AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-1

150 SEATER PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

SUBMITTED BY:
VELURU VENKATA RAMANA
VEDICHERLA VAMSI KRISHNA
VISWANADULA ADI SESHU

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my heartful thanks to Prof. ASHOKAN

(Head of Aeronautical Department) for giving me his able
support and encouragement. At this juncture I must emphasis the
point that this DESIGN PROJECT would not have been possible
without the highly informative and valuable guidance by
Prof.SARVESWARAN, whose vast knowledge and experience
has must us go about this project with great ease. We have great
pleasure in expressing our sincere & whole hearted gratitude to
them.
It is worth mentioning about my team mates, friends and
colleagues of the Aeronautical department, for extending their
kind help whenever the necessity arose. I thank one and all who
have directly or indirectly helped me in making this design
project a great success.

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INDEX
Serial No. Topic

Page No.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

5
7
9
16
20
39
41
49
53
55
60
70
75
81
87
94

17
18
19

Aim of the Project

Abstract
Introduction
Comparative DataSheet
Graphs
Mean Design Parameters
Weight Estimation
Powerplant Selection
Fuel Weight Validation
Wing Selection
Airfoil Selection
Lift Estimation
Drag Estimation
Landing Gear Arrangement
Fuselage Design
Performance
Characteristics
3 View Diagram
Conclusion
Bibliography

100
104
106

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ABBREVIATION
A.R. - Aspect Ratio
B - Wing Span (m)
C - Chord of the Airfoil (m)
C root - Chord at Root (m)
C tip - Chord at Tip (m)
- Mean Aerodynamic Chord (m) C
Cd - Drag Co-efficient
Cd,0 - Zero Lift Drag Co-efficient
Cp - Specific fuel consumption (lbs/hp/hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient
D - Drag (N)
E - Endurance (hr)
E - Oswald efficiency
L - Lift (N)
(L/D)loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
(L/D)cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
M - Mach number of aircraft
Mff - Mission fuel fraction
R - Range (km)
Re - Reynolds Number
S - Wing Area (m)
Sref - Reference surface area
Swet - Wetted surface area
Sa - Approach distance (m)
Sf - Flare Distance (m)

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Sfr - Free roll Distance (m)

Sg - Ground roll Distance (m)
T - Thrust (N)
Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)
Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)
(T/W)loiter - Thrust-to-weight ratio at loiter
(T/W)cruise - Thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise
(T/W)take-off - Thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off
Vcruise - Velocity at cruise (m/s)
Vstall - Velocity at stall (m/s)
Vt - Velocity at touch down (m/s)
Wcrew - Crew weight (kg)
Wempty - Empty weight of aircraft (kg)
Wfuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
Wpayload - Payload of aircraft (kg)
W0 - Overall weight of aircraft (kg)
W/S - Wing loading (kg/m)
- Density of air (kg/m)
- Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m)
- Tapered ratio
R/C - Rate of Climb

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AIM OF THE PROJECT

The aim of this design project is to design a150 seater
passenger aircraft by comparing the data and specifications of present
aircrafts in this category and to calculate the performance
characteristics. Also necessary graphs need to be plotted and diagrams
have to be included wherever needed.
The following design requirements and research studies are set for the
project:
Design an aircraft that will transport 150 passengers and their
baggage over a design range of 4820 km at a cruise speed of
about 890 km/h.
To provide the passengers with high levels of safety and
comfort.
To operate from regional and international airports.
To use advanced and state of the art technologies in order to
reduce the operating costs.

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To offer a unique and competitive service to existing scheduled

operations.
To assess the development potential in the primary role of the
aircraft.
To produce a commercial analysis of the aircraft project.

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ABSTRACT
The purpose of the project is to design a 150 seater Medium Range
International passenger aircraft. The aircraft will possess a low wing,
tricycle landing gear and a conventional tail arrangement. Such an
aircraft must possess a wide body configuration to provide sufficient
seating capacity. It must possess turbofan engines to provide the
required amount of speed, range and fuel economy for the operator.
The aircraft will possess two engines.

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INTRODUCTION
At the instant time there are different types of aircrafts
with latest technology. Every year there is a great
competition for making an aircraft of having higher
capacity of members inside the aircraft. So here in this
report, we intend to implant the differentiation among
the aircrafts having sitting capacity of 100-180
members. This report gives the different aspects of
specifications like wing specification, weight
specification, power plant specification and
performance specification.
Airbus started the development of a very large airliner
(termed Megaliner by Airbus in the early development
stages) in the early 1990s, both to complete its own
range of products and to break the dominance that
Boeing had enjoyed in this market segment since the
early 1970s with its 747. McDonnell Douglas pursued a
similar strategy with its ultimately unsuccessful MD-12
design. As each manufacturer looked to build a
successor to the 747, they knew there was room for

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only one new aircraft to be profitable in the 600 to 800

seat market segment. Each knew the risk of splitting
such a niche market, as had been demonstrated by the
simultaneous debut of the Lockheed L-1011 and the
McDonnell Douglas DC-10: both planes met the
markets needs, but the market could profitably sustain
only one model, eventually resulting in Lockheed's
departure from the civil airliner business. In January
1993, Boeing and several companies in the Airbus
consortium started a joint feasibility study of an aircraft
known as the Very Large Commercial Transport
(VLCT), aiming to form a partnership to share the
limited market. Airplanes come in many different
shapes and sizes depending on the mission of the
aircraft, but all modern airplanes have certain
components in common. These are the fuselage, wing,
tail assembly and control surfaces, landing gear, and
powerplant.
For any airplane to fly, it must be able to lift the weight
of the airplane, its fuel, the passengers, and the cargo.
The wings generate most of the lift to hold the plane in
the air. To generate lift, the airplane must be pushed
through the air. The engines, which are usually located
beneath the wings, provide the thrust to push the
airplane forward through the air.

