» a of 89 Design of Unlined and Lined Pressure Tunnels R.P, Benson Abstract—The paper cnr the engineering rpenens or de Stand scram rn te Delph plea iad ost ‘nde ula cos of atoning tnd sgonenspreeton agent fare by Iyceate acing, aeration fled sr Thing seguiemens stein’ of tmporay nd fl ings weg sels lo omer ig of ea rng IDodhring eceral wate prs cling iien ed grog tesgn of straps end pigs ed veto for waeing wp o dessins. Introduction over tunnels ate required 10 ouvey water from the poser Intake wo a powernouse, which may be an the nrfuce or under ground. Such tunnels say begin In Sei or rock, and often pass ehrough a tere ofmatcrihand pot cond tone Before reaching the poreriowse ‘Tht prime respon iw convey the vate fly throughout thee of the project withows detrimental effects on the surroundings Such effects may Include excestive leakage from. the tunel, asalty of sotface soll or rock reauling rom seepage, stration dd softening ofagrictttal ancy ane polation of groudwater and suvface Streums due’ to organic content of the tunnel water hese eftes can be controlled by careful postconiy Of the tnva) nd scecng appropriate ining and crenimest for the varios pars ofthe tunnel 10's coer 0 ated he acologic conditions along the tans Atigoment, relative to the hydraulic forees that wil be applied” during operation of the tunnel Adequate Ivestigaton vchnique and tess now eis that wll define the geologic and geotechnical conditions, There sealso Sppropriate materials wih which to Tie de necesary pars ofthe une, and to weat the material surrounding the tannel. Hovever, itis necesary thae the conditions "be investigate and that de designs be established by geologits and engineers experienced rock mechanics, factors may cegories: pamary Present adress Dr. , Benton President, loin Leonoff ad, 10180 Shelbridge Way, Richinond, British Columbia, VBX 27, (Canada. This paper is reprinted with per” Imision from Canadien Tunneling 1987188, ‘wth some modifications. indude: eed der ad, Vo N 2 . T jn engineering geélagy and “applied Power tunnels ae being called upon to perform under increasingly hight het Numerous cing bros tne plants have heads beyond 10 teapigetereamrachinguprards song ache ao hen hey GF 1500.m. Although bigh‘iesd tan arte fels ave been built inthe past Sch tunnels essontally have Been seline thghout the high ead portion. Modern practice for such pro Jet isto provce shorter steal hters, $ubjeaing ong unlined portions ofthe funnels to high hydrosate pressures ic behavior of rock and the el linings under. these high hydraulic pressures i diffcut wo assess and the Iecessary design techn an safety factors mast be jndged careful. Tn some exach expecially for high- head ‘project, fale has occured, rough wadidonal criteria To design have been mec ei appar. nt, therefore, that these tradiconal teria are no ily adequate and tat improved design methote sre never 2, What ar conse ae prac tern the past for relatively low head projess~pracce based on sin - ied cepa devin cei can no ‘considered acceptable. \Alaugh selection f the. onl alignment i governed. primarily by economics a umber of ether litiors ust be taken into sceount in esa Thing te opdinum alignment. Such divided into tro at lary and aecondaty. Theo ctor that are key to have 2 dominant role in overall economics ‘© Schedule for project completion. Reésumé-—Les horneldpance doivent de platen plus fonctinne sous ‘es presions de plu on pls gone. Dan iin cs, sacle pot (ds proj haste resin, ds dale sont rode aru ius {es eres raitonnels de conception coon respect, ds hos esi sie ire ipower ‘leconcepton pour lesrrtoments de ham, een arcu pourra des nde: reins,Lscrtresnclussnt lepaston alignment oe, (as protection contr spouse yeu spe ral, ke silion ds redtoent nau, I cancel de asec 8 reitement mci, ees asc pératonl, © Available contractors and equip: Difficult geological conditions. Many tunnels are designed without appropriate consideration and rank- 1000m, ing of these primary factors, which ving the course of construction, the raul conly overruns or projec deaye ‘Many power tunnels are shor, less than I am, however ange percent Age ean be up to 10 kin lng. Many are gnifcanly longer, upto 20 or a0 kn, and may tke avery long ine to com plete. However, the schedule can be Improved, for example, by proving aduiional aces ats; bysporying éerain manner of contruction (nele se deillandsbasp; or by ensuring that 2 majonty of the tunnel is dren in found rock via looger route where progres wil be raped and reduced Rapport and Ising il be required. ‘Therefore, che projet schedule must be carefully conticered and sn under- Standing bined of potential cout or bavings if the schele i delayed, or achieved ahead of time. With such information in hand, the designer ean she omer the orc option “The aalbliy of experienced con- traciorsand modern eqeipmentcan be a major concern, especialy in under: developed counties Owners may be ‘onstrined to roqire local or national ontractors, or may not be wiling t2 Slow ork he use ofhigh-speed fn nellng machines, In hela exe, he tse of tandard dri and blot technol ‘ogy can result na longer construction Schedule. Appropriate acess adit 9 schedule, or special highspeed Qland bas working methods must then be speitod ‘The possibly of encountering dif Seal geological coadions mast be we eee mp 155carefully assessed, and avoided if pose, by setng an aerate Foute, even ft apponts more cowl at frst glance, These conditions can often be decried cough preiminasy evaluations by engineering. geologiss ‘or engineers experienced ie dil cult tunneling, In some cases, such an evaluation may require dling. or other ficld investigations before even a preliminary geologic assessment can be properly undertaken. Nevertheles, such an assessment is mandatory if alternative alignments are tobe ranked ‘appropriately and rationally. ‘There are many secondary factors that affect the selection of the tunnel rent. Some of the most common and most important of these include the fo ilowinge Grades ‘Access requirements. Prevention of bySraulic jacking erupt Position of water able, Temporary support Final ning. Ventiation Drainage ‘The cunnel must be maintained below the hydraulic grade line forall modes of power plant operation, including hy ulic transients, to prevent negae tive pressures in the ‘tunnel. ‘This requires assessment of head losses by friction malongthe tunnel. Thedegree of iction, of course, varies withthe type Of lining or, in the case of an unlined tunnel, walls, by the: fs the roughness of ‘rock ‘Head losses may be determined ‘Darcy-Weisbach formula or the empirical Manning equation. ‘The appropriate roughness coefii- cient must be selected. The Manning formula, developed for the open chao nel flow and subsequently adapted for pipe flow, is generally applicable for condi ts with diameters greater than 2m, whereas the Darcy-Weisbach for- ‘mulais theoretically suitable fora wider range ‘of roughness values, Selecting the appropriate coefficients requires ‘careful judgment., Table I provides ‘8 summary of roughness coefficients for various types of linings, These must be compared before tie most tonics cer a wide Range und covomiesenee eee se, Om gre taken fom examples provided mber of key arear that efen a not in Uerature Golvk 1964) and from given sdequate comderaton ave experience weh a variety of tunnels." Contraction Accus, The nusber of In sdlecing the precse coffient to access atts. to the power tonnel ‘ye used a wide range of variables for required to meet the olen whedule ‘he actual winnel must be considered, droften misjudged, especialy fears Positoning of the tunnel ensure raterarenot asastamed: Adngenes submergence beneath the hydraulic adits during comstructon sar divaoe grade line should be made with con: the basic design, and may compound servatively selected low-ftiction coeffi. contractual problems and costs. In cients to ensure against the possibilty addition, extra adits must be suitably of entrapping air in the tunnel arch. plugged for operation, However, for determination of head Intermediate access adits also may losses for calculation of energy losses, be provided tohandle suspected delay ‘more realistic values must be Used.’ resulting from poor geology, where ro. Given the primary requirement of amount of exploration car ieasonsbly linking the intake to the powerhouse, be done in advance. innumerable alignments may be cho. "Acces for Sted Liner Installation, This sen. Technical and economic analyses ret ‘must choose among factors, eg. highy sulrement may be overlooked, espe- “ally for underground powerhouse Jevet vs low-level alignments, the use arrangements. Installing eel iness of shafts vs inclined sections, all pedi is best done as a teparate operation, ‘ated on the primary requirement of with as much independent accose og maintaining containment of hydraulic possible, especially if the steel liner Pressures without failure. Figure 1 extends upward into the shaft, shows a number of commonly used Prevention of alc Jeng, The atlatons Bach of these arrangements entire tunnel, including @ e shaft and Jas advantages and disadvantages thatthe surge tank, must be set deeply LL, SA mod. 1m sven owen Tune wan = SS Figure 1. Various power tunel schemes, Table 1. Comparable roughness coefficients for Manning and Darcy Weisbach, Lining ComparableDarcy-Weisbach "f"for varyingdiameters eee eee ed Manning’s‘n’ 2.5m om 78m 10m Unlined (cil and blast) 0.028-0.080 0.087-0.1470.048-0.117 0.040-0.102 —_01096-0.008 Unlined ¢unne! boring machine) ——0.016-0.022 0.028-0.044 0.019-0.035 O.01e-0081 a.o1s-0.028 ‘Shoterete (drill and blast 0.018-0.025 —0.080-0.057 0.024-0.048 921-0010 —0.049-0.096 Concrete 012-0016 0.018-0.023 0.010-0.019 0.0082-0.016 _0.0083-0.015 Stes! 0.010-0.014__0.0092-0.018_0.0073-0.014 _0.0064-0.012 __0,0058-0.011 Note: Higher values should be used when overbreak areas are used fo calculate velocities. 