DECEMBER 2002

D I G G I N G
DEEPER

PRACTICAL ADVICE WHERE ITS

CRUCIALLY NEEDED, AT THE FACE
Courtesy of one of AMCs Directors, Perth-based Lawrie Gillett, who cannot recommend
Eden Pakis work highly enough

Eden Paki is the Drill & Blast Supt at Newcrest

satisfy those requirements. In the process of

Eden of course points out that there are always

Mining Limiteds Cadia Valley Operations near

helping the Telfer team, Eden has offered

site specifics which must be taken into account

Orange in NSW where the current open pit

guidelines based on his experience and these

in any mining determination, but AMC suggests

mining rate is around 80 Mtpa. Eden already

are summarised below. They include formulae

that Edens guidelines provide an excellent start

had substantial mining experience before moving

which have been developed by others (apologies

point. AMC has also found Edens guidelines

to Cadia, including 7 years D&B work for Roche

in advance to authors of the formulae for not

to be consistent with its discussions with drill

at KCGMs Superpit in Kalgoorlie followed by

being able to acknowledge them!!!) and these

manufacturers and suppliers, blast hole drilling

working with Macmahon on D&B at the Mt

formulae have gained good acceptance amongst

contractors and drill bit suppliers.

Todd Gold Mine in the Northern Territory.

open pit mining D&B practitioners. Eden asks

Despite his more than full time job at Cadia,

Eden has also been acting as a sounding board
for Newcrests Telfer Project Feas Study open
pit mining team in the areas of assessing D&B
requirements for the project and how best to

that the reader bear in mind that the guidelines

were put together for practical, operations

We thank Eden for his cooperation in agreeing

to provide his guidelines to the broader mining
community through Digging Deeper.

based in-house assistance to his colleagues and,

as such, do not pretend to be an exhaustive or

Continued page 2

scientifically rigorous treatment of the subject.

PRACTICAL ADVICE WHERE ITS CRUCIALLY NEEDED, AT THE FACE

Continued from page 1

EDENS RULES OF THUMB

Blast Depth Blast depth can get you into

trouble, both through productivity issues and

There are a number of combinations that can

through the cost required to minimise the effects

be used for Burden to Spacing ratios etc,

on productivity. I have trialed various blast depths

especially when blasting in unfamiliar territory.

over time, trying various techniques such as

When I encounter this, it is usually prudent to

increased powder factors in the back rows, or

go back to basics and apply a few well accepted

altered burdens and spacings, adding delays to

principles or rules of thumb. You will generally

give a second front etc, however have had mixed

find that most rules of thumb, require either

success in my efforts. Essentially, the largest

the hole diameter or burden to calculate what

other parameters will fit into the puzzle. The

impact of blast depth is muckpile looseness.

As a base, I tend to favour the material size

Higher powder factors can be introduced to

required to allow for productive mining by the

ensure that fragmentation is maintained in the

selective loading tools given that the hole

back rows of the blast, however it is very difficult

diameter determines the burden and spacing.

to provide a free face that allows sufficient

Until you can substantiate the mine to mill

displacement to give productive dig rates.

process at the mine, then ultimately this should

Blast patterns that are greater than 8 rows,

not determine the drilling and blasting practices

are generally tighter to dig on the back few

(dont pour money into the process until you

rows. The lack of a free face in front, means that

can quantify and accurately measure it). Ground

the material is choked therefore becomes tighter

Stemming = 0.7 to 1.3 burdens. Keep in mind

hardness can also affect the hole diameter

to dig. Additional heave is also a result which,

that if you select a larger bench height, the

selection process, but this can be addressed

although providing some relief, is generally

stemming column could have an impact on the

through powder factors. Critical diameter for

confined to the upper reaches of the muckpile,

diggers productivity, especially if you are looking

explosives can also affect the hole diameter

and not the lower and middle sections where

at digging in flitches. For instance, if you were

but as long as you are looking at larger than

the shovel/excavator bucket spends most of its

to dig a 12m bench in three (3) flitches, then

76mm blast holes, then this shouldnt be an issue.

time. The higher face created from the choked

following are fairly common rules of thumb

used throughout the industry when designing
blast patterns.
Burden = 25 to 35 hole diameters.
Spacing = 1.2 to 1.5 burdens (for large
diameters e.g. Greater than 140mm) or around
1.5 to 1.8 for smaller diameters.

the loading tool would be digging through the

stemming column. This is the area where you
are more likely to encounter oversize, therefore
productivity would be much lower than the
other two (2) flitches.