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The fuselage is the body of the airplane that holds all

the pieces of the aircraft together and many of the other
large components are attached to it. The fuselage is
generally streamlined as much as possible to reduce
drag. Designs for fuselages vary widely. The fuselage
houses the cockpit where the pilot and flight crew sit
and it provides areas for passengers and cargo. It may
also carry armaments of various sorts. Some aircraft
carry fuel in the fuselage; others carry the fuel in the
wings. In addition, an engine may be housed in the
fuselage.

The wing provides the principal lifting force of an

airplane. Lift is obtained from the dynamic action of the
wing with respect to the air. The cross-sectional shape
of the wing as viewed from the side is known as the
airfoil section. The planform shape of the wing (the
shape of the wing as viewed from above) and placement
of the wing on the fuselage (including the angle of
incidence), as well as the airfoil section shape, depend
upon the airplane mission and the best compromise
necessary in the overall airplane design.

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The control surfaces include all those moving surfaces

of an airplane used for attitude, lift, and drag control.
They include the tail assembly, the structures at the rear
of the airplane that serve to control and maneuver the
aircraft and structures forming part of the tail and
attached to the wing.

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PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF AIRPLANE

DESIGN OBJECTIVES
To meet the FUNCTIONAL, OPERATIONAL and
SAFETY requirements set out OR acceptable to the
USER.
ACTUAL PROCESS OF DESIGN

Selection of aircraft type and shape

Determination of geometric parameters
Selection of power plant
Structural design and analysis of various
components
Determination of aircraft flight and operational
characteristics .

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DESIGN CYCLE
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
It consists of the initial stages of design, resulting in the
presentation of a BROCHURE containing preliminary
drawings and clearly stating the operational capabilities
of the airplane being designed. This Brochure has to be
APPROVED by the manufacturer and/or the customer.
The steps involved:
Layout of the main components
Arrangement of airplane equipment and control
systems
Selection of power plant
Aerodynamic and stability calculations
Preliminary structural design of MAJOR
components
Weight estimation and c.g. travel
Preliminary and Structural Testing
Drafting the preliminary 3-view Drawings

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DESIGN PROJECT

Internal discussions
Discussions with prospective customers
Discussions with Certification Authorities
Consultations with suppliers of power plant and
major accessories
Deciding upon a BROAD OUTLINE to start the
ACTUAL DESIGN, which will consist of
Construction of Mock-up
Structural layout of all the individual units, and
their stress analysis
Drafting of detailed design drawings
Structural and functional testing
Nomenclature of parts
Supplying key and assembly diagrams
Final power plant calculations
Final weight estimation and c.g. limits
Final performance calculation

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CYCLES OF DESIGN PROCESS:

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Aircraft design can be broken into three major phases,

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(a) Conceptual Design

(b) Preliminary Design
(c) Detail Design

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:
Conceptual design is a very fluid process. New
ideas and problems emerge as a design is investigated
in ever increasing detail. Each time the latest design is
analyzed and sized, it must be redrawn to reflect the
new gross weight, fuel weight, wing size, engine size,
and other changes.
Conceptual design will usually begin with
either a specific set of design requirements established
by the prospective customer or a company generated
guess as to what future customers need. Design
requirements include aircraft range and payload, takeoff and landing distances, and maneuverability and
speed requirements.

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The actual design effort usually begins with

conceptual sketch. A good conceptual sketch will
include the approximate wing and tail geometries, the
fuselage shape, and the internal locations of the major
components

such

as

the

engine,

cockpit,

payload/passenger compartment, landing gear and

fuel tanks.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN:
It can be said to begin when the major
changes are over. The big questions such as whether to
use a canard or an aft tail have been resolved. At some
point late in preliminary design, even minor changes
are stopped when a decision is made to freeze the

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configuration. During this design the specialists in areas

such as structures, landing gear, and control systems
will design and analyze their portion of the aircraft.
Testing is initiated in areas such as aerodynamics,
propulsion, structures, and stability and control.
A key activity during this type of design is
LOFTING. Lofting is the mathematical modeling of the
outside skin of the aircraft with sufficient accuracy to
insure proper fit between its different parts, even if
they are designed by different designers and possibly
fabricated in different locations. The ultimate objective
during this design is to ready the company for the
detail stage, also called FULL-SCALE DEVELOPMENT.

DETAIL DESIGN:

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Assuming a favorable decision for entering

full-scale development, the detail design phase begins
in which the actual pieces to be fabricated are
designed. For example, during conceptual and
preliminary design the wing box will be designed and
analyzed as a whole. During detail design, that whole
will be broken down into individual ribs, spars, and
skins, each of which must be separately designed and
analyzed.
Another important part of detail design is
called production design. Specialists determine how
the airplane will be fabricated, starting with smallest
and simplest subassemblies and building upto the final
assembly process. Production designers frequently
wish to modify the design for ease of manufacture;
that can have a major impact on performance or
weight. Compromises are inevitable, but the design
must still meet the original requirements.

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During detail design, the testing effort

intensifies. Actual structure of the aircraft is fabricated
and tested. Control laws for the flight control system
are tested on an iron-bird simulator, a detailed
working model of the actuators and flight control
surfaces. Flight simulators are developed and flown by
both company and customer test pilots.
Detail design ends with fabrication of the
aircraft. Frequently the fabrication begins on part of
the aircraft before the entire detail-design effort is
completed.

