YASSER TARBAA, THE MUQARNAS DOME: ITS ORIGIN AND MEANING. (One ofthe most orginal inventions of Iam architec: ture isthe mugarnas, and one of the mort eletive and widespread of ts appleatons is without doubt the at Games dome oF semidome. Brick vavits and domes have been known in the Near Eas since Stssanin times, ifuor before, but the dome in mogamasia truly Iolamie creation without precedent in any civlizaion ‘Whether made of wood, stucen, brick, or stone. tga has vaults were among the most characteristic etures of medieval Ilamie arehitecture from Iran to Spain, I. Istherelore not surprising tht a gond number of tudes Ihave been dediated to the description ad aralysls of {his architectural form,' Whae ie surprising, however, fs ‘hatin spite of ll these studs such base proslems os trgin, chronology, geographic distibution—not to ‘meation meaning-—remain undear and subject to debate. My intention hee et discus these problems, though not forall types of mugarnas in all periods, | shall iit mypelf ro tnugarnas ones andl vats con: structed between ©. 1080 and e. 1250, tha it 1 the ‘earliest known examples Limiting the scope of dhe ditcunion tothe eaniet known mugatnas domes requires some explanation. My reasons are to. Fist ofall, any attempt to cacern meaning in sucha common architectural frm faces the danger of fling into # morass of overgenerlization ‘ules itis focused in some way." The problens of a terpreting Ilamie architecture have been discussed by Oleg Grabar both very recently and in a niaer of alien esays.? Grabar ateibues the disjunct, or a least the weak connection, between form and meaning {or symbol tothe “low symbole charge” of Imi ar ‘hitectural forms, a characteristic that lia led to “an ambiguous visual rytem.”® While that concusion is generally correc, it overloks the point tht certain forms in certain specific times and places had a "high symbolic charge" atthe moment of their inception. ow long these forms continued co be used ith fal awareness of their highly charged meaning depended fn a variety of factors, but generally speaking thae ‘awareness was lost, and the concomitant delieement of ‘meaningfol forms into mete decoration took place, ‘much more quickly in Islam that in other cultures and ‘eligions* Ie therefore becomes imperative in searching for meaning in any given form of Ilamie architecture to begin with the origin ofthis form and to focus on its aries development-paticulaly it First use ouside 1s place of origin, Because equally carly “mugeenaelike" elements have been found in both northeastern Tran andl central NNomth Alves, most authorities assume that the mugar nas (and hence the mugarnas done either originate in fone or the other place oF was invented smtaneously in both, Specialists in eanian architertorepostlate ontinwous line of development that begins wit the temth-century fragments found near Nishapus and the tripartite squinches of the Iatetenth-century Arab Ata ‘mausoleum at Tira, candies with the numerous cleventh-century Seljaq domes, and ends with Mkhanid and Timorid mugarnas domes and portal vas” The problem with this theory is that no direct link ean be ‘tablished between Seg domes and land mugar rnas domes and portal vaults, Large stnooth Seliog domes which spring trom a mulipartite aquinch zone continue unchanged unt wll int the Ikan period, 38 a comparion between the domes of the Great Moaguer of Isfahan (1088) and Veramin (1922-26) shows. Therefore, although the dillereniation of the Sauinch ito maqamas cells does indeed occu firs in northeastern Ian, the total magaraas dome ofthe I anid perio is nota product ofthis development and must therefore be atte to some other ture, ‘As for the Nom Afviean development, I doubt i the so-called snuqarnas fragments dacovered at Qafat bani Hammad and dated to the ste eleventh century are rmuqarnas at all? They share no properties with true rmugarnas cells and in any eae they could never have heen assembled to ill dhe cavity ofa dome oF even82 niche. Not by any stretch ofthe imagination