156 TUNNELLING AND UnneRGxounn SPACE TECHNOLOGY Volume 4, Number 2, 1989i ‘enough within the rock mass to ensure that adequate in-situ compressive stress is available to prevent hydraulic jack- 18: Overlooking this design problem ‘can lead to disastrous and very costly consequences A detailed dscuion af how to avoid this problem is given below. In addition to the items above, the selection of temporary support and finallining,and the handling of ventila. tion and drainage during construction are important elements in establishing the position and alignment of the cun nel. These aspects are discussed more fally below. Protection Against Hydra Jacking and Uplift General Concepts ‘The concept of hydraulic jacking, or uplift is well known. ‘This effect ‘an develop if water pressures imposed hin rock mase ae greater than the inst compresie sctess, Depending ‘upon the deformability of the rock ‘ass and the area o¥er which the bhyéraaie pressures act existing joints cn be opened This action aay result Injecting of large mas of rock away from the eannel,Fesuling in encore leakage and large-scale landsides or aby. "This effect has occurred ‘any tines inthe history of vl engineering, and has had disatous Consequences for both surface and Underground hydroclecrc feces, den king wll er ay direction where movement of Tod sar can develop duc to a lack ‘of adequate compressive ins stress. ‘Ths, tered ing of orintaly Dedded oc, acingerhoisSog of ro mass toatl valley wall, ing of Tockblocks into adjacent underground ‘pening, oF opening of fracutes n'a compres tock mass can occ ‘Many. authors have reported on cases of tock ing and failure Of the tunnel, with resultant seepages, Iandslides and even Nooding of under: und powerhouses Brekke and ply (1081) recently completed an densi review of the subject, and have listed a numberof files along 2g0 at 1920. When wich fares ou, Hote kc many monte hg problem and complete repairs The ‘onto rpairsand owsof revenue from ewer tales may amount to tent of Fills of dallas, causing consider Able dates to inkabianta due to te Shortage of power. Therefore, a care- fualand conservative design to prevent problems of this naire is warranted ‘The cout of additonal necessary steel Tiner of reinforced concrete ier to ensure a conterave design is wall {tied when compared with project delays and oat revenue, the Cost of actual repair andthe mental anguish Fhaving to redo an sniafe design, ‘Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 For many years, unlined. twanels were loestcd "oy ‘ewuring. that the Weight ofthe rock and, in some cases, the sil verialy above the eunnel was atleast equal othe sti water head “Talsrelatonship wessimpliied to pro: vide ock cover afat least hal the hea, because the density of rocks normally at lea twice that of water. Thies fied approach was generally adequate for horzontal rarfaces, although for rock having specie gravy lower than 3.0, the far of safety wotld be lower dhan unity. Many Bllures have occurred as a result ofa deficiency in verte! cover However fairer avo have ocurred where th tunnels approsched valleys, nd either Srna of lateral cover wes low, or were. geologic. conditions resuled in low streses.Paricla'y, the: problem of low lateral stress near valle has tented in many Falures due o-an inadequate length of eel pe Some’ degre wo Tecognized thie problem either set the inne! beck from the valley or used fcinforced concrete tospan the section, Howey entrant donee i nat necessarily appropriate solution in Preventing hydiwulic jacking. In some ies only affect the ining of the problem, asthe pressures end obuld fore lowly becaure of the decreased cepage through the reinforeed liner Various designers and investigators recognized this probiem, ‘and° took epatocithermeaturetherockstreses for eatimate te probable sre levels by stress analysis Th, photoeatsty ahd ulately, finite element methods ‘were used to assess straw condivon Bound valleys Tn addon, methods of seas measurement by overeorng and by hydraule jacking have bees ‘developed that allow designers o post Son the tunel raionallysorto desis table ining to recta forces, the tunnel cannot be safely located Simllly, other design” methods, eg, grouting, and pressure rebet fini drainage, have ‘been, sed 10 Timi seepage pressures and thereby prevent hydratlic jcking. However, och methods are not considered (0 be a safe approsch and cannot be eommendel: Hyatt be propery prevented only by 2's! liner of 8 reinforced conerte Hiner ths accepts the fll nteroal pressure without contfbution fom the rock Designing to corel here ae curing by grouting andlor drain Should only be used where potent falure can be tolerated, or where 8 problem bat aren that cannot re Eonably be solved by a more diet: spproach. However” sich, measures it aly be an i conjunction with sound geological imerpretation, io ensure thatthe design menoures are compatible with the Behavior of the ‘arlous geological materials when sub {jected to high pressure seepage water. “Material boundaries, probable stresses, permeabiliies and deformability must be determined by appropriate geologic and testing methods. ‘Meesuroment of in-Situ Stress Tres ook stress ay be measured by a vary of methods tsing over coring techniques to obtain dataon the ‘nee dimensional sea Bild Hydrat Tie fracturing tess conducted in dil holes ate used prindpally to obtain 2 measure of the minimum principal sirens inthe rock. Tas, ; they also can be used to. measure the’ threedimensional field (Cornet 10986). These tess st be performed andinerpreted carefully tocasure hat ‘roi stes ofthe vock masse being measured, rather than some chara terbe ofthe pumping sytem. Thus the equipment must havea pomping ‘apa that will ensure response of reasonable mass of rock, such thats inherent permesblity doesnot affect the result Te appears also that dhe shutin presite ir too unrelible a eriteron to Edopy, sad asvesment of tsi tess Should be based on the reopening prestres, messured_ by repeaable tes If the tests are’ dove from fan underground opening, they must te sea ditance 15 to 20 tmes the diameter of the opening to ensure that the insite tes has not been affected bythe presence ofthe opening oth methods of emnng it stress areimportant, depending onthe type of problem faced bythe designe. However, the bydraule jacking test should alvays be. perfotned, at i Simulates the actual effets that wil be imposed on the rock by the tunel ster Itisaloa direc measure ofthe znimum princpal tes, and requires neither mathemati) caiuladon nor application of tieoreteal formulae. 1 itimportancthat the dil holes used for nyareljakng enero jot tems espeilly Chroughngoing ora terjeit, and these that are subparalel tovaley walls Where the sinimum principal stres is not the vordcal ses, and where deformable rock or heat zones ext, tioning a tennel to meet only verti Ectstres eter may nt be adequate, Figure 2 shows a power tone! pos tioned beneath horiontal surface cut ttansversely by major fault vit low Intra sre, and a low deformation modukis. {ateal hydraulic jecking can open verkal fractures, llowing exceive feepage to the” surface’ For this Condi, sing of the tannel based nly on cover erteria could be nate Knowledge ofthe complete tes fel, the rock modulus, and the postion of the water abe cesar. For deformed rock mas that have ‘TUNNELING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 157VY Leakage a Pont ee TUNNEL PROFILE CONTAINING LOW MODULUS ZONE Figure 2. Hydraulic jacking ina vertical plane, zones or beds of stiff and flexible construction, it is prudent to measure ‘material, the stress field may be highly the instustress as soon asis practicable. variable. Thus, itis possible for the In addition to checking the safety of Water pressure to dilate fractures in the final design, measuting the festa the Tow-stress deformable rock sur- stress wil allow optimization of various rounding the tunnel, and to force an design elemente—such a8 the precise open pathway toa nearby powerhouse location of the cannel, surge tank, ‘oF access adit—even ifthe overall rock sloping penstock, elbows, leageh of ‘over is adequate. This effect has been steel liner—and, thus, optitization of Potedin deformed granitemass.and the design insandstonelitsione sequences where For s pressure tunnel positioned stresses measured by hydrauliejacking beneath alas herisonial eines, to tess werevery ow inthe soft deforms gitonaleeedagencats recoigine, able sandstones, but were higher in tisneceaaty egcdealasthe onesie the more brite siltstone. Care must. weight of vol and ack seperately ne be ten to obtain represeniatve tests todfferences ia the denclo of he coo clase rocks where bracing ates Tit tatoo begat incompressible rock ean occur during in areat of deep topial wetoenen operation such asshor seepage paths The following squads gosere tees Sacabyandergound opti ora clans Highly pervious sone exting fromthe Fer Rar Sinden area re 13H, -H, % found tinderstanding of tre geology A, = and the material properties oF the % ee eee eee A, = height of the rock above the Design Guidelines tunel), In the event that data on insiu y= density of tock (dm); rock stress are not available, simple H, = height of soll above the tunnel design rules can be followed that (a) will ensure safety. However, if the project proceeds to final design and. density of soil (Vm®); and maximum static head (2). 