1.

Analysis of the oldest sedimentary rocks provides evidence for

the origin of life:
Identify the relationship between the conditions on early Earth and
the origin of organic molecules:
- Earth formed: 4500 million years ago
- Conditions of early Earth:
Massive oceans existed
Only small landmasses above the surface of the water
No ozone layer
Large amounts of solar UV radiation reached the Earth
No free oxygen in the air
Large amounts of volcanic activity; heat, ash, dust and gases
into atmosphere
o Violent electric storms common
o Atmosphere contained some water vapour (H2O), hydrogen (H2),
hydrogen cyanide (HCN), a lot of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen
(N2), possibly ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4).
o The chemicals of life are contained within the following basic
organic compounds: water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids.
o These compounds are made up of hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),
carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and some other common elements
o The elements needed to create the basic organic compounds
were already present in the atmosphere; i.e., H, O, C and N were
already there.
o The lack of an ozone layer, hot springs, impact from meteorites,
the frequent violent electric storms, and the volcanic activity of
early Earth could have provided the energy for molecules to be
formed.
First organic molecules originated: 4 billion years ago
First primitive cells formed: 3.5 billion years ago
o
o
o
o
o
o

Discuss the implications of the existence of organic molecules in the

cosmos for the origin of life on Earth:
- For life to have originated, the following events need to have happened:
o
o
o
o

The required chemicals need to have been formed

These chemicals need to have come together in a self-replicating
body
This body would need to have a form of protection for its contents
It had to be able to use an energy source to replicate itself

- The first step needed for life to be formed -> the organic molecules
needed for life would have to be present
- These organic molecules could have ->formed here on Earth
-> been sent to Earth from
outer space (the cosmos)

- finding of 100kg meteorite in 1969 significant

o
o
o

provide evidence that organic molecules from outside earth

->similar to those we have today
19 of 92 amino acids identified in meteorite found on earth
Suggest source of organic molecules needed for origin of life is
from outside the earth

Describe two scientific theories relating to the evolution of the chemicals

of life and discuss their significance in understanding our origin of life
Theory 1: The chemicals for life came from outer space- Cosmozoan or
Panspermia theory
-

This theory suggests that life couldve arisen once/ at several times, at
various times & in various parts of universe
Scientists believe Earth was heavily bombarded with meteorites during
formation
Certain types of meteorites, called carbonaceous chondrites, have
been found, which contain organic molecules, like amino acids
This provided evidence of organic molecules somewhere else in the
cosmos
Materials found in meteorites/ comets revealed presence of organic
molecules-> acted as seeds falling onto early earth
Possible that-> meteorites falling on earth, contributed some of organic
molecules required by living things

Evidence: Murchison meteorite- carbon containing meteorite

-

Chemical analysis-> identified 92 amino acids, 19 similar to those

found on earth

Theory 2: Chemicals for life were formed on Earth- biochemical evolution

or chemosynthetic theory
-

this theory suggested that conditions of early earth generated organic

compounds required for life
contributions to this theory-> Haldane, Oparin, Urey and Miller
1920s, Alexandar Oparin & John Haldane suggested that -> early
atmosphere of earth contained all necessary basic components for life
Hypothesised-> more complex organic molecules couldve been
created in slow spontaneous reactions using energy from UV radiation/
lightning discharge
Oparin suggested -> organic molecules slowly collected in surface
layers of oceans, forming an organic soup
These molecules could then have combined to form larger structures
eventually forming cells
Oparin and Haldanes theories werent tested until 1950s

Evidence:
Their experiment
-

Closed system set up & powerful electrical sparks discharged into glass
chamber containing ammonia, hydrogen & methane

After only a week of continuous electrical discharges & recycling steam

through apparatus- condensed water in flask became red and turbid
When Urey and Miller analysed liquid using paper chromatography->
found contained a no of amino acids