Blast Size I always tend to look at going for

the largest achievable blast possible. This means
a reduction in infill drilling, reduction in initiation
costs, reduction in blasting frequency, which
means a reduction in blast affected production

height. Larger rocks, generally encountered in the

stemming collar are now higher in the digging
face, meaning that cooler packs on face shovels
become prone to accident damage.

Bench Height 4= 0 to 50 hole diameters.

delays. Altogether, a reduction in cost. When

Choke Firing Related to the above, choke firing

Obviously this can usually change in accordance

talking blast size, I refer to the overall volume of

has its positives and its negatives. Choke firing

with the bench height requirements of the

the blast. Vibration and timing (scheduling) and

allows for minimal disruptions to the scheduling

loading tools.

physical restrictions such as the time taken to

process, as a digging unit does not need to free

Subdrill = 8 hole diameters. This can be

load, tie-in and fire the blast play a more limiting

face a blast and walk away. Instead, the digging

increased for the face rows to around 10 to

factor on the size blasts that I elect to use.

unit can continue digging through the area with

12 hole diameters.

Blast Width I find this to be more important

Powder Factors Governed by budget,

than overall blast size. I have a tendency to look

mine to mill processes and, to a lesser extent,

at maximising the blast width, while minimising

ground hardness.

the blast depth. Of course this is constrained

by the bench and mine plan, but where the real

Hole Diameters Essentially governed by the

required average material size. There are many
different perceptions on what determines the
hole diameter, but I personally select a hole
diameter based on the size of the loading
equipment, and any other material constraints
placed upon me by the milling process (finer
material means higher throughput). You must
find the middle ground between the two
at which point the higher cost of increased
powder factors, or drill & blast costs outweigh
the savings received from the milling process.

rows also creates a hazard due to the higher face

estate is available to do so, I would elect to go

with 68 row shots that go on for as far as
possible. When looking at minimising the blast
depth, I refer to minimising to around 6 rows in
depth not fewer. This provides excellent
displacement (if that is the desired result),
delivering excellent muckpile looseness.
Fragmentation is also maintained which means
that productivity is maximised.

the choke shot being fired prior to the material

in front running out. The negative of choke firing
is muckpile displacement (which is actually a
positive for grade control) and looseness
or lack of. Higher powder factors are generally
used also, to ensure that fragmentation is
maintained, as due to the confinement of the
blast, the energy tends to vent up and outwards.
This can mean poor fragmentation, especially at
the toe. Maximising free faces is always the best
option (productivity wise) however, choke firing
can be a necessary evil especially in a gold
mining environment.

Explosives Density As a general rule, the

become a rare event, as opposed to a hazard

compressive strength of the rock being drilled.

harder the rock, the higher the explosives density.

that is dealt with on a regular basis.

A basic formula to determine the pulldown

You require more shock energy in harder ground.

For rock with a density of around 2.6 to 2.8, I
would look at using an explosive with a density of
1.2 to 1.3. Further, as I am going to a high density
explosive, I would look to maximising the usage
of heavy ANFO based explosives as opposed
to pumped product, as the heave properties of

Stemming Size If you are looking at increasing

the blast hole diameter, I would recommend the
use of crushed rock for stemming. A rule of
thumb is that stemming size should be between
10% and 15% of the hole diameter. Drill cuttings
used in holes greater than 127mm tend to eject,

requirements of drilling with rotary is as follows:

P = (D x C) / 5
Where P = Required Pulldown, D = Hole
Diameter in inches and C = The rock uniaxial
compressive strength in PSI.

giving minimal confinement. The better

For example, if you were drilling a 251mm hole

confinement offered by the crushed rock also

in rock with a UCS of 260 MPa, the following

gives you the opportunity to reduce the

would apply:

Number of blasts per blast day Determined

stemming column, thus improving the overall

251mm = 97/8; 260 MPa = 37,710 PSI

by labour. I would recommend blasting no more

fragmentation.

the augered product allows for better muckpile

looseness.

than once per day, with no more that two (2) to

three (3) shots at a time. Any more and you start

P = (97/8 x 37,710) / 5
The table below is an example of the above rules
of thumb applied to an example set of project

P = 74,530 lbs

parameters.

