Stanislaw Nowak 1

The Effects of Upper Alpha Neurofeedback

Training on Performance in Skilled Video
Gamers
Stanislaw Nowak
40900094
University of British Columbia
Supervisor(s):
Graham Healy
Ron Rensink
Abstract: The present pilot study investigates the effects of single session neurofeedback
training (NFT) in the upper alpha (UA) frequency range on performance in subjects skilled in the
video game Super Smash Bros. 64 (Nintendo, 1999). Several studies have linked UA with sports
performance. These studies dealt with short term changes (phasic) in UA power while
performing closed skill sports (Vernon, 2005). Video games provide an opportunity to study
more complex tasks while minimizing methodological problems dealing with movement related
artifacts in EEG recordings. Recent findings indicate that UA plays a role of retrieving long term
memories for use in short term memory (Schack, 2005), and may be associated with semantic
memory aspects of working memory (Escolano, 2011). The present pilot study investigates
whether NFT in long term changes (tonic) in UA power may influence game performance via
enhancement of procedural memory aspects of working memory. We employed Super Smash
bros 64 (1999) because it provides a large subject pool of experienced gamers due to its
widespread appeal. Experienced gamers are ideal subjects for this experiment because they have
procedural memories related to Super Smash Bros. 64 (Nintendo, 1999).

Introduction

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Alpha activity is usually defined in the range between 8-12 Hz and is the dominant
frequency band in the human brain (Zoefel, 2010). The role of alpha activity in cognitive
processing is not clear, but the basis of any theory dealing with alpha rhythms functional role is
based on the understanding that an increase in alpha activity is related to a decrease in cortical
activation. Hans Berger, the psychiatrist who discovered alpha rhythm, found that alpha activity
decreases as mental effort increases and the opposite is true in relation to mental relaxation
(Tudor, 2005).
Within the alpha frequency band, only the upper half has been associated with
improvements in cognitive performance (Vernon, 2005). Upper alpha (UA), as it is commonly
referred to, is usually found between 10-12 Hz (Vernon, 2005). The UA frequency interval varies
from person to person and consequently has to be determined by measuring the alpha frequency
with highest amplitude over a period of time (peak alpha frequency) and adding 2 Hz to this
value (Vernon, 2009). This peak alpha frequency is commonly called the individual peak alpha
frequency (IAF) (Vernon, 2009), because it varies from person to person. Among other things,
UA has been implicated in good memory performance (Klimesch, 2012), creativity (Boynton,
2001), and sports performance (Vernon, 2005).
It is important to distinguish the difference between tonic and phasic changes in alpha
amplitude and treat them in separation because they may serve different functional roles in
cognition (Doppelmayr, 2002). Phasic changes in alpha amplitude occur rapidly and are stimulus
dependant, while tonic changes occur at a much slower rate and change according to things such
as mood, arousal, age, or fatigue (Klimesch, 1999). Both tonic and phasic changes have been tied
to measures of cognitive performance and intelligence, but in different ways (Doppelmayr,
2002). Higher tonic alpha amplitude has been tied to higher scores on intelligence tests and better
memory performance (Doppelmayr, 2002). Mirroring the development of memory and cognitive

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performance, alpha amplitude increases from childhood to adulthood and declines with aging
(Clark et al., 2004). On the other hand, phasic amplitude, commonly characterized by event
related desynchronization (ERD) or event related synchronization (ERS), has been implicated in
better task performance (Doppelmayr, 2005). ERD is a rapid decrease in amplitude while ERS is
the opposite. It seems the type of relationship phasic changes in UA has with cognitive
performance has depends on the type of information being processed (Doppelmayr, 2005).
Specifically, ERD is positively correlated with amount of semantic memory retrieval required by
a task (Doppelmayr, 2005).
The present pilot study aims to investigate the effects of increasing tonic UA amplitude
via NFT on performance in video games. Video games may be viewed as analogous to sports in
the sense that they both require skill based visuo-spatial coordination. The Few studies dealing
with sports performance and brain activity have found asymmetries in task related ERD in elite
versus amateur closed skill sport athletes (Crews, 1993). Several studies have found reduced
cortical activation in the left hemisphere, as assumed from a higher phasic alpha amplitude,
during the performance of a simple task in expert gymnasts (Kita et al, 2001), archers (Landers et
al., 1991), golfers (Crews and Landers, 1991), and martial artists (Del Percio et al. 2009).
Landers et al., (1991) interpreted this reduction in left-temporal activity as a reduction in covert
verbalizations and internal dialogue allowing the visual-spatial abilities of the right hemisphere
to dominate during the task (Vernon, 2005). To test whether this was a causal relationship and
whether it could be augmented via NFT, Landers et al., (1991) used a slow cortical potentials
technique which constitutes participants focusing on shifting cortical activity towards more
negativity in either the left hemisphere (experimental group) or right hemisphere (control group).
They found those in the group training in the left hemisphere displayed a higher level of
accuracy in archery than those in the control group (1991).