Comparative Datasheet 1

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NAME OF AIRCRAFT

Boeing

Boeing C-40 Boeing

Boeing

737-100

Clipper

717-200

737-200

CAPACITY

124

LENGTH (M)

28.65

WING SPAN (M)

28.35

HEIGHT (M)

11.23

WING AREA(m^2)

102

102

THRUST (kN)

64

77

EMPTYWEIGHT(kg) 28100
MAX

TAKE

121
33.3
34.2
12.55

57150

OFF 50300

WEIGHT

136

117

30.53

37.77

28.35

28.48

11.23

8.87

82.3

31600
52400

49900

10700

2645

78000

SERVICE SEILING (m) 10670

RANGE (km)

2850

ASPECT RATIO

12500
5600

4300
8

8.5

ENDURANCE
WING LOADING
THRUST TO WEIGHT
RATIO
CRUISESPEED(km/h)
POWER PLANT

0.407
786

839.12

P&T JT8D
Cfm56-7

Comparative Datasheet 2

786

817.867

P&T JT8D

RR BR715A1

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NAME OF AIRCRAFT

AIRBUS

BOEING

Boeing

Boeing

A 318-100 737-300

737-500

737-600

CAPACITY

132

149

132

140

LENGTH (M)

31.44

33.414

31.008

31.2

WING SPAN(M)

34.1

28.9

28.9

35.8

HEIGHT(M)

12.51

11.15

11.15

12.53

90

90

101

EMPTY WEIGHT(Kg) 39500

32700

31300

36378

MAX

OFF 68200

62800

60550

66000

SERVICE SEILING(M) 11887

11277

11277

12500

WING AREA(M^2) 112.6

THRUST( kN)

TAKE

106

WEIGHT (Kg)

RANGE

5700

4200

4444

5970

ASPECT RATIO

10

9.11

9.46

9.45

786

786

833.8

ENDURANCE
WING LOADING
THRUST TO WEIGHT
RATIO
CRUISESPEED(km/h) 828.488
POWER PLANT

CMF56-5

CMF56-7

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Comparative Datasheet 3
NAME OF AIRCRAFT

Boeing

Boeing

ANTONAV

COMAC

737-700

717-200

AN-10

ARJ 21

CAPACITY

148

117

100

105

LENGTH (M)

33.63

37.8

34

36.36

WING SPAN (M)

35.8

28.47

38

36.35

HEIGHT (M)

12.55

8.92

9.8

8.44

84.5

121

80

WING AREA (M^2)

THRUST (kN)

117

82.3

EMPTY WEIGHT (Kg) 38147

30618

MAX TAKE OFF 66000

49900

82.3
65700

26300
43616

WEIGHT (Kg)
SERVICE SEILING (M) 12500

11000

11000

11900

RANGE (kM)

6370

2645

2532

2200

ASPECT RATIO

7.8

7.9

817.9

734.3

827.7

ENDURANCE
WING LOADING
THRUST TO WEIGHT
RATIO
CRUISESPEED(km/h) 833.8
POWER PLANT

CMF56-7

RR BR715

GE CF34

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Comparative Datasheet 4
NAME OF AIRCRAFT FOKKER100 FOKKER100 Boeing

Boeing

TAY620

TAY650

707-020

CAPACITY

122

122

140

179

LENGTH (M)

35.53

35.53

41.25

44.07

WING SPAN (M)

28.08

28.08

39.9

39.9

HEIGHT (M)

8.5

8.5

12.65

12.93

WING AREA (M^2) 93.5

93.5

THRUST (kN)

67.2

61.6

77-120B

EMPTY WEIGHT(Kg) 24375

24541

46785

55580

MAX TAKE OFF 43090

45810

100800

116570

WEIGHT (Kg)
SERVICE SEILING(M) 11000

11000

RANGE (KM)

2450

3170

7040

8704

ASPECT RATIO

8.5

8.5

11

11

CRUISESPEED(km/h) 828

828

1005

1005

RR MK650

P&W JTD1

P&W JTD1

ENDURANCE
WING LOADING
THRUST TO WEIGHT
RATIO

POWER PLANT

RR MK620

Comparative Datasheet 5

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NAME OF AIRCRAFT Boeing

Boeing

Boeing

707-320B

727100

727200

CAPACITY

147

149

189

99

LENGTH (M)

46.61

40.6

46.7

28.91

WING SPAN (M)

44.42

32.9

32.9

28.91

HEIGHT (M)

12.93

10.3

10.3

8.6

WING ARE (Sq.M)

Antonov
An-158

87.32

THRUST (kN)

67.0

EMPTY WEIGHT (Kg) 66406

MAX TAKE OFF 151320

45360

45360

76818

95028

WEIGHT (Kg)
SERVICE SEILING
RANGE (kM)

10650

5000

4400

ASPECT RATIO

11

6.9

862

862

798

ENDURANCE
WING LOADING
THRUST TO WEIGHT
RATIO
CRUISESPEED(km/h) 968.4
POWER PLANT

PW JTD-3D PW JT8D-7

D-36

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COMPARITIVE GRAPHS:

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LENGTH: 3o

RANGE:4800KM

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ASPECT RATIO:9.3

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MAXIMUM TAKE OFF WEIGHT:38506 kg

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EMPTY WEIGHT:31620 kg

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FUEL WEIGHT:10405 kg

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SERVICE CELING:11640 m

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THRUST:60 kN

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WING LOADING:547 Kg/Sq.M

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WING SPAN:27.2M

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WING AREA:80 M^2

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DESIGN DATA SHEET

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
CREW

PASSENGER CAPACITY

100-180

LENGTH

30 m (98ft 5 inch)

WING SPAN (b)

27.2 m (89ft 2 inch)

WING AREA (S)

80.1 m2 (862.18 ft2)

ASPECT RATIO(b2/S)

9.3

MAX TAKE OFF WEIGHT

38,506 kg (84,891
lb)(corrected)

EMPTY WEIGHT

31620 kg (69,710 lb)

FUEL WEIGHT

10,405 kg (22,939 lb)

POWERPLANT

ROLLS ROYCE TAY

620-15 TURBOFAN

NO OF ENGINES

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THRUST

60 KN (13,488 lbf)

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
MAX SPEED

940 km/h (0.78

mach, 584 mph)

CRUISE SPEED

890 km/h (0.74

mach,553 mph)

RANGE

4,820 km (n 2,995
miles)

SERVICE CEILING

11,640 m(38,188 ft)

MISSION SPECIFICATION

The aircraft undergoes a simple mission. The need of fuel is

necessary only for the shown cruise. The reserve fuel as
mentioned above is needed during loiter.