158 TUNWELLING aND UNDERGROUND SPACE TectINOLOGY ‘Witere thereis nosoil cover, or where. the soil could be removed by landslides, ‘he equation reduces to: The above equations provide afacior of safety of 13 against uplift om hor Zonal planes, suc a bedding planes ‘orjoint combinations: Inthe event that thelateralsteses ae lower than the ‘ertclsestes, consideration musebe Brea ohyarsuleacking agains vert: fal planes Goins of fal), parcels ‘htre deformable rock exile (ig. 3) Te is necenary to be cauuoes th designing projets o be bullton valley slopes, where Seepage from the tunnet gthcendof tests ner could induce landlides, even when specal drainage is provided. In is astance, i's pre dent to asm thatthe coves must be Provided by the rock portion only Fresnte” tunnels posidoned near slopes or valley walls demand deed Consideration of the sizes: environ- ‘ent. Parteaary in ridges, sotes oF ‘ear valley walla stessreicfot the rock ‘ass occurs. THs phenomenon can be seen mh eat of open ong neat valley or eli hi Jouning ma extend tent ohundreds of meter ba ftom high eli. ‘The los of sires magnified in che wpper portions of the valley wall oF cf in'contrat fo the base’ of the valley, where stress Jntensfeation commonly ox, Broch (1964) recommends that the topography be diagrammatically cor: weed mich tee areal raph contours of the surrounding rnéseape. This procedure mst be dlone bot loogiutdinaly and laterally to account for irregular topography beside the nel (fg 3). Thistethod villensure safe posisoning ofthe slop Sng potion othe pres tune! a ofthe surge sate if one iy roqires Nevertheless even when dhete appar: cnulyeonseriaive rules are adoped, Iydtaulic ekg vests should be con: dlted at the ental poins along the tunnel. The eal points are the end eft eine dh ppc te "ppet portion ofthe surge shay and Imijor slope ehonges ofthe valley wal, Sahown in gS ‘An appropaste equation follows for baningasuiable poston fora pres tre tunnel where the rock conditions are favorable, ie. generally hard with high stines: (modules of deforma- ton), ‘and where the topography 1 uniform with searhorizonal oF en. Ue slopes This equation wil provide fecior of sary of 13 against pki ot Hydratcjacking Forateasofcomplen elem oe oparaniy re ey sess may ote and especialy for high head’ pants the probable stress pattems Should be evaluated Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 h oz mrFigure 3. Broch correction for topography. in more detail by 2 method such as finite elements to cheek the validity of the equation 13H, Cos 6 = required rock cover an; = Statihiead (ns ag” density of rock (vi) and & = dope angle Note thatthe surge shaft_ must, receive spedal consideration becuse the upper portion may extend above the line essed by the Broch cor. tection Fig 8). Thus, unless sce led, the surge safe shoud be set far enough back ita the dope (ensure that the et rock ress the top oF the shafts adequate. ‘retke and Ripley (1987) have com- piled a numberof eae histories where fxcesive seepage as eaulted from hydraulic fracturing or Hfng. These ives are compared with a number of Similar cess where embedinentof te tunnels deeper and where no rouble ‘occurred, as shown on ig. 4-A ee: Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 termine deminor principal stresses ‘The design line ensures a factor of iadbrertceettas safety of 1.3 against static conditions. ‘The portion of the factor of safety above unity will normally provide pro- Pesce ee tection against surge and unexpected geologic factors. AS noted above, the Inst stresses should be measured at key points by hydraulic jacking tests, at Elen onan / ‘Many options are avalabe for bring- ing td ster oc pono Foe Ly (Chua of lide oer eat Clana my be nese peer ae NO fg, Mr ad ord Me oe by atlang bifurcations or 2 singe - power tune may feed a distributer, Frith feparate tunes ending to the vrethouse Hach of thet lyouts Inpeses different hydraulic prewores cn the various tunaels ad thet linings forthe various operational condos. ‘Guidlines for sing the pressure tunnel are the same for underground nerhouses and surface powerhouses, ‘The loping portion of a unlined of coneratline anne mut be. pose tioned propery, slave tothe valley wall However for an underground Powerhouse itis aio necestry to omsder the effect ofthe tnnelon the Suabilty ofthe underground openings. ‘The lengh ofthe sel lines Fequred to maintain highepressure water a safe distance from’ the her openings Becomes an important considerations Individual presare tunnels mus: be separated byanadequatedstance,nor- mally 15 102 mes ther diameter to tnoute pila stability. In the event that ‘one oF more tunnels remain operasoa Alvwhileoshersare unvatered, fuse icad must be considered to act on the tier tnnel For the powerhouse oF ‘ommended design in, shown on the other galleries, suabiy of the roek Figure,can be ulized for valley slopes furrouliding the openings imust be Lup to 60% For slopes steeper than 60%, maintained. as seepage’ water can Special analyse of the probable nti ence hydraulic jacing ifthe ssi stress would be required, especialy to rock stres is too low (ig. 8) Un this I. ae einen ent Nomen toh eee a 3+ SLOPE ANGLE - 4g Figure 4. Recommended design line to prevent hyraulic jacking. ‘TUNNELEING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 159VECTOR ANALYSIS OF POTENTIAL BLOCK Figure 5, Rock jacking ot underground opening: tent the stel finer may have wo be lengthened, and special drainage ga leresand del holes installed woe high-pressure water. “in addon tothe consideration of insta rock stresses and the imposed hydrate loads, a safe design requres tat the hydraulic gradients tovards openings Be contoleg, expecally if ob tonesinersee boshopengs Appropriate filtering of erode aes intersected by drainage holes may be neceuary. The distance between’ he nd ofthe set liner and te spening must maintain hydraule gradient at accepable level, Cuelines are given below under SteeLLined Section,” Recommended Factors of Safety Prevention of hydraulic jacking may be considered as simply ensuring that the hydraulic pressure within che tun- ‘ne is always less than the rock stress, ‘or that the time of application of the hydraulic stress is 100 short to 160 TUNNELING AND UNDERGROUND MAJOR PRICE rm ely; however, a factor of safe eon Prnceat NOR of safety; however, a factor of safety for normal operational presture surges i required. Recommended factors of safetj for various hydraulic condidons are given in Table 3 {ANS and conseraie desig da prevents hydraulis jacking or iting quires thatthe sel ner be caried am adequate disance to enue that situ sttess xteria are et In aac, a reinforced concrete ng ea be used where the liner caries the fll iteral pressure without contibation from the rock. {nthis case the conerec contributes no tense capacity. ‘When eoascered esse design for ydraic jacking, Wig seen to Uist che area Ground the tone where bydrsulic jacking can SECTION be allowed, either with presure Set and drainage induced by dell holes neni Spins. Thi technique se has been used to fnic the growl of Sere Bydraulie jacking in rock nssey and alae tocloserdchsin concrete gravity dams ‘Alternatively, growing soe ound ese she tunnel onthe shout of erp WATER: Eggi the rock mas and preven the SSllup ef pore presures beyond te growed done ie conceptually al : Frowever it ewentialo ensere the 3 the rock ouside the grooted tone i 2s Permeable or dined’ and that large z beat are-vot subjected wo the jcklog as ices oan sear he 53 can aso be amped that the 5B? hydraulic pressure causing hydraulic 58, Jacking is the presare of the outer ge tage of the concrete ne, deceased 3 Ge tothe head loss that develops a the water seeps through cracks in the liner. Thisis not considered to bea safe SUMMARY OF pel a design approach, beau Steen aon ove iC suidtead duchone ae oaes a concrete liner. Cracks may be highly variable, depending upon concrete placement and curing, variable mixes, prevent hydraulic jacking. For this and the variable deformability of rock eason, water hamimer transients are under pressure. Thus, the hydraulic rot required to meet a normal factor pressure that must be resisted by the Table 2. Recommended factors of safety against hydraulic jacking or uplift Normal operating Design condition Static Surge hammer Design condition ___‘Static_‘Surge____hammer Lifting of rock above 13" 44 NA horizontal unlined or concrete lined tunnel. ‘Along sloping portion 13 ww NA Near valleys, and at end of steel iiner, with proper allowance for ‘slope, topography, and possible landslides removing Soil cover. ae eee reece eeeeeeeeeeee ese * May be reduced to 1.2 if geological conditions are’ wellknown, Srace TECHNOLOGY ‘Volume 4, Number 2, 1989| rock o prevent hydraulic jacking must, beequal tothe internal pitssucin the Unnel inehding surge condidons Limiting bydrstie jacking by using pee lt ongoing shod ne sed asa general design approach. Hrowever, if such measures re, nec- essary because of special concioos, they thould be performed vith great, caution For succes, itis necessary {O understand the geclogie condos and the variations in permeability of the rock to ease tat highrprestre seepage. paths do ‘not develop that Sypast the pretsre rele or grouting ‘yates insalled In general tis ech, Rique should be viewed ms a lastesort Ineasure, and not as recommentied practice. Selection of the Final Lining Selection of the final ining for a pete tunnel i's proces that begins in the design sage but does not end unt constuetion i complete and the geological conditions are knowa in del Ding the tendering sage, te liner design must be considered to be preliminary. “Then, ‘as consracion roceeds and. the’ geological cond Eons become known, the ing may be ‘modified