Lec01 Numbers PDF

EEE 21
Switching Theory and Digital

Logic Design
Lecture 1
Analog and Digital Systems
Number Systems
EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa
1/43
Analog vs. digital

l
Electronic signals may be

l
Continuous in amplitude and in time
Continuous in amplitude
and discrete in time
Discrete in amplitude and continuous

in time
Discrete in amplitude
and discrete in time
4 5 4 3 4 6 7 5 3 3 4 4 3
2/43
Analog vs. digital

Special case: system that only uses two voltages (HIGH and
LOW).
l
l
high voltage may be considered a logic 1

low voltage may be considered a logic 0
voltage
5V
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0V
time
l
Other example: optical system (presence / absence of light)

3/43
voltage
Analog signal
time
Analog to Digital Conversion

1. Sample the signal at a
sampling frequency fS
2. Quan=ze to specied levels
sample
voltage
Digital signal
quan1ze
time
time
4/43
Representing digital systems

Switches
l Boolean algebra / equations
l Truth tables
l Gates / circuits
l Block diagrams
l Waveforms / timing diagrams
l State diagrams
l Hardware description languages
l
5/43
Example - switches
l
Switches connect two points under the control

of a signal
l
l
l
true if the control condition or event occurs

false if the event does not occur
opens or closes based on the state of the signal
6/43
Example - switches
l
IF {car running
AND [car in driveway OR
(car in garage AND NOT garage door closed) ]
}
THEN car can back out
7/43
Two main classes

l
Combinational logic - the output at any given time is a

function solely of the combination of some or all of the inputs
at that given time
Inputs
xn-1
xn-2
x1
x0
Combinational
Logic
zm-1
zm-2
z1
z0
Outputs
The value of any output variable zk depends only on the

present values of the input variables xi
System is memoryless, i.e., outputs do not depend on any
history of the inputs or previous state of the system
8/43
Two main classes

l
Inputs
Sequential logic the output depends not only on the

current input, but also on the systems history.
l In response to a given sequence of inputs, the system
also goes through a predictable sequence of states
xn-1
x0
:
Combinational
Logic
Current
State
zm-1
z0 Outputs
Next
State
Memory
l
The current outputs as well as the next state of the

system, depend on the current inputs and current state9/43
Sequential systems
l
Synchronous sequential circuit a reference signal

called the clock causes the system to change state at a
specific instant in time
Asynchronous sequential circuit the change in state is

not dictated by a reference signal
10/43
NUMBER SYSTEM
11
Cardinality
l
Measure of the number of elements of a given set S

l Denoted by |S|
In number systems, we are interested in the set of symbols

D that represent the digits of that system
l Binary number system
|D| = 2 D = {0,1}
l Octal number system
|D| = 8 D = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
l Hexadecimal number system
|D| = 16 D = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F}
12/43
Number representation
To represent k discrete quantities in a number system that

uses a set of symbols D to represent digits, you would
need at least n digits to represent each quantity such that
|D|n-1 k |D|n
13/43
l
Example: How many digits would you need to be able to

represent at least 5 quantities using the binary system?
D = {0,1}, therefore |D| = 2
2n-1 5 2n
Answer: n = 3, that is, you would need at least 3 bits

(binary digits)
With n = 2, you can only form the numbers 00, 01, 10 and 11
With n = 3, you can form the numbers
000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110 and 111
14/43
l
Example: Let's say you can use colored dots from D =

{RED,GREEN,BLUE} to tag 5 different items. What is the
minimum number of dots that you need on each item to
uniquely identify each one, assuming each item has to be
tagged with the same number of dots?
3n-1 5 3n
Answer: n = 2
How many different items can you tag using this scheme?
Can tag a maximum of 9 items:
BB, BG, BR, GB, GG, GR, RB, RG, GG
15/43
l
tuple - an ordered list of objects, each of a specified type
n-tuple - a group of n digits (or labels) used to represent

each number (or item)
l
An n-tuple that uses a set of symbols D can represent

up to |D|n items
l For numbers, a system that uses n digits and the set
D as digit symbols can represent up to |D|n quantities
16/43
l
Example: How many values can you represent using

4-bit binary numbers?
Answer:
D = {0,1}, thus |D| = 2

The maximum number of values you can represent using
n = 4 bits (binary digits) is
|D|n = 24 = 16 values
These are 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111,
1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111
17/43
l
Easy way to remember this:

Given n digits in each number (or tuple) and k symbols
(k = |D|), the maximum number of unique quantities or
values that can be represented is given by
There are k possible symbols for each digit
A digit's
position
in the number
(k) (k) (k) (k)

There are n digit positions
Multiplying k with itself n times gives us kn

18/43
l
Example: How many values can you represent using 4-bit

binary numbers?
D = {0,1}, thus |D| = k = 2

The maximum number of values you can represent using
4 bits (binary digits) is
Choice of {0,1}
for each digit
(2) (2) (2) (2)
= 24
= 16 values