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PAYLOAD: 150 passengers at 75kg each and 25kg of baggage

each.
CREW: 2 pilots and 2 cabin attendants at 200lbs and 30lbs
baggage each respectively.
RANGE: 2502nm, followed by 1 hour loiter followed by a
100nm flight to alternate.
ALTITUDE: 33,100 feet (For the design range).
CRUISE SPEED: M=0.74, at 38,100 ft.
CLIMB: A dir6-ect climb to 33,100 ft. at Max. WTO is desired.
POWERPLANTS: 2 Turbo-fan engines.

MISSION SPECIFICATION

The aircraft undergoes a simple mission. The need of fuel is

necessary only for the shown cruise. The reserve fuel as
mentioned above is needed during loiter.

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PAYLOAD: 150 passengers at 75kg each and 25kg of baggage

each.
CREW: 2 pilots and 2 cabin attendants at 75kgs and 25kgs
baggage each respectively.
RANGE: 2502nm, followed by 1 hour loiter followed by a
100nm flight to alternate.
ALTITUDE: 33,100 feet (For the design range).
CRUISE SPEED: M=0.74, at 38,100 ft.
CLIMB: A direct climb to 33,100 ft. at Max. WTO is desired.
POWERPLANTS: 2 Turbo-fan engines.

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WEIGHT ESTIMATION

Airplane must normally meet very stringent range,

endurance, speed and cruise speed objectives while carrying
a given payload. It is vital in predicting the minimum airplane
weight and fuel weight needed to accomplish a given
mission. We know the lift acquired is directly proportional to
the weight of the aircraft. Hence the estimation of weight for
a given aircraft plays a key role in design analysis.

W= Wstructure + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wcrew +Wpower

plant + Wfixed equipment

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Payload Weight Validation (WPL):

WPL =

No. of passengers*(Wt.of passenger+Wt.of

baggage)
=
WPL =

150*(75+25)
15000 kg

Crew Weight Validation (WCREW):

WCrew
=
WCrew

No. of crew members*(Crew wt. +Baggage)

4*(75+10)
=

340 kg

Approximate Take-off Weight(WTO(approx)):

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WTO(approx)=

38393 kg [From Design data sheet]

Now, taking into consideration the appropriate mission

phases:

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Airplane Take Off Climb

Type
Business
Jets
Transpor
t
Military
Trainers
Superson
ic Cruise

Descent

Landing

0.995

0.980

0.990

0.992

0.970

0.985

1.000

0.995

0.990

0.980

0.990

0.995

0.995

0.92-0.87 0.985

0.992

For takeoff, segment 0-1 historical datas shows that,

1/0 = 0.97.

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For climb, segment 1-2 historical data shows that,

W2 = 0.985
W1

Aircraft Design Project - 1 For loiter, segment 3-4 ignoring

the fuel consumption during descent we assume,
4/3 = 1

For landing, segment 4-5 based on historical data we assume

that,
5/4 = 0.995

For landing, segment 4-5 based on historical data we assume

that,
5/4 = 0.995

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The Brequets range equation is used to calculate the value of

32. As we all know that maximum range is covered during
cruise we considering this equation,

R = (/)(/)ln (2/3)

L/D values of similar type of aircrafts we come to know that

the approximate the value of L/D for our aircraft to be 15.
So,
/ =15
From the comparative data sheet,
V = 872 km/hr
R = 7200 km

For Business & transport jets

We found the values of cj as 0.6 hr-1

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So now substituting these values in the Brequets range

equation,
R = (/(/)(ln 2/3)
= (940/.6)(15)ln(W2/W3)
ln(w2/w3)=(4820/23500)= 0.225
(w2/w3)=1.25
W3/w2=0.8

Mission Fuel Fraction Weight Validation (MFF):

The fuel fraction of each phase is defined as the ratio of the

end weight to the begin weight.
MFF = (w1/w0)x(w2/w1)x(w3/w2)x(w4/w3)x(w5/w4)
= 0.97x0.985x0.8x1x0.995

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MFF =

0.796

Fuel Weight Validation (WFUEL):

WFUEL
=
WFUEL

(1-Mff)* WTO appro

(1-0.796)*38393
=

7832.2 kg

Approximate Operational Weight Validation

(WOE(approx)):
WOE(apporx ) =
=
WOE(apporx ) =

WOE(apporx)- WFUEL- WPL

38393-7832-9180
21381 kg

Tentative Empty Weight Validation (WE(tent)):

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WE(tent)

WOE(approx) -WTFO - WCREW

Where ,
WTFO =
=
WE(tent)

0.5% of WTO(approx)
21381-0.005*38393-378
=

20811 kg

Maximum Takeoff Weight Validation (WTO):

WTO =
=
WTO =

WE(tent)+ WFUEL+ WPL+ WCREW

20811+7832.2+9180+378
38201.134 [CORRECTED]

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Aircraft Empty Weight Validation (WE) can be further

split up into:

WE =

Wstruc +WPP + WFE

We estimate the Gross Wt.