to suit che actual conditions. This procedure requires well struc. tured ‘and fexble specications and contract documents that allow design ‘modifications without wafair penalty to the contractor oF the owner ere ib wide divergence on the ase of linings by various, designers throughout the world, Some favor completely ined rinnelson the basis of ensuring long-term performance with outthe eed forany maintenance work during operation. Others have char pioned the advantages of unlined oF ard) lined tunnels, with acsepeance of focal fallous provided that they do not prejudice operations. Between these imits are many options that atompt t9 apt cost an petormance, There ateno common guidelines for selection ofthe Snalliner. ‘Three basic factors influence the selection ofthe lining: () Achieving acceptable head loss inthe conduit {@) Prevenng excesive leakage either by seepage ov hydrate racing (8) Ensuring long-term stabiliy ure ing watering’ up, Operation and uo ach of thetefacors is discussed in detail below. Head Loss ‘Acceptable head loss along the press- ure tunnel is a matter of overall project economics, which, in some cases, ma inyolve using an unlined cunnel and achieving an earlier on-line schedule. Alternatively, where the schedule is controlled by other project elements, ‘Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 a smaller but smoother lined tunnel may be the least cosy, For winnels in exces of approximately 6 km, the schedule ofter can be controlled by the excavation and lining requiremen's of the power tunnel. Thus, selection of a ‘mallerlinedwinnel eatanger unlined tunnel may bean important decision. Head lois through conduit rin. pally function ofthe wallzoughness, the tunnel diameter and the water velocity. As a result, hydraulic equiva- lence can be obtained between larger diameter unlined tunnels vs smaller lined tannels of greater hyateulie eff dency. When small tznnels (2-3 m in siameter) are used, there is a greater need for a smooth fain to maintain accepaiite head losses. However, as the dannel diameter increases, the wall roughness as less effect on head los, and equivalence is achieved ehroagh Senall diametral changes "These factors must be assesed in terms of exeavation and support cot for both the terporary and. Binal linings, and the schedule advantages of unlined Cones where the est rock permits an unlined tannel. The advantage ofa tunnel boring machine, Which can achievea smoothness almost equivalent to conerete, also must be considered, Selecting the most suitable Ting for the aspeet of head loss a complex but standard matter of project Leakage Control ‘Excessive leakage from pressure tunnels can occur in two ways: first, by hydraulic jacking; and, second, if the Fock is pervious and the inter- nal pressure exceeds the external roundwater pressure. Methods of ling with hydraulic jacking have been discussed above. ‘The problem of pervious rock is more difficult, as (AGE 6 - POSSRLE HGH LEAKAGE there are numerous methods thst can bye considered, and the possibly of ‘migudgment increases accordingly. anes crag say be alone, epending upon. the quay value of avaiable water abd the probable effec of seepage’ on the Fabity ‘of the terrain and is effect, on the environment. Therefore, the Jong-term value of the water v3 the cont of Hinting the seepage must be compared, If possible of course, the tunnel should be place in such way thatthe hydrautie rade ine is below {he water table, Becsuse determination ofthe permanent groundwater table ie Inportant, experienced geologists and groundwater hydrologts should ie invoied inthis tak: Mapping ofall springs and points of perind seepage, 2b wall a drlchole pierometnic dat, fre essential im such 'an evaluation. If {his informadon isnot obtained, con- secvative design approach'a necessary Excesive leakage from the wilined tunneleanoccurif the natural ground stag owe th te developed by the internal presure, andiifthe rock h pervious, Of course alow water table may extt ren i Teladvely impervious racks, which sre Found in many very dry areas ofthe world, The vaous East are shown in Fig 6 : eskage for unlined tunnels can be estimated by standard flow nets if investigations have provided appropri: dedalslong th length the unpel Sec dats oral ar chained by geologic mapping, dling and incole Permeabligy testing. Subjective judge feat is almost the only guide for determining how much infest Work is necessary, snd this judgment mst reatwithan xpesienced engineer andlor hydrogeologst. "Thar are tes bee tes of ae -_ Figure 6, Assessment of leakage conditions (unlined, shatrte, or wnreinforced concrete) "TUNNELING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 161ings: impervious, pervious and semi- perio In praca terme the ow fommon impervious lining is steel placed with concrete of concrete! arrest casas notes {rout surround. A. composite in 7 care, NET HA0 f Gan be ed a which the see is A (aoe! 4 thin and an inside layer of concrete [|i «Seen Hlow rwan provides buckling resistance against ut le Ces yar enka external pressure. In recent years ae ea name ee various types of impervious ining ave been used, inchiding bitumen-coated gg copper, sprayed rubber, and plastic, E norinally with a concrete liner placed inside 10 prevent buckling. However, very lite performance data exist for such linings, and their design and construction are complicated, as they ‘musthandle both ternal and external Concrete and shore applied with out reinforcement must be considered to be pervious because they are char- 2cterized by locally pervs zones duc al wo placement imperfections, or shrinke A, ti tee age cracks that have occurred durin eae Pt caving. They also are easly cracked L- a L der internal preswure ia deformable eraeiaen o : 7 ee ree ee oes aes DISCHARGE - cue por 100 lonth common misconception that concrete Figure 7. Laahage from creche coneree liner, Sd shotcrete linings are impervious, E67: lethge fom eared cnet Both concrete and. shoterete cen be reinforced to act as semispervious lining. Various methods are available erally should reach at least 75% of the Hiings, uellaing enough reinforcing for this determination (ee discussion nerhal pressures althouge «oats 2 pect mel ends under Say" bel, The mim. um 1S" bas rma oni. be a specific width, IF a semipervious er of racks that will occur in an adequate Stage proutae as sheen ts lnc ireguird, it's neceary to laste, hemogeneott, crear ner Seg’ Whesteate eutngmov provide, reinforcing both radially and principally depends on the dlameter Iosehastobccontolledand'wherchigh Jongieudinally and to control concrete and liner thickness, and generally is presnres re neceasny, New shen mixes and placement carefully, inthe range of 10-20. Reinforcement frouts that can penewate joints and Leakage ratesthrough sem-pervious, ensures tat the cracks willbe disrib- Socks with a semipernious Dati ches racked concrete liningscan be reason- uted, andthe crack width can then be hae een waliead aby estimated using equations for flow cleulated with confidence. : betncen plas. Figure 7 shows the Cracking of the concrete lining also Stability reson for laminar ow and turbue develope br ober seaers mea TY sng sect mumemate lent low, which allows clculaion of placement conditions, cold joint ems adaquate gabityof tae tunnel theoaghe leakage from a cracked concrete or peratureeffets excesivelj rich or wet out the Ife of toe project Por may shotcrete liner (Sawatsky 1986), Note. mixes, and shrinkage. Tongitadinal designers, this meats ‘hat no cocLilg, that seepage is basicaly a function of shrinkage often resis in regularly or falsof sotcrete or concicte shold the crack width to the third power, the spaced transverse cracks separated by occur. Such am approach reauite (hed and the permeability ofthe sur- 6-10, depending on the diameter Coniinuousconezetelner or ney ight rounding material, The relations also of the tunnel. Such eracking can be quality rock with extensive rock bliin show that ifthe permeability of che hairline or up t0 3-4'mm, depending and shovcrete for an unlined tannee tenes %, < q i 7 surrounding material i relatively low, on the concrete mix and curing prope However, other designers accept com. the leakage is almost the same for one erties. PF Siderably ess suppor and ning wich crack as for many. Grouting to reduce permeability some minor falls in the tunnel, pro- ‘The graph indicates that if the sur- around a concrete liner can be aue- vided they do not hamper operation rounding rock is pervious, significant cessful, provided that carefully con- or cause a significant energy lose The Seepage can occur unless the crack trolled techniques and pressures are differences in cost and construction widths are very small. Generally, @ used. Generally, cement grouts with schedule betwcen these two design rrock permeability less than 10-9 emsec various additives to contol. penetra: approaches can be ver great and would allow very minor losses. Effec- tion, thixotropy, setting time, and it economic benefits are possible ‘ive,comprehensively applied grouting _strengthare available. Silicafume, used by selecting the approach that allows of pervious rockcan reduce permeabil- inshotcrete,alsohasbeen used in grout for minor rockfalls, in. combination ity to betwoen 10 and 10-# cm/sec. to increase strength and decrease the with periodic inspection and mainte. IF the host material is relatively waterlcement rato. ance. Permeable, leakage control depends Grouting should be done in rings, Tocnsurestabiliy, the lining design- ‘on, reinforcement and/or grouting. normally with six to eight holes per er must consider: Although standard structural meth- ring, after the concrete