could they have led to the wellknown twellveentary mugarnas ‘vaults ina number of North African mosques. Bats northeastern Iran and North Afi therefore save tbe ‘lina as likely places forthe origin of the mug nas dome Another possibility is Traq, since it has provided ws with the eaiert example of fully fledged magaroae dome in the worcalled shine of Imam aD, lated some twenty filometers north of Samara i village (Unt hei te al apn are Dy the called akDawr"" It is x shrine dedicated to Imam ‘Mulhammad ion Musa ibn Jatlar, an alleged son ofthe £igh Shiite Imam. le was begun by the “Ugayiid prince ‘Muslims ibn Quays, who de in 1085, and was com pleted. before 1090 by officials of hit court The ‘mausoleum consists of an elongated. chamber with ‘apering walls about twelve meters high and a moqae- sts dome almost exactly the same height (slate 1) As fn early example of is type, this dome betrays certain ins with the regular xquinch donne. The square of ‘he chambers transformed into at octagon through the tue of large and heavily profited aquinches (pate 2) gh smaller squinehes (of, in fct, large muqarnat calli) rest on this octagon and forin an ebght-poined ‘ar with four windows, The res ofthe dome is male up of three more cighteclled ters with ever ‘ninshing cells, each with a 45-degree rotation and a Tile cupola om tap (pte 3).‘HE ugaMNns BoM 63 i would have been quite eaible to build s smooth dome afer the aquinch zone, but a deliberate choee ‘vas made instead ic continge the intricate layering of fight-celled mugarnas tiers until the desired height nd complexity were reached, Structurally, the eects to ‘make the denne appear inet, athe play of ight fm ite inscate suriacescisolves its mass, Tht visual isla, totally nssng in Seng Iranian domes, sone Df the mot important fexores of mugarias wt. This ealest magarnas dome, appeating ws docs ia a snal village of ite historical significance ir ulikely To have been the it ofits kind or the model eal lace rmugarnas domes, First of al, because Ilan urchite ture prospered mainly in cies, i in cities that one shoe lok for major innovations, Second, Merl ton Quraysh, the patton of the shrine, was in certain respects a vassal of the Abbas caliph and despite his ShiSte inclinations, maintained trang and generally friendly inks with the caliphate. Thin, although no ‘early mugarnas domes ate preserved in Baghdad, «0 roiniatres, one dated 873° (1458) and the other 944 (1537) show bird's-eye views of the city with numerous Inugarnas domes (plates 48), Taken together, these Suggest that Baghdad might have been the center in Which dhe mugarnas dome originated. Iwas certainly 4 ery common Teatare of the cityscape by the late medieval period." tiearious therefore tha the next dated examples of not from Baghdad at all, nor are they from anywhere in Iraq, ut tome Iran wach diverse places as Damascus, Palermo, Fes, and Ti mal. All date from the tweith century. Pow the alist example i in the mosque ofthe Qaraweiyyin a¢ Fess it dates from the restoration under dhe Murabitan (Almmoravd) dynasty between 1135 anc L140, The hole axial nave ofthis mosque is covered by series of6 ‘ass TABDAA Pate 4. Rot af Raha smanosripr (1450), Bria Vb Ad. 1661, la stucco mugarnas vaults of great complexity and ex fallent execution (plate 6) “The sudden appearance of an architecturd frm at such an advanced level of development has peed ara jor problem for architectural historians. Hen Ter- ‘asst, who devoted a monograph to the mosge of the Qarweiyyin, anseres that, although eacier eximples of ‘he muqarnas exstin Tran, the mugarnas vans at Fez (eee 3 Bit Pe, View Maga, Mata, Ages Ma Sse oe aan, se the earliest oftheir kind and are therefore the prod tue of local development.