Significance
-

Supported Haldane and Oparins theories on origin of life

Demonstrated that complex organic molecules can be produced
naturally from basic chemical compounds

Current Knowledge
o
o
o

Demonstrated that amino acids can be produced under conditions

more like those of early earth:
using UV light instead of electrical discharges
Co2 instead of NH3 and CH4
If HCN (hydrogen cyanide) included-> greater variety of amino acids
produced

Gather information from secondary sources to describe the experiments

of Urey and Miller and use the available evidence to analyse the:
Reason for the experiment
-

To test the hypothesis of Haldane and Oparin -> organic molecules

couldve been created on surface of early Earth, from inorganic
molecules using energy from UV rays + lightning

Result of their experiments

-

After a week of electrical discharge and recycling steam through their

apparatus-> analysed condensed liquid
It was found to contain 13 of 22 amino acids, the building blocks of
proteins in cells

Importance of their experiment in illustrating the nature and practice of

science
-

It showed that hypotheses and theories are welcomed in science, but

are only accepted when backed up with scientific proof, that is,
experiments.
Illustrates-> scientific method i.e. Hypothesis, experimentation, result
analysis, conclusion, repeat experiment

Contribution to hypotheses about the origin of life:

-

The results supported Haldane and Oparins theory that early Earth
contained the basic chemical components for life
It proved that complex organic molecules could form from basic
chemical components or inorganic molecules using an energy source
such as lightning

Discuss the significance of the Urey and Miller experiment in the debate
on the composition of the early atmosphere
Support for Urey and Millers experiments

Urey and Millers experiments provided 1st experimental evidence ->

its possible for inorganic substances to produce living (organic)
substances
Called -> theory of biochemical evolution or chemosynthetic
origin of life
Experiments replicated successfully-> provide similar outcome each
time
Some scientists replicated experiments thatve been modified->
instead of electricity use UV light to produce nitrogen bases,
nucleotides & amino acids
1961,Juan Oro-> found that amino acids could be produced from NH3 &
HCN
o Experiments produced-> significant amount of nucleotide base
adenine
o Indicate-> building block of life originated on primitive earth,
changing from inorganic molecules to organic molecules
Scientists concluded-> significant 1st step in evolution of life on earth

Recent Debate
-

Recent doubt-> now believed that atmo of early earth didnt contain
free H and was not an oxidising atmosphere
- Geological evidence for oxidising atmo-> in precipitation of limestoneoxidation of ferrous iron in early rocks & distribution of minerals in early
sedimentary rocks
- Other objection-> these experiments required significant amount of
energy
o Means-> amino acids + organic compounds may formed in smaller
amounts
Conclusion
-

Experiments of Urey and Miller remain significant in that they support

proposed theory of Oparin + Haldane
Led to further experimental testing of conditions favourable for
production of organic molecules

Identify changes in technology that have assisted in the development of

an increased understanding of the origin of life and evolution of living
things
Technology
Glass jars and cotton
1668- Francesco Redi

The light microscope

How it has increased

understanding
- Used for experiment to disprove
spontaneous generation with
flies+ meat
- Tested idea that organisms
originate directly from nonliving matter
- Demonstrated that maggots in
decaying meat came from eggs
laid by flies
- Enabled scientists to discover

1677- Leeuwenhoek
Flasks
1768- Spallanzani

Swan- necked flasks

1862- Louis Pasteur

Radiometric Dating
- Uranium-238 is used to
measure age of rocks
- Carbon-14 used to date fossils
up to 50000 years old
Electron microscopy