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The aforementioned studies about the relationship between sports performance and UA
amplitude dealt with phasic changes during a task. Several studies have implicated UA tonic
amplitude with working memory processing (Sauseng, 2005; Schack, 2005; Escolano, 2011). A
study by Schack and Klimesch (2005) found that theta and upper alpha were the most prominent
frequencies displaying within-frequency synchronization (m:m) phase locking during retrieval in
a working memory task (Schack, 2005). In this study subjects were required to memorize a set of
numbers shown in word form displayed for 200 ms (memory load varied by 1, 2, 3, or 4 stimuli)
(2005). Following there was an 1800 ms retention period, followed by a probe (2005). Subject
were instructed to press yes if the probe contained any numbers in the initial set and no
otherwise (2005). Reaction time and correct responses were measured (2005). During the
retention period, researchers found a load-dependant increase in upper alpha power in posterior
regions (O2 and P4), and during retrieval, a load-dependant increase in upper alpha phase
locking was observed at posterior occipital region O2 (2005). Also, upper alpha : theta
synchronization was found between left anterior and right posterior sites in both retrieval and
retention periods (2005). The study suggests that theta may be involved in central executive
processes related to working memory, while upper alpha is responsible for the retrieval of long
term memories for use in working memory (2005).
Upper alphas apparent role in working memory warrants further investigation into the
generalizability of such claims. Would manipulating tonic UA power via NFT influence
performance in a more complex and dynamic working memory task? The present study is
investigating the effects of NFT in UA on working memory using the video game Super Smash
Bros 64 (Nintendo, 1999). The reason this game was chosen is because of its widespread appeal.
The assumption is that amateur players would utilize more volitional and executive cognitive
processes during gameplay, while experienced players would use procedural memories acquired

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from years of gameplay thus requiring long term memory retrieval for manipulation in working
memory. A study by Escolano (2011) found that NFT in UA did in fact significantly improve
working memory performance in a variation of the conceptual span test which tests the semantic
short term memory component of working memory. Would increasing UA power via NFT
increase performance in Super Smash Bros 64(1999)? Escolanos (2011) study demonstrated a
causal relationship between UA amplitude and semantic aspects of working memory. However, if
there is a causal relationship between UA amplitude and working memory in general, we expect
to see the same sorts of effects for procedural memories. We expect UA NFT to enhance
performance in skilled Super Smash Bros. 64 (Nintendo, 1999) players because of UAs role in
long term memory retrieval during working memory tasks.

Subjects:
Fifteen university students all male (mean age: 20+25) have been recruited for this study
so far. These subjects played at least one hour of Super Smash Bros. (1999) per month to ensure
they were experienced in the game.

Materials:
A 4-channel EEG was used with 3 electrode placings down the mid line at Fz, Pz, and
Oz. Ground and reference electrodes were placed on the chin and left ear respectively.
Recordings were amplified using a Biotech Infinity Thought Technologies system at a Sampling
rate of 256. The NFT regime was performed using Biotech Infinity Thought Technologies
software. Processing and analysis were done using a custom iPython script and SPSS
respectively.

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Throughout the experiment, subjects completed questionnaires. The first questionnaire

asked about experience, average time spent playing during a month period, skill level, and
motivation to play the game. Following each game, players were asked about their motivation to
play the game, how they felt they performed, and whether the demands of the game were
matched for their current skill level. After NFT, subjects were asked whether they thought they
could manipulate their UA band, how motivated they felt to modulate their UA band, and how
much they thought they altered their UA band.
Averaged baseline amplitudes before and after NFT were compared using a paired
samples t-test to determine the effectiveness of NFT. Averaged game scores before and after NFT
were compared using a paired samples t-test as well to determine any changes in game
performance that may be attributable to the NFT regime.
EEG power was calculated from the Pz site using a Fast Fourier transform (FFT)
algorithm with a two second window and a one second overlap. Power was then processed with
an Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) filter. Low cutoff frequency was set according to the subjects
IAF and high cutoff frequency was set 2 Hz above this value to determine the UA band for
training. The device used for NFT was an ellipse that changed shape proportional to UA power at
the Pz site (Figure 2 in appendix a). Additionally, a bar graph that displayed amplitude over 20
second epochs as the session was occurring was used so that subjects may track their progress
and determine which strategies for modulating their UA band were most effective.