or shoteree x Erosion of rock or joint filing ‘ods are available for design of the placed to allow higher pressures to be by pressurized water. reinforcing steel, appropriate deter- used. Pressures must be controlled to @ Rock support, temporary and ination 9f the ‘deformation modu- prevent damnageto the ining but must, final tus is required for the rock in order be high enough to ensure penetration. © Hiylraulc pressures during water. to caleulate the deformation of the Consolidation grouting pressures gen: ing, operation, and unwatering, 162 TUNNELLING AND UNDERGROUND Space TecHNOLOGY Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 aneonsegsmenzananGONSOLIDATION GROUT HOLES a i aad HIGH PRESSURE GROUTING, oe £0, ny e Ni Presson. or" ~~ StL N SEQUENCE : 1. STAGE 1~- CONTACT GROUTING LOW PRESSURE 2. STAGE 2 - LOW PRESSURE GROUTING TO PROVIDE CONTAINMENT OF STAGE 8 GROUT 8, STAGE 9 ~ HIGH PRESSURE TO REDUCE PERMEABILITY UMIT 70 75% OF Py Figure 8. Liner grouting Erosion “The velodty of water in unlined pressure tonnels normally docs, not Exceed times, and often isin the tangs of 2 at, Sach elites teak rock, refng in rocks at Can reduce the cspacty of the tunneh or, in the extreme, entely block the flow. ‘The erosion may occur in soft rocks, shear oF fault zones, or in Block Tock containing thin, cayey or sky seams. and. sein. Although Such erosion may be slow inital Te Gan progress to invohe large blocs of rock and fall measuring ousands of eubic meters. Howevers such zones Gan be treated during construction to ute oube ee operate, 3c project leationssequling pro- tection must be ended during cxca- tation by experienced engincers or scoogistdutingthegeotoge mapping OF the tinned, snd nspetted. daring walk-through surveys by expose Derionnel After these features hare Been identiied, the necessary treat sent can be specfcd. Generally sch treatment involves band excavating > 2 depth equal to the width of the Seam and covering. the area. with fiber’ or mesh reinforced shotcrete or partculrly poor zones itching Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 si nt ne chateaeet emeta oe Beunend wpomnoaisetn at aS Sr pea een oat et a red ene sncerincy ae se am eerie Shotcrete nora lly can be used, it must Soe ae Hectares Seeder oe deformable, iemay be necessary cov Senate ome ane cea rete Res ire | fara ees covered with shoterete or concrete EP Shoxrete is used, must adhere Repay hyinaie gadis con ery high during unwatering. Con. trolled unwateringy where pressures are reduced over period of days is desirable to reduce seepage presures Sd exeral forces ont ing, Temporary and final rock support Tock reinforcement required on a temporary bass during tac driving and’ for permanent support during operation of the power tunnel. The degree and type OF support for the two conditions can be tery sila, ‘peal forhard massive rock where 20 final ining is requzed, and where only rock bos and. shotarete are Fequied for both temporary and fal Support. In contrast the temporary Support required fot tone! deving inves, strongly fracired,o: high crodible rock, may be modes, whese- ss extensive support or lining may be necessary for operation, Thy ay be necdtary wo follow excavation and temporary support with subsequent tsxtesive additonal tupport Le up fo. complete concrete lang. ‘The temporary snd Baal su requirements invaniably are exablshe ed by experienced tunnel engineers Surg ding ofthe tunnl oever 1c feneral support requirements must be determined uring desig tat sppropriste specifications and. cone Strction methodology ean be adopted toensurean economel prejectand the ‘minimum construction schedule ‘Various estfcation systems exist, for asesing temporary suppor. In 1946, "Tersaghiceveloped "2 rock clesscaton system for ectimating the loads to be sopported by ste! ses in the tunnel Sic then, number of tlasfiaton systems have been devel oped on the basis of numerous case Ritores. Some of the more common dlasification systems include *° Teczaghts Rock Load Casi cation for Stel Arch Supported ‘Tunnels 1946, 4 Deer's QD and Merrit Meth od, 1972, Wiekham's Rock Structure Rat ing, 1972. @ Buttons "Norwegian Geotech nical Tostcate (NCI) todex Clas Seaton, 1976. Bienanais CSIR Method, 1976. Alou these ystems ate ht n oth detign and constriction planning, Shey do Hoe adrenal var not se they uniformly applicable to al types of rock and varous conditions frock quality. They mt be applied by peopliviggsnudgmenteed enone Wal 1695) bas ptened 2 good summary of the spplicabiiy of tee spnene a cunmatiel ie te 3 ‘TUNNELING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 163Table 3. Evaluation of rock mass clasifcation sytem, ‘Geologie Conattione ‘Orientation Disoontinutios heared fone or more Molnfactors Sound Discontinuities closely spaced ——_orerushedrock — "signifeant stiecting stability __massiverock moderately spaced __orweakplanes otherwise ahesied — diontanity Rockretaxation x x x x ° (Time dependent) In-situstress, — Rockpopping x x x Conditions = Squeezing x x x ° ‘eonaitions (time dependent) = Slaking (due to ° ° loss of moisture) = Swelling ° ° ° Groundwater = Inflow volume x x x x x ~ Erosion ° 0 3 ° ° susceptibility = Solutioning ° ° ° ° ° — Hydrostatic ° ° ° ° ° pressure Gas = Pressure ° ° ° ° ° = Potential ° ° ° ° ° explosion X~Adequately addressed. ‘O-Inadequately addressed or not addressed. Selecting the type and amount of support for the final lining. a complex. problem. However,’ based fon the relatively simple casifcauon Systems acombination of supporcinay bbe employed, sibject to. Croividual preferences Neverielesy the support Fequirements in all the dassiieioon systems are related fundamentally to the strength of the tock the size of the tunal, andthe specie geologic conditions Figure § and Table 4 summarize these factors and iden the probable (ype of support thats propriate for ‘rons ype of rock The information Shown is ntended for use in pressure tunnels with diameters ranging from 2't0.7 m, which is the novmal range for meat projeas. I muse be empha Sized ha the information is given a3 2 guideline only, snd tha any specie tunnel could have conditions for which the measures shown may Be inappro- print Nonetbelen, the dats are fased {na number of eases and, used as 3 ‘uideline, have been helpful for book design and constuction Unlined tunnels Provided that the rock is, hard and durable and not susceptible to soluvoning, the ‘wonel can. remain largely or fully waned, Specal zones orarest of weakened reek can be teeated with groutad rock bolts and shotree: An eetimat othe rockbols and shotcrete vequred can utlze te sien aes dca shove ‘The underlying design phdosophy is that minor rockalls ean occu, bet that these falls wil not ead to targer major fal that could reduce tunnel capac. “The minor fall wl ether He on the invert, ot be moved by flow to 2 rocktap set near the end ofthe tunnel, Upstream, ofthe tee ining. eckbais are used ether sporadi- cay pi indivdval loose blocks, ona patter basis provdean interac: fvesuppor for unlined tarmel Many types of bolts are aallable and various ‘Moose forrock ol desigasave been developed. Altiough both active and pastve anchorage rockbols stems fave been used for tunnel spp in event yeas the tendency for modes sized tele has been toute a psive Sytem of grouted but untenioned anchors. In hard rock, where placing Gr soltining wil noe occur betwee Bells, thie method & economical and cltecive Folowingare somesddiionalspeci- 164 TUNNELLING AND UNDERGROUND Srace TECHNOLOGY ic design points for unlined, shotcrete~ Shoterete tining Shotcrete is an effective way of improving the stability of tunnels. Used in conjunction with rock bolts or sive routed anchor as in he New ‘Aussian Tunneling Mediod (WATNO, a highly” adapeable support sytem Gan be developed to mec condone Sbserved in the Beld during tunnel diving. With the newer addins suck astbereinforcermentand slice, the strength and deformability can be vatied to meet spel requirements. ‘Shotcrete can besed te improve the smoothness of tunnels: a Mannings" tale between 0.018 and 0.025 cen be chieved, depending on the thickness and contouring achieved. Generali, ssc 25 ccs vo tee strength: however, whcmtiapplied in thickneses of 10 cm or greter design methods similar to thors for concres can belied. ‘Shourete can be used effective: ty inom rok condone ever, for daytones or weak, poorly cemented rock, shoterete may” not faere properly ot may fal easly 2 the contie, For such condons, Volume 4, Number 2, 1989\ 8 | Fee 38 |S Sietecd arta aa Oey | aden ateeae otc ere ne z ool eee eee Be < ae ed a 5°76 é Fae 7 ce 23 4 Bee eae i Fr / % f° ra A roe sy . BE] oe 1 . Beicrt/ Oates we gy ‘| RS . ry © < ithe 7. oe : oe SL ak A to csc er ares =e se a . osgeeare aati eer raaee rary aac SPAN (md cxssaneanoy wo SUPPORT ‘nano MINOR SUFPORT —— UNLINED ‘BABE FAL LINN ASOTTONAL SUPPORT MEASURES = unTEnsioneo ROUTED axcHORE LocALLY. = UNTENSIONED CROUTED ROCK ANCHORS AS = URTENSIONED cROUTED PATTERN ROCK lancwons voeater ~ Teeat SHorenet, swotemers ano scomToNAL. REINFORCED sHOTCRETE 1 Tensionen GaoureD BCLTS OF TENGONS = Loca Concrete = CONSOLATION GAouTIG As NECESSARY PaTTEAN Sacre avr suproRT ——conenere Fotsesioe on faverte very weave CoRCULAR conenete nro STEEL wus as wecessanr Fewwonceo as neceseu, Tharrene cousocisaTion esOurING = SRCLAR RIBS an eRIURY CONCRETE LINING ‘mona Renroncwe As esse 7 Sreciat croutine Figure 9. Rack support guideline. interaion’ with the rock, achieved with ‘meshteinforced shotcrete and Bins, snot necessarily achieved with ferreinforeed shoteete, Therefore, the mos effecive shoteete method rust be selected. i ‘Shotcretsis very adaptable materi when de tunnel