Co So Do Luong Dien Tu

C S O LNG IN T
Khoa K thut in t 1
Hc vin cng ngh bu chnh vin thng
Sch tham kho

1.
2.
3.
4.
C s k thut o lng in t, V Qu im, nh xut

bn KHKT, 2001
o lng in-v tuyn in, V Nh Giao v Bi Vn
Sng, Hc vin k thut qun s, 1996
Electronic Test Instruments, Bob Witte, 2002
Radio Electronic Measurements, G.Mirsky, Mir
Publishers, Moscow, 1978
Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

nh ngha: o lng l khoa hc v cc php o, cc phng php v cc cng
c m bo cc phng php o t c chnh xc mong mun
2.1 Cc phng php o:
1.
Phng php o trc tip: dng my o hay cc mu o (cc chun)
nh gi s lng ca i lng cn o. Kt qu o chnh l tr s ca i
lng cn o.
2.
- VD: o in p bng vn-mt, o tn s bng tn s-mt, o cng sut

bng ot-mt,...
- c im: n gin, nhanh chng, loi b c cc sai s do tnh ton
o gin tip: kt qu o khng phi l tr s ca i lng cn o, m l cc
s liu c s tnh ra tr s ca i lng ny.
F a1 , a2 ,..., an
- VD: o cng sut bng vn-mt v ampe-mt, o h s sng chy bng

dy o,...
- c im: nhiu php o v thng khng nhn bit ngay c kt qu o
3

3.
Phng php o tng quan: dng o cc qu trnh phc tp, khi khng
th thit lp mt quan h hm s no gia cc i lng ca mt qu trnh
nghin cu
- Php o tng quan c thc hin bng cch xc nh khong thi gian
v kt qu ca mt s thut ton c kh nng nh c tr s ca i lng
thch hp.
- VD: o tn hiu u vo v u ra ca mt h thng
- c im: cn t nht hai php o m cc thng s t kt qu o ca chng
khng ph thuc ln nhau. chnh xc c xc nh bng di khong
thi gian ca qu trnh xt.
4.
Cc phng php o khc:

- Phng php o thay th
- Phng php hiu s (phng php vi sai, phng php ch th khng,
phng php b)
- Phng php ch th s
4

2.2 Phng tin o v cc c tnh c bn
1. Phng tin o l phng tin k thut thc hin php o, chng c nhng
c tnh o lng c qui nh.
- Phng tin o n gin: mu, thit b so snh, chuyn i o lng
- Phng tin o phc tp: my o (dng c o), thit b o tng hp v h thng
thng tin o lng.
+ Mu: phng tin o dng sao li i lng vt l c gi tr cho trc vi
chnh xc cao. Chun l mu c cp chnh xc cao nht. Chun l phng tin o
m bo vic sao v gi n v.
+ Thit b so snh: phng tin o dng so snh 2 i lng cng loi xem
chng = , > , < .
+ Chuyn i o lng: phng tin o dng bin i tn hiu thng tin o
lng v dng thun tin cho vic truyn tip, bin i tip, x l tip v gi li
nhng ngi quan st khng th nhn bit trc tip c (VD: b K o lng;
bin dng, bin p o lng; quang in tr, nhit in tr,...)
5

+ Dng c o: phng tin o dng bin i tn hiu thng tin o lng v
dng m ngi quan st c th nhn bit trc tip c (VD: vnmt, ampe mt,...)
Dng c o
Mc t
ng ha
Dng c o
khng t
ng
Dng c o
t ng
Dng ca tn
hiu
Dng c o
tng t
Dng c
o s
Cc i lng
u vo
Phng php
bin i
Dng c
o bin
i thng
Dng c
o bin
i cn
bng
Dng c
o dng
in
Dng c
o tn s
+ Thit b o tng hp v h thng thng tin o lng: l cc phng tin o phc

tp dng kim tra, kim nh v o lng.
6
...