These are 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111,
1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111
19/43
Positional number systems

l
each digit carries a weight associated with

its position relative to the radix point
1,234.56 (in decimal)
=
1 x 1000 = 1 x 103 = 1000

+ 2 x 100 = 2 x 102 = 200
+ 3 x 10 = 3 x 101 = 30
+ 4 x 1 = 4 x 100 = 4
+ 5 x 0.1 = 5 x 10-1 = 0.5
+ 6 x 0.01 = 6 x 10-2 = 0.06
20/43

l
Example of a non-positional system

Roman numeral MCMLXVII = 1967
In contrast, the current decimal (base-10)

system is positional
103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3
1234.567
21/43

l
In general, for a number with

l base or radix r,
l n digits in the integer part
l m digits in the fractional part
integer part
fractional part
n-1
an-1an-2...a1a0.a-1a-2...a-m = ai x ri
i = -m
radix point: separates

the integer from
fractional part
22/43
Base conversion
l
Example: What quantity (in base-10) is

represented by the binary number 101110.0112?
101110.0112
1 x 2-3 = 1 x 1/23 = 1 x 1/8 = 1 x 0.125 = 0.125
1 x 2-2 = 1 x 1/22 = 1 x 1/4 = 1 x 0.25 = 0.25
0 x 2-1 = 0 x 1/21 = 0 x 1/2 = 0 x 0.5 = 0
0 x 20 = 0 x 1 = 0
1 x 21 = 1 x 2 = 2
1 x 22 = 1 x 4 = 4
1 x 23 = 1 x 8 = 8
0 x 24 = 0 x 16 = 0
1 x 25 = 1 x 32 = 32
= 46.37510
23/43
Base conversion
l
Previous procedure essentially describes

how to convert number in base r to the
same number in base 10
How to convert a number in base 10 to its

base r representation?
24/43
Multiplication by the radix

l
Example: 1234.567810
l
l
1234.567810 x 1010 = 12345.67810

1234.567810 / 1010 = 123.4567810
In general
l
l
Multiplying a base-r number by r moves the

radix point to the right
Dividing a base-r number by r moves the radix
point to the left
25/43
Base conversion
l
Converting a base-10 fraction to base-r

unknown
F = (.a-1a-2...a-m)r
(F)(r) = (a-1 . a-2...a-m)r
(F)(r) = some integer + fraction F'
Therefore, (a-1)r = integer
Repeat using F' and (.a-2a-3...a-m)r.
Sometimes this process does not terminate...
26/43
Base conversion
l
Example: 0.710 = (?)2 up to 5 bits after the binary point

unknown
0.710 = (.a-1a-2a-3a-4a-5)2
(0.7)(2) = 1. 4 = (a-1. a-2a-3a-4a-5...)2
(0.4)(2) = 0.8 = (a-2.a-3a-4a-5...)2
(0.8)(2) = 1.6 = (a-3.a-4a-5...)2
(0.6)(2) = 1.2 = (a-4.a-5...)2
(0.2)(2) = 0.4 = (.a-5...)2
0.710 (0.10110)2
a-1 = 1
a-2 = 0
a-3 = 1
a-4 = 1
a-5 = 0
27/43
Base conversion
l
Converting an integer in base-10 to base-r

unknown
D = (an-1an-2...a1a0)r
D/r = (an-1an-2...a1. a0)r
D/r = some integer D' + (remainder)/r
Now (.a0)r = a0/r = remainder/r
Therefore a0= remainder
28/43
Base conversion
l
Repeat with the integer from previous step

D' = (an-1an-2...a1)r
D'/r = (an-1an-2...a2 . a1)r
D'/r = some integer D'' + (remainder)/r
Similarly, (.a1)r = a1/r = remainder/r
Therefore a1= remainder
29/43
Base conversion
l
Example: Convert 1234 to its hex equivalent

Recall 16 hex digit symbols
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F}
Helps to know how many digits in the answer...
l 2 hex digits? (16)(16) = 162 = 256 < 1234
l 3 hex digits? (16)(16)(16) = 163 = 4096 > 1234
so n = 3 digits in the answer
1234/16 = 77 remainder 2
77/16 = 4 remainder 13
4/16 = 0 remainder 4
So a2a1a0 = 4D216 = 0x4D2 = 4D2h
a0 = 2
a1 = D
a2 = 4
30/43
Base Conversion (Summary)

