B1

TRANSIENT RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Test signals:

Impulse
Step
Ramp
Sin and/or cos

Transient Response:

for t between 0 and T

Steady-state Response:

for t

:\

System Characteristics:
Stability
Relative stability
Steady-state error

transient
transient
steady-state

B2

First order systems

C (s)
1
=
R ( s ) Ts + 1

R(s)

E(s)

C(s)

1
Ts

+
-

Unit step response:

C (s) =

1
1

Ts + 1 s

c (t ) = 1 e

1
T

s sT + 1

t T

t 
t T

e(t ) = r(t) c(t ) = e

e(

c(T) = 1 e-1 = 0.632

dc ( t )
dt

t= 0

1
T

t T

t= 0

1
T

B3

Unit ramp response

T2
1
1 1 T
2= 2 +
C(s) =
Ts +1 s s
s Ts + 1

c(t ) = t T + Te

t0

t
e(t ) = r (t ) c (t ) = T 1 e T

t_

e() =T

Unit-ramp response of the system

B4

Impulse response:
r(t) = /(t)

R(s) = 1
C (s) =

c (t ) =

1
sT + 1

t / T

t_

4T

Unit-impulse response of the system

Output

Input
Ramp
Step

r(t) = t
r(t) = 1

Impulse r(t) = /(t)

t
t

t T

c(t ) = t T + Te
c (t ) = 1 e
e t /T
c (t ) =
T

t T

t_
t_
t_

B5

Observation:
Response to the derivative of an input equals to derivative of
the response to the original signal.
Y(s) = G(s) U(s)

U(s): input

U1(s) = s U(s) Y1(s) = s Y(s)

Y(s): output

G(s) U1(s) = G(s) s U(s) = s Y(s) = Y1(s)

How can we recognize if a system is 1st order ?

System

r(t)

c(t)

r(t) = step

Plot log |c(t) c(_

If the plot is linear,

then the system is 1st order

Explanation:

c (t ) = 1 e

t T

log |c(t) c(_

c(\

ORJ _H-t/T |=

t
T

B6

Second Order Systems

Block Diagram
F
+
K

R(s)

K
s (Js + F

Position signal C (s)

Transfer function:
C(s)
K
= 2
R(s) Js + Fs + K
K
J
=
2
2
F
F K F
F K

s + + s +
2J
2J J 2J
2J J

B7

Substitute in the transfer function:

n

K
J

F
J

= 2 n


n:




F
2 JK

damping ratio
undamped natural frequency
stability ratio

to obtain
n
C ( s)
= 2
R ( s ) s + 2 n s + n 2
2

Underdamped FDVH

   

F - 4 J K < 0

two complex conjugate poles

Critically damped FDVH 

F - 4 J K = 0

two equal real poles

Overdamped FDVH  !
F - 4 J K > 0

two real poles

B8

Under damped case (0 <  < 1):

n
C (s)
=
R ( s ) (s + n + j d )(s + n j d )
2

Im

n 1 2


n

jd
Re

n

= cos
n

d = n 1 2
n :
d :
:

undamped natural frequency

damped natural frequency
damping ratio

B9

Unit step response:

R(s) = 1/s

n
s + n
1

C(s) =
s (s + n )2 + d 2 (s + n )2 + d 2

c(t ) = 1 e

n t

cos t +
sin d t
d

1 2

t 0

c (t ) = 1

1 n t
e
sin ( n t +

e(t) = r(t) - c(t) = e

n t

= tan

)
1

t 0

cos t +
sin d t
d
2

2.0

1.0

0
1

10

11 12

Unit step response curves of a second order system

t0

B10

 
 



Unit step response:

c(t ) = 1 cos n t

t0



 
Unit step Response:

R(s) = 1/s

n
n
C ( s)
= 2
=
R ( s ) s + 2 n + n 2 ( s + n ) 2
2

1
C(s) = s (s + )2
n

c(t ) = 1 e n t (1 + nt )

t0



B11


  
Unit step Response:
C(s) =

R(s) = 1/s

1
s + n + n 2 1 s + n n 2 1 s

)(

es1t es2t

c(t ) = 1 +
2
s
s
2 1 1
2

with

s1 = +

t 0

s2 = 2 1 n
if |s2| << |s1|, the transfer function can be approximated by
s2
C (s)
=
R(s)
s + s2

and

for R(s) = 1/s

c (t ) = 1 e s 2 t
with

t0

s2 = 2 1 n

B12

Unit step response curves of a critically damped system.