* ‘This argument can be fefuted in part because an eartir example docs extn the form of the shrine of Imam al-Daver of 1087 alresdy mentioned, A mich closer, though slightly Inter, parallel ean be found in the mavistan of Nat al-Din in ‘Damascus, bail in 1154.” The maristan al-Nuri con tains four specimens of mogurnas vaulting used in three tlfeent way: asa portal woul (dhe caries oft kind), sea muqarnas dome (pte 7), and as a vault fora niche (plate 8) The silarty between the Fer vaults andrie ganas Dome 65 ne 6 Fe Magu of Quran Magara va, 815242 rom Fr aa Grin 32 those af the marin expecially the two niches i quite ‘lear (plates 8 and 8), These vaults are alo male of fuceo and serve no seuctral purpore—they are mere Iy suspended by # wooden framework from the load bearing vault above them. ‘They are equally intiete, and they bth conan pendants and terminate in eight pointed stars ‘The mugarnas vaults of the marian, Tike other features in it such a ts co-axial foursivan plan, relect Iraqi inBvence.” Tet reasonable to nig feat, therefore, that the vauls of the moxgue of the Qurawiyyin ave nota local development but rather a direct import from Baghdad. By Tar the largest number of independent mugaenas does are found in Iraq andthe Jara, over an area fextending from Basra and Khuzistan in the south w Mosul and Raga in the north (ig. 1. The majority of them shrines ae dated, or datable to, between the mid dle of de welts ceneury ad dhe Mongol invasion, a petiod of grest building activity in Teagan the Jazira 1A preliminary typology, largely based on building Inaterial and conduction method, of the move chan twenty shrines known to me ean yiekl the esental Features of she manana dome The ist, but late common, type in Trg i the waule made of ceo and sorpended Irom-the estrior vault shove it by a wonden framework. This tthe method found in the marin Nuri and the mosque of the ‘Qnrowiyyin (plates 6-8), and i later became extremely popular in North Africa snd Spain ‘The second type, which became most common in Iraq, is made of brick ad consists of singe shell ie the only type in which the interior articulations of the tmugaras are reflected on the exterior. "The sine of Timain al Daver illustrates ie earliest manifestation, but iis not really typical of later, more developed ex rapes. ls cella at to large o suggest a true mucar ‘bs, eventhough their multiple peofling was meant to convey that impression. In addition, the cell sping on Iy fom the corners of the octagon, in eoateat to later fnmances where they spring Irom the walls as well ‘Thee oulsanding ‘extmples of this type are” the maniclewm af Nur al-Din in Darnascas, the shrine of Zamorad Khatun is Baghdad, and a lile-kaown ‘Shrine elle al-Najni in south Tra. “The mausoleum of Nur al-Din, dated 567 (1172), is part of lneger complex which includes 2 madeasa and {tnagid. Unlike its protrype st che maristan of Nur AAEDin, which is made of seen, the mugaenas dome ‘over thie sine ir made of brick, and it interior ar tieulation is rected on the exterior (plate 9). The66 assem ran O manta dimer dome springs from a square base which i divided into twelve parts four tiny squinches snd eight small mi {qaraas columns (plate 10) The mugarnas colamns sip port the cental portion of the four sider which consis of thre ters of corbled mugarnas cell In the second ‘zone the middle sections taper upward to resemble 3 trapezoid with considerable horizontal projection the foneellsquinches expund into wo, thee, and finaly four ells (pate 11). By the thi zone, the sare base changes into an ‘ivegular octagon formed by the shrunken middle sides and the expanded squinches. This zone cenians four axial windows, the lowest of them on the exterior. In the fourth zone, the octagon i transformed into an approximately inion cise of twenty elements. Ten intersecting arches isthe fith zone reduce dhe number of the cells to ten, end lle Sealoped dome often elements rest on tht erum. The drum also contains en tiny windows. Thy by using extremely unobtrusive aquinches in combination with forbeled mugarnas celle, s wax possible t move gradually and almost imperceptibly from the square to the octagon wo the cele The srine of Zumucrad Khatun in Baghdad as the most graceful profile and one ofthe most integrated in terior among the monuments of ie kind (ple 