2. Cc c tnh c bn ca phng tin o
Cc c tnh tnh c xc nh thng qua qu trnh chun ho thit b.
+Hm bin i: l tng quan hm s gia cc i lng u ra Y v cc i
lng u vo X ca phng tin o, Y=f(X)
+ nhy: l t s gia bin thin ca tn hiu u ra Y ca phng tin o
vi bin thin ca i lng o u vo X tng ng.
K hiu: S
dY
dX
+Phm vi o: l phm vi thang o bao gm nhng gi tr m sai s cho php ca

phng tin o i vi cc gi tr o c qui nh
+Phm v ch th : l phm vi thang o c gii hn bi gi tr u v gi tr cui
ca thang o.
+Cp chnh xc: c xc nh bi gi tr ln nht ca cc sai s trong thit b o.
Thng c tnh ton bng i s tng i quy i.
+ phn gii: Chnh l chia ca thang o hay gi tr nh nht c th phn bit
c trn thang o (m c th phn bit c s bin i trn thang o).
7

3. Phn loi cc my o:
a)
My o cc thng s v c tnh ca tn hiu:
VD: Vn mt in t, tn s mt, MHS, my phn tch ph, ...
S khi chung:
u
vo y(t)
Mch vo
Thit b
bin i
Thit b
ch th
Ngun
cung cp
- Tn hiu cn o a ti u vo my
- Mch vo: truyn dn tn hiu t u vo ti Thit b bin i. Mch vo thng
l b K ph ti catt (Zvo cao), thc hin phi hp tr khng.
8

- Thit b bin i: thc hin so snh v phn tch.
C th to ra tn hiu cn thit so snh tn hiu cn o vi tn hiu mu.
C th phn tch tn hiu o v bin , tn s, hay chn lc theo thi gian.
Thng l cc mch K, tch sng, bin i dng in p tn hiu, chuyn i
dng nng lng,...
- Thit b ch th: biu th kt qu o di dng thch hp vi gic quan giao tip
ca sinh l con ngi hay vi tin tc a vo b phn iu chnh, tnh ton,...
VD: ng h o ch th kim, ng tia in t, h thng n ch th s, thit b nh,...
Ngun cung cp: cung cp nng lng cho my, v lm ngun to tn hiu chun.
b) My o c tnh v thng s ca mch in:
Mch in cn o thng s: mng 4 cc, mng 2 cc, cc phn t ca mch in.
S khi chung: cu to gm c ngun tn hiu v thit b ch th, (hv)
VD: my o c tnh tn s, my o c tnh qu , my o h s phm cht, o
RLC, my th n in t, bn dn v IC,...
9

Ngun
tn hiu
(a)
i
tng o
Ngun
cung cp
Thit b
ch th
(b)
Ngun
tn hiu
Mch o
i
tng o
Thit b
ch th
10

c) my to tn hiu o lng:
S khi chung:
B to
sng ch
B bin
i
B iu
ch
Ngun
cung cp
Mch
ra
x(t)
Thit b
o
B to sng ch: xc nh cc c tnh ch yu ca tn hiu nh dng v tn s

dao ng, thng l b to sng hnh sin hay xung cc loi
B bin i: nng cao mc nng lng ca tn hiu hay tng thm xc lp ca
dng tn hiu, thng l b K in p, K cng sut, b iu ch, thit b to
dng xung,...
Cc my pht tn hiu siu cao tn thng khng c B bin i t gia B to
sng ch v u ra, m dng B iu ch trc tip khng ch dao ng ch
11

Mch ra: iu chnh cc mc tn hiu ra, bin i Zra ca my. N thng l
mch phn p, bin p phi hp tr khng, hay b ph ti Catt.
Thit b o: kim tra thng s ca tn hiu u ra. N thng l vn mt in t,
thit b o cng sut, o h s iu ch, o tn s,...
Ngun: cung cp ngun cho cc b phn, thng lm nhim v bin i in p
xoay chiu ca mng li in thnh in p 1 chiu c n nh cao.
d) Cc linh kin o lng:
gm cc linh kin l, ph thm vi my o to nn cc mch o cn thit.
Chng l cc in tr, in cm, in dung mu; hay cc linh kin ghp gia
cc b phn ca mch o (VD: b suy gim, b dch pha, b phn mch nh
hng,...)
12
Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