abjetedtolnernal presures. Although shotrete must be trened as 4 pervious tater, crack Asttbution duc to diameticl expan- Son cera without concen of sacks It appears that adhesion to Individual rock Blocks is greater than the aon of conte 0 rock. Toe rockbloeks actindependenty, allow tracking of the shourete 1 our at bck boundaries. Thus, when eric concentrate in concrete lines they ae ‘usually welldiserbuced in showrete liners unless major movement occurs, ‘This factor modlfes the approach ‘reinforcement design Shoterete ake performs very well Volume 4, Number 2, 1969 roe exer wate rere oe eos rang eh sph cages te Sea ore fo age a cece ao a came, Shcre eee ee ee irene mabigeds weuling & elt boaded ge fou pea ae ee ore meeyeo eye inbetlef eeeer subsequent layers. As many as four layers have been used in situations where concrete placement could not be done effectively. Single or double bars can be shotcreted, and triangular, tied bundles also have been effectively placed. As reinforcing is increased, Teducing the maximum partide size of the sioterete is advantageous. Coneretetinings ‘Conercte Ings represent the most, effective method of ensuring sabi while achieving « hydraulally ef dent connel, Because placeroen is normally done behind Smooth steel forms, Mannings "n" values on the onder of 0012-8 016 are achieve ‘Construction methods have. been developed that can. provide homo, neous concrete, with minor imper: fecions such as cold joimts, thermal cracking and boneycorsbing” Nat iy, good mix designs and construction Lfchniques ae erent. Nevertheless, because oftheinevitableimperfections, andbecause of the variable deformabit ity of mosrocs, linings cannot con ‘dered impervious, ‘llthectdence shows thatthe ining doesnot prevent ranser of pore pres les into the surrounding rock. Such tvidence includes racks observed tobe fled with leaves and fragments pon lnwatering resin the grogndater table, with development of surface leaks; and instrumented tinnel where mmerers have been insted in the Frostrock, Im addon, cracking of both red ed non bore ns Caused by shrinkage during curing exer tome degre hal ining Goncret liners mut be considered by the designer to be pensous or seme pervious membrane®, However, con Fret ean be reinforced to impede flow Sed, depending on the permeability of the surrounding rock, pore pressures tmay then be controied to t specie anearound atunnel. Thisconcepthas been dicusted further above, under Leskage Control" Becmtse of the associated costs and increased construction schedule, selec tion of concrete a «support medinm isa last resort. Nevertheless in cases, where other support measures wil hot be effecine, eg in. sued ground, where extensive overbreak fas occurred, or in very deformable rock under internal hydra loading, concrete an excclen solution, "The lining must be designed for three conditions 0) To support the exzernal rock and water load that wl be imposed during operation. Tn specif caves, sweling rks may inde lading. {@) To ensure integrity of the liner under Intra prewre, e when Cutow not of concern and Concrete cracking without dislodging pieces is scceptable. ‘TUNNELLING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 165Table 4, Factors for selection of final lining. Unlined with Shotereto Concrete Factor Tock bolts lined lined Deformation modulus >20 000kg/em2 7000-20 000 <7000 Geological favorabllty Favorable Favorable to Unfavorable (faults, discontinuities, unfavorable Joint filing, orientation) Unconfined compressive >700kg/ome 800 - 700 <300 strength Tunnel diameter Intensity of support increases with increasing diameter Rock foad on support” <0.4kg/om? 04-09 >09 Rock mass permeability Ix10+ Rock mass quality (Q)* >20 4-20 <4 Rock strength/cover ratio D5 5-15 <8 \Co» Based on NGI classification system Note: The above factors are given as a general guideline only. To determine the final lining requirements, consideration of the cumulative effect of the factors is necessary. Table 5. Acceptable crack widths for coercle liners. Sea eee PEELE EEE ‘Acceptable Design condition crack width Comments External pressure Not applicable Concentrated local cracks Internal pressure 3mm Distributed cracks Seepage control As low as 0.8 mm See “Leakage Control” eee este ere ee @) To lime seepage outow by limiting cracking oa tolerable amount (gee “Leakage Conte” above). ‘The thickness of the lining required depends on the size of tunnel nd the hnydralicforees that wil be applied. Generally thieenesees less that 8.2 m are dif to place, and thicknesses greater than 0.) m ave rare. For the Bajorly of cats, where “concrete {required for sabiliy because of ceertal loading, reinforcement isnot necessary. However, unusual cases fuch as Bqueeding rock or very high external water premures may require Feinforcing Reinforing isnot required for the imeral"prsre cnn anes severe crtcking can occur, result ing nding conte ps specially during tawatering. Under internal’ presue, deformations can 166 TuwweLtinc ann UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY be allowed that would result in a few concentrated cracks of up to 3mm before reinforcement would be necessary. If reinforcement is considered necessary, it should be ‘designed to limit cracking to mm in ‘width, with cracks distributed around the Hiner. Singh etal. (1988) have pres- ented a simple method for reasonably estimating the cracking that can occur in concrete liners. Design methods are also available to calculate the deforma- tionsand load sharing among the rock, concrete and the necessary reinforcing steel (Hendron etal: 1987), Selecting the areas where a concrete lining should be installed. requires ‘experienced judgement. Following an assessment oF geological factors, cal- culations of possible cracking andior reinforcement, the designers and con- struction personnel should inspect and establish locations that should be conerete-lined, Steel-Lined Section Length “The length of the stel liner must, be carried fo pot that saisfies owe conditions: (i) hydraulic containment, nd @) accepable hydrant gradients "Te requirement fr hiydaatic cons teinmeny, or prevention of hydraulic Jcking, has ‘been discssed above, under *Protecion Against Hydraulic Jacking and Uplift." After thi cond tion has been false ts neceseary to ensure thatthe hyde gradient from theend of theliner to the nearest ct poi sufi Tow to prevent, {nstblity of soil or rock atthe pont of txt Such iestabity an develop in the following way, which have led to past failures on spec projects: "Uplift beneath operons cil or rock layers overying, more Persous rock. ++ Erosion snd piping of soil at the ind surface, oF at pervious ayers within the sl 4 Erosion and piping of fault or shear mone eat atthe ground surface, oF at an underground # hydra jacking of rock blocks into underground openings An effective ‘design again these candor, deced abo, 0 event the development of excessive Water presores by inaling suiable Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 1 1 }drainage. Proved that the high Hnydralic_presures sre_dsipated inthe mas rock near the end of the ste! ner, a0 damage can osu However, tt exendal t understand the gelogiecondions aad the relative Reveal of eva steal in Sesigning the drainage syste, “The ue of ow nets vost the ow xogime and to ates the requirements for ainage very helpful. “There ae no hard and. fst design rules for sceepable hydrate gradients in the rock mas; however, apse shown Jn‘Table 6 are recommended for cases there the covers adequate to prevent, ideale Bacurog of ing. Tn. conjunction” with Acceptable tydralie gradients, drainage seers ‘ining Gt holes tnd separate dain: age tunnels are the most effec Method of maintaining stability oF chiang the shores possible bner. Dri holes ust be onented 19 cut across the fracture systems, and smut be apaced cloely enough to eagure interaction. ‘They should be driled Mell below pensiock or tunne! level Sencrly, oles spaced at thou 9m Inter re necetey although sore Widely spaced holes canbe effective in perviour rocks, Interaction betwece Foie an be checked. by pumping tenn: Besometers should beinstaled to meaaire the elfeaivenes of the Grlnage conain Guring operation, If frecesty, s00ivoral drainage ca be Implemented. If erodile ater neountered, drainage hols oust be fered t preven piping Contra of water presses and hydraulle gradients sn¢ important in the safe deagn of sandra. hydro. electric project. For pumped storage projets, dally operddons. result tn Elie londings and presure changes Its importa to Gear thi in mind during the desig of 2 pumped sor- age scheme, where more convervaine design measures and ineeated factors of slay say be appropriate Internal Pressure ‘Given the rapidly expanding body of experience ta ueauhent methods land valuating rock properties. for tngineering pucposes, the design of presture conduit in’rock in recent Yeats has tended tovard the ration. Boptimization of steel and. concrete liner requirements. Design considera: sions reliteestentally tan atessient ofthe interaction of the sted, concrete nd rock with respect to hydraulic forces that tend to cause instability ot coversiressing ofthese elements. Calc {ations normally have been based on rmatifications to the cassie equations for thick-walled cylinders developed by Lamé (1852). Generally, the Lamé uations are modified to account for indusion of a thin steel liner, the inability of concrete and/or rock to ‘Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 Table 6. Acceptable hydraulic gradients for sel ner length ‘Type of material Acceptable hydraulic gradients Massive hard rock, widely 10-16 jointed Hard to moderately hard, 8-10 moderately