(Wg) =

0.9* WTO =34381 kg

From the Group Weight Jet Transport data,

Wstruc =0.321
Wg
Hence

Wstruc = 11061.45 kg

WFE

= 0.169

Wg

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Hence

WFE = 5828 kg

WPP = 0.114
Wg

Hence WPP = 3921.5 kg

Hence the empty weight

WE
=

WE =

Wstruc +WPP + WFE

11061.45+3921.54+5828.15
20811 kg

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POWERPLANT SELECTION

As estimated from the design data sheet, the aircraft to be

designed requires a thrust of 60kN.A consolidated list of the
various engines that tally with the thrust required for the
given aircraft is tabulated below.
Engine

Dry

Name

weight

SFC
(Kg/kN.hr)

Max Thrust (kN)

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(kg)
RollsRoyce

1501

69.93

61.60

1200

71.2

64.54

1595

69.93

67.16

2104

72.97

66.72

1856

77.02

54.00

TAY 620
GE-CF348
RollsRoyce
TAY 650
RollsRoyce
BR710-48
RollsRoyce

P a g e | 57

Hence, the optimum choice of engine, from those listed

above would be the Rolls-Royce TAY 620 engine which meets
the demand of weight and thrust required at similar payload
such as the one under design.
In our design, we select 2 rear engines, namely Rolls-Royce
TAY 620 Turbo Fan Engine to meet the given design
standards.

Rolls-Royce TAY 620 Description

P a g e | 58

Manufacturer

ROLLS-ROYCE

Type of the engine

TAY -620 TURBOFAN

Thrust at SL/ISA

61.6 kN (13850 lbs)

Inlet mass flow

184 Kg/s(408 lb/s)

Bypass Ratio

3.04

Overall Pressure Ratio

16.0

Fan diameter

1.17 m(44 inch)

Engine weight

14220.57 Kg(3135lbs)

Engine length

2.4 m(94.8 inch)

Turbine entry Temperature

1305 K

Specific fuel consumption

69.93Kg/kN.hr(0.69 lb/lbf.hr)

(SFC)
Fuel consumption(Eg 300 NM 2063 KG
flight)

P a g e | 59

ROLLS-ROYCE TAY620

P a g e | 60

FUEL WEIGHT VALIDATION

The choice of a suitable engine, having been made, it is now
possible to estimate the amount of fuel required for a flight at
the given cruising speed for the given range.
Wfuel = (
.)/
The factor of 1.2 is provided for reserve fuel.
Thrust at altitude is calculated using the relation:
=alt/ o
Altitude = 10800m = 35433ft
= 0 = 0.3715/1.225 = 0.303
Cruise velocity = 872km/hr = 242.2m/s
To = 320kN
= 3200.3031.2
= 76.363kN = 7784.2kg
SFC = 0.4hr-1 (at medium thrust setting)

P a g e | 61

Number of engines = 3

CALCULATION:
Wfuel = 37784.272000.41.2 872
Wfuel = 92,553.42 kg

WING SELECTION
AERODYNAMICS

Wing Configuration:

In the wing design, we have two considerations:

1. The geometric shape of the wing
2. Determination of mean aerodynamic chord
3. Wing location relative to the fuselage

P a g e | 62

GEOMETRY OF THE WING:

Wing geometry is described by

a. Plan-form shape
b. Aspect ratio (which is already obtained from
comparative graphs)
c. Wing sweep
d. Taper ratio
e. Aerofoil shape and thickness along the span
f. Geometric twist (change in aerofoil chord incidence
angle along the span).

The maximum design velocity is 940 km/h (.78 M) - below

the transonic region. We choose to use a swept wing.

Initially the primary aerodynamics data was obtained from

the design data sheet. The parameters known include:

P a g e | 63

Wing span, b = 27.2m

Wing Area, S = 80.1 m^2
Aspect ratio, AR = b^2/S = 9.3

Taper Ratio = 0.36 (from Roskam book BAE 196-200)

We know that taper ratio,

= Ct = 0.36Cr

Where,
Ct is the root chord
Cr is the tip chord
Ct =0.36 Cr
Also
S/2 = b/2 (Ct + Cr )/2
80.1/2

= 27.2/2 ((0.36 Cr + Cr ) / 2)

P a g e | 64

Hence

Cr = 4.33m

Also Ct = 1.56m
A leading edge sweep angle of 15. Hence we get the
plan form as shown

P a g e | 65

DETERMINATION OF THE MEAN AERODYNAMIC

CHORD:

Mean chord

= {(2/3)*Cr (1++ 2)}/ (1+)

= 3.16 m

Distance of the mean chord = {b*(1+2 )}/{6*(1+)}

from the aircraft centre line
= 5.73 m

P a g e | 66

RELATIVE LOCATION OF THE WING:

There are three basic vertical locations of the wing relative to

the fuselage:
1. High wing
2. Mid wing
3. Low wing

High wing:
1. Low-slung fuselage ease to place the fuselage lower to
the ground.
2. More stable in lateral and rolling motion.
3. It is a distinct advantage for transport plane since it
simplifies the loading and unloading processes.

P a g e | 67

Mid wing:
1. Least interference drag.
2. Gives best stability with little dihedral.

Low wing:
1. Landing gear can easily be retracted into the wing box.
2. Added fillet will avoid undesirable aerodynamic
interference.

In light of all the above considerations, we choose a highwing configuration mainly due to structural and Landing gear
considerations.

SELECTION OF AEROFOIL:

P a g e | 68

In order to select an aerofoil the appropriate thickness to

chord ratio(t/c) is to be determined.