Procedures:
This experiment followed a repeated measures design (Figure 1 appendix a). If one grants
the understanding that cortical activity inhibits UA, Resting UA power is most representative of
tonic changes in UA amplitude. For this reason, resting state baselines were recorded. Baselines

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consisted of a two minute open eye recording and a two minute closed eye baseline recording.
Open eye UA power is suppressed via visual processing, so both open eye and closed eye
readings were taken to best measure any changes in UA power that might have occurred due to
the NFT regime. During open eye baselines subjects were instructed to stare at a blank wall so as
to not stimulate any additional visual processing. During closed eye baselines, the IAF and
average amplitude were recorded to specify the given individuals UA band and set thresholds for
the NFT session.
Subjects then played three games of Super Smash Bros. 64 (Nintendo, 1999) to gather
baseline scores. Super Smash Bros. 64 (Nintendo, 1999) is brawl style fighting video game that
features many of Nintendos other popular video game characters (Nintendo, 1999). Each game
lasted 5 minutes. Subject chose which character they were most familiar with (to engage the
most procedural memories as possible). All other customizable factors of the video game were
standardized to limit variability. Items were removed to limit stochastic dynamics of the game
(Nintendo, 1999). Games were staged at the arena Kirbys Dreamland and the opposing fighter
was always a level 7 Mario (Nintendo, 1999). These factors were determined on the basis of
being the most standard level and most standard character as defined by competitive player
forums (see www.smashboards.com.) Following the first 3 games, baseline readings were once
again taken.
Next, two 10 minute NFT sessions were held. Training was occurred at the Pz site
because of its role in working memory and because this region exhibits the largest alpha power
(Schack, 2005). Subjects in the increasing amplitude condition were instructed to relax and
explore enjoyable, intrinsically motivating thoughts to increase the size of the ellipse and thus
elicit higher UA amplitude. In the decreasing amplitude condition, the training regime was
reversed so that a larger ellipse size was representative of lower UA power. Subjects were not

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told this was the case and were simply instructed to expend as much effort as possible trying to
make the ellipse larger. Subjects were not told they were performing NFT with the aim of
decreasing amplitude is because this may have negatively affected their motivation in relation to
the experiment. In the sham control condition, subjects unknowingly watched a NFT session
from a previous subject. The purpose of this condition was to control for demand characteristics
and training effects. Following NFT, another baseline session was taken to determine any
changes in tonic UA power.
Next, 3 more games were played using the same exact configuration as before. If any
improvements in performance due to increases in working memory occurred, they would be seen
in the scores of these games. Finally two more baselines were measured.

Results:
Nine subjects were recorded in the increasing amplitude condition. Three subjects were
removed from analysis because one subject was recorded with a broken electrode and two
subjects reported they were not able to effectively modulate their UA band. This was confirmed
as they were the only subjects whose average amplitude of baselines decreased following NFT.
The reason these subjects were excluded is because the aim of this study was to study the effects
of NFT; if they were not able to alter their UA band effectively then this irrelevant to the
experiment because there is no independent variable. Both increasing UA band amplitude and
improving game performance measures reached significance using paired samples t-tests. NFT
training changes: t(5)=-5.039, P=.002 (Figure 3 in appendix a) and Performance changes: t(5)=4.25, P=.004(Figure 4 in appendix a). Both measures had large effect sizes at d=2.22 for
modulating UA band and d=1.72 for game performance.
Analysis was done using custom made iPython scripts by taking FFTs for each session

Stanislaw Nowak 9

and channel. Noise was filtered using a crude filter that removes noise at a certain amount of
standard deviations away from the mean. The cutoff threshold was determined by experimenters
heuristically optimizing noise removal while trying to maintain as much relevant data as
possible. This was done viewing session by session and channel by channel frequency
distributions and FFTs.

Trends in other conditions

The analysis is still ongoing for the other conditions. One subject was run in the sham
control condition. They did not increase their UA band power and did not improve in game
performance. Two subjects have been run in the decreasing amplitude condition. These subjects
were able to decrease the amplitude of their UA band but did not change in their game
performance. Further research is necessary to show that there is indeed an effect of UA on
working memory over and above any confounding variables such as demand characteristics and
training effects.