Using this number to assist you in drill selection

for blasting, firing the shots and clearing the blasts

You will note that my Burden to Spacing ratio is

should go a long way to ensure that you have the

after firing. These can be very time consuming

on the low side I have actually found that

right drill combination to suit the application.

and could result in a delay for blasting taking up

equilateral patterns give a great result (Burden =

Imperative in this is selecting a drill that will

to an hour. I would not recommend planning to

0.867 of Spacing) however, they do cost a little

achieve your desired targets comfortably, unlike

tie in the blast the day before, purely for safety

more in the long run. Please also note that I have

the mistake made at one project where the drill

reasons (also increases the risk of misfire through

elected some fairly simple pattern sizes. Where

selection was aimed around maximising the

human interaction or natural events such as wind

possible, I would suggest that you err away from

output of the drill through minimising the cost of

and storm).

using dimensions such as 4.1 or 5.9. What tends

the initial purchase. Drill manufacturers will state

to have problems relating to preparing the blast

on the day (tie-ing in the shot), clearing the pit

Number of blasts per week Once again

I would look to minimise this. I try to schedule
blasting to a maximum of 3 times per week.

to happen is that operations will look for a

that their units are capable of drill hole diameters

simpler dimension working in half metre

ranging from 165mm to 270mm however, they

increments rather than 0.1 decimals.

are not recommended to be run under load for

extended periods of time. In order to achieve the

Any more and you start feeling the effects of

Pulldown is another factor that you must

270mm, the engine, pumps and rotary head will

delays to production caused by blasting, plus the

consider when selecting a hole diameter. This is

be under maximum load. The unit is capable of

strain starts to tell on the blast crew through

especially important when drilling rotary (note

achieving this, however you will find that over

the frequency of tasks such as tie-ing in a shot.

that an 8 hammer is the largest commercial

time, in order to sustain this diameter, you are in

This means that mistakes tend to creep in, plus

hammer on the market today other larger

fact drastically reducing the life of the drill and its

complacency becomes apparent. It is preferable

hammers are generally made for specialist

components. Further, you may find that a drills

to dedicate whole days to purely charging and

purposes other than production blasthole

performance is reduced when operating for long

stemming operations, which also gives the blast

drilling). The pulldown requirement is usually

periods at the upper ranges of the drills

crew adequate relief between each shot. Misfires

governed by the hole diameter, and the

capabilities. I cannot provide operating data to

evidence this view, however it is a qualitative

Parameter
Pattern Burden x Spacing

187 mm Diameter

251 mm Diameter

observation made from experience.

The last thing to consider when looking at hole

5.5 x 6.5

6 x 7.5

7.5 x 9

9 x 10.5

Explosive Density (g/cc)

1.2

1.1

1.2

1.2

with that hole diameter. Drill pipe affects your

Hole Diameter (mm)

187

187

251

251

uphole velocity (also bailing or annular velocity)

Burden (m)

5.4

6.0

7.5

9.0

which, in turn affects the performance of the

Spacing (m)

6.5

7.5

9.0

10.5

Burden/Spacing Ratio

1.20

1.25

1.20

1.17

Bench Height (m)

12.0

12.0

12.0

12.0

increase the wear on your hammers, subs and

Subdrill Length (m)

1.5

1.5

2.0

2.0

drill rods, however a lower uphole velocity

Stemming Length (m)

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

may mean that youre not sufficiently lifting

Stemming/Diameter Ratio

24.1

24.1

17.9

17.9

Powder Factor (kg/bcm)

0.70

0.50

0.70

0.50

Explosive Mass (kg per hole)

297

272

564

564

diameters, is the size of the drill pipe associated

drilling consumables and the wear characteristics

of your drill string. A higher uphole velocity,
created by a smaller annulus will drastically

the drill cuttings out of the blast hole.

short. The cause is claimed to be outside

I have worked on 7000 to 8000 feet per minute

managements control, because there is a general

for fresh rock, going for the upper limits if that

shortage of experienced professionals and they

material is also wet and down around 5000 feet

are highly mobile. New vacancies arise as quickly

per minute for softer materials. A formula for

as positions are filled.

calculating uphole is as follows:

This phenomenon, in my opinion, compromises
V = (Q x 183.33) / (D2 - d2)

MESSAGE FROM
THE MANAGING
DIRECTOR

the safe and effective working of the mine.

