m hnh tham s) hay nh tnh (m hnh cu trc). Khi i tng c xc nh,
qu trnh nhn dng chuyn sang giai on th hai-giai on hc (Learning). Hc l giai on
cung cp tri thc cho h thng. Mc ch hc nhm ci thin, iu chnh vic phn loi tp i
tng thnh cc lp. Nhn dng l tm ra quy lut v cc thut ton c th gn i tng vo
mt lp hay ni mt cch khc gn cho i tng mt tn.
Hc c thy: k thut phn loi nh kin thc bit trc gi l hc c thy. c im c
bn ca k thut ny l ngi ta c mt th vin cc mu chun. Mu cn nhn dng s c em
so snh vi mu chun xem n thuc loi no. Vn ch yu l thit k mt h thng c
th i snh i tng trong nh vi mu chun v quyt nh gn cho chng vo mt lp. Vic
i snh nh vo cc th tc ra quyt nh da trn mt cng c gi l hm phn lp hay hm ra
quyt nh.
Hc khng c thy: k thut ny phi t nh ra cc lp khc nhau v xc nh cc tham
s c trng cho tng lp. Hc khng c thy ng nhin l gp kh khn hn. Mt mt, do s
lp khng c bit trc, mt khc nhng c trng ca lp cng khng c bit trc. K
thut ny nhm tin hnh mi cch gp nhm c th v chn la cch tt nht. Bt u t tp d
liu, nhiu th tc x l khc nhau nhm phn lp v nng cp dn t c mt phng n
phn loi.
Nhn chung, d l m hnh no v k thut nhn dng ra sao, mt h thng nhn dng c
th tm tt theo s sau:
Trch chn c
trng
Qu trnh tin x l
Phn lp
nh gi
khng gian biu din tch c tng phn. Nh vy, phn loi l da vo vic xy dng mt nh
x f: X D. Cng c xy dng nh x ny l cc hm phn bit (Descriminant Functions).
(6-2)
trong :
- Wi l trng s gn cho cc thnh phn Xi;
- W0 l trng s hng.
Trong trng hp hm g(.) l tuyn tnh, ngi ta ni vic phn lp l tuyn tnh (trong
trng hp mt hay hai chiu) hay siu phng (trong trng hp nhiu chiu). Cc hm phn bit
thng c xy dng da trn khi nim khong cch hay da vo xc sut c iu kin.
Phn lp da theo khong cch (Distance) l mt cng c tt xc nh i tng c
gn nhau v mt c trng no hay khng. Nu khong cch nh hn mt ngng no y
th ta coi hai i tng l ging nhau. Nu chng ging nhau ta gp gp chng, nu chng khc
nhau v ta tch thnh hai hoc nhiu lp phn bit.
1
2
2 exp
(x m)
2
2
(6-3)
X ={Xl, l=1,2,,L},
l <>k, l=1,2,,r.
(6-4)
rk ( X ) =
k , j P(C j
/X)
(6-5)
j =1
(6-6)
rk ( X ) = l k , j P( X / C j )P(C
j
j
=
(6-7)
Vy, quy tc ra quyt nh da trn l thuyt Bayes c tnh n sai s c pht biu nh
sau:
(6-8)
b:
c:
-:a-b
x:axb
*:a*b
d:
B no ngi
n v tnh ton
B nh
1011 nron
B nh ngoi
Thi gian x l
10-8 giy
10-3 giy
Thng lng
109 bit/giy
1014 bit/giy
Cp nht thng
tin
105 bit/giy
1014 nron/giy
Nron sinh hc c nhiu dng khc nhau nh dng hnh thp, dng t ong, dng r cy
tuy nhin chng c chung mt cu trc v nguyn l hot ng. Hnh sau y m phng mt
nron sinh hc:
Mt t bo nron gm cc phn c bn:
Nhnh v r: y l b phn tip nhn thng tin ca t bo nron. Cc u nhy hoc
cc u ra ca cc nron khc bm vo r hoc nhnh ca mt nron. Khi cc u vo t ngoi
ny c s chnh lch v nng K+, Na+ hay Cl- so vi nng bn trong ca n th xy ra hin
tng thm t ngoi vo trong thng qua c ch mng thm c bit. Hin tng thm thu nh
vy to nn mt c ch truyn t thng tin vi hng ngn hng vn li vo trn mt nron sinh
hc ng vi hng nghn hng vn lin kt khc nhau. Mc thm thu ca cc ion c th coi l
mt i lng thay i ty thuc vo nng gi l t trng hay n gin l trng (weight).
v(t) = wk x k (t )
(1.1)
k =1
x1
-1
1
w
x2
w2
v(t)
u(t)
H(.)
f(.)
y(t)
.
xm
wm
H (s) =
hay
U (s)
V (s)
(1.2)
Quan h vo ra
1
s
1
1 sT
T
Exp(sT )
u(t ) = v(t T
du(t )
+ u(t ) = v(t ) )
dt
B phi tuyn: Phn ny s dng hm quan h phi tuyn f(.) cho u ra y, chn tnh hiu
u ra. Cc hm u ra thng thng l cc hm c gii hn ngng ph hp vi c im u
y = f (u(t )) = f ( xi (t )wi
)
(1.3)
i 1
Cng thc
Bc nhy n v
1 if x > 0
f(x)=
0 if x < 0
Hm du (sgn)
1 if x 0
f(x)=
1 if x < 0
Hm tuyn tnh
Hm tuyn tnh
bo ha i xng
Hm Sigmoid lng cc
c tnh
f(x)= x
x
f(x)=
f(x)=
if x > 1
if 1 x
1
1 if x < 0
2
1x
+e
Cc nron sinh hc lin kt vi nhau thnh lp to thnh mng nron sinh hc. Nron
nhn to l s m phng nron sinh hc. C nhiu cch kt hp cc nron nhn to thnh mng,
mi cch kt hp to thnh mt lp mng nron nhn to khc nhau.
Phn loi mng nron nhn to
C nhiu cch phn loi mng nron nhn to, ty theo tiu ch ra:
- Da vo s lng lp c trong mng, ta phn thnh:
+ Mng mt lp
+ Mng nhiu lp
MNG NRON NHN TO
Truyn thng
Tuyn
tnh
Mng
Furie
Phn hi
Phi
tuyn
Brain
State in
Box
Mng
Gabor
My
Boltzman
Cohen
Grossberg
T t chc
Hopfield
nh x c
trng
ART
Mc
Culloch
Pitts
wij = rx j (t
)
(1.4)
dwi (t )
(1.5)
rxj (t )
dt =
Hc cng c (reinforcement learning): i khi trong mt s trng hp, ta khng bit
ht c cc gi tr u ra chnh xc c th hc gim st m ch bit c mt s thng tin
nh gi. Khi lut hc da trn nhng thng tin nh gi ny gi l lut hc cng c v thng
tin phn hi c gi l thng tin cng c. Lut hc ny ch khc lut hc gim st ch, thng
tin phn hi t mi trng ch mang tnh cht nh gi ch khng mang tnh cht dy, c ngha l
ch nh gi u ra thc s l tt hay xu m khng a ra c u ra mong mun l g. Tn hiu
cng c c mng s dng vi hi vng l u ra thc s c nh gi phn hi tt hn trong ln
hc tip theo.