B13

Transient Response Specifications

Unit step response of a 2nd order underdamped system:
Allowable tolerance
0.05 or
0.02

~5

td delay time: time to reach 50% of c(\ Ior the first time.
tr rise time :

time to rise from 0 to 100% of c(

tp peak time : time required to reach the first peak.

Mp maximum overshoot :
ts settling time :

c (t p ) c ( )
c ()

100%

time to reach and stay within a 2% (or

5%) tolerance of the final value c(

0.4 < < 0.8

Gives a good step response for an underdamped system

B14

Rise time tr

time from 0 to 100% of c(

c(tr ) =1 1 e dtr (cosd tr +

cos d t r +

sind tr ) =1

sin d t r = 0

d
1 2
t

tan d r

tr =

Peak time tp:

dc ( t )
dt

t=t p

1
tan
d

time to reach the first peak of c(t)

= 0

(sin d t p )

sin d t p = 0
tp =

n
1

n t p

=0

B15

Maximum overshoot Mp:

t = tp =

(
)
M p = c(t p ) = 1 en / d (cos +

=e

n
d

= e

1 2

= e

sin )

Settling time ts:

2

1 1

sin d t + tan
c(t ) = 1

1 2

ent

approximate ts using envelope curves:

env ( t ) = 1

e n t
1

Pair of envelope curves for the unit-step response curve

2% band:

ts =

4
4
=
n

5% band t s = =
n

B16

Settling time ts versus curves {T = 1/(n) }

6T

5T

4T

3T

2T

T
0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

B17

Impulse response of second-order systems

C ( s) =

n 2
s 2 + 2 n s + n 2

R(s) = 1

underdamped case (0< < 1):

c(t ) =

n
1

e n t sin n 1 2 t

the first peak occurs at

t = t0
tan

t0 =

t0

and the maximum peak is

2

c(t0 ) = n exp
tan
1 2

B18

critically damped case ( = 1):

c (t ) = n te n t
2

t0

overdamped case ( >1):

c (t ) =

n
2

e s1t

n
2

e s2t

where

(
= ( +

s1 =

s2

)
1 )

1 n
n

Unit-impulse response for 2nd order systems

t0

B19

Remark:

Impulse Response = d/dt (Step Response)

Unit-impulse response

Relationship between tp, Mp and the unit-impulse response curve of a system

Unit ramp response of a second order system

C (s) =

s + 2 n + n
2

1
s2

R(s) = 1/ s2

for an underdamped system (0 < < 1)

2
2 2 1
nt 2

c (t ) = t
+e
cos d t +
sin d t
2
n

n
n 1

and the error:

e(t) = r(t) c(t) = t c(t)
at steady-state:
e ( ) = lim e (t ) =
t

2
n

t0

B20

Examples:
a. Proportional Control
R(s)
+

C(s)

1
s (Js + F )

E(s)
K
-

n
C ( s)
= 2
R ( s ) s + 2 n + n 2
2

with
K
J

 n

F
J

=  n  

F
2 JK

Choose K to obtain good performance for the closed-loop system

For good transient response:

0.4 < <0.8

n

sufficiently large

acceptable overshoot
good settling time

For small stead- state error in ramp response:

e ( ) = lim e (t ) =
t

2
2F
=

n
2 K

F
=
K
K

large K

Large K reduces e( ) but also leads to small and large Mp

compromise necessary

B21

b. Proportional plus derivative control:

C(s)

E(s) Kp+K/s

R(s)

1
s (Js + F )

+
-

K p + Kd s
C(s )
= 2
R(s ) Js + (F + Kd )s + K p

with
=

F + K
2

The error for a ramp response is:

s 2 J + sF
R (s )
E (s ) = 2
s J + s (F + K d ) + K p

and at steady-state:
e ( ) = lim sE (s ) =
s0

using

z =

F
Kp

C (s ) n
s+ z
=
2
2
R (s )
z
s + 2 n s + n
2

Choose Kp, Kd to obtain good performance of the closed-loop system

For small steady-state error in ramp response

For good transient response

Kp large

so that 0.4 < <0.8

B22

c. Servo mechanism with velocity feedback

s (s)
R(s) +

K
Js + F

+
-

(s)

1
s

Kh

Transfer function
(s)
K
= 2
R ( s ) Js + (F + KK h )s + K
where
=

F + KK
KJ

2
K
J

n =

e( ) =

F
K

(not affected by velocity feedback)

for a ramp

Choose K, Kh to obtain good performance for the closed-loop system

For small steady-state error in ramp response

For good transient response
Remark:

K large

so that 0.4 < <0.8

The damping ratio can be increased without

affecting the natural frequency n in this case.

B23

Effect of a zero in the step response of a 2nd order system

C (s ) n
s+z
=
2
R (s )
z s + 2 n s + n 2
2

= 0 .5

Unit-step response curves of 2nd order systems

B24

Unit step Response of 3rd order systems

C(s )
n p
= 2
R(s ) s + 2n s + n2 (s + p)
2

0<<1

e pt
ent

c(t ) = 1 2
( 2) +1 2 ( 2) +1

R(s)=1/s

2 ( 2) +1
2
2
2

+
t
t
sin
1
2
cos
1

n
n

1 2
p
=
where
n

Unit-step response curves of the third-order system, =

The effect of the pole at s = -p is:

Reducing the maximum overshoot
Increasing settling time

0.5

B25

Transient response of higher-order systems

C ( s ) b0 s m + ... + bm 1 s + bm K (s + z1 )...(s + z m )
=
= n
(s + p1 )... (s + p n )
R (s)
s + ... + d n 1 s + a n

n>m

Unit step response

m

C (s) =

K (s + zi )
i=1

(s + p ) (s
q

j =1

0 < k <1

+ 2 kk s + k

k =1

k=1,,r

and

1
s

q + 2r = n

2
r
bk (s + kk ) + ckk 1 k
a q aj
C(s) = +
+
2
s j=1 s + pj k=1
s2 + 2 kk +k

c(t ) = a + a j e
j =1

p jt

2
+ bk e n k t cos k 1 k t

k =1

2
+ ck e k k t sin k 1 k t

k =1

t0

Dominant poles: the poles closest to the imaginary axis.

B26

STABILITY ANALYSIS
m

G (s) =

B (s)
=
A(s)

bs

m i

i=0
n

s n i

i=0

Conditions for Stability:

A.

Necessary condition for stability:

All coefficients of A(s) have the same sign.

B.

Necessary and sufficient condition for stability:

A( s ) 0

for

Re[s] _

or, equivalently
All poles of G(s) in the left-half-plane (LHP)
Relative stability:
The system is stable and further, all the poles of the system
are located in a sub-area of the left-half-plane (LHP).
Im

Re
Re

B27

Necessary condition for stability:

A(s ) = a 0 s n + a1s n 1 + ... + a n 1 s + a n
= a 0 (s + p1 )(s + p 2 )...(s + p n )

= a 0 s n + a 0 ( p1 + p 2 + ... p n )s n 1
+ a 0 ( p1 p 2 + ... + p n 1 p n )s n 2


+ a 0 ( p1 p 2 ... p n )

-p1 to -pn are the poles of the system.

If the system is stable

all poles have negative real parts

the coefficients of a stable polynomial have the same sign.