Discussion:
Alpha rhythms function remains unclear. Originally alpha band oscillation have
traditionally been interpreted as an idling rhythm that is a natural consequence of expending no
cognitive effort (Adrian and Matthews, 1934). An alternative model in light of all the research
demonstrating the cognitive enhancement effects of UA is called the neural efficiency hypothesis
(Vernon, 2009). According to this theory alpha operates in a top-down control mechanism,
inhibiting unnecessary or interfering processing. The understanding attached therein is that

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effective cognitive processing is not the result of how hard the brain operates but rather how
efficiently it allocates resources (Vernon, 2009). How generalizable this interpretation of alphas
role in cortico-cortical communication is remains to be determined. Some evidence demonstrates
that alpha has a particular relationship to certain kinds of cognitive processing. Doppelmayr et al.
(2005) have demonstrated that UA power is contingent on the semantic load of the task at hand
rather than pure task difficulty. As semantic load increases so does ERD and as mentioned before
more intelligent subjects displayed a larger ERD than control subjects. Doppelmayr et al. (2005)
claim that this evidence puts the neural efficiency hypothesis in question because if cognitive
performance is simply the result of how efficiently the brain operates rather than how hard, one
would expect to see the opposite relationship between individuals of varying levels of
intelligence. On the other hand, it is quite possible that more intelligent subjects simply find
more relevant semantic information within a given task than less intelligent subjects. Drawing on
more relevant semantic information would be in line with what one would expect of a more
intelligent person. The previous study dealt with alpha rhythms role in phasic changes, but alpha
rhythms function in tonic changes remains just as problematic.
There are several limitations to this study. For one, in most subjects there were large
movement artifacts which altered the EEG readings making it harder to measure any changes in
UA amplitude due to training. Also, the method of filtering was quite crude, but it is unlikely that
it altered the data to an extent that compromised the results given the large effect sizes. Other
possible confounds are demand characteristics and training effects. The sham control condition is
not complete and therefore it is not possible to decouple the real effect of NFT from training
effects and subjects expectations to increase their UA amplitude. It is important to note that this
study used only one NFT session whereas most NFT studies use quite a few more to elicit more
robust and long term effects. Therefore, this study was investigating purely short term effects of

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UA NFT.
Do findings in this study and other dealing with alpha rhythm and working memory
support the neural efficiency hypothesis? If alpha band selectively regulates long term memory
retrieval in working memory, then we might expect to see a decrease in performance following a
NFT session aimed at decreasing UA power. However, if alpha simply regulates relevant
processes, one might expect that this would not result too much of a difference in performance.

Summary
For this study, I initiated the idea of pursuing UA NFT in video games. The inspiration
for this pilot study comes from other ongoing studies investigating alpha frequency band and its
behavioral correlates in video gaming. The speculated functional role of alpha rhythms in
cognitive processing seemed in line with the FLOW projects initial aim of investigating
physiological correlates of flow. It should be noted that defining empirical data as representative
of a certain theory or abstract concept after the fact is problematic, as such it is important not to
equate Alpha rhythm with flow state. The initial stages of the experiment required me to
investigate the most effective means of performing NFT before running the actual experiment. I
personally ran all of the experiments included in the current analysis. All of the scripts for
analysis were written by my supervisor in ipython and I ran all the data setting thresholds and
used SPSS for statistical testing. I trained several others to use EEG equipment on this particular
experiment as well as others. Working at the Visual Cognition Laboratory gave me a glimpse of
many other projects, the internal workings of the research world, and the opportunity to work in
a large team with a structured hierarchy.

Future Direction:

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The sham control and decreasing amplitude condition still need to completed and
analyzed. As the study progresses another avenue for analysis would be to investigate any
coherence between frontal and parietal areas confirming the activation of the fronto-parietal
network, implicated in working memory, may have been playing a role in improving game
performance (Sauseng, 2005). A new 32-channel EEG system will aid in gathering better data for
the actual study. In order for the study to progress, the subject pool needs to be expanded. The
www.smashboards.com gaming community may be a good option due to their vested interest in
improving their skills in Super Smash Bros. 64 (1999). If a sufficient amount of participants
skilled in a particular game where in-game telemetry is available are found, event related
potentials may be monitored to study more phasic effects of UA NFT. Also, multiple UA NFT
sessions may be used to avoid confounds like training effects and demand characteristics and
may show more long term effects of UA NFT.

Appendix A:
Figure 1:

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Figure 2:

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Figure 3:

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Figure 4:

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