12)! ‘One rato forthe neces ofthis doe hat is base i ‘ctagonal: that i, hall the transition has already been inae, Above an excemely unobtrusive xjuinch zone (plate 13, the octagonal bose is tansformed into mu agaraas dome of sixteen cells, Seve ter af sinteen cll sake up the majority of the dome; their mimber cut ‘o ten inthe Ist thre tee (plate 14). Each ell contains 2 tiny opening covered by thick gla “More interesting than either of thee vo domes isthe ruined shuine of al-Najmi, located ona once major anal called Shat l-Nil in what i today a desolate stse Muganns DOME o 2 Damar Madan akSsiya lb (172, desert Although poorly preserved, enowgh has sur vived to reconsruct ta tall mugarnas dome wth a9 ‘apecally lage span, around a hundred meters square (Plate 15), This feat was accomplished by the use of Targe triangular cells and brackets skilfully arranged in such a maancr ato farm corner squinches which alter hate with four mugarnas pendentives, one in he mid dle ofeach side (plate 16) Tn chs manner, th: square base is gradually transformed into a forty-par base which begins just above a zane of eight window. The Conical part ofthe dome would have begun jut sbove this base ‘The third type of Tragi mugarmas has an exterior pyramidal rof and imac of red brick. In the earliest feamples, he pyramidal oof was wsually covered by feeen-ganed sex tracer of revetment ae al sible in the shrine of Yahya. Abu't-Qasim. This type is renticted to Mosul, where it ems to have developed round the beginning of the thirteenth century wer the influence of Baghdad. Five examples ar pre served there; the fines of them isthe shrine of Imam “Aven al-Dia (plate 17) The design of thir dome x more precite and rigorous than that ofthe Baghdad ex smpes or even ofthe mausoleum of Nur al-Din, which itusherwise resembles, perhaps ecause mugornas cells are faced with tiny color-elazed des, a feate unique {© Mosul. Ar in the mausoleum of Nur alin the ral transition feom the square t0 the ctagon ie rade by the se of mugarassquinches and sna ‘gama eolonnettes. Here, however, the aqinches are themselves turned into ny mugaraas domes whieh end in eight pointed stars (plate 18). Above the octagonal tone, the dome is further divided into tixeen cell the ruber is reduced co eight inthe last ow tiers (plate 15), producing large eight pointed star in the mide surtounded by four smal eight pointed stars. "This ie genious and pleasing design is imitated and further developed in the shrine of Shaykh Abd al-Sarnad at Natana.* ‘All these mugaras domes share some basi features (1) hey are made of small but distinct cells 2) their Ssquinehes, colonnettes, and other sructaral features ate obscured; (8) layers of stucco, paint, or glazed tes ate ‘often used to embellihthe cal, and (6) windows ate ted frequently, though of course in a double shell ‘design they are only pomible atthe base ofthe dame Hiving established the origin and the geographic and temporal distribution, typology, and base features of the muigarnas dome, its reasonable to inquire int its raison-d'ftre What led the Muslim architect in this Period to abandon the smooth hemispherical dome wth Kes age-old symbolic atsocations and take up this fragmented conicl vault? What meanings were intend: cod which diflered from there inherent in the hemispherical dome, and how cid this new form cary these meanings? We know that the form may have ‘originated in Baghdad sometime in the ealy eleventh ‘century, tha it very rapidly spread to Syria and North ‘Arica, and that it wae used fist a8 funertry anon ment and later in mosques, hospitals, fountains and even palaces, “Tomy knowledge, teonly explanation that hat been fered is that provided by Oley Grabae fr eetain sur fqrmas domes in hie book on the Allambrs. Grabar's interpretation i nat derived tr the frm ofthe ene qari el, bat eater rests on evidence external ti rater symbolins, Koranic and poei inscriptions, and poems written in praise of the magarnas domes ofthe Aitambra* From thir evidence, Grabar cmmes tothe ‘onclision that the Abencerrajes and the Hall of the68 ‘vase TAREAN ‘Two Sisters cepresent rotting domes of heaven” This plausible bu specifi interpretation temps ove 10 work Backward ssing similar, though scantier, evidence to interpret earer magmas domes in the se manner "There are, however, two difficties in this approach first, since it ir ‘based on external, soften ‘unavalable, evidence it can be used to explain some ‘mugarnas domes but nt the phenomenon in genera Seeand, since any dome ean be a dome of heaven it ‘doesnot really ell us why a mugarnas done ae use To avoid these objections I chose an approach that was exactly the opposite of Grabar’s ad anught the meaning of dhe form in deform itself started withthe premise that subdividing matter into ciny imerrlated Segments implied a certain atinude coward water, oF more specifically, thatthe division of a dome into segment implied certain conception no at of the dome but of ts referent, the universe Muslim philosophers and theologians devoted con- siderable thought #0 the mature of matter and the Tiniverse and their relmonship with God.” The Aristotelian concept of an eteral coumos was rejected bby most Muslim theologians from the fet beesise it contradicted the Iamie conception of God asthe only absolute and ternal. rom very early on and “with hardly a single exception, the Musi theologians ac cepted the atomic view of mater, space and time and but upon ita theological edifice over which God presided as absolute sovereign." Accordingly, matter ‘ras neither eternal and immutable or infinite incon Psion, bu ather composed of particles which cannot be divided any further: af ju? lad ytjzza?2" The Asturtes ofthe tenth and eleventh centuries, in par Sevlar al-Bagillani (4. 1013), modified thie somisic theory into one of sre occastonalim—that is, theory fof som and accidents ad, pi of orl). ALBagilant‘Tus MOAR DOME 69 angved that the word, which to him was everything other than Ged, was composed of atoms and accidents fccidents could not endure within matter ihe) for longer than an instant, but were continuouly being hanged by God. I allows then that the atibutes of rater (ole, luminosity, shape, ee) ace easton ac dent which change aceording to the wll of God snd that even the preservation of mter—the callication of ite atoms require the continuous interference of God This was # slid argument forthe existence of God the only erator, for since such a world was ete sd is cntinualy being created, then it must by necessity have n ereator.” Two ike to suger that dhe mugarnas dome a architectural manifestation ofthis throughly orthodox [ulamic oncept Ke ikelyosigin in Baghdad nthe eariy the wll ‘of God—thus the deemphasis ofthe sguincbes, easly the work of man, a feature common to all mugamss domes, In fact the earliest mugarnas in narheastern Tran was nothing more than the division ofthe squinch zoe into theee or more part, undoubtedly inorder to ‘dcemphasie its structural appearance. The dome, lke heaven, had to stand unnappored: "Hlalay alsandut be Sina” (Koran 31:10). The maqarnas cells of many of dhe dames were ince, and windows were frequently and ellecsively ticd. The is nowhere truer than in the moqaenas domes at Imam €Awn al-Din and of courve she Alban bra According to Grase, the changing sun- and moonlight were intended t give the smpresion of = Totaling dome of heaven, a ew which ix supported by Thin Zmarak's poem inscribed inthe halls of the Abencerrajes andl the Two Sisters. This is perhaps a secondary meaning that became attached othe ugar fa dome in ts three centuries of evolution, but twas tot the original intention, Rather the effect of ight onPy ‘yassen tama ‘hese nvcate painted surfaces was meant to rflet cer Gain very important Asha‘ concepts, nately that shape, coor, and luminosity are acridents which by Hefntion ar subjec to continagus change scoring to ‘he will of God. The dome ix therefore mot just a physical manifestation ofthe ccasomals universe, but alo prof of the existence of God Who can keep this