2.1 Khi nim & nguyn nhn sai s:
* Khi nim sai s: l chnh lch gia kt qu o v gi tr thc ca i lng
o. N ph thuc vo nhiu yu t nh: thit b o, phng thc o, ngi o
* Nguyn nhn gy sai s:
- Nguyn nhn khch quan: do dng c o khng hon ho, i lng o b
can nhiu nn khng hon ton c n nh,...
- Nguyn nhn ch quan: do thiu thnh tho trong thao tc, phng php
tin hnh o khng hp l,...
2.2 Phn loi sai s
* Theo cch biu din sai s:
-Sai s tuyt i: l hiu gia kt qu o c vi gi tr thc ca i lng o
'X X do X thuc
-Sai s tng i chn thc: l gi tr tuyt i ca t s gia sai s tuyt i v
gi tr thc ca i lng o
G ct
'X
.100%
X thuc
13

-Sai s tng i danh nh:
G dd
'X
.100%
X do
-Sai s tng i qui i: l gi tr tuyt i ca t s gia sai s tuyt i v gi

tr nh mc ca thang o.
G qd
'X
.100% cp chnh xc ca i lng o
X dm
Xdm= Xmax -Xmin : gi tr nh mc ca thang o

Nu gi tr thang o: 0yXmax Xdm=Xmax
* Theo s ph thuc ca sai s vo i lng o:
- Sai s im 0 (sai s cng) l sai s khng ph thuc vo gi tr i lng o.
- Sai s nhy (sai s nhn) l sai s ph thuc vo gi tr i lng o
14

* Theo v tr sinh ra sai s ta c sai s phng php v sai s phng tin o:
- Sai s phng php l sai s do phng php o khng hon ho
- Sai s phng tin o l sai s do phng tin o khng hon ho. Gm: sai
s h thng, sai s ngu nhin, sai s im 0, sai s nhy, sai s c bn, sai s
ph, sai s ng, sai s tnh.
Sai s c bn ca phng tin o l sai s ca phng tin o khi s dng trong
iu kin tiu chun
Sai s ph ca phng tin o l sai s sinh ra khi s dng phng tin o
iu kin khng tiu chun
Sai s tnh l sai s ca phng tin o khi i lng o khng bin i theo thi
gian
Sai s ng l sai s ca phng tin o khi i lng o bin i theo thi gian
15

* Theo qui lut xut hin sai s:
- Sai s h thng
- Sai s ngu nhin
2.2.1 Sai s h thng
- Do cc yu t thng xuyn hay cc yu t c qui lut tc ng.
- Kt qu o c sai s ca ln o no cng u ln hn hay b hn gi tr thc ca
i lng cn o
VD:
+ Do dng c, my mc o ch to khng hon ho
+ Do chn phng php o khng hp l, hoc li trong qu trnh x l kt qu
o,...
+ Do kh hu (nhit , m,...) khi o khng ging vi iu kin kh hu
tiu chun theo qui nh
16

2.2.2 Sai s ngu nhin
- Do cc yu t bt thng, khng c qui lut tc ng.
VD: + Do in p cung cp ca mch o khng n nh
+ Do bin thin kh hu ca mi trng xung quanh trong qu trnh o
Tr s o sai: l kt qu cc ln o c cc gi tr sai khc qu ng, thng do s
thiu chu o ca ngi o hay do cc tc ng t ngt ca bn ngoi.
X l sai s sau khi o:
- i vi sai s h thng: x l bng cch cng i s gi tr ca sai s h
thng vo kt qu o, hoc hiu chnh li my mc, thit b o vi my mu
- i vi sai s ngu nhin: khng x l c, ch c th nh lng c
gi tr sai s ngu nhin bng l thuyt xc sut & thng k.
17

2.3 ng dng phng php phn b chun nh gi sai s
Yu cu: - tt c cc ln o u phi thc hin vi chnh xc nh nhau
- phi o nhiu ln
2.3.1 Hm mt phn b sai s
- Tin hnh o n ln mt i lng no , ta thu c cc kt qu o c cc
sai s tng ng l x1, x2, ...,xn
- Sp xp cc sai s theo gi tr ln ca n thnh tng nhm ring bit,
vd: n1 sai s c tr s t 00,01; n2 sai s c tr s t 0,010,02; ...
- Q
1
n1 ,
Q2
n
n2 ,... l tn sut ( hay tn s xut hin) cc ln o c cc