The given formula can be used to determine the thickness to

chord ratio:
Volume of fuel = 2*{((2/3)*(t/c)*c)*c*(b/4)}*0.5*1.33

Volume of fuel = 2*{((2/3)*(t/c)*c)*c*(b/4)}*2

Volume of fuel =

Weight of fuel(kg)
Specific gravity of fuel

7894.716
(0.72*1000)

= 10.965 m^3

P a g e | 69

Substituting the above weight of fuel in the equation and

solving, we get the value of thickness to chord ratio as

10.965

2*{((2/3)*(t/c)*2.945)*2.945*(27.2/4)}*0.5*1.33
t/c = 0.209 (or) 0.21
As our aircraft will fly only at subsonic speeds, we have
chosen a NACA 6 series aerofoil.
Based on the t/c ratio, we have chosen the aerofoil NACA
664-221.

P a g e | 70

FUSELAGE LAYOUT
The fuselage layout is important as the length of the entire
aircraft depends on this.

The length and diameter of the fuselage is related to the

seating arrangement.

The fuselage of a passenger aircraft is divided into a number

of a sections:

1. Nose
2. Cockpit
3. Cabin
4. Tail fuselage

P a g e | 71

Functions of fuselage:
provision of volume for payload
provide overall structural integrity
possible mounting of landing gear and power plant

Once fundamental configuration is established,

fuselage layout
proceeds almost independent of other design aspects
Pressurisation
If required, has a major impact upon the overall shape.
Overall effect depends on the level of pressurization.
Fuselage sizing:

P a g e | 72

A relation between the gross weight of the aircraft and the

length of the aircraft.
Lfus = aWb
Where W is in lbs and Lfus is in ft.
For jet transport,a=0.67,b=0.43
Lfus = 19.5m

Nose and cockpit-Front fuselage

The layout of the flight deck and specified pilot window
geometry is often
the starting point of the overall fuselage layout.

For the current design, flight decks of various airplanes are

considered and the value of Lnose/Lfus is found to be 0.03

Lnose = 0.03*19.5 = 0.58m

P a g e | 73

Passenger cabin layout

Two major geometrical parameters that specify the
passenger cabin are Cabin Diameter and Cabin Length . These
are in turn decided by more specific details like number of
seats, seat width, seating arrangement

(number abreast),

seat pitch, aisle width and number of aisles.

We choose a circular cross section for the fuselage. The

overall size must be kept small to reduce aircraft weight and
drag, yet the resulting shape must provide a comfortable and
flexible cabin interior which will appeal to the customer

P a g e | 74

airlines. The main decision to be taken is the number of seats

abreast and the aisle arrangement. The number of seats
across will fix the number of rows in the cabin and thereby
the fuselage length. Design of the cabin cross section is
further complicated by the need to provide different classes
like first class, business class, economy class etc.

Cabin length:
The total number of seats 150 is distributed as 2 seats
abreast.
Cabin parameters are chosen based on standards for similar
airplanes.
The various parameters chosen are as follows

Seat pitch

= 1.06m

Seat width

= 0.46m

Aisle width

= 0.50m

Seats abreast = 5

P a g e | 75

No .of aisles =1

Hence, the total cabin length will be

seat

pitch*rows
= 1.06*17+additional
space
= 23.23m

Cabin Diameter
Using the number of seats abreast, seat width, aisle width we
calculate the
Internal diameter of the cabin.

dfus(internal) = 0.50 1 + 0.46 5 = 2.8m

P a g e | 76

According to the standards prescribed, the structural

thickness is given by

t = 0.02df + 1 inch = 0.02 2.8+ 0.0254 = 0.0814m

Therefore the external diameter of the fuselage is obtained

as
2.8 + 0.0814 2 = 2.96 m.

P a g e | 77

Rear Fuselage:
The rear fuselage profile is chosen to provide a smooth, low
drag shape which supports the tail surfaces. The lower side of
the profile must provide adequate clearance for aircraft
when rotation during take off. The rear fuselage should also
house the auxiliary power unit(APU).Based on data collected
for similar aircraft we choose the ratio Ltail/dfus as 4.

Ltail = 11.2m

Total Fuselage Length

Various parts of the fuselage are indicated below

Cockpit length = 3.95m

Cabin length = 23.23m

P a g e | 78

Total

= 27.18m

Centre of gravity location:

The major weight components for which we have some idea
of their location are the engine, the passengers and pilot, and
the baggage. Using this information, we can make a
preliminary estimate of the location of the centre of gravity.

Considering the forces to be acting at middle of each part,

and hence
taking moment about the nose, we get the centre of gravity.

Cg

{190*1.975+9440*(11.61+3.95)+400*17+3952*21}
(190+9440+400+3952)

= 16.95m

P a g e | 79

P a g e | 80

LIFT ESTIMATION
LIFT:
Component of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft
perpendicular to flight direction.

P a g e | 81

Lift Coefficient (CL)

Amount of lift generated depends on:

coefficient
(CL)
Lift=(1/2 V^2)SCl=qSCl
CL is a measure of lifting effectiveness and mainly depends
upon:

compressibility effects (Mach number), viscous effects

(Reynolds number).
Generation of Lift
Aerodynamic force arises from two natural sources:
Variable pressure distribution.
Shear stress distribution.
Shear stress primarily contributes to overall drag force on
aircraft.
Lift mainly due to pressure distribution, especially on main
lifting surfaces, i.e. wing.
Require (relatively) low pressure on upper surface and
higher pressure on lower surface.
Any shape can be made to produce lift if either cambered or
inclined to flow direction.
Classical aerofoil section is optimum for high subsonic
lift/drag ratio.