Hc cu trc (Structure Learning)
Mc tiu ca hc cu trc l thay i s nron, kiu lin kt lm cho cu trc mng
thay i. i vi hc tham s, chng ta gi s cu trc mng c sau a ra cc thut hc
thay i cc trng lin kt nhm lm cho u ra thc s gn vi u ra mong mun. Cn vic hc
mc cu trc c th s dng cc k thut lin quan n thut ton gen (Genetic Algorithm) v lp
trnh tin ha (Evolutionary Programming). Cc cch tm kim trong thut ton gen v lp trnh
tin ha kh tiu tn thi gian ngay c i vi mng c kch thc trung bnh. Do , cn c th
s dng cc k thut sa i hay xy dng mng dn dn t mt cu trc ban u. K thut
thng c s dng trong trng hp ny l k thut xn bt mng nron, pht trin mng
nron v kt hp c hai: Xn bt v pht trin mng nron.
MT S CU TRC, LUT HC MNG NRON IN HNH
Trong phn ny chng ta s gii thiu cu trc v lut hc ca ba mng nron in hnh:
Mng Perceptron mt lp n, mng Hopfield ri rc v mng nhiu lp lan truyn ngc Back
Propagation. Mt im c bit l trong s ba mng c gii thiu th mng Back
Propagation l mng s c s dng gii quyt bi ton nhn dng m vch EAN-8 m n
t ra.
Mng Perceptron mt lp n
Cu trc
Cu trc ca mng Perceptron mt lp n c trng cho loi mng truyn thng c
m t trong hnh v di y:
w11
x1
x2
u ra thc
y1
e1
+
d1
e2
y2
em
yn
d2
xm-1
u ra mong mun
dm
(k)
i
T (k)
(k)
(k)
= f (Wi xi ) = f ( Wij x j ) = d i vi i=1,2n; k=1,2p
(1.6)
j =1
yi
= Sign(WTi xi ( k ) )= di ( k
(1.7)
Lut hc
Nh ni trn mng Perceptron s dng lut hc Perceptron l lut hc c gim st,
dng chung ca lng iu chnh trng l (cng thc 1.4):
wij = rx j (t )
trong , tn hiu hc r = di yi. Do u ra mong mun ch gm hai gi tr 1 v -1 nn ta c:
2d i
T
Wij = (d i y i ) = (di Sign(w
x)) j =
i
xi
xj
x
if y i d i
(1.8)
else
w1n
..
w2n
wn2
x2
w12
x1 wn1
w21
yn
y2
y1
( k +1)
i
= sgn(
ij
y (j k ) +x i i ) vi i=1,2,n
j =1, j i
(1.9)
Nguyn tc cp nht trn c p dng theo kiu khng ng b. Vic cp nht tip
theo trn mt node c chn ngu nhin s dng cc u ra va mi c cp nht. Ni cch
khc, do vic x l khng ng b ca mng, mi u ra ca node c cp nht mt cch ring
r, trong khi s dng cc gi tr mi nht m c cp nht. Phng php cp nht khng ng
b c ngh nh mt s quy ngu nhin khng ng b ca mng Hopfield ri rc.
Tnh n nh
Tnh n nh ca mng c m t thng qua hm nng lng:
E=
i
i =1 j =1, j i
wij y i y j xi y i +
i =1
(1.10)
i =1
E = (net i )
y i
trong y = y
i
( k +1)
(k)
(1.11)
net q = v jq x j
(6-14)
j =1
Wij
Wij
Wij
Wij
Wij
Wij
Wij
Wij
Vjq
Wij
Vjq
Wij
Wij
V
Wij
Wij
V
Wij
Vjq
z q = f (net q ) = f ( v qj x j
)
(6-15)
j =1
xnet = w z =
j i
iq
q =1
q =1
v to u ra:
l
y ==
f (net
i
w f v qj
j =1
(6-16)
iq
f
=
q =1
l
m
iq
w z f w f v qj x
q
j =1
iq
(6-17)
=1
1n
n
i
(i
d
2 i =1
l2 1
y) =
[d
2
i
=1
f (net
)]2
=
2
i =1
f
i
q =1
wiq z q
(6-18)
E
w =
iq
w
iq
E y i net
i
=
w
y i net i
iq
= (d y )( f ' (net
i ) )z i
i
vi
oi
=
z
(6-19)
oi
(6-20)
v =
qj
E
E
v qi
net
E
z
q
=
=
= =
v
qj
net q
z q net
[(d
n
yi ) f ' (neti )
w
iq
i =1
]f
'
net
q=
v
qj
q
(6-21)
(netq ) xj
v qj =
w] f
'
oi
(net q ) x =
hq
(6-22)
j
i =1
vi
hq
hq
(6-23)
i =1
(6-24)
hq = z q (1 z q )
wiq
oi
(6-25)
i =1
pk
k =1
c) Kt qu
Vi vic hun luyn trn tp mu gm 30 mu, mi mu 7 hnh khi, s ln lp hun
luyn l trn 2500 ln. Sau khi hun luyn xong mng c th nghim 10 ln vi kt qu nh
sau:
Nhn dng hnh tam gic: sau cc th nghim, kt qu cho thy hnh tam gic nhn dng
tt nhng hnh cn i cc gc khng qu lch nhau. Khi c mt gc qu t th vic nhn dng
s khng hiu qu. S hnh nhn dng sai l 3.
Nhn dng hnh t gic v hnh lc gic: hnh t gic l mt hnh c nhiu dng nn vc
nhn dng tt th phi tri qua qu trnh hun luyn mu phong ph. S hnh nhn dng sai ca c
hai loi t gic v lc gic l 7. Hnh t gic v hnh lc gic rt d nhm vi nhau khi hnh lc
gic c 2 gc i din vi nhau ln qu, dn n vic nhm thnh ng thng:
V d v m vch 2D
dn n vic pht trin cc ma trn m (mt dng m vch 2D), trong khng cha cc vch
m l mt li cc vng.
- Phng php nhn dng m vch:
S ra i ca m vch vo gia th k XX m ra mt k nguyn mi cho vn lu tr
thng tin sn phm trong cc lnh vc sn xut kinh doanh. Ngy nay ta c th d dng tm thy
m vch trn cc bao b sn phm trong cuc sng hng ngy. S xut hin ca m vch tr nn
ph bin v quen thuc vi ngi tiu dng chng t cc cng ngh h tr qui trnh c m vch
cng phi pht trin mnh c th p ng c yu cu s dng. M vch c th c c
bi cc my qut quang hc cng c th c qut t hnh nh bng cc phn mm x l chuyn
bit. Hin nay my qut quang hc (Barcode Scanner) c ng dng rng ri bi s phc hp
ca n vi mi trng lm vic cng nh loi sn phm s dng m vch.