Gas and liquid chromatography

- Chemical separation technique
Amino acid and nucleotide
sequencing

Biochemical analysis/ DNA-DNA

sequencing
Atomic absorption
spectrophotometry

Geophysics- including
ultrasound depth- sounding
techniques

microorganisms that couldnt

be seen with naked eye
Showed-> microorganisms that
appeared in broth came from
air
Disproved spontaneous
generation
Showed cells came from other
cells
Can assign absolute dates to
rocks/ fossils
Has established that age of
earth 4.5 by
Led to understanding of
structures @molecular level
Remains of microorganisms/
mineral nature of early rocks
can be studied
Nature of minerals give clues
about enviro
Structure of organisms reflect
how might survive in enviro
Used to isolate molecules for
further study
Comparisons with ancient
organic material+ biological
compounds today
Comparative study of diff
organisms
Used to measure concentration
of metal elements in rock
materials
Used concept of continental
drift + sea floor spreading to
indicate properties of earths
structure and age
Found that-> age of rocks
increased further away from
mid-ocean ridges
Supports-> idea of continental
& related to living things so had
impact on theories related to
evolution cos living organisms
were carried on land masses

2. The fossil record provides information about the subsequent

evolution of living things:
Identify the major stages in the evolution of living things, including
the formation of:

Stage of
evolution

Million
years
ago

Oxic or
anoxic
environm
ent
Anoxic

Changes that
occurred

Examples of
living things

Organic
molecules

4500

N/A

Membranes

45003500

Anoxic

Procaryotic
heterotrop
hic cells

35002500

Anoxic

Procaryotic
autotrophic
cells

25002000

Eukaryotic
cells

20001500

Anoxic
and oxic

Oxic

Formation of
organic
molecules
e.g.
proteins,
nucleic
acids, lipids,
carbohydrat
es from
inorganic
molecules
Membranes
enclosed
chemicals
within
microstructu
re
Cells
obtained
energy form
organic
molecules in
environment
of cell
membranes
Not have
had
membrane
Ozone layer
forms
Cells
developed
pathway to
make their
own food
Single cells
have
developed
from
procaryotic
to increase
metabolic
efficiency
Have
advanced to
form

N/A

Evidence
of
microfossil
s
Bacteria
organelles

Evidence
of
stromatoli
tes
(cyanobacteri
a)
-

Protozoan
s and
algae

Colonial
organisms

15001000

Oxic

Multicellula
r organisms

1000500

Oxic

membrane
bound
organelles
such as
mitochondri
a
Many cells
mayve
worked
together in
a
cooperative
group
Cells have
been more
organised to
become
specialised
& work
together as
specialised
organisms

Volvox
Sponges
and corals

Sponges
Jellyfish
Coral

Describe some of the paleontological and geological evidence that

suggests when life originated on Earth

Palaeontology: scientific study of fossils & all aspects of extinct life

Geology: scientific study of origin, history & structure of earth as
recorded in rocks
Paleontological evidence
-

Discovery of 2 3400-3500 myo Precambrian fossils from WA provided

some of 1st evidence towards origin of life on earth:
o Fossils of single celled anaerobic procaryotes/ microfossils. Were
very similar to those found living today
o Fossilised remains of stromatolites found provided valuable info
about structure of early organisms
Stromatolites -> layers being formed by successive growth of
thin mats of cyanobacteria
- 1999 discovery of what could be remains of nanobacteria/ nanobes in
meteorite from mars-> indicated similarities to nanobes discovered in
Queensland (1996)
Nanobes: filament-type structures found in rocks
-

Palaeontologists using fossil evidence from diff rock layers found that->
more primitive cells & marine organisms are found in lower layers of
rock compared to more complex and land-dwelling organisms

This trend suggests that simple organisms evolved into more

complex organisms and marine organisms preceded land-dwelling
organisms

Geological evidence
-

2500 myo Archaean rocks from north WA were examined by scientists

in 1999.
Found biomarkers (chemical evidence) for existence of
cyanobacteria.