seemingly unsupported, perishable, and everchanging dlomne fom collapsing, just ax He can keep the universe from destruction.” "The magarnas dome should therefore be viwed not merely as 4 decorative device to fil some ofthe space lef vacant by the Musiin injunction against religions images, but rather asa uniquely Maui solution nly rounded inthe theology of time. Alhough Undeniahly decortive—and in later periods admitely used solely for decoration--at the time ofits eatin And up 10 the time of the Alhambra dat was not its primary purpore. Neither could i have been te pro {ue af mathematical of afchtectural experimentation lone. Mathematics and architecture were simpy the tools nse to Mesh out a major thecogial cone about the mature ofthe universe and is slationship to Gor ‘That the occasional concept permeated Islamic culture can be seen inthe parallel developments of the tleventh and ewe centurien in architec ona: iment (the arabesque and overall star patterns)" and ven in music increasing embellishment arose a.com ‘mon mode) that are also explainable in terns of cee onan concepts, Conceived in these terms, the manifold furetions of the mugarnas dome and ies quick westwarl spread cease be mysteries. Although it was a form deeply rooted in chealogy, i had no specific Inari assoc tions and eould therefore be use in both religious and secular contexts to enhance the sanctity of the presinc land induce mediation. Its almost immecite p> pearance in Syria and North AMtia cat also be ex Plained in both reliioas and political trans On the ‘elgious level, the mugarmas come was adopted by the ‘sing Suni forces of Syria and Nord Alri in he per fons of Ner alin and al-Mursbitun sespectivey Doublless it was used with full awarenets of its ‘eologieal axicatons, whether ass maileum for the martyr (ashahid) Nut Din or a vaulting forthe axial nave and mibrab dome of some North Alcan ongregational mosques. On dhe politcal level, the m= ‘garnas dome provided formal ink wih the Abbasi Caliphate, the heartland of orhodosy and eurce of legiimation. ‘The iruportance of Baghdad, a city of vanished aplen dor, to this development cannot be overestimated. Ax Herafeld wrote, “One must not underrate Baghdad, seat of the caliphate and one ofthe seats of the Selle fulanate and a cultural center down to ie conquest by Hula in 656 H.(A-D. 1258) To underrate Baghdad isto underrate Rome.” Marsha Ita of Technology Cambri, Masselass Soran genraly}Romua, rh oes “= son ‘al Si, pubibed sone inh an 1) a En 5098) 1-1 Mieha each, lat emp, Syn ne uted maa 7) ‘emg oer a raga a a? “Ro a a theme sho (aha, 187), Aug st a etry de el fein te tke mae py pd 2 Foren Te Bord tf lo: Lagan Mw ‘(ivan fam Fes Tan 18) aod ses As SEILAGG ar, Sey ay eS in ee ‘tnd (henge, 199). Sea hve thee ‘ons and ters inthe sane gene by Og Cre Ree Srmthe Soft Re gh Asian Crmaay Bing in the Pai Wad Ta, 8, oe cn Np 2 15 (800). and "Dae Ovum de Idomaachen Ku" Ztalit Dtsher Metin Cota 9. Gi Syl ad Sgn.” p2 6. Seen Herp he Een et of Mark (4922) 69:19. although i ei Sankar"THe MUQARNAS DOME a 1 The Nef ngs were Set bid by Chae K. Winn he Maveun's Ennai st Nip alin fe Hopton Menno 3 2 (98) 9 ow ety, Och Hint Msn Stone ag ae te Hy P6, tel sep ew the ne ered by Oly Crab Be hon Cai, 19. 13 hte win ‘teonmced,dvcipmeats i srhemery rts ee ‘Many on ve oh a Si se 8. Comp es 2 38 (Sew Yor 977) 9 Tho Pope bave bes pb by Laden Goo in Re tr a Hana 31968) Pe 2547. Gan eonars thaw inne brad 9 ‘nae vi deme tesco (i) oe Ice work Haar Pst age ma, Clans 20), pp. 15738: ese har sa mug maybe fun iran, tough he ein ‘Tannen Map incomplete cee {Clin cr hat wr ve beter re the Be Speman of pri ving mt Base Oak ER Hanon Se aa Hon Tera Le Mgt rie a a Pas 188, p39 Tae apes with ah Gas gt cae wn he 136 (Hong. on Aci 124 the ora toga Fe ett (race, Manat en, pe O9) de Great Mons Fae 54th mone Korat at Maran, 62 (an, Ho Anco, 19), an he monet cakes sei Alar (107-45) st Mare bough not utes mage de "he meinen (ENE AO Rahat Ren 4 Pa! 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