Tuy nhin phng php s dng my qut m vch cng c nhng u nhc im ring.
u im ni bt ca phng php ny l tnh tin dng, nhn dng nhanh vi chnh xc cao.
Nhc im ca n l i hi v trang thit b cng cc ph kin i km thng khng gn nh v
khng mang tnh kh chuyn khong cch ln cng nh yu cu v cht lng m vch phi
tng i tt.
Mt cu hi t ra l trong nhng trng hp ngi dng khng c sn cc thit b qut
m vch trong tay, h ch c th chp nh ca m vch m mun bit tt c cc thng tin lin
quan n sn phm c m vch th phi p ng yu cu ny nh th no? V liu phng
php no c kh nng nhn ra m vch khi m vch c chp thnh nh? Cu tr li c gi
m khi chng ta tm hiu v mng nron v th mnh nhn dng nh ca n.
Bi ton Nhn dng m vch EAN-8 trn c s mng nron nhn to l mt th nghim
tr li cho cu hi nu trn.
b) Gii quyt bi ton nhn dng m vch EAN-8 trn c s mng nron nhn to
- Cu trc m vch EAN-8: EAN-8 l phin bn EAN (h thng nh s sn phm
chu u European Article Numbering) c to ra vi mc ch s dng trn cc loi bao b
hng ha nh. ng nh tn gi ca n, EAN-8 m ha 8 s thp phn v c trng ca chui 8
s ny l c cc t chc c thm quyn v m vch cung cp trc tip do chui 8 s ny phi
c lu tr trong mi c s d liu nh m cc sn phm ring bit.
Trong chui 8 s ca EAN-8 c hai hoc ba s l m nc, nm hay bn s cn li l m
sn phm (chiu di m sn phm ph thuc vo chiu di m nc), s cui cng trong chui l
s kim tra.
1
0
50
67
250
Lp vo
Lp n
Lp ra
Hnh 6.5 Mng Back Propagation s dng trong h nhn dng EAN-8
Vic tnh ton cc tham s khc dng trong qu trnh hun luyn mng nh trng khi to,
hng s hc, s dng hm kch hot no c xc nh theo th nghim.
c) Kt qu
H nhn dng m vch EAN-8 s dng mng nron BackPropagation c xy dng
bng ngn ng Java do nhng tin ch m ngn ng ny em li (ph lc 2: xy dng h nhn
dng m vch EAN-8 bng ngn ng Java). Java da trn C++ nhng n li n gin hn C++ (v
n lc b cc tnh nng kh nht ca C++) m vn thn thin vi ngi dng. Bn cnh Java
cng c tnh c lp vi cu trc ngha l khng ph thuc vo cc loi my, h iu hnh; cc
trnh ng dng vit bng Java c th dng c trn hu ht cc my tnh. Ngoi ra Java cng h
tr a lung ngha l cho php xy dng trnh ng dng c nhiu qu trnh c th xy ra ng
thi.
Th nghim dng mng nron BP nhn dng m vch EAN-8 c thc thi trn my
tnh Intel(R) Pentium(R) 4 CPU 1.80GHz, b nh 256 MB RAM.
Vi nhng iu kin trn th cc kt qu t c c th tng kt thng qua cc bng
sau:
Bng 6.6 Bng thng k hi t vi cc trng khi to khc nhau
Gi tr trng
khi to
S lng vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.01)
S lng vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.001)
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.16
275
265
210
201
313
299
321
757
1728
151
478
482
864
890
S vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.01)
Khng hi t
Khng hi t
Khng hi t
1123
185
778
634
Phn trm
nhn dng ng
0%
0%
4%
98%
100%
100%
100%
S vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.01)
948
345
233
208
216
562
1348
30
40
45
50
55
60
70
Phn trm
nhn dng ng
88%
92%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
S vng hc
11
138
199
Phn trm
nhn dng ng
100%
100%
100%
CU HI V BI TP
1. Th no l hc (Learning) ? Trnh by hc tham s v hc cu trc.
2. Trnh by cu trc v cc thnh phn ca mng n ron sinh hc.
3. Trnh by cu trc v cc thnh phn mng n ron sinh hc.
4. Trnh by cu trc v lut hc mng n ron Perceptron.
5. Trnh by cu trc v lut hc mng n ron ADALINE.
6. Trnh by cu trc v lut hc mng n ron Hopfield ri rc.
7. Trnh by cu trc mng n ron Lan truyn ngc.
8. Trnh by lut hc mng n ron Lan truyn ngc
9. Vit thut ton lut hc mng n ron Lan truyn ngc.
10. Trnh by phng php v tng ng dng mng n ron trong nhn dng nh.
11. Trnh by phng php v tng ng dng mng n ron trong nhn dng nh cc
khi hnh hc.
12. Trnh by phng php v tng ng dng mng n ron trong nhn dng nh m
vch.
13. Trnh by phng php thng k trong nhn dng nh.
14. Trnh by thut ton nhn dng nh theo khong cch.
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
CHNG 7: NN D LIU NH
Hc xong phn ny sinh vin c th nm c:
1. Mt s khi nim (thut ng) nh: nn, t l nn, cc tng dn n cc phng
php nn khc nhau v cch phn loi, nh gi cc phng php nn
2. Cc phng php nn nh th h th nht
3. M ha theo cc bin i ca th h th nht
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
php nn d liu khc nhau. Ni mt cch khc, cc phng php nn d liu khc nhau l do s
dng cc kiu d tha khc nhau. Ngi ta coi c 4 kiu d tha chnh :
- S phn b k t :
Trong mt dy k t,c mt s k t c tn sut xut hin nhiu hn so vi cc dy khc.
Do vy, ta c th m ha d liu mt cch c ng hn. Cc dy k t c tn sut cao c thay
bi mt t m nh phn vi s bt nh; ngc li cc dy c tn sut xut hin thp s c m
ha bi t m c nhiu bt hn. y chnh l bn cht ca phng php m ha t ha Huffman.
- S lp li ca cc k t :
K thut nn dng trong trng hp ny l thay dy lp bi dy mi gm hai thnh
phn: s ln lp v k hiu dng m. Phng php m ha kiu ny c tn l m ha lot di
RLC (Run Length Coding).
- Nhng mu s dng tn sut:
C th c dy k hiu no xut hin vi tn sut tng i cao. Do vy, c th m ha
bi t bt hn. y l c s ca phng php m ha kiu t in do Lempel-Ziv a ra v c ci
tin vo nm 1977, 1978 v do c tn gi l phng php nn LZ77,LZ78. Nm 1984, Tery
Welch ci tin hiu qu hn v t tn l LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch).