Redundancy

management and to boards of directors.

hole with 8 1/2 drill pipe, the bailing velocity

Redundancy is essential in engineering and

The solution is simple. Build some redundancy

would be:

systems design. It is why a jumbo jet can lose an

into the management chart. If the bare bones

entire electrical circuit and continue flying. It is

management chart requires 15 technical people,

why your car brakes are still effective after losing

make it your aim to employ 20. With the chronic

V = (1150 x 183.33) / (97/82 - 81/22)

a brake circuit.

shortage still applying, you may sustain 15. The

V = 8,345 ft/min

When we prepare a feasibility study for a

You can go to a smaller hole diameter to achieve

new mine we specify a range of management,

the same result, however you must ensure that

technical and operating positions in an

you have sufficient air capacity on the drill to

organisation chart. Traditionally, the redundancy

I have been an expert witness in more than

achieve an optimal bailing velocity, e.g. 1,450cfm.

allowance (sickness, leave and absenteeism)

thirty underground mine accident cases and

Where V = bailing velocity, Q = compressor

output in CFM, D = Hole Diameter in inches and
d in drill pipe diameter in inches.
For example, if you are selecting a drill with a
compressor output of 1150cfm, drilling a 251mm

251mm = 97/8

Production variability rises due to a lack of

planning and process control, leading to a loss
of profitability and to accidents. Both of these
outcomes should be unacceptable to

same principle applies for operators. And guess

what? Safety and profitability will improve, despite
the higher employee cost.

was around 12% of the complement. This didnt

I believe that the cultural causes of accidents are

Last but not least, when considering varying hole

really allow for replacement of specialists, who

hard to quantify. However, it is easy to prove,

diameters, consideration must be taken as to the

were required to arrange their work so that they

using employee records, that a mine was under-

difference between the hole diameter and drill

could take annual leave. We assumed that if

staffed. I think that the causal link between

pipe combinations available. The 81/2 drill pipe

unusual circumstances led to higher absences,

under-staffing and safety could be demonstrated.

used in the example above for the 251mm hole,

additional appointments would be made to

is too large to drill a 187mm hole. Therefore, in

Some operations are adequately staffed and

provide the necessary redundancy.

can demonstrate this. If your operation is not,

to change your drill string every time you wish to

Most mines today operate on an organisation

then I think that you are exposed. As a director

change hole diameters. This requires labour,

chart that is pared to the bone. It shows just

or manager you might turn your thoughts to

cranes and, most important of all, time. The

enough people, if they were all available, to run

redundancy.

optimal drill pipe size required to drill a 187mm

the mine safely and efficiently. But most mines

Merry Christmas.

hole, will be too small to effectively run the

dont have those people available.

251mm rotary bits at the end of the day this is

It has become common for a mine having a

due to bailing velocity plus flex on the rods.

technical and management complement of,

order to use this configuration you would need

say, 15 to run chronically three or four positions

Peter McCarthy

MINING AND TUNNELLING UNDER EXTREME CONDITIONS

mineABILITY will present a Mining and

the need for timely implementation of the most

waste disposal and embankment dam projects

Tunnelling under Extreme Conditions short

appropriate ground remediation.

in a total of 26 countries over the last 30 years.

course in Melbourne 1415 April, 2003. The

course adopts an integrated approach to solving
problems encountered when mining and
tunnelling under extreme conditions. The five
presenters have a wide range of overseas and
local experience and will highlight the interrelationships between the rock mass character,
groundwater conditions, effective ground
stresses and feasible construction methods.
Case histories will be analysed that illustrate

The course leaders are Dr Nick Barton from

Norway, who developed the widely used Qsystem for classifying rock masses and for