P a g e | 82

Pressure variations with angle of attack

Negative (nose-down) pitching moment at zero-lift
Positive lift at = 0
.
Highest pressure at LE stagnation point, lowest pressure at
crest on upper surface.
Peak suction pressure on upper surface strengthens and
moves forwards with increasing .
Most lift from near LE on upper surface due to suction.

P a g e | 83

Lift Curves of Cambered and Symmetrical airfoils

P a g e | 84

CALCULATION:
General Lift equation is given by,
Lift=(1/2 V^2)SCl=qSCl
Lift at Cruise
= 0.3715 (at the cruising altitude of 10800m)
V = 242.2 m/s
S = 400.72 kg/m2
CL(cruise) = 0.63022 (from the wing and airfoil
estimation)
Substituting all these values in the general lift equation,
L = 120.3715242.22400.720.63022
Lift at cruise = 2751761.6 N
Lift at Take-Off
= 1.225 (at sea altitude)
V = 0.7 x Vlo = 0.7 x 1.2 x Vstall
S = 400.72 kg/m2
CL(take-off) = 2.508 (flaps extended and kept at the take-off
position of 20o)
Substituting all these values in the general lift equation,

P a g e | 85

L=121.225(0.71.266.86)^2400.722.5

Lift at Landing
= 1.225 (at sea altitude)
V = 0.7 x Vt = 0.7 x 1.3 x Vstall
S = 400.72 kg/m2
CL(landing) = 3.058 (flaps extended and kept at the landing
position of 40)

Substituting all these values in the general lift equation,

L =121.225(0.71.360.55)^2400.723.5
Lift at landing =.

P a g e | 86

DRAG ESTIMATION
DRAG:
- Drag is the resolved component of the complete
aerodynamic force which is parallel to the flight direction (or
relative oncoming airflow).
- It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
- It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force
while lift is the desirable component.

Drag Coefficient (CD)

Amount of drag generated depends on:

P a g e | 87

o Planform area (S), air density , flight speed (V), drag

coefficient (CD)
CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly
depends upon:
o Section shape, planform geometry, angle of attack ,
compressibility effects (Mach number), viscous effects
(Reynolds number).

Drag Components
- Skin Friction:
o Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
o Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of
boundary layers

P a g e | 88

Form (Pressure) Drag

o Due to static pressure distribution around body component resolved in direction of motion.
o Sometimes considered separately as forebody and rear
(base) drag components.

Wave Drag
o Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and
supersonic speeds.

P a g e | 89

o Result of both direct shock losses and the influence of

shock waves on the boundary layer.
o Often decomposed into portions related to:
Lift.
Thickness or Volume.

P a g e | 90

P a g e | 91

Typical streamlining effect

P a g e | 92

Lift induced (or) trailing vortex drag

The lift induced drag is the component which has to be

included to account for the 3-D nature of the flow (finite
span) and generation of wing lift

P a g e | 93

The lift induced drag is the component which has to be

included to account for the 3-D nature of the flow (finite
span) and generation of wing lift

WETTED AREA CALCULATION

Wetted Area = 2*Snet {1+0.25(t/c)r 1+ }
1+

P a g e | 94

Where
= (t/c) t / (t/c) r

(r root, t tip)

WING WETTED AREA:

Wing wetted area

= 2 *80.1 {1+0.25(0.21) 1+

(0.95) (0.36) }
1+0.36
= 168.52m2

S (wing)wet

TAIL WETTED AREA:

Tail Wetted Area

= 2 x 20.81 {1+0.25(0.21) 1+

(0.95) (0.29)}

1+0.29
S(tail)wet

FUSELAGE:

= 43.788m2

P a g e | 95

Fuselage wetted area

= x Diameter x Length

= (2.87) (30)
=270.49m2

S(fuselage)wet

PARASITE DRAG ESTIMATION(CDO):

CDO =

K Cf Swet
Sref

Where,
K

Form factor

Cf

Co-efficient of Friction

Sref -

Reference Wing Area

FORM FACTOR(K):
Form factor is induced to estimate the pressure drag
caused due to viscous separation. It is estimated for the
wing, tail and fuselage sections separately.

P a g e | 96

WING & TAIL

Kwing

[1+ 0.6 (0.21) + 100 (0.21)4][1.34x0.740.18 (cos

15)0.28]
0.45

Ktail

1.8535

[1+ 0.6 (0.21) + 100 (0.21)4][1.34x0.740.18 (cos

45)0.28]
0.45

1.6989

P a g e | 97

FUSELAGE

f (Fineness Ratio)

Kfuse

l/d

30 / 2.87

10.45

(1 + 60
10.6333

1.076

+ 10.633 )
400

P a g e | 98

FORMULAS USED IN DRAG ESTIMATION

Reynolds Number (at Altitude 40000ft)

=

VD

Co-efficient of friction (Cf)

Total Parasite Drag Co-efficient

CDO =

K Cf Swet
Sref

Drag Correction for 4% Interference effect

1.04xCDO

TOTAL DRAG

CD

CDO + CDI

P a g e | 99

Induced Drag (CDI)

CL2

eAR

CALCULATIONS:
Reynolds Mach
No

Cf

CDO

no.

CDO

CL

INTERFERENCE
CORRECTION(4%)

700000

0.3 0.004747 0.044145

0.045910773 0.212164 0.0

1000000

0.4 0.004412 0.041028

0.042669057 0.119349 0.0

3000000

0.5 0.003595 0.033433

0.03477016 0.076379 0.0

6000000

0.6

9000000

0.7 0.002937 0.027307

0.00317 0.029475

0.030653716 0.053044 0.0

0.028398934

0.03897 5.