- d tha v tr:
Do s ph thuc ln nhau ca d liu, i khi bit c k hiu (gi tr) xut hin ti mt
v tr, ng thi c th on trc s xut hin ca cc gi tr cc v tr khc nhau mt cch ph
hp. Chng hn, nh biu din trong mt li hai chiu, mt s im hng dc trong mt khi
d liu li xut hin trong cng v tr cc hng khc nhau. Do vy, thay v lu tr d liu, ta ch
cn lu tr v tr hng v ct. Phng php nn da trn s d tha ny gi l phng php m
ha d on.
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
- Cc phng php nn th h th nht: Gm cc phng php m mc tnh ton l
n gin, th d vic ly mu, gn t m,.v.v.
- Cc phng php nn th h th hai: da vo bo ha ca t l nn.
Trong cch trnh by di y ta s theo cch phn loi ny.
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
bin i. Tuy nhin, trong mt s tnh hung khi tn sut l rt thp, ta c th khng c li mt
cht no, thm ch cn b thit mt t bit.
Thut ton
Thut ton bao gm 2 bc chnh:
- Giai on th nht: tnh tn sut ca cc k t trong d liu gc: duyt tp gc mt cch
tun t t u n cui xy dng bng m. Tip sau l sp xp li bng m theo th t tn
sut gim dn.
- Giai on th hai: m ha: duyt bng tn sut t cui ln u thc hin ghp 2 phn
t c tn sut xut hin thp nht thnh mt phn t duy nht. Phn t ny c tn sut bng tng 2
tn sut thnh phn. Tin hnh cp nht li bng v ng nhin loi b 2 phn t xt. Qu
trnh c lp li cho n khi bng ch c mt phn t. Qu trnh ny gi l qu trnh to cy m
Huffman v vic tp hp c tin hnh nh mt cy nh phn 2 nhnh. Phn t c tn sut thp
bn phi, phn t kia bn tri. Vi cch to cy ny, tt c cc bit d liu/k t l nt l; cc nt
trong l cc nt tng hp. Sau khi cy to xong, ngi ta tin hnh gn m cho cc nt l. Vic
m ha rt n gin: mi ln xung bn phi ta thm 1 bit 1 vo t m; mi ln xung bn tri
ta thm mt bit 0. Tt nhin c th lm ngc li, ch c gi trn m thay i cn tng chiu di
l khng i. Cng chnh do l do ny m cy c tn gi l cy m Huffman nh trn gi.
Qu trnh gii nn tin hnh theo chiu ngc li kh n gin. Ngi ta cng phi da
vo bng m to ra trong giai on nn (bng ny c gi li trong cu trc ca tp nn cng vi
d liu nn). Th d, vi mt tp d liu m tn sut cc k t cho bi.
K t
Tn sut
K t
Tn sut
Xc sut
152
1532
0.2770
323
602
0.1088
412
536
0.0969
226
535
0.0967
385
112
0.0746
602
385
0.0696
92
323
0.0585
112
315
0.0569
87
226
0.0409
1532
220
0.0396
536
152
0.0275
220
112
0.0203
315
92
0.0167
535
87
0.0158
Bng tn sut
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Lu rng, trong phng php Huffman, m ca k t l duy nht v khng m no l
phn bt u ca m khc. V vy, khi c tp nn tng bit t u n cui ta c th duyt cy m
cho n mt l, tc l k t c gii nn.
Bng t m gn cho cc k t bi m Huffman
0
10
0110
010
11110
001
11011
000
111111
1110
111110
1100
110101
0111
110100
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
0
0
1
255
255
256
256
257
257
258
Chui
259
4095
(Clear Code)
(End Of Information)
Chui
Chui
u vo
u ra
A(65)
Thc hin
A c trong t in => c tip
B(66)
65
C(67)
66
67
259
258
67
262
Chui u ra s l :
65 66 667 259 258 67 262
u vo c kch thc : 12x8 = 96 bits. u ra c kch thc l : 4x8 + 3x9 = 59 bits
T l nn l 96 : 59 1,63
Thut ton
- Gi tr c INPUT = TRUE khi vn cn d liu u vo v ngc li.
- Chc nng ca cc hm :
+ Hm InitDictionary(): hm ny c chc nng khi to t in. t gi tr cho 256 phn
t u tin. Gn m xa (Clear Code) cho phn t th 256 v m kt thc thng tin (End Of
Information) cho phn t th 257. Xa gi tr tt c cc phn t cn li.
+ Hm Output(): gi chui bit ra file. Chui ny c di l 9,10,11 hoc 12 ty thuc
vo v tr trong t in ca t m gi ra. Cc chui bit ny c ni tip vo vi nhau.
+ Hm GetNextChar(): tr v k t t chui k t u vo. Hm ny cp nht gi tr ca c
INPUT x nh xem cn d liu u vo na hay khng.
+ Hm AddtoDictionary(): s c gi khi c mt mu mi xut hin. Hm ny s cp
nht mu ny vo phn t tip theo trong t in. Nu t in y n s gi ra m xa (Clear
Code) v gi n hm InitDictionary() khi to li t in.
+ Hm Code(): tr v t m ng vi mt chui.
BEGIN
InitDictionary()
Output(Clear_Code)
OldStr = NULL
True
INPUT
Output(Code(OldStr))
OutPht(EOI)
False
NewChar = GetNextChar()
NewStr = OldStr + NewChar
InitDictionary
(NewStr)
False
OldStr = NewStr
END
True
Output(Code(OldStr))
AddtoDictionary(NewStr)
OldStr := code;
End;
if code = CC /*M xa*/
Then Begin
InitDictionary();
FIST_CODE = TRUE;
End;
NewStr := DeCode(code);
OutBuff(NewStr);
OldString = OldStr + FirstChar(NewStr);
AddtoDictionary(OldStr);
OldString := NewStr;
End;
+ Gi tr c FIRST_CODE = TRUE ch m va c l m u tin ca mi mnh nh.
M u tin c cch x l hi khc so vi cc m tip theo.
+ M CC bo hiu ht mt mnh nh. M EOF bo hiu ht ton b thng tin nh.
+ Chc nng ca cc hm:
- GetNextCode(): hm ny c thng tin u vo (d liu nn) tr v m tng ng.
Chng ta nh li rng, d liu nn gm chui cc t m ni tip nhau. Ban u l 9
bit, sau tng ln 10 bit ri 11, 12 bit. Nhim v ca hm ny khng phi n gin.
bit c ti thi im hin thi, t m di bao nhiu bit ra phi lun theo di t
in v cp nht di t m ti cc phn t th 512,1024, 2048.
- OutBuff(): hm ny gi chui gi tr gii m ra vng nh m.
- DeCode(): hm ny tra cu t in v tr v chui k t tng ng vi t m.