He has received several international awards for

his development work in rock tunnelling and
jointed rock behaviour.

dimensioning rock tunnel and cavern support,

For further details, contact David Pollard (phone

and Dr Eda Quadros from Brazil, who has over

08 8362 5545, email dpollard@ausmin.com.au)

25 years research experience in fluid flow

or Marnie Pascoe (phone 03 9670 8455, email

through jointed rock. Dr Barton has consulted on

mpascoe@ausmin.com.au)

numerous tunnel and cavern projects, reservoir

subsidence, rock stress measurement, nuclear

RESOURCE MODELLING:
DEVELOPING A STRATEGY FOR
COMPOSITING OF RAW SAMPLE
INTERVALS IN DRILLHOLE DATA
By Ingvar Kirchner & John Tyrrell

One aspect of resource modelling that is

commonly misunderstood, or underestimated,
in terms of its significance, is the issue of
compositing of raw sample intervals in drillhole
data. Compositing is done specifically, to provide
common sample support for geostatistical
evaluations and grade interpolations.
Some of the issues that AMC routinely
considers when determining an appropriate
composite size are:

The common raw sample lengths.

Data quantity issues.

Average zone/lode estimated true widths

Consider the geological aspects

Narrow reef/lode type structures are often too
narrow to require or retain any estimated grade
variation across the width of the zone. Therefore,
composites should span the entire width of the
zone with a single interval. It may be suitable to use
service variable methods for interpolation in order
to address the issue of variable sample support.
Where broader or mixed zones are being
modelled, the block dimensions become more

Comparison of Raw versus 2m Composites

Log Histogram 14/11/2002

of a factor. It is rarely appropriate for the

composites to be larger than the relevant block

composite runs controlled by zone/domain

dimensions, given the requirement for similar

boundaries, it is possible that critical data may be

support between block and composites.

lost at those boundaries. Narrow vein, lode, or

However, composites can be smaller than

reef type zones may also inadvertently lose data

the block dimensions. In this case, the support

where the short length composite intervals fall

issues can be addressed through appropriate

below the minimum composite length threshold

discretisation parameters an array of points

due to the narrow width of the zone. There are

within each block are used to generate individual

residual retention type compositing processes

estimates which are then averaged to provide

that can be used to overcome these issues

Generate a histogram of the raw

sample lengths in each zone/domain

the block estimate.

without resorting to very small minimum

Quite often the bulk of the sampling will occur

inherently smooths the data and alters its

at some common interval (eg 0.5/1.0/2.0 metre

statistical characteristics. Sometimes compositing

intervals etc). It would be unwise to use

is used to intentionally reduce the variance of

A major issue is the effect of compositing on

a composite interval that splits up (or is smaller

the data to reasonable levels, and hence improve

selectively sampled or selectively assayed data.

than) the larger common raw sample intervals

the quality of the variogram. The degree of

Where data is incomplete and biased towards

termed decompositing. Decompositing of

smoothing imposed by the compositing process

higher grades (a common feature of the selective

larger intervals tends to cause a downward bias

needs to be monitored. Before and after

sampling process), compositing has a nasty habit

in the data variance and causes some bias in the

compositing histograms of the grade data will

of inflating those high grades and then causing

rest of the statistical results. The initial effects can

help to visualise the changes to the grade

hot spots in the model, particularly where

be seen in variography (lower variance values,

distributions.

those high grades are not bound by adjacent low

and degree of internal definition required

from the estimates.

Block size and bench heights (support issues).

Data variability and the potential amount of

pre-estimation smoothing of the data.

Loss of data at zone/domain margins.

Selectively sampled/assayed intervals.

increased ranges) and lower coefficient of

variations, and this can lead to other
downstream problems.
If the composite size is too large, the amount
of data available for the statistical analysis,
variography and grade interpolation will be
significantly reduced with a corresponding drop
in the quality of the results.

Compositing, through combination of data,

This is especially critical where the zone/domain

being modelled is marginal to lower cut-offs likely
to be applied later on for reporting.

composite lengths, which can produce a

negatively skewed distribution of sample lengths
and corresponding sample support problems.

grades in the same hole. Dealing with selective

sampling/assaying issues is always hard, but
sometimes unavoidable. In this case, the best
strategy is probably to avoid using composite

Standard compositing routines tend to allow

intervals that are significantly larger than the

specification of a minimum composite size to

common sample intervals, thereby attempting

retain, with some software defaulting to a value

to minimise the inflation of those grades over

that is half of the chosen composite length.

multiple/larger composite intervals.