jointed Moderate to weak rock, 8-7 moderately jointed Weak, closely jointed or 3-5 sheared Very weak, possibly erodible Loss than 8 plus appropriate fitering maintain tensile sires, and variations external pressure and designs to pre im moduli among these materials. vent buckling will override the inter Depending upon the design criteria nal pressure criteria in determining used to establish the requirements of steel thickness. Other testing, such the steol liner, these equations can be as hammer seismic or petite seismic utilized to optimize Hiner thickness. methods, is useful to correlate between “The finite element technique is a specific test stations and various Tock ‘more flexible and realistic method types along the tunnel. Correlations because it can be adapted to suit among test methods, rock types, rock the actual shape of the tunnel and quality and deformation modulus are to include the existing stress field in a now more common in the literature, ‘mass rock. As with the modified Lamé Because such correlations are adapt- equations, compatability of deforma- able to other sites, costly tests may not tion across material boundaries is be required. required. Figure 10 shows the results ‘The depth of the weakened zone ofa opal analysis for = resection around the tunnels arable, depend with a variety of design variables that ing on the quality af rock and the meth can be altered to study their effect. ‘of excavation. Machine-bored tun- ‘To oblain deformation moduli for nels, ofcourse, are much less damaged, the rock, suitable tests—such as plate and the low modulus layer generally is {ck radia ack or pressurized cham- reseed to less than 03 s—can be utilized. However, these For blasting, the low-modulus zone tests are costly and should be used only canbeasdeepas2-$ m,butis generally when significant economic advantage lessthan | m. Seismictestsare ueefulin ‘an be ebtained by limiting liner thick- ness. For example, in many cases the Figure 10. Finite element model of stat ond concreelined tunnel. ‘TUNNELLING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY "167Low-modulus rock also exits near the toe of slopes in river valet, due toscresrelvaton during the geologic processes forming the valey En ade fon, the local mse rock near isrge Underground openings is weakened and stressrelieved by excavation ofthe ‘opening. The liner must be designed {accept full internal pressure at Soch Totations, with an Appropriate transivon to # point where the rock Gan sustain the lad Selection of the Fequiredlength and ranston depends ‘on geologic evaluation ofthe roo ‘Where te rock's designed to accept load, design criteria for load thang comtnonly require thatthe rock share halfthe load, This most applicable we hard rocks, where creep isinor Howe ‘ver in softer rocks, where creep is of concern, the portion of rock sharing should be decreased accordingly. The allowable sess in the sels normally limited to 80% ofthe ye sre, and may be 35-10% of the ultimate sess, \ depending on the type of sch Tt general practice to ensure that the Mlowable sess does not exceed 80% ofthe yield, assuming no rock support inthe event hat weak zones in the rock Yield to equa the unrestrained expan: Hon of che liner a “The ste! liner is normally expected wot inpero Howerer fo vy Righshead plants, leakage’ pus the owe plage fas dete ae ns tlongaton ofthe holes under the very high uniaxial stress as unequal sire concentrations ace around the hole Recent plug desigas include backing plates and epory around. the innee portion of the plug, ensuring a seal Under internal pressure. External Pressure “The ste liner subjected to exter tal pressures for the following con Case'A: Grouting Gose B: External groundwater pres- sures" duting contricion, por co watering case: Estemal groundwater pree sores during unvatering fo lowing longterm operation (in the cae of rapid un: veatering, many liners also resubjecto patti atau, ‘ich aes in adlon othe External presse to inst gecinalng) crn gout, ls sible Sess pore pres Uredue induced pesock esr ogre ro eatby operating pensochs. Overthelatseveraldecades, numer. cus investigators have developed theo- Fespredicting the onsetof butting for the actual condone ander which tee linersare required operat Thevari ous theories stems to relate measur Able aspect of fabrication inaccuracies Case D: to the types of buckling future that fan occur although ne one theory ft all ofthe eases where falure has aceured, some ofthe parameters thet ight have coneibured to faiure have Been quand “The equctions of Amstutz (1970) ate the most suiable as 2 gue to Specifying sel liner thicknesses “The factors having the most effect on the ability of given liner to rest. Buckling are "The fabrication tolerances from whi in race, te theres tally eevlr finer depare # adconcreteminesadd mehods of placing the bach! concrete Between the ste liner andthe rock © The abit of the rock to recover frome loading. © The temperatures ofthe air and water wo which the inside surface ‘ofthe ner willbe subjecc during teal conditions An attempt shouldbe made o estimate the effect of all ofthese facocs before 2 realistic apprisl of the, prota Tesisance to buckling ofa given ner ina given situation is made. Fabre 5 tleranees should be specified fealty, bearing fm mind the line tations imposed by available methods, Materials and machinery Parte Attention should be paid to sudden Changes in section thet may ovcat at Joins between plates; deviations from Uniform curvalure at may occur at Plate ends, which ave often bent rather than voll and deviations fom Gres. lar, which usually ocur asa rele of Inadequate support during installation and subsequent back ling "The thickest and. placing tech- niques for backlleobetete can ave an effect upon the liners subsequent Abily to ress buckling, The coverete Ini should be controled wo reduce te Fleas of heating te ine, whch su Sequendy coolsand pull aay from he Concrete, and to int shrinkage ofthe concrete “Te introduction of cold air o water wean ako ie he era Peincrease end, inconjuncion vith Groutngorabuildop of external water Pressures, cap result in bucking ‘After the iner hasbeen in operation foraperiod of time, and dependingon the deformation and subsoquentresor, ry abies of the sock surrounding the tunnel, a gap far in excess ofthat originally surrounding the incr may occur upon dewatering, This can be x rial time for bucli, especially if the operation ofthe facili has puted the surrounding groond with water at pressures equa othe internal operat: Ing presure “There are-often circumstances in which it ioe econonielly feasible wo provide plain steiner sufiieny {hick to ‘rést the probable bucking 168 TUNNELLING aND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY forces, Under such rcamstances, the aeaidonotenueratsifeneeeey or all ofthe engl of he Boe a Be je Hontver any projets ini the gap surroueding the Hoes ‘Bouldin hey have negate effes upon ie subsequent. placement of ursformly coord chert, tnd ay repay theexcavation ob enlarged ove and above tnt equred toacormvodate Sight tice, pan er "The cconrieivoled in deiding how best to Fest bucking tay ee Brofetto projec There hin he Tae Eatean apple eae ‘Unies extol preaine ele sing dainage tonnels sacri les pas ide cstomary to tauine Bost the tock can be unrated op he ipod srfaces yin Caen tnd 6 ‘Bove Gig) i este dato & Used, tt be exten i ord to Beeffetve, sng measures esebed above under cag "Thc external pws described in Gate may beigntcandy ghesanan thone in Cases B or ©. Seek orecney ‘aay be induced bya ncarby pee ffom prenuresindaced owrsettees around the sed ner, or tree Se nerying reserve raetr sb indicates that high reaure seepage my ocee,ay ths penstock induced fom Teskoos out ad ote alae i partslny tue for very haghrhend pants. Such Tealage can bypee ence the mot effective exrnal drsaage ‘ic hs hihepremure ater eS ld up a safc reserve noe ox ok ue ener cing fnvaterng phe enews ‘done very dowiyalowing drainage td esualonton of ermal resus ‘To combat this potenta "proles, speci weament Eth and sector, eset tines may be necensey shown in fig. 11 The Neat Of renforceteny, embeded. calln {ndloranchor ings anahghepraners iting intend to ee ses of ipresure water behind the sel lines. For highehesd sheesh sch ron ez py Inore appropriate wo design the el liner for the all ste head than provide a complex drainage syste Some designers have uke drainage piper paced tcind these ise Eceneted to the gap to remove igh ressre water Ga aovacing. Ths Echeme should not be sed fis not tifecve in the long em athe pipes Can become dogged ith precios Grouting ‘The following types of grouting are required over various portions of the tannel: Coniact Grouting—To fill large voids behind the sieel and concretelinersthat occur due to inadequate concreting, Volume 4, Number 2, 1989sTeEe same LL bss IF REINFORCEMENT (CANNOT BE ‘CARRIED THROUGH. cin ngs | ee ces usa 20 Ceci srerenes eronetern, / estate ‘ING CONSOLIDATION ROUTING. Figure 11. Seepage conivl at end of set bner. or due to air wapped during the nereing operations Eibedinn! Greutng-—To sa he g tetneen the ses! Her and cnet that forms de to concrete sheinkage, plasde sc in the sock duting lad {nglunlosding, and the temperature differential besween the liner and the mas sock Consadatin Growing—To console date basedamaged of relaxed Tock sed redueclelage.Alough some inveatgators have Cited. prove, tent ofthe modus ofthe roe 32 Fesul of consliation grouting thes 2 debatable poine Contact grouting, the frst grouting proces performed is seguir only {he are ofthe tusnel. a esonele ess than 61m ia dameter, a single line of grout spaced at ScA'm normally SS adequate. Sable