P a g e | 100

P a g e | 101

LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATIONS

Wheel diameter(inch)
Wheel width(inch)

1.63

0.315

0.1043

0.48

MAIN LANDING GEAR

No. of wheels = 4

Wheel diameter

= A (Wm) ^B

= 1.63(18,426)^0.315

P a g e | 102

= 0.91m (35.95 inch)

Wheel width

= A(Wm)^B

= 0.1043(18,426)^0.48

= 0.29m (11.63inch)

NOSE LANDING GEAR

No. of wheels = 2
Wheel diameter

= A (Wn) ^B

= 1.63(1652.43)^0.315

= 0.4272m (16.8inch)

P a g e | 103

Wheel width

= A (Wn) ^B
= 0.1043(1652.43)^0.48
= 0.0927m (3.65inch)

These calculated values for diameter and width should be

increased about 30% if the aircraft is to rough unpaved
runways.

Determination of position of landing gear

Xacwb = xn-Vht at/a

Where,

xacwb

= aerodynamic centre of wing

body

xn

= neutral point

P a g e | 104

Vht = horizontal tail volume ratio

at/a = lift slope ratio of tail to wing

Static margin = (xn c.g)/chord

Lets assume static margin

xn

= 18%

= 3.16*0.18+16.95 = 17.51m

From the above result, it shows that position of the landing

gear is longitudinally stable.

By assuming that xacwb = x (ac)wing

x (ac)wing = xn - vht

P a g e | 105

= 16.81m
Therefore wing is placed such that the aerodynamic centre of
the wing is placed at 16.81m behind the nose

To find the distance of leading edge of the wing from nose

= 16.81 0.47 0.79
= 15.55m

P a g e | 106

Main landing gear is placed at the centre of the wing

Therefore,
The location of the centre of the wing = distance of the
leading edge of the wing from nose
+ (root chord/2)
= 15.55 + 4.33/2
= 17.715 m

This shows the main landing gear is located 17.71m behind

the nose of the airplane. Let us locate the nose wheel so that

P a g e | 107

it can be conveniently folded rearward and upward into the

fuselage. Set the nose wheel location of 4.43m as shown.

3-D VIEW DIAGRAM

P a g e | 108

P a g e | 109

AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
THRUST REQUIRED:

The aircraft to be designed is assumed to be in a steady,

level flight at an altitude of 30,000ft and at the given cruise
velocity. The aircrafts power plant must produce the net
thrust to overcome the drag, in a sense that the net thrust
produced is equal to the drag experienced by the aircraft.
The thrust required to obtain this steady velocity is given by
the equation,
Thrust Required,

TR

_W_
CL/CD

FORMULAE
For a given value of velocity (V),
CL

2W
V2S

CD =

CDO +

CL2
eAR

From the ratio (CL/ CD) and the weight of the aircraft (W),
the thrust required is estimated.

P a g e | 110

P a g e | 111

RATE OF CLIMB

The aircraft is considered to be in steady, unaccelerated,

climbing flight.

The rate of climb is calculated from the excess Power

denoted in the Fig.

R/C =

Excess Power
W

5008.5 x 103

P a g e | 112

34654.91 x 9.81
R/C =

14.73 m/s

or

883.9 m/min

RANGE & ENDURANCE

Range is technically defined as the total distance traversed by
the aircraft on a tank of fuel. Endurance is the total time the
aircraft stays on air on a tank of fuel. One of the critical
parameters influencing range and endurance is the Thrust
Specific Fuel Consumption which amount of fuel consumed
per unit thrust per unit time. Range and Endurance are found
using the Brequet Formula.
ENDURANCE
E

1 CL ln WO
Ct CD

Where, Ct

W1

- Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption

WO - Gross Weight of aircraft

W1

- Weight of aircraft without Fuel

P a g e | 113

___1

x 1.36 x ln 34654.91

1.9425x10-5

34654.91 -

7894.22
= 301 min or 5.02 hrs
RANGE
R

Range =

_2 CL1/2 (WO1/2 - W11/2)

Ct

S CD

2 x 0.2334 x 0.514x105 x 6.937 x 22.57

3756.6 km

TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
Up to this point we have discussed the aircraft performance
at zero accelerations. But finite accelerations are required for

P a g e | 114

further estimation of parameters. For takeoff the pilot

accelerates with afterburning thrust of 60kN.

Takeoff Distance

1.44 W2
g S CL,max T

1.44 x (34654.91 x 9.81)2

9.81 x 1.225 x 80.1 x 2 x 60000

Takeoff Distance

1440.82 m

LANDING PERFORMANCE
The ground roll after the plane has touched
down has to be calculated. To minimize the distance required
for complete stop the pilot has decreased the thrust to zero
after touched down, so T=0. Spoilers are deployed so lift
tends to zero. Drag shoot is also actuated leads to 20%

P a g e | 115

increase in drag. The maximum lift coefficient with flaps fully

employed at touchdown is 2.4.

Landing Distance(SL)

1.69 W2

g S CL,max {D + r(W-L)}
where, r

SL

Co-efficient of rolling friction (0.4)

= _________1.69(34654.91 x

9.81)2__________________
9.81 x 1.225 x 80.1 x 2.4 x (23101.5 + 0.4(34654.91 x
9.81))

Landing Distance

531.45 m

P a g e | 116

P a g e | 117

BIBLIOGRAPHY

REFERENCES:
1. Airplane Design by Dr. Jan Roskam, 3rd edition.
2. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach by Daniel P.
Raymer, 4th edition.
3. Introduction to Flight by John D. Anderson, 2nd
edition.
4. Aircraft Performance and Design by John D. Anderson,
2nd edition.
5. Theory of wing sections by Ira.H.Abbott, Dover
edition.

P a g e | 118