Conversion from Base r to Decimal
Multiply each digit by its weight relative to its position,

then add all the products
Ar4 + Br3 + Cr2 + Dr1 + Er0 . X r -1 + Yr -2 +
Conversion from Decimal to Base r
Integer part: Continuously DIVIDE by r and note the

remainder after each division
Fractional part: Continuously MULTIPLY by r and note
the integer portion after each multiplication
31/43
Examples
11011.012 = ( ? )10
11011.012 = 27.2510
12506 .178 = ( ? )10
12506 .178 = 5446.23410
32
Examples
56.710 = ( ? )2
0.710 = ( ? )2
5610 = ( ? )2
2 /56
2 /28
2 /14
2 /7
2 /3
2 /1
0
2 * .7 = 1.4
2 * .4 = 0.8
2 * .8 = 1.6
2 * .6 = 1.2
2 * .2 = 0.4
.
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0.710 = 0.101102
5610 =1110002
56.710 = 111000.101102
33/43
Octal to/from binary

l
An octal digit (base 8) is ALWAYS equal to three (3)

binary digits,
Simply replace the octal digit with the corresponding
binary digits and vice-versa
Octal
Binary
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
Example:
12506178 = 001 010 101 000 110 001 111 2

From EEE 11
34
Hexadecimal to/from binary

l
A hexadecimal (base 16) digit is ALWAYS equal to

four (4) binary digits,
Hex
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F
Binary
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
Example:
E25A61716 =
1110 0010 0101 1010 0110 0001 0111 2
From EEE 11
35
Hexadecimal to/from Octal

l
Expand first to binary then group by 4 or 3 depending on

the destination
e.g.
ABC16
= (?)8
= A
B
C
16
= 1010 1011 1100 2
regroup by 3's ...
= 101 010 111 100 2
= 5
2
7
48
= 5274 8
From EEE 11
36/43
Binary arithmetic
l
Addition
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 0 carry 1
111
1
(carry)
00011001
+ 00101101
01000110
37/43
Binary arithmetic
l
Multiplication
Each bit in the multiplier (starting from the least significant bit
or LSB) is multiplied to each bit of the multiplicand in
much the same way that decimal numbers are multiplied.
38/43
Codes
Other ways of representing quantities or objects
l
Binary coded decimal: each decimal digit is

represented by a 4-bit code. The resulting
codeword cannot be manipulated in the same
manner as a binary number
4510 0100 0101
39/43
Codes
Other ways of representing quantities or objects
l
Reflected code: patented in 1947 by Bell Labs

researcher Frank Gray (thus also called Gray
code)
l For reflected binary Gray code, two successive
codewords differ in only one bit position
2-bit Gray code
00
01
11
10
Mirror images (reflection)
40/43
Codes
3-bit Gray code
Start with 2-bit Gray code
000
001
011
010
110 Reflect
111
101
100
41/43
Codes
Error-correcting and error-detecting codes
l
Parity check code
Even parity:
11010111
Odd parity:
01010111
sum of all bits (including the

parity bit) is even.
sum of all bits (including the
parity bit) is odd.
parity bit
42/43
Codes
Character codes: (Example) ASCII (American
Standard Code for Information Interchange)
l
Specifies correspondence between a set of bit patterns

and the glyphs (i.e. symbols) of a written language
Binary
100 0000
100 0001
100 0010
100 0011
100 0100
100 0101
100 0110
100 0111
100 1000
Oct
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
110
Dec
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
Hex
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Glyph
@
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
l
[Wikipedia] 43/43

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EEE 21

Switching Theory and Digital

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

Analog vs. digital

Electronic signals may be

Continuous in amplitude and in time

Discrete in amplitude and continuous

Analog vs. digital

high voltage may be considered a logic 1

Other example: optical system (presence / absence of light)

Analog to Digital Conversion

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

Representing digital systems

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

Switches connect two points under the control

true if the control condition or event occurs

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

Two main classes

Combinational logic - the output at any given time is a

The value of any output variable zk depends only on the

Two main classes

Sequential logic the output depends not only on the

The current outputs as well as the next state of the

Synchronous sequential circuit a reference signal

Asynchronous sequential circuit the change in state is

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

Measure of the number of elements of a given set S

In number systems, we are interested in the set of symbols

To represent k discrete quantities in a number system that

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

Example: How many digits would you need to be able to

Answer: n = 3, that is, you would need at least 3 bits

Example: Let's say you can use colored dots from D =

tuple - an ordered list of objects, each of a specified type

n-tuple - a group of n digits (or labels) used to represent

An n-tuple that uses a set of symbols D can represent

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

Example: How many values can you represent using

D = {0,1}, thus |D| = 2

Easy way to remember this:

(k) (k) (k) (k)

Multiplying k with itself n times gives us kn

Example: How many values can you represent using 4-bit

D = {0,1}, thus |D| = k = 2

(2) (2) (2) (2)

Positional number systems

each digit carries a weight associated with

1 x 1000 = 1 x 103 = 1000

Positional number systems

Example of a non-positional system

In contrast, the current decimal (base-10)

Positional number systems

In general, for a number with

radix point: separates

Example: What quantity (in base-10) is

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

Previous procedure essentially describes

How to convert a number in base 10 to its

EEE 21. A. Ballesil, R. Ocampo, J. Pedrasa

Multiplication by the radix

1234.567810 x 1010 = 12345.67810

Multiplying a base-r number by r moves the