Biomarkers: chemicals that are produced by only 1 group of organisms

providing evidence of their existence in past
-

Oxidised rocks such as banded iron and red bedrock formations provide
geological evidence towards origin of photosynthetic life
Oxygen produced by photosynthetic organisms accumulated in
rocks until fully saturated, before building up as a gas in the atmo

Explain why the change from an anoxic to an oxic atmosphere was

significant in the evolution of living things:
Anoxic atmosphere: one defined as being deficient or lacking oxygen
Oxic atmosphere: one where oxygen is available
-

A change from anoxic atmo (free of O2) to an oxic atmo (plenty of

available O2) had a significant influence on conditions of early earth &
hence-> evolution of living things
This major change to atmo and increase in O2 inhibited growth of
anaerobic organisms & caused them to decline, while photosynthetic
organisms became more abundant
Today-> anaerobic organisms only survive in enviros with very low
oxygen concertation
e.g. swamps, bogs, deep underground vents, deep ocean
hydrothermal vents
Next significant change-> came as a result of the increase in oxygen in
atmo was that aerobic organisms became more efficient in energy
production (respiration).
Providing a large energy source for increased activity & eventually
this led to an increased complexity & size of the organisms
As oxygen began to accumulate in atmo, it reacted with suns uv
radiation to produce ozone (o3)
As amount of oxygen increased, so did amount of ozone produced, until
ozone layer formed
This ozone layer reduced amount of uv radiation reaching earths
surface. This had a significant influence on future organisms as it
protected them from dangerous uv radiation
Even more so, organisms able to succeed in inhabiting land
Discuss the ways in which developments in scientific knowledge may
conflict with the ideas about the origins of life developed by different
cultures:

Developments in scientific knowledge about origins of life are

constantly occurring as discoveries are made & new technologies
provide more advanced approached to unanswered questions
These changes may conflict with ideas about origins of life held by diff
cultures
Most of conflicts between scientists and beliefs of diff cultures have
been due to fundamental differences between science and religion:

Science: pursuit of knowledge through observations that produce testable

hypotheses and models
Religion: involving a god or superior being & is based on a set of beliefs
which didnt need to be tested

In many cases, cultural beliefs about lifes origin form part of their
religion
Aboriginal beliefs -> involve an ancestral being that created earth a
long time ago during a time called alcheringa or dreamtime
Chinese culture-> 1st living being was Pan Ku evolved inside a giant
cosmic egg. This egg contained all elements in universe. During this
process, he separated earth, male/ female, light/ dark. Egg hatched
after 18000 yrs & Pan Ku died from massive effort of creation
Biblical creationism-> idea that earth was and everything on it was
created by god in the 1st 6 days rather than by gradual evolution
Scientific theories-> of origin of life propose that earth was formed
4.5 bya and that 1st living organisms were simple procaryotic cells
Other more complex living organisms developed gradually by
evolution over millions of tears

Hence this conflict with ideas of many diff cultures such as aboriginals (the
dreamtime), chines culture and most present day religions

Gather first-hand or secondary information to make observations of a

range of plant and animal fossils

Fossils: any remains/ traces/ imprints of an organisms preserved over a

long period of time
- Main conditions under which fossils may form:
Quick burial- rapid covering of dead organism/ evidence
Prevention of decay- needs conditions such as lack of oxygen, high
acidity, very low temperatures & low moisture to prevent decay by
bacteria & fungi
Organism lies undisturbed- completely covered by sediments to
prevent scavenger organisms from breaking up & scattering body parts
Presence of hard body parts for fossilisation to occur organisms need
hard parts such as bone, exoskeleton, teeth/ shells
Mould: A fossil formed when sediment fills inside/ covers outside of a
dead organism & organism's remains dont persist, leaving just shape &
texture of the rock to indicate organic material that was there

Cast: minerals slowly fill a mould which is the general form of organism
Print: outlines made either by animals/ plants
-

Preserved when soft mud hardens into rock

Changed hard parts: decay very slowly and parts of it are replaced by silica
and turn into stone
Actual remains: actual remains of animal/ plant
-