- FirstChar(): ly k t u tin ca mt chui. K t va xc nh ni tip vo chui k
t c ( gii m bc trc) ta c chui k t c mt trong t in khi nn.
Chui ny s c thm vo t in gii nn.
- OutPut(): gi chui bt ra file. Chui bt ny c di l 9, 10, 11 hoc 12 ty thuc
vo v tr trong t in ca t m gi ra. Cc chui bit ny c ni tip vo vi nhau.
Trng hp ngoi l v cch x l
i vi gii thut LZW tn ti mt trng hp c sinh ra nhng chng trnh gii nn
c th khng gii m c. Gi s c l mt k t, S l mt chui c di ln hn 0. Nu m k
ca t in cha gi tr l cS. Ngay sau k c dng thay th cho cSc. Trong chng trnh gii
nn, k s xut hin trc khi n c nh ngha. Rt may l t m va c trong trng hp ny
bao gi cng c ni dung trng vi t hp ca t m c vi k t u tin ca n. iu ny gip
cho qu trnh ci t chng trnh khc phc c trng hp ngoi l mt cch d dng.
Phng php ny lc u c pht trin cho nh s 2 mc xm, sau hon thin thm
bi cc phng php thch nghi v m rng cho nh s a cp xm.
Cho mt nh s I(x, y) kch thc MxN. Ngi ta chia nh nh s thnh cc khi hnh ch nht
kch thc kx1, (k, 1) l rt nh so vi M, N. Nh vy nh gc coi nh gm cc khi con xp cnh
nhau v c N x M/(k x 1) khi con.
Ta c th dng phng php m ha Huffman cho tng khi ca nh gc, ngha l gn
cho mi t khi mt t m nh phn nh phn trn. Mt kh khn gp phi khi dng m ha ti
u Huffman l s lng khi qu ln. Gii php y l dng m ha gn ti u, n gin
hn thc hin m ha.
Gi thit cc khi l c lp nhau v s cu hnh l 2kl. Gi p(I, k, l) l xc sut xut hin
cu hnh I, entropy tng ng l:
2 kl
Vi:
p(t / t )
=
p(t / d
)
p(d / t)
p(d / d )
(7.1)
(7.2)
Cr =
+Khi hai chiu:
1
k 1
k (1 p (t )) p(t/t )
]+ 1
(7.3)
Xc sut p(0, k, l) ca cc khi ton trng cng tnh c mt cch tng t nh trn:
p(0,k,l) = p(t)p(t/t)k-1[p(t/t).p(t/X = t, Y = t)l-1] k-1
(7.4)
(7.5)
Cr =
[(
p (t )) p t )
(t /
k +l 2
(7.6)
kl
k opt
= T
1I
l=1
(7.7)
I >1
N l s im nh trn hng
[6 ] :
X (m, n ) =
- x(k,1) l tn hiu vo
l =0
k =0
Trc khi thit k b lng ha, ngi ta tm cch loi b mt s h s khng cn thit.
B4. M ha
Tn hiu u vo ca b lng ha s c m ha trn cc t bit truyn i hay lu tr
li. Qu trnh m ha da vo bin i c th c tm tt trn hnh 7.4 di y.
Nu ta chn php bin i KL, cho phng php s c mt s nhc im: khi lng
tnh ton s rt ln v phi tnh ma trn hip bin, tip sau l phi gii phng trnh tm tr ring
v vct ring xc nh cc h s. V l do ny, trn thc t ngi ta thch dng cc bin i
khc nh Hadamard, Haar, Sin v Cosin. Trong s bin i ny, bin i Cosin thng hay c
dng nhiu hn.
AUAt
Lng ha
2
k
N 1
n =0
1
2
(2n + 1)k
x(n)cos
2N
(7.10)
khi k = 0
Trong : k =
0
khi k = [1,N-1]
Khi dy u vo x(n) l thc th dy cc h s X(k) cng l s thc. Tnh ton trn trng
s thc gim i mt na thi gian so vi bin i Fourier. t c tc bin i tha mn
yu cu ca cc ng dng thc t, ngi ta ci tin k thut tnh ton v a ra nhiu thut ton
bin i nhanh Cosine. Mt trong nhng thut ton c gii thiu di y.
Php bin i Cosin nhanh
Php bin i Cosin nhanh vit tt l FCT (Fast Cosine Transform), da vo tng a
bi ton ban u v t hp cc bi ton bin i FCT trn cc dy con. Vic tin hnh bin i
trn cc dy con s n gin hn rt nhiu so vi dy gc. V th, ngi ta tip tc phn nh dy
tn hiu cho n khi ch cn mt phn t.
Gii thut bin i Cosin nhanh khng thc hin trc tip trn dy tn hiu u vo x(n)
m thc hin trn dy x(n) l mt hon v ca x(n). Gi thit s im cn tnh FCT l ly tha
ca 2: N=2M
D liu u vo s c sp xp li nh sau:
N
1
2
N
1
2
Rt gn biu thc:
2N
n =0
(4n + 3)k
2N
n=0
N 1
X(k) =
x(2n 1)Cos
x'(2n)Cos
n=0
(4n + 1)k
2N
X(2k) =
+x'(n +
n =0
N (4n + 1)2k
) cos
N
2
2(
)
2
C th chuyn v dng:
N 1
X(2k) = x'(n)cos
1)k
n =0
(4n +
(7.11)
2N
Cc cng thc:
C th nhn ra ngay cc cng trn l cc php bin i Cosin N/2 im ca g(n) v h(n).
Nh vy, bi ton bin i Cosin ca dy x(n) c a v bin i Cosin ca hai dy l g(n)
v h(n) c kch thc bng mt na x(n). Hai dy g(n) v h(n) tnh ton c mt cch d dng,
g(n) l tng ca na u dy x(n) vi na sau ca n, h(n) l hiu ca na u dy x(n) vi na
sau ca n, sau em nhn vi 2C Nn . Ta lp li qu trnh chia i i vi cc dy con, dy con
ca dy con v c tip tc nh th. Ging nh bin i Fourier, mi bc lp cng c coi l
mt tng phn chia. Vi N = 2M th s tng phn chia l M.
d hnh dung, u ra ca mi tng c k hiu l Xm(n) vi m l tng hin thi. Ta
xem x(n) l bin i Cosin(0) tng ca x(n):
X0(n) = x(n)
(7.12)
XM(n) l bin i Cosin tng M ca x(n), n khng phi l X(k). Bi v c sau mi tng,
khng ch th t cc phn t trong X(k) b xo trn m cc X(2k+1) cn c cng vi X(2k-1).
u ra ca mt tng l u vo ca tng tip theo.