ence having ementhwater ratio of I:1 (or thick) By volume, with 015-18 bentonite ae appropriate. Moen presures of 2-3 gem’ are adequate, akhough igh presses re x maria imbedment grouting of the gap berieen the steel and concrete Les normally is the second step. Grout Bixes must be dhinnes, with about 26 bentonite to improve fudty and penetration. Grouting should be done Invings(ypiealy sito eight holes per singh moving ups, wan fone bole open to alow eraaage. Pres ures of up 10 50% of the buckling fetint ocled loahog nd bucking, nat localized loading and bueKings However, the main requirement 8S cnaure gaping. If operation water iSnignideancy colle than the roc the inet can be cooled prior to grouting Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 LINE GROUT CURTAIN ' | RING coNsoLIoATION |_sroutne by spraying cold water on the liner to encourage the gap to form, “Thelastsep consolidation grouting, i done by hee tio on Jng upsweam snd grouting Uno the sme holes asthe enbeameat grouting. Wi the packer atached {© the eel Haes, he gap, a8 well 2 the fractured rock, & routed a fecond time, It i advantageous rout to the highest presore posible Sithout buckling the Hiner. Presures OF up to 79% of buclding pressure fread o prevent bling de to localized overtoading, because the ing cannot be couated on to [evse win, allaround presure ch grouting not only comoidates the roek, but ao tends to induce 2 compresive tes in the concretelsteat finer Such prestres, though desi= ale, cannot be counted pon to be maintained, because of rock cee General erteria for consolidation and contact grouting ofa tunnel lined ‘only in conerete are the same a8 the rtera fora stcconcrete secon, Operational Aspects Debris Traps “Trapsto colletaoil and rockarenec- essary for unlined o shoteretelined tunnel, and in areas where debris can enter from the intake or surge shaft ‘The tape should be located upstream of the concrete orsteetlined portions, Toreduce the frst filing tisadvisable to pressure-wash the tunnel walls ‘Fraps can be designed to remove most Of the nsuspenied soit leads however the hydratiicaspects must be carefully sudied, On the basis of pre ‘cedent experience (Lysne 1971), rock trapsmay be sized tocontain those rock feces that.can be transferred along the Invert of the tannel by the prevailing velocity and invert roughness. In gen= eral, itis good practice to concrete the tunnel invere for ease of inspection, ‘The improved hydraulic efficiency of the tunnel allows easier transport of rock pieces and sand. Furthermore, much of the material derived from fully unlined tunnels comes from the invert, where erosion is concentrated, Plugs gs must rei ide shear ad prevent excessive seepage aroun lig. Differing design criteria are wsed by ‘various individuals and agencies. Many plugsare sized simply tobe about twice the tuane! diameter, independ entofhead and rock conditions. Allow. able shear stresses of 3-10 kgfem# sre used, depending on the quality of the Plugs should be designed such that, their lengths say eters for accept= able shear strength and hydraulic gra: dents around, the plug” These ert tei age Simro those wed. for ‘establishing the length of tel line Sr Hower, etl the Opes where high-pressure water normally exits are smaller, hydraulie gradient ray be greater. Special grouting and downstream preatre reef ct be installed to contol seepage and allow ‘reduction in length Beh contac nd coldation gro ing are required. Contact grouting of shore plogs can often be donc by fanning Holes from. the rear end However, for long plugs, embedded pipes with appropriate exit points for the grout, placed near the arch and carried to the downstream end, are effective for contact grouting. Con solidation grouting is often done by Jong inclined holes. However, long plugs may have a hollow dovnitream Section, allowing acaest to a manway or hinged door. ‘This arrangement permis ring growing tbe cane rom inside the hollow section, and improves the grouting seal Such plugs may have to be reinforeed along the hollow section. Plugs of this type can cnilybe extended or the grout curtain enhanced if excessive seepage occurs around the plug afer watering of the tunnel. Large plugs require careful con crete control to prevent excessive heat fof hydration and cracking. This pro- cedure may involve cooling, especally if the schedule dictates rapid comple- lon Although a caring period of 28 days is advisable prior to grouting, it canbe shortened Frnecessary. Rings of drainage holes dled into the rock at the downstream end ofthe plug are advisable to ensure stability oF the tunnel ‘TUNNELLING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 169 ¥In the absence of general des teria for the suing’ of plugs, the ‘Values listed in Table ? are suggested Watering/Unwatering ‘The inital filling of the pressure tunnel should be carefully eantoled to limit cracking ofthe concrete liner, Such cracking is intensified due to the difference in pressure. besween the groundwater and tunnel water Normally the tunnel has been open for several years due to construction, and drainage ofthe rock has occurred, Filing the funnel slowly allows prese. le equalization to occur, and thereby limits deformation of the rock and Ene ers Asecoinmended by Deere (1983), a leas two to three weeks generally Should be allowed for this ‘process, howeer, this time period Pay be excessive for eatvelyfow head plants. ‘Alling rate of to 10 fa norteally adequate, If posible, monitoring water lev- ls in the surge shaft ith 2 cloned tpsream gate will allow a good exe Pate oflnage Sucheakage ua High during fling asthe groundwater tables re-established, leakage accel erates at a specific internal presure, indi cing png may Be Piesometers should be placed in sees where sitet ‘onuuton Grainage is expected, and should be read as ling takes place Such pict, ometers are best installed in explora. tory holes used for predesign invest. gations, so that the history of ground tater changes s known, In addition w groundwater moni- toring apaing SE eestng rng Seepages att landslides thotld be done before watering Changes in these conditions shovd be noted by a regular ispoction program. ‘A survey of cracks in the concrete should be done prior to fr ling. “These cracks should be mapped and, ifunwaterigs planned, spay painted so thatexensions or ney trace can be idenuied upon snwatering Unvaterng” of pressure. tunnels should sho be‘ done carefully at a fate between to 10 mn, uilining Slower rates for” Bigh-head plant Groona’ water changer shod be noted a8 the unwatering takes pace pel fren hahhead agers significa reserves can be bull up inthe rock mass If drawdown is "api, high pressures val be exerted gn tie! ngs Depending on the strength and icing resins? the varios clement loa failures can be inldated. A detailed inspection of {he tel should bedone nnediatdly afer unvaterng compete. Reco of nfow, loc! Sires ofthe rock or Tning,erackingor other dicresshould beretorded. c ‘Acknowledgements ‘The writer thanks Dr A. Merritt, Dr L. Jory, Mr I. Pinkerton aad Mr C. Hi. Maartman for their review of this paper, and their very constructive Table 7. Acceptable hydraulic gradients for plug length. ‘Maximum Maximum General rock type shear stress (kg/em*) hydraulic gradient a ea ee ee eee Massive, hard, widely jointed Hard to moderately hard, moderately jointed Moderate to weak, moderately jointed Weak closely jointed or sheared Very weak, possibly erodible 5 18-20 3 to-14 2 7-9 1 5-6 os 3-4 ee Notes: Erodible features downstream of plug to be treated locally. 170 TUNNELING AND UNDERGROUND SrAck TECHNOLOGY References Amstuts, E, 1970, Buckling of pressure ‘halt ‘ad tunnel Tiningse Weil Bouse November 1070, Bienayst 2.71974. Geomechanics lass lication of rock mates and te applation in tunneling. In Prox Third nd Longe on eck tees, Vol 1A. Denver tater ational Society of Rock Mechanics, Brekke, 7. Le and Ripley, BD. 1987 Design guidelines foF pressure mnels and shall EPRI Documest RE-1 745-17 ‘och, E. 1983. Unlined high presare ‘unhelein areas of complex topography. Wale Pur Der Contrnatin 36 (11) 21.33, Deere, D. U- 1988. Unique geotcchiel [problens at ome hydrovecte procs In’ Secen Pan Am Proc, Voncrace, pp. 868-88, Canadtn Geotechnicl Son We Mone 1860. Deign of tonne! suppor: Highay Reworeh ord Hencrom 4. J. Femander,G. and Lenzni, PLA. 1987, Design of presuretnncl, In Symptom HE trond "Sek sce af GeschselEngieeringy_ Vel I Engleeod Cit, NJ Prensee afl Lame," 1852. Laos sare oie wathtntque de tte, Vol 1, Pars Bachelors Lusee D. 287, Sand anspor and "and taps in hydro power tnncl In Foe, Punjed Stage Denloment en Encironnatal Fife, Unive of Wie Consn, Stieber, 1951. Minako, WL “Atveriean Water Resources Asodion. Merrit, A #1972. Geologeal predicdon for inderground excavation, In Pr, is North sercan Repid Enea nd Tinneng Conf, pp. L1S-182. New Yorks IME. Savatsky, 1. Personal commonication, ‘Ocrber 1066, Singh, 3. Nayak, G. C. and Koma, 2 3. Desig recommendation for plas serge ign per tel tn Pe 1 Sp on Tesling for Wate esures and Boas Pret, VOR tral Board of fra Sk, 01984. Une sunne peau. “Hard Rock Engineering. Osos FHS ‘Terzagh K. Roe Defend Leads in Tunnel Support Rac Parmeling sth Stel ‘port ( V. Proctor snd“T. White) Youngstowa, OF: Commercial Shearing an Stamping Co Wala, M 1089, On empirical cssifeation systems for sippont pressures esdmaton fr underground stcares Paper ented at Tunneling Assocation of fia Conference, August 1965. Wickham, GE. Tiedemann, H.R. aod ‘Skianet, E. Fi 1972. Suppor decerme ‘ation based on gelogeal predictions in Free. Norh ersan Rap Esenaion ‘and Tanting Conf Vol. Ty pp t8-54 Sew vorks AME ‘Volume 4, Number 2, 1989