n
sai s ngu nhin nm trong khong c gi tr gii hn

- Lp biu phn b tn sut:
limnofQ(x)=p(x)
18

p(x) l hm s phn b tiu chun cc sai s (hm s chnh tc). Thc t th phn
ln cc trng hp sai s trong o lng in t u thch hp vi qui lut ny
p( x)
h h2 x 2
e
S
(hm Gauss)
(1)
h : thng s o chnh xc
h ln o ng cong hp v nhn (xc
sut cc sai s c tr s b th ln hn)
o thit b o c chnh xc cao
Qui tc phn b sai s:
a. Xc sut xut hin ca cc sai s c tr s b th nhiu hn xc sut xut
hin ca cc sai s c tr s ln.
b. Xc sut xut hin sai s khng ph thuc du, ngha l cc sai s c tr s
bng nhau v gi tr tuyt i nhng khc du nhau th c xc sut xut hin
nh nhau.
19

2.3.2 S dng cc c s phn b nh gi kt qu o v sai s o
1. Sai s trung bnh bnh phng:
+ o n ln mt i lng X, cc kt qu nhn c l n tr s sai s c gi tr
nm trong khong gii hn x1 xn
+ h khc nhau o xc sut ca chng khc nhau
+ h = const vi mt loi tr s o o xc sut sai s xut hin ti x1 v ln cn
ca x1 l:
2 2
dp1
tng t ta c:
h h x1
e
dx1
S
h h 2 x22
e
dx2
S
.......................
dp2
dpn
h h 2 xn2
e
dxn
S
x
20

Xc sut ca n ln o coi nh xc sut ca mt s kin phc hp, do :
Pph= dp1. dp2... dpn
n
h h 2 x12 x22 ... xn2

dx1dx2 ...dxn
e
S
Tm cc tr ca h:
dPph
dh
h n 1
n 2h
h2
n
xi2 h
S
2
i
> 2h x @e
2
i
2h
h2
xi2
(2)
2
i
(3)
2
i
Sai s TBBP (V):
(4)
i 1
21

x2
2
1
e 2V
2 SV
p( x)
Hm phn b tiu chun:
(5)
Xc sut xut hin cc sai s c tr s < V :

ti
2
e
2S 0
P x V
ti
h 2 xi
P x V
t2
2
dt
(6)
h 2V 1
2
2S
h 2V
t2
2
dt
t2

2
e 2 dt
2S 0
P x V 0,638 | 2 / 3
(7)
* Ly V nh gi sai s ca KQ o tin cy cha m bo.

ly M=3V (sai s cc i).
P x M
t

2
e 2 dt
2S 0
0,997
(8)
22

2. Tr s trung bnh cng:
- o X, thu c n cc kt qu o: a1, a2, ..., an
- Cc sai s ca cc ln o ring bit: x1= a1-X, x2= a2-X, ..., xn= an-X
- Cc xi cha bit X cn o cha bit
- Thc t ch xc nh c tr s gn ng nht vi X (tr s c xc sut ln nht):
n
a1 a2 ... an
n
(9)
i 1
3. Sai s d:
- Sai s mi ln o: xi =ai x cha bit v x cha bit.
- Sai s d l sai s tuyt i ca gi tr cc ln o ai vi a :
n
i 1
i 1
ai a
H a n.a a a
i
Hi
i 1
(10)
i 1
a |X
- Thc t:
23

n
n 1
2
i
V
- Sai s TBBP ca a :
Va
i 1
2
i
i 1
(11)
V
n
(12)
4. Sai s TB:
H
d
(13)
i 1
n(n 1)
5. tin cy v khong tin cy:

Xc sut ca cc sai s c tr s khng vt qu 1 gi tr P cho trc no , bng:
) ti P a X P
2
2S
P / Va
t2
2
dt ,
ti
P
Va
24

Nu bit P, da vo bng hm s ) t trong s tay tra cu v ton t
hay
P tV
a
P
Va
a X tV a
(16)
a tV a X a tV a
l khong tin cy, khong ny c xc sut cha ng tr s thc ca i lng

cn o X l P ) t . P l tin cy ca php nh gi.
Kt qu o:
n ! 10
a r tV a
(17)
m bo tin cy P =0,997 th ly t=3 ta c:
a r 3V a
(18)
Quan h gia tin cy P, t, vi n >10 (bng 1)