Examples:

A(s ) = s 3 + s 2 + s + 1

can be stable or unstable

A(s) = s3 s2 +s +1

is unstable

Stability testing
Test whether all poles of G(s) (roots of A(s)) have
negative real parts.
Find all roots of A(s)
Easier Stability test?

too many computations

B28

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Test

A(s) = 0sn + 1sn-1+ + n-1 s +n
sn
sn-1
sn-1
s2
s1
s0

0
1
b1
c1

e1
f1
g1

2 4
3 5
b2 b3
c2

e2

1 a0 a2 a1a2 a0 a3
=
b1 =
a1 a1 a3
a1
b2 =

1 a0 a4 a1a4 a0 a5
=
a
a
a1 1 5
a1

c1 =

1 a1 a3 a3b1 a1b2
=
b1 b1 b2
b1

etc

Properties of the Ruth-Hurwitz table:

1. Polynomial A(s) is stable (i.e. all roots of A(s) have
negative real parts) if there is no sign change in the first
column.
2. The number of sign changes in the first column is equal
to the number of roots of A(s) with positive real parts.

B29

Examples:
A(s) = a0s2 + 1 s + 2
s2
s1

a0
a1

s0

a2

0 >0,
0 <0,

a2

1 > 0 ,
1 < 0 ,

2 > 0 or
2 < 0

For 2nd order systems, the condition that all coefficients of

A(s) have the same sign is necessary and sufficient for
stability.

A(s) = 0 s3 + 1s2 + 2s +3
s3
s2
s1
s0

a0
a1
a1 a 2 a 0 a 3
a1
a3

0 >0,

1>0,

a2
a3

3>0,

12 03 > 0

(or all first column entries are negative)

B30

Special cases:
1. The properties of the table do not change when all the
coefficients of a row are multiplied by the same positive
number.
2. If the first-column term becomes zero, replace 0 by  and
continue.
If the signs above and below  are the same, then
there is a pair of (complex) imaginary roots.
If there is a sign change, then there are roots with
positive real parts.
Examples:

A(s) = s3 +2s2 + s +2
s3
s2
s1
s0

1
2

1
2

pair of imaginary roots

0
2

( s= j )

A(s) = s3- 3s +2 = (s-1)2(s+2)

s3
s2
s1
s0

1
0
2
3

3
2

two roots with positive real parts

B31

3. If all coefficients in a line become 0, then A(s) has roots

of equal magnitude radially opposed on the real or
imaginary axis. Such roots can be obtained from the roots
of the auxiliary polynomial.
Example:

A(s)= s5 + 2s4 +24 s3 + 48s2 -25s -50

s5
s4
s3

1 24 25
2 48 50
0 0

auxiliary polynomial p(s)

p(s) = 2s4 + 48s2 - 50

dp( s)
= 8s 3 + 96 s
ds
8
96
s3
24 50
s2
0
s1 112.7
s 0 50

A(s) has two radially opposed root pairs (+1,-1) and

(+5j,-5j) which can be obtained from the roots of p(s).
One sign change indicates A(s) has one root with
positive real part.
Note:

A(s) = (s+1) (s-1)(s+5j)(s-5j)(s+2)

p(s) = 2(s2-1) (s2 +25)

B32

Relative stability
Question:

Have all the roots of A(s) a distance of at least

 IURP WKH LPDJLQDU\ D[LV"

Im

Substitute s with
s = z -  in A(s)
and apply the
Routh-Hurwitz
test to A(z)

Re

Closed-loop System Stability Analysis

C(s)

R(s)
K

G (s )

+
-

Question:

For what value of K is the closed-loop system

stable?