Where downhole compositing is used with

It is apparent that different zones/domains may
require different compositing methods. Similarly,

SPEED UP YOUR SEARCH

different elements may require different

compositing methods within the same model.
When choosing composite intervals and method,

AMCs website (www.ausmin.com.au) now has a

country experience (hyperlinks to email

comprehensive consultant search facility which

addresses are provided). This new search facility

provides a detailed and accurate listing of AMCs

complements the full range of resumes available

For further information, contact John

consultants, who can be selected on the basis of

on the website. Go to Staff on the sidebar and

or Ingvar on jtyrrell@ausmin.com.au or

profession, expertise, commodity experience and

click on Consultant Search

ikirchner@ausmin.com.au respectively

a very considered, careful approach is required.

GETTING WHAT YOU ARE PAYING FOR

A HALF FULL GLASS IS 50% UTILISATION
In todays world the concept of 24/7 is

When we benchmark a mine one of the areas

What does this mean to the consultant? Two

well established. Airlines talk about seat

we look at is production variability. We look at

things. Firstly, when designing a mine and making

utilisation factors, supermarkets are open

two features, variability relative to budget, and

equipment selection, be aware of capacity

24 hours, and the local milk bar has been

the variation on a month to month basis relative

constraints. Try to avoid over sizing. Make sure in

replaced with a 7-Eleven, which never closes.

to the peak monthly tonnage.

schedules that multiple ore sources are available.

Why?

Figure 1 is the distribution of monthly tonnage

Its all about utilisation, the ability to use available

relative to peak monthly tonnage for the 25

capacity fully. For airlines it means selling cheap

underground mines on our database. The data

seats on the midnight flight, for supermarkets it

set ranges from Beaconsfield at 100 ktpa, to

means dodging the shelf packers late at night,

Olympic Dam at 9 Mtpa.

and the 7-Eleven is well known for the midnight

munchies. So what does capacity utilisation mean
for mines?

We normally find for the average mine (1.0 to 1.5

Mtpa), a minimum of 3 to 4 stopes are needed
to be available to bog at any one time. Less than
that, equipment tends to have lower utilisation.
The second is that when a client asks how they

The average is 83%. That is, on average,

underground mines use 83% of their
demonstrated capacity. Alternatively, in

can improve their performance, have a look at

their variability. It might not solve everything, but
it sure is a good start.

In Optimisation we spend a lot of time talking

Australian underground mines, there is on

If you want to know a bit more about capacity

about capacity costs. Capacity costs are those

average an opportunity to reduce capacity

costs and variability, look up Johns paper entitled

costs that you incur when adding a unit of

costs by 15%. Our experience in benchmarking

Why Cost Cutting Fails to Deliver under Mine

capacity. Buy an additional loader and you have

is that demonstrated capacity is normally a lot

Planning in AMCs Reference Library at

to pay for manning, supervision, maintenance,

less than theoretical capacity.

www.ausmin.com.au

The budget story is not much better. On

Or for more information, contact

average, at the 3 standard deviation level,

John de Vries, Principal Mining Engineer

mines deliver 20% of what they planned

with AMC, at jdevries@ausmin.com.au

insurance, leases and ventilation. All these things

must be paid for, in full, before you can use the
loader. These upfront costs are the capacity costs
for the loader. That is they are the costs you have
to pay, to create the option of using the loader.

to do. This is illustrated in Figure 2.

They are not as most people think, fixed costs.

There are many causes for the level of variability.

If instead of adding a machine you take away a

However, they all boil down to a need to better

machine, capacity costs become potential savings.

forecast actual production, and making sure that

Fixed costs dont go away.

alternative sources of ore are available to cover

for unexpected problems.

Figure 1: Production Relative to Peak Monthly Production 25 Underground

Mines 20002002

Figure 2: Ratio of Actual to Planned Tonnage 25 Underground Mines 20002002

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