2
N
X1(n) = g(n)
vi
n = 0,1,,
1
(7.14)
X1(n+
N
) = h(n)
2
vi
n = 0,1,,
N
1
2
N
)
2
N
N i
) = X 0 (i) X 0 (i
) 2C N vi n = 0,1,,N-1
2
2
+
(7.15)
N
m1 . Cng on bin i trn mt dy con gi l mt
2
khi bin i. Mi dy con s tip tc c phn lm hai dy nh hn. Cng thc tng qut ca
mi khi l:
tng th nht. S phn t trong mt dy l:
N
X m (i) = X m1 (i) + X m1 (i +
(7.16)
)
2m
X
(i +2N )
m m
vi
i=k
N
2
m1
,..., k
m 1
N
N
m
m1 +
m , trong k=0,1,,2 1
2
2
Phn xy dng cng thc tng qut trong php bin i nhanh Fourier c trnh by kh
chi tit trn, chng ta c th xem li phn ny hiu hn v cng thc tng qut cho mt khi
bin i nhanh Cosin.
Thut ton bin i nhanh Cosin c th m t bng cc bc sau:
i
Bc 1: Tnh dy h s C j .
Xc nh s tng M = log 2 N
Tng hin thi m=1
Bc 2: Nu m M thc hin bc 5. Nu khng kt thc.
(Cha ht cc khi trong mt tng)
Bc 3: Khi hin thi k = 0.
Bc 4: Nu k<2m-1 Thc hin bc 5. Nu khng thc hin bc 6.
(Cha ht cc khi trong mt tng)
Bc 5: Tnh ton Xm(i) trong khi theo cng thc tng qut (8.16),(8.17).
Tng k ln 1. Quay v bc 4.
Bc 6: Tng m ln 1. Quay v bc 2
(Chuyn n tng tip theo)
Khc vi bin i Fourier nhanh, trong bin i Cosin, x(n) khng phi u vo trc tip
v X(k) khng phi l u ra trc tip. u vo, x(n) ch l cch sp xp li x(n). Chng ta bit
i hoc ch nhn mt s gi tr c th, ngi ta thng tnh trc C j v ghi ra file. Khi thc hin
i
bin i th c t file ly thng tin ny. Trong ng dng ca chng ta, ta tnh trc C j v lu
vo mt mng. Php bin i s truy cp bng ny ly h s cn thit.
Php bin i Cosin ngc
Php bin i Cosin ngc c nh ngha bng cng thc:
N 1
k(2n +
Vi k
(7.18)
2N
k =0
= 2
khi k = 0
khi k 0
Php bin i Cosin ngc s c thc hin theo chiu ngc li vi quy trnh tin
hnh trong php bin i nhanh. Tuy nhin, cng vic ny khng c thun li nh php bin
i FFT ngc. T X(k) chng ta phi khi phc li XM(k) bng cch thc hin cc php cng truy
hi v php hon v theo th t o bit. Cng thc tng qut cho mi khi bin i ngc c
xy dng da trn cng thc tng qut trong bin i xui:
Vi i = k
N
2
m1
Xm-1(i+
Xm-1(i) =
,...,k
N
N
m1 +
m , trong
2
2
k = 0,1,,2m 1
N
1
1 X m(i) X m(i +N ) i
m ) =
2m
2
2
2C N/2 m1
1
2
N
X m(i) + X m(i + )
m
(7.19)
1
2C
(7.20)
i
N/2 m1
Php bin i ngc phi ci t ring. Tuy vy, t tng chnh ca hai bi ton xui v
ngc v c bn ging nhau. u ra ca php bin i ngc s l x(n). Mun thu c x(n) ta
phi o v tr.
b. Php bin i Cosin ri rc hai chiu
Php bin i Cosin ri rc hai chiu c nh ngha bi:
N 1 1N 2
1
k1 k2
4
X(k k ) =
1, 2 ,n
N 1 N 2 n1=0 n2 =0
Trong ,
=
k1
x(n )Cos
1
(2n +
1 1)k
=0 khi k1 =0 v
2N 1
k1
(2n + 1)k
1
Cos
2N 2
1
khi k1 = 1,2,,N1 -1
2
(7.21)
k2
=0 khi k2 =0 v
1
khi k2 = 1,2,,N2 -1
2
k2
1, 2
(2n +
1)k
2
k1 k2
x(n n ) =
2N
X(k ,k ) Cos
k1
2N
k1=0 k2=0
trong ,
(2n + 1)k
Cos
(7.22)
k2
nng cao tc bin i ngi ta pht trin cc gii thut bin i nhanh Cosin hai
chiu. Cch lm ph bin nht l tn dng php bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu. Ta bin i cng
thc (7.21) v dng:
2
2
X(k 1,k 2 ) = k1
N1
N1
N 2 1
N 1 1
k2
n1=0
(2n + 1)k
(2n + 1)k
2
2
1
1
x(n1 ,n2 )Cos
Cos
2N
2N
n2 =0
2
(7.23)
t:
(2n2 +
1)k 2
2N 2
(7.24)
(2n1+1)k1
2 k1 N1 1
[
X'(n1, k2 )]Cos
N 1 n1=0
2N 1
(7.25)
X(n1,k2) =
N 2 1
2k2
x(n ,n )Cos
1
N1
n2 =0
X(k1,k 2 ) =
N 2 1
1, 2
t:
x(n n ) =
k1=0
k2
(2n + 1)k
2N
X(k ,k ) Cos
2
2
k2=0
N 1 1
k1=0
(2n + 1)k
k1
2N
Cos
(2n1 +
1)k1
2N 1
Khi
(7.26)
(7.27)
cng thc (7.26) s tr
thnh:
N 2 1
x' (k1, n2 ) =
X(k1 ,k 2 )
Cos
(2n2 + 1)k2
2N 2
(7.28)
k2
k2=0
Cng thc (7.27) l php bin i Cosin ngc ri rc mt chiu ca X (k1, k 2 ) , trong k2
l bin s, cn k1 ng vai tr l tham s thu c kt qu trung gian x' (k1, n2 ) . Cng thc (7.28)
P
h
n
nh
gc
8x8
DCT
Lng
t ha
M
ha
nh
nn
8x8
khi 8 x 8
k
h
i
8x8
Bng
lng
t
Bng
m
nh
nn
Gii
m
Tng
t ha
Bng
m
DCT
ngc
nh
gii
nn
Bng
lng
t
hoc hng dc ta phi qua 10 tng (1024 = 210). S cc h s C j l: 512 + 256 + 128 + 64 + 8 + 4
i
+ 2 + 1 = 1021. Thi gian tnh ton cc h s C j vi ton b nh 1024 x 1024 ln gp 150 ln so
M' N'
B = = MB NB
k l
Cc khi c xc nh bi b s (m,n) vi m = [0MB-1] v n = [0NB-1], y m ch
th t ca khi theo chiu rng, n ch th t ca khi theo chiu di. Phn tch khi thc cht l
xc nh tng quan gia ta ring trong khi vi ta thc ca im nh trong nh ban u.