25

6. Sai s cc i v sai s th:
Sai s cc i M r3V
rt s V
(n >10)
2 d n d 10
Sai s th: sai s |Hi| ca ln quan st no ln hn sai s cc i th l sai

X a r ts Va
s th.
7. Phn b student:
10
Khong tin cy: a t sV a X a t sV a
2 d2 dn ndd10
Gi tr ca ts c cho trong bng 2
2.4 Cch xc nh kt qu o:
Thc hin o n ln thu c cc kt qu o: a1, a2, ..., an
n
1. Tnh tr s trung bnh cng:
i 1
n
26

Hi
2. Tnh sai s d:
Kim tra:
ai a
hay khng?
i 1
3. Tnh sai s TBBP:

n
2
i
i 1
n 1
4. Kim tra xem c sai s th?

nu c sai s th th loi b kt qu o tng ng v thc hin li bc 1-4
5. Tnh sai s TBBP ca tr s TB cng:
Va
V
n
27

6. Xc nh kt qu o: X
nu 2 d n d 10
a r tV a
: X
vi
n ! 10
a r ts Va
* Cch vit hng ch s ca KQ o:

- Ly tV a ch cn ly vi 2 s sau du phy.
- Ly a phi ch ly ch s sao cho bc ca s cui ca n t bc ca hai
con s ca tV a .
VD: kt qu o l X = 275,24 1,08 th phi vit li l: X = 275,2 1,1
28
Bng 1 Gi tr t theo gi tr xc sut cho trc
Bng 2
29

2.5 Sai s ca php o gin tip:
Gi s X l i lng cn o bng php o gin tip; Y,V,Z l cc i lng o
c bng php o trc tip
X = F(Y,V,Z)
'Y, 'V, 'Z l cc sai s h thng tng ng khi o Y, V, Z ; 'X l sai s h
thng khi xc nh X
X + 'X = F(Y+ 'Y,V+ 'V,Z+ 'Z )
Cc sai s c gi tr nh nn:
X +'X=F Y,V,Z +
'X=
wF
wF
wF
'Y +
'V +
'Z
wY
wV
wZ
wF
wF
wF
'Y +
'V +
'Z
wY
wV
wZ
30

TH1:
X = aY + bV + cZ
'X = a 'Y + b'V + c'Z
TH2:
X =KYD V E ZJ
'X =KD YD 1V E ZJ 'Y +KE YD V E 1ZJ 'V +KJ YD V E ZJ 1'Z
Thc t dng sai s tng i:
'Y
'V
'Z
+E
+J
Y
V
Z
G X = DG Y +EG V +JG Z
GX =
'X
X
Xc nh sai s TBBP ca php o gin tip thng qua sai s TBBP ca cc php
o trc tip thnh phn
2
wF
wF
wF
V X = V Y + VV + V Z
wY
wV
wZ
31
Chng 3. Cc b ch th trong my o
3.1 Nguyn tc hot ng chung ca c cu o
Bao gm 2 thnh phn c bn : Tnh v ng.
- Hot ng theo nguyn tc bin i lin tc in nng thnh c nng lm quay
phn ng ca n. Trong qu trnh quay lc c sinh cng c hc mt phn
thng lc ma st, mt phn lm bin i th nng phn ng.
- Qu trnh bin i nng lng trong CC c th hin theo chiu bin
i: dng in Ix (hoc Ux ) nng lng in t Wt,
Wt s tng tc vi phn ng v phn tnh to ra F (lc) to mmen quay
(Mq) gc quay D ; D t l vi f(Ix) hoc D = f(Ux)
Gi s c cu o c n phn tnh in (mang in tch) v n cun dy.
Thng thng in p c a vo cun dy. Nng lng in t sinh ra c
xc nh nh sau:
i n1
Wdt
i n1
1j n
1 n
1j n
2
2
C
U