Sedimentary rocks contain naturally-formed fossils

Hard parts of animals are usually preserved such as: teeth, shell,
exoskeleton

Petrified wood: wood decayed very slowly and replaced by minerals

Dinosaur footprints: walked across muddy/ swampy area and footprints

somehow remain undisturbed and eventually this mud forms rock with
preserved print

Cast (trilobites): in ocean, fall to bottom of ocean, lie undisturbed lack of

oxygen + decay, quickly covered with sediment, eventually sediments turn
hard and trilobite eventually decays, leaving an impression in rock
(mould). The mould becomes filled with minerals to become a cast

Whole animals and plants rarely preserved-> other parts decay, disturbed,
washed away, eaten, environment

Plants are not as easily preserved as fossils due to softer bodies that decay
quickly, however, hard parts (xylem) may be preserved

Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse and present information

from secondary sources to evaluate the impact of increased
understanding of the fossil record on the development of ideas about
the history of life on Earth

Life originated on earth 3.5bya.

Between this event & appearance of first fossil procaryotic cells was the
cell building into a structure to protect its inner contents .e.g. membranes

Fossil evidence in rocks older than 600 million years scarce compared with
no of fossils found in younger rocks as lots of fossils, before not so many.
More recent rocks-> on top, older-> further down. All very soft+ simple

An organism with harder body parts such as shells, bones, teeth help
preserving of fossil and will be more apparent in fossils record. This shows
evolution of species from varying soft & hard bodies.

Arthropods, molluscs, shells -> most likely to be fossilised tell about

hard bodied animals

Fish develop feet for walking on land, jawless fish develop, organisms
develop unique abilities to aid function with nucleus, monkeys become
humans
Simple (procaryotic) -> multicellular complex organisms

Aquatic-> terrestrial

Procaryotic-> eukaryotic

Simple algae-> complex plants with vascular tissue

Invertebrate-> vertebrae

The disappearance of fossil species maybe due to : enviro changes,

climate change (ice age), disease in food supply, new diseases,
increase in predators, competition for food .e.g. dodo bird
Dinosaurs-> meteor strike, increase of dust in atmo, reduced
photosynthesis, reduced food, climate change

Stromatolites tell us about sorts of living things

First types of cells

Thought to have changed atmo

Stromatolites have provided evidence about organisms on earth

Theyve shown that 1st cells were procaryotes-> similar to todays

bacteria

Has provided evidence suggesting that reptiles may have given rise to
bird features and suggests that birds may have evolved from reptiles

The fossils has features of reptiles such as teeth and a tail as well as
bird features such as feathers

The study of fossils shows diversity of organisms that have existed in

past. Shows how-> some species have changed over time, how some
remained the same & how some have become extinct
We can compare present-day organisms with those from the fossil
record & see a history of change

3. Further developments in our knowledge of present-day

organisms and the discovery of new organisms allows for
better understanding of the origins of life and the processes
involved in the evolution of living things:
Describe technological advances that have increased our knowledge of
procaryotic organisms:

The electron microscope shows that there are 2 cell types:

Procaryotic cells without organelles and nuclear membranes

Eukaryotic cells with membrane bound organelles & nuclear membrane

The electron microscope shows that procaryotes have a folded cell

membrane & in cytoplasm -> theres a central region containing: one
DNA, several small ribosomes, small pieces of circular DNA

Most procaryotes loo similar under microscope but can be distinguished

by biochemistry of their enzymes, lipids and proteins, diff genetic
makeup and structure of their cell walls

Advances in biotechnology have extended knowledge of procryotes

2 groups recognised-> archae and bacteria

Technological

Increased knowledge of procaryotic

advances

organisms

Light microscope

Ability to identify cells as being unicellular &

small with a cell membrane & cell wall

Electron

Ability to see fine details

Ability to determine chemical composition of

microscope
Chemical analysis

cytoplasm & membranes

Genetic

determine no of chromosomes

Amino acid sequencing in proteins & DNA/RNA

sequencing
Amino acid/ DNA
sequencing

nucleotide varies
-

Nucleotide sequencing of archaea RNA diff to

bacteria & procaryotic organisms

Electron microscope-> most impact for procaryotes cos able to see the
inside
Note: only chemical analysis, amino acid sequencing & DNA sequencing
are able to distinguish archaea from bacteria
Describe the main features of the environment occupied by one of the
following and identify the role of this organism in its ecosystem:
Archaea
-