Nu nh ban u k hiu Image[i,j] th ma trn biu din khi (m,n) l x[u, v] c tnh:
x[u,v] = Image[mk + u,nl + v]
+ Bin i
Bin i l mt trong nhng cng on ln trong cc phng php nn s dng php bin
i. Nhim v ca cng on bin i l tp trung nng lng vo mt s t cc h s bin i.
Cng thc bin i cho mi khi l:
X (k , k
1
)=
k1 k 2
x(n , n )Cos
1
n1=0 n 2=0
(2n1 + 1)k1
(2n 2 + 1)k 2
Cos
16
16
(7.29)
Trong :
k1=
2
0
k 2
khi k1 = 0
khi 0 < k1 < 8
= 2
khi k 2 = 0
khi 0 < k 2 < 8
Thut ton bin i nhanh Cosin hai chiu cho mi khi trong trng hp ny s bao gm
16 php bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu. u tin, ngi ta bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu cho
cc dy im nh trn mi hng. Ln lt thc hin cho 8 hng. Sau em bin i nhanh Cosin
mt chiu theo tng ct ca ma trn va thu c sau 8 php bin i trn. Cng ln lt thc
hin cho 8 ct. Ma trn cui cng s l ma trn h s bin i ca khi tng ng.
Trong s gii nn ta phi dng php bin i Cosin ngc. Cng thc bin i ngc
cho khi 8x8:
x(n ,n ) =
1
1
4
(2n1 + 1)k1
16
k1=0 k1=0
Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
(8.30)
16
trong :
k1
= 2
k 2
= 2
khi k1 = 0
khi 0 < k1 <
khi 8 k 2 = 0
khi
0< k2< 8
+ LNG T HA
Khi lng t ha trong s nn ng vai tr quan trong v quyt nh t l nn ca
chun nn j. u vo ca khi lng t ha l cc ma trn h s bin i Cosin ca cc khi im
nh.
yj =
yj - j
j
j l lch c bn ca h s th j.
Nh vy chng ta s ng nht c mc quyt nh v mc to li cho tt c cc h s.
Do , cc h s c biu din cng bng mt s lng bit. C nhiu cch tip cn tnh c
cc mc quyt nh v mc to li. Lloyd Max a ra gii thut sau:
Bc 1: Chn gi tr khi to:
d 0 = yL
d N = yH
r0 = d0
N l mc lng t
Bc 2: Cho i bin thin t i n N-1 thc hin cc cng vic sau:
a. Tnh di theo cng thc:
di
y. p( y)dy
ri 1 =
d i 1
di
di 1
p( y)dy
dN
dN 1
dN
y. p(
y)dy p(
y)dy
N 1
Bc 4: Nu rN-1 r iu chnh li r0 v lp li t bc 2 n bc 4.
Trong qu trnh ci t to ra mt b lng t ha, Lloyd v Max c nhiu ci tin
tnh ton d dng hn. Xc nh d1 bng cng thc trong bc 2a c tin hnh theo phng
php Newton-Raphson. Sau y l cc bc m t ton b cng vic ca khi lng t ha tc
ng ln cc h s bin i Cosin:
Bc 1: Tnh trung bnh cng v lch c bn cho tng h s mi v tr
trong khi
j =
y
n
n y2( y )
i= j j
n(n 1)
Vi yj l h s th j, n l s khi.
Bc 2: La chn t l s h s gi li trong mt khi.
Bc 3: Gi li cc h s c lch c bn ln hn
Bc 4: Lp ma trn T sao cho: Tij =1 nu h s (i,j) c gi li.
Bc 5: Cn chnh li gi tr ca cc h s xoay chiu c gi li cc khi:
C ij =
C ij ij
ij
ca cc phn b va tnh.
Bc 8: Lng t ha cc h s xoay chiu bng cch s dng b lng t LloydMax sau khi iu chnh mc quyt nh v mc to li ca n theo cch sau:
di di
s ri ri
s dN = -d0
Thnh phn mt chiu s khng lng t ha. n y, ta chuyn sang bc nn.
+ Nn d liu
u vo ca khi nn gm hai thnh phn: thnh phn cc h s mt chiu v thnh phn
cc h s xoay chiu.
Thnh phn cc h s mt chiu Ci(0, 0) vi i = 0,1,,63 cha phn ln nng lng tn
hiu hnh nh. Ngi ta khng nn trc tip cc gi tr Ci(0, 0) m xc nh lch ca Ci(0, 0):
di = Ci+1(0, 0) Ci(0, 0)
di c gi tr nh hn nhiu so vi Ci nn trong biu din du phy ng theo chun IEE754
thng cha nhiu chui bit 0 nn c th cho hiu sut nn cao hn. Gi tr C0(0, 0) v cc
lch d1, c ghi ra mt tp tm. Tp ny c nn bng phng php nn Huffman.
Thnh phn cc h s xoay chiu C1(m, n) vi 1m7, 1n7 cha cc thng tin chi tit
ca nh. nng cao hiu qu nn cho mi b h s trong mt khi, ngi ta xp chng li theo
th t ZigZag.
Tc dng ca sp xp li theo th t ZigZag l to ra nhiu loi h s ging nhau. Chng
ta bit rng nng lng ca khi h s gim dn t gc trn bn tri xung gc di bn phi nn
vic sp xp li cc h s theo th t ZigZag s to iu kin cho cc h s xp x nhau ( cng mc
lng t) nm trn mt dng.
Mi khi ZigZag ny c m ha theo phng php RLE. Cui mi khi u ra ca
RLE, ta t du kt thc khi EOB (End Of Block). Sau , cc khi c dn li v m ha mt
ln bng phng php m Huffman. Nh c du kt thc khi nn c th phn bit c hai khi
cnh nhau khi gii m Huffman. Hai bng m Huffman cho hai thnh phn h s tt nhin s khc
nhau.
c th gii nn c, chng ta phi ghi li thng tin nh: kch thc nh, kch thc
khi, ma trn Y, lch tiu chun, cc mc to li, hai bng m Huffman, kch thc khi nn
mt chiu, kch thc khi nn xoay chiu v ghi ni tip vo hai file nn ca thnh phn h s.
Ci t gii thut cho nn thc s phc tp. Chng ta phi nm c cc kin thc v nn
RLE, Huffman, bin i Cosin, xy dng b lng t ha Lloyd-MaxNn v gii nn j hi
chm nhng b li, thi gian truyn trn mng nhanh hn do kch thc tp nn nh.
Vi nhng u im ca mnh c ISO chp nhn l chun nh quc t v c bit n
di m s ISO 10918-1.
(7.31)
fi
f i +1
Theo cch ny, ta c mt cu trc xp chng t nh cu trc Kim t thp m kch thc gim dn
t gc n nh. Nhn chp Gauss c dng y c kch thc 5x5. Cc tn hiu ra sau
c lng ha v mu ha.