L
I

ij ij 2
Mij Ii I j
i i
2i 1
2i 1
i 1
j i 1
j i 1
32
i : cun dy
j : phn t mang in tch
Cij ,U ij : in dung v in p gia 2 phn t tch in i v j.
Ii , I j : dng in trong cc cun dy i v j.
Li : in cm ca cun dy i
M ij : h cm gia hai cun dy i v j
Nng lng in t sinh ra ph thuc vo in p, in dung, dng in,
cun cm v h cm.
Tng tc gia phn tnh v phn ng to ra 1 momen quay bng s bin thin
ca nng lng t trn s bin thin gc quay.
dWdt
Mq
dD
dWdt : s bin thin ca nng lng t
dD : s bin thin ca gc quay D
33
to ra s ph thuc gia gc quay v gi tr o; trong khi o ngi ta s
dng thm l xo phn khng to ra momen phn khng chng li s chuyn
ng ca phn ng.
M pk
DD
D: l h s phn khng ca l xo
Kim ch th s dng li v tr cn bng khi
M pk
M q DD
dWdt
D
dD
1 dWdt
D dD
Wdt : ph thuc vo in p, dng in t vo cun dy.
34
3.2 C cu ch th kim:
Mt s dng c o lch:
- Dng c o t in kiu nam chm vnh cu (TNCVC).
- Dng c o in ng.
- Dng c o kiu in t.
3.2.1 B ch th kiu t in: hot ng theo nguyn tc bin i in nng
thnh c nng nh s tng tc gia t trng ca mt nam chm vnh
cu v t trng ca dng in qua 1 khung dy ng
35
1.
-
Cu to:
Phn tnh: gm 1 nam chm vnh cu (1), hai
m cc t (2), 1 li st t (3). Gia (2) v (3)
to thnh 1 khe hp hnh vnh khuyn cho
php 1 khung dy quay xung quanh v c t
trng u hng tm (B)
(5)
(4)
(2)
I
Phn ng: gm 1 khung dy nh (4) c th

quay xung quanh trc ca 1 li st t, 1 kim
ch th (5) c gn vo trc ca khung dy, 1
l xo phn khng (6) vi 1 u c gn vo
trc ca khung dy, u cn li c gn vi
v my.
(1)
S
(2)
(3)
(6)
nh v kim ng im `0` khi cha o th mt u ca l xo phn

khng trc c lin h vi mt vt chnh `0` chnh gia mt trc
ca c cu o.
36
2. Hot ng:
-
Dng in trong cun dy ca c cu TNCVC phi chy theo mt chiu

nht nh cho kim dch chuyn (theo chiu dng) t v tr `0` qua sut
thang o.
o chiu dng in cun dy quay theo chiu ngc li v kim b
lch v pha tri im `0`. Do cc u ni ca dng c TNCVC c
nh du `+` v `-` cho bit chnh xc cc cn ni. C cu TNCVC
c coi l c phn cc.
Phng trnh m men quay v thang o:
Khi c dng in I chy qua khung dy s to ra 1 t trng tng tc vi
t trng B ca NCVC to ra 1 mmen quay:
Mq
dI
dWe
dD
dI
dD
B.N .S .dD : bin thin ca t thng qua khung dy
B: t trng NCVC
37
N: s vng dy
S: din tch khung dy
dD : bin thin gc quay ca khung dy
Mq= I.B.N.S
M men quay Mq lm quay khung dy, khi mmen phn khng do l xo phn
khng tc ng vo khung dy tng
Mpk= D.D
(3.5)
D - h s phn khng ca l xo
D - gc quay ca kim
Khi mmen quay Mq cn bng vi mmen phn khng Mp ca l xo th kim s
dng li trn mt s ng vi mt gc D no .
Mq = -Mpk
(3.6)
l I .B.N .S D.D
B.N .S
lD
I S 0 .I
D
B.N .S
l nhy ca c cu o
S0
D
38
3. c im ca c cu o t in:
+ u im:
Thang o tuyn tnh c th khc thang o ca dng in I theo gc

quay ca kim ch th
nhy c cu o ln
Dng ton thang (Itt) rt nh (c PA)
chnh xc cao, c th to ra cc thang o c cp chnh xc ti 0,5%
t chu nh hng ca in t trng bn ngoi.