Very specialised, restricted to particular enviro they inhabit

Dont require sunlight for photosynthesis & dont require oxygen

Most live in extreme enviros called extremophiles

1. Methanogens
Found in: bogs, deep soils, marine and freshwater sediments,

intestinal tracts of herbivores, sewage treatment facilities

Anaerobic & cant tolerate exposure to oxygen

Produce methane gas as a metabolic end product

2. Halophiles
Found where salt concentration is very high
E.g. dead sea in Middle East
3. Thermophiles
Require high temp for growth

Found in areas of high volcanic activity such as -> hot spring,

geysers & thermal vents & cracks in ocean floor

Use sulfur as energy source

Bacteria
-

Bacteria are found everywhere in: soil, water, air & decaying organic
material & inside other living organisms

With fungi-> play an important role as decomposers of organic matter

for recycling in enviro

Most bacteria are harmless but some may cause disease in other
organisms

e.g. in humans caused by eubacteria, cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis

Cyanobacteria

Environment
Widespread, especially in marine environments.

Ancient forms exist in stromatolites.

Some are free-living and some exist in mutualistic association with
fungi in lichens.

Role
Photosynthetic, therefore produce oxygen, use carbon dioxide and

are the basis of food webs.

Many have nitrogen fixing abilities and so enrich soil where they

live.
They are key components in plankton

Use the available evidence to outline similarities in the past and

present for one of the following: (Cyanobacteria chosen)
Past

Present

Cyanobacteria are among the

most abundant fossils in
Precambrian rocks (3.5 byo).
This suggests that they were

Cyanobacteria still numerous

today

In damp areas .e.g. ponds/

streams

most abundant life form at

time.
-

conditions

At this time prokaryotes were

Flourish particularly well

only life form

where there is dissolved

There was more uv radiation

organic material

than today

No longer only life form

There was no free oxygen

Today are mostly aquatic

st

until 1 cyanobacteria
st

They flourish in warm

forms, some free-living in soil,

developed 1 primitive type

some marine in stromatolites.

of photosynthesis

Some live part of lichens in

Enviro would probably be->

mutualistic relationship with

warm, damp .e.g. mineral

fungus

springs.
-

Stromatolites were more

common than at present &
more widespread

Some were free-living

analyse information from secondary sources to discuss the diverse

environments that living things occupy today and use available
evidence to describe possible alternative environments in which life
may have originated

Diverse environments that living things occupy today

-

Living things exist in most places on earth, from ocean depths to high
mountains, to oceans around arctic & Antarctic

Living things have been found living in extreme enviros such as

volcanic vents in deep ocean trenches, hot springs, salty lakes, acidic &
alkaline conditions, underground & under pressure

Many of the archaea and bacteria today live in extreme and diverse
enviros
1. Endospore-forming bacteria- produce endospores, most resistant
form of life
-

Endospores appear to have evolved as a resistant, metabolically

inactive cell increasing probability of surviving under conditions of
excessive cold/ heat/ desiccation.

bacterial endospores are resistant to high temp, high radiation &

chemical such as disinfectants/ detergents which would destroy other
living cells
2. archaea most live in extreme enviros and are called extremophiles
Examples:
Type of archaea

Extreme environment

Thermophiles

Water temp greater than 50 C

Volcanoes

Halophiles

High saline enviros, greater than

9% salt concentration

Acidophiles

Acidic enviros lower than pH 2

Thermoacidphiles

Hot acidic enviros