Theo kt qu cng b [6] vi b lc gii thp mt chiu tch c vi cc trng s:
g(0) = 0,7, g(-1) = g(1) = 0,25 v g(-2) = g(2) = 0,1. T s nn dao ng t 6/1 n 32/1. Tuy
nhin, nu t s nn cao th nh kt qu s c bin dng.
a thc ging nhau. R dng l vic m ha ring bit cc a thc l iu kin hiu qu v ngi
ngh n hp cc vng gim d tha ny.
Qu trnh hp c tin hnh nh sau: nu hai vng c th c xp x bi 2 a thc
tng t, ngi ta hp chng lm mt v ch dng mt a thc xp x. Nu mc thay i l
thp, ta s c nhiu cp vng tng t. c th nhn c kt qu khng ph thuc vo ln hp
u, ngi ta xy dng th vng k cn. Cc nt ca th ny l cc vng v cc lin h
biu din mi khng tng ng. S lin h vi mc khng tng ng thp ch ra rng hai vng
cn hp li.
Sau bc hp ny, th c cp nht li v qu trnh hp c lp li cho n khi tiu
chun l tha mn. Qu trnh hp dng c th quyt nh bi cht lng nh nn hay mt tiu
chun no khc.
Ta c th thy rng phng php ny kh phc tp song b li n cho t s nn kh cao 60
trn 1 [6].
7.5 KT LUN
Mi phng php nn u c nhng u im v nhc im. Tnh hiu qu ca phng
php khng ch ph thuc vo t s nn m cn vo nhiu ch tiu khc nh: phc tp tnh
ton, nhy cm vi nhiu, cht lng, kiu nh, v.v
Nn l mt vn ln c quan tm nhiu v c lin quan n nhiu lnh vc khc nhau.
Chng ta khng hi vng c th trnh by tt c trong mt chng. Song d sao, chng ny cng
cung cp mt s khi nim v cc phng php kh dng v mt s phng php mi v nn d
liu nht l nn nh. Bng tng kt di y cung cp cho chng ta mt cch nhn tng i ton
din v cc phng php nn.
Bng so snh kt qu mt s phng php nn
Phng php
T s nn
phc tp
Cht lng
Nhy cm
vi nhiu
Kiu nh
RLC
10
n gin
Rt tt
Ln
Nh phn
D on
2-4
n gin
Rt tt
Trung bnh
Mi nh
Bin i
10-15
Phc tp
Tt
Rt km
a cp xm
Pyramide Laplace
5-10
Trung bnh
Tt
Ln
a cp xm
20-30
Phc tp
Trung bnh
Rt ln
a cp xm
Tch v hp
60-70
Rt phc tp
Trung bnh
Rt ln
a cp xm
CU HI N TP
1. Vit mt chng trnh nn v gii nn theo phng php RLC (n gin, dc, ngang, hay
kt hp).
: Back Propagation
CCD
CIE
dpi
EP
FIR
GA
GIF
JPEG : Joint Phograph Expert Group : Tn ca nhm nghin cu cc chun nn cho nh,
thnh lp
nm 1982. Tn c l IOS. Nm 1986, JPEG chnh thc c thnh lp.
KL
PLD
PC
PSF
Mc lc
MC LC
LI NI U ................................................................................................................................ 1
CHNG 1: NHP MN X L NH ..................................................................................... 3
1.1. GII THIU V H THNG X L NH.............................................................................................. 3
1.2 NHNG VN C BN TRONG H THNG X L NH ........................................................... 6
1.2.1 im nh (Picture Element) .................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 phn gii ca nh ............................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.3 Mc xm ca nh .................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.4 nh ngha nh s.................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.5 Quan h gia cc im nh ................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.6 Cc thnh phn c bn ca h thng x l nh ..................................................................................... 9
1.3 NHNG VN KHC TRONG X L NH .................................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Bin i nh (Image Transform) ......................................................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Nn nh ............................................................................................................................................... 11
CU HI N TP........................................................................................................................................... 11
Mc lc
3.1 CI THIN NH S DNG CC TON T IM.............................................................................. 24
3.1.1 Tng tng phn (Stretching Contrast) .......................................................................................... 25
3.1.2 Tch nhiu v phn ngng................................................................................................................. 26
3.1.4 Ct theo mc (Intensity Level Slicing) ................................................................................................ 27
3.1.5 Trch chn bit (Bit Extraction)............................................................................................................. 27
3.1.6 Tr nh ................................................................................................................................................ 28
3.1.7 Nn di sng. .................................................................................................................................. 28
3.1.8 M hnh ha v bin i lc xm ................................................................................................. 28
3.2 CI THIN NH DNG TON T KHNG GIAN .............................................................................. 28
3.2.1 Lm trn nhiu bng lc tuyn tnh: lc trung bnh v lc di thng thp .......................................... 29
3.2.2 Lm trn nhiu bng lc phi tuyn ...................................................................................................... 31
3.2.3 Mt n g sai phn v lm nhn .......................................................................................................... 32
3.2.4. Lc thng thp, thng cao v lc di thng ........................................................................................ 33
3.2.5. Khuych i v ni suy nh ................................................................................................................ 33
3.2.6. Mt s k thut ci thin nh nh phn ............................................................................................... 34
3.3 KHI PHC NH ..................................................................................................................................... 35
3.3.1. Cc m hnh quan st v to nh ........................................................................................................ 36
3.3.2 Cc b lc ............................................................................................................................................ 38
CU HI N TP CHNG 3...................................................................................................................... 39
Mc lc
CHNG 6: NHN DNG NH .............................................................................................. 60
6.1 GII THIU .......................................................................................................................................... 60
6.1.1 Khng gian biu din i tng, khng gian din dch....................................................................... 60
6.1.2 M hnh v bn cht ca qu trnh nhn dng ..................................................................................... 61
6.2 NHN DNG DA THEO MIN KHNG GIAN................................................................................. 63
6.2.1 Phn hoch khng gian........................................................................................................................ 63
6.2.2 Hm phn lp hay hm ra quyt nh.................................................................................................. 63
6.2.3 Nhn dng theo phng php thng k ............................................................................................... 64
6.2.4 Thut ton nhn dng da vo khong cch........................................................................................ 65
6.3 NHN DNG DA THEO CU TRC .................................................................................................. 65
6.3.1 Biu din nh tnh .............................................................................................................................. 65
6.3.2 Cc bc nhn dng ............................................................................................................................ 67
6.4 NHN DNG DA THEO MNG NRON........................................................................................... 67
6.4.1 Gii thiu mng nron ........................................................................................................................ 67
6.4.2 Nhn dng nh cc hnh khi .............................................................................................................. 79
6.4.3 Nhn dng nh m vch ...................................................................................................................... 81
CU HI V BI TP................................................................................................................................... 86
X L NH
M s: 412XLA450
Chu trch nhim bn tho
TRUNG TM O TO BU CHNH VIN THNG 1