Apply the Routh-Hurwitz test to the denominator polynomial

of the closed-loop transfer function

KG ( s )
1 + KG ( s )

B33

Steady-State Error Analysis

R(s)

E(s)

C(s)

G(s)
-

H(s)

Evaluate the steady-state performance of the closed-loop

system using the steady-state error ess
ess = lim e(t ) = lim sE ( s )
t

E (s) =

s 0

1
R ( s)
1 + G ( s) H (s )

for the following input signals:

Unit step input

Unit ramp input
Unit parabolic input

Assumption: the closed-loop system is stable

Question: How can we obtain the steady-state error ess of the
closed-loop system from the open-loop transfer
function G(s)H(s) ?

B34

Classification of systems:
For an open-loop transfer function
G (s) H (s) =




K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)
s N (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)

Type of system: Number of poles at the origin, i.e., N

Static Error Constants:

Kp, Kv, Ka

Open-loop transfer function:

G(s)H(s)

Closed-loop transfer function:

G tot ( s ) =

G (s)
1 + G (s)H (s)

Static Position Error Constant: Kp

Unit step input to the closed-loop system shown in fig, p.
B33.
1
1 + G ( 0) H ( 0)

R(s) = 1/s

ess = lim sE ( s ) =

Define:

K p = lim G ( s ) H ( s ) = G (0) H (0)

s 0

s0

Type 0 system

Kp = K

Type 1 and higher

Kp= \

1
1+ Kp
ess = 0
ess =

B35

Static Velocity Error Constant: Kv

Unit ramp input to the closed-loop system shown if fig, p. B33.
R(s) = 1/s2

s
1
1
2 = lim
s0 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) s
s 0 sG ( s ) H ( s )

ess = lim

Define:

K v = lim sG ( s ) H ( s )

Type 0 system

Kv = 0

ess = \

Type 1 system

Kv = K

ess = 1/Kv

Type 2 and higher

Kv = \

ess = 0

s0

Static Acceleration Error Constant:

Ka

Unit parabolic input to the closed-loop system shown in fig, p. B33

3

R(s) = 1/s

s
1
1
3 = lim 2
s0 1 + G ( s) H ( s) s
s0 s G ( s) H ( s)

ess = lim

Define:

K a = lim s 2 H ( s ) G ( s )

Type 0 system

Ka = 0

Type 1 system

Ka = 0

ess = \

Type 2 system

Ka = K

ess = 1/ Ka

Type 3 and higher

Ka = \

ess = 0

s 0

ess = \

B36

Summary:
Consider a closed-loop system:
R(s)

E(s)

C(s)

G(s)
-

H(s)

with an open-loop transfer function:

G (s )H (s ) =

K (T a s + 1 ) (T b s + 1 )...
s N (T1 s + 1 ) (T 2 s + 1 )...

and static error constants defined as:

K p = lim G ( s ) H ( s ) = G (0) H (0)
s0

K v = lim sG ( s ) H ( s )
s0

K a = lim s 2 H ( s ) G ( s )
s 0

The steady-state error ess is given by:

Unit step
r(t) = 1
Type 0

ess =

1
1
(=
)
1+ K p
1+ K

Type 1

ess= 0

Type 2

ess= 0

Unit ramp
r(t) = t
ess= \
ess =

1
1
(= )
Kv
K

ess= 0

Unit
parabolic
r(t) = t2/2
ess= \
ess= \
ess =

1
1
(= )
Ka
K

B37

Correlation between the Integral of error in

step response and Steady-state error in
ramp response
R(s)

E(s)
-

E(s) = L[e(t)] =

st

substitute

lim
s 0

R(s)
1 + G(s)

1
=
KV

s 0 0

E (s) =

e(t )dt =

e st e(t)dt
0

lim E(s) = lim e

s0

C(s)

G(s)

e(t)dt =

e(t)dt
0

R( s )
1 + G(s)

in the above eq.

e(t) dt

step : R(s) =

1
1
1
=
=

s G ( s)
1 + G ( s) s

s 0
s 0

lim

lim

Steady-state error in unit-ramp input = essr

essr =

e(t)dt

1
s

B38

c(t)

e(t )dt

t
c(t)
r(t)

r(t)
essr
c(t)