+ Nhc im:
Cu to phc tp, d b h hng khi c va p mnh
Chu qu ti km do dy qun khung c ng knh nh
Ch lm vic vi dng 1 chiu, mun lm vic vi dng xoay chiu phi c

thm it nn in
* ng dng: dng rt nhiu lm c cu ch th cho cc dng c o in nh
Vnmt, Ampemt,, cc php o cu cn bng
39
3.2.2 C cu in t: hot ng theo nguyn l: nng lng in t c bin i
lin tc thnh c nng nh s tng tc gia t trng ca cun dy tnh khi
c dng in i qua vi phn ng ca c cu l cc l st t
1. Cu to: c 2 loi
- Loi cun dy hnh trn.
- Loi cun dy hnh dt
+ Loi cun dy hnh trn:
-Phn tnh: l 1 cun dy hnh tr trn, pha
trong thnh ng c gn l st t mm un quanh
- Phn ng: gm 1 l st t cng c un
cong v gn vo trc quay nm i din. Trn
trc quay gn kim ch th v l xo phn khng
kim ch th
Cun dy
trn
L st t
mm tnh
I1
L st
ng
40
+ Loi cun dy dt:
Phn tnh: gm 1 cun dy dt, gia c 1 khe hp.
Phn ng: gm 1 a st t c gn lch tm, ch
mt phn nm trong khe hp v c th quay quanh
trc. Trn trc ca a st t c gn kim ch th v l
xo phn khng
2. Nguyn l hot ng chung:
Khi c dng I in chy qua cun dy tnh s to ra
mt nng lng t trng
Wtt
kim ch th
Cun dy
dt
1 2
LI
2
vi L l in cm cun dy, c gi tr tu thuc vo v tr tng i ca l

st t ng v tnh
S bin thin nng lng t trng theo gc quay to ra mmen quay
trc quay kim ch th quay
Mq
dWtt
dD
41
Khi kim ch th quay mmen phn khng tng: Mpk=D.D
Ti v tr cn bng: Mpk = - Mq
o DD
dWtt
dD
oD
1 dWtt
D dD
oD
S0 I 2
1 2 dL
I
2 dD
1 dL 2
I
2 D dD
1 dL
, S0
2 D dD
Gc quay ca kim ch th t l vi bnh phng ca I qua cun dy

3. c im ca CC in t:
+ u im:
9
CC t in c th lm vic vi dng xoay chiu.
9
C cu to vng chc, kh nng chu ti tt.
42
+ Nhc im:
9 nhy km do t trng phn tnh yu
9 Thang o phi tuyn
9 chnh xc thp do d nh hng ca t trng bn ngoi do tn hao st
t ln
Tuy nhin vn c dng nhiu trong cc ng h o in p ln
3.3 C cu ch th s:
Vt cn
o
Tr s o
c
bin i
Khong 't
cha cc xung
c tn s f
m xung
trong 't
kt qu
bin i
Hin th
di dng
ch s
43
1. Nguyn l hot ng chung: cc c cu o hin th s thng dng phng
php bin i tr s ca i lng o ra khong thi gian c lu 't ph
thuc tr s o cha y cc xung lin tip vi tn s nht nh.
Thit b ch th m s xung trong khong thi gian 't v th hin kt qu
php m di dng ch s hin th.
2. Cc c im:
(a) Cc u im:
9 chnh xc o lng cao.
9 Ch th kt qu o di dng ch s nn d c.
9 C kh nng t chn thang o v phn cc
9 Tr khng vo ln.
9 C th lu li cc kt qu o a vo my tnh.
9 Dng thun tin cho o t xa.
(b) Cc nhc im:
9 S phc tp
9 Gi thnh cao
9 bn vng nh
44
3.3.1 B ch th s dng it pht quang (LED_ Light Emitting Diode)
-Do s ti hp ca cc phn t mang in (in t v l trng) ca lp tip
xc p-n khi nh thin thun (cc e- vt t pha n v ti hp vi cc l trng
ti pha p), cc phn t mang in s pht ra nng lng di dng nhit v
nh sng.
-Nu vt liu bn dn trong sut th nh sng c pht ra v lp tip xc p-n

l ngun sng. N l ngun it pht quang (LED).
-Khi nh thin thun, phn t trng thi ng v pht sng.
-Khi nh thin ngc, phn t trng thi ngt.
45
-
S ti hp ca cc phn t mang in xy ra trong vt liu loi p, nn min p

l b mt ca phn t it. c s pht sng ti a, mng ant kim loi
c cho kt ta quanh mp ca vt liu loi p. u ni ca catt ca phn
t loi ny l mng kim loi y ca min loi n.
* LED 7 on:
Cc dng c o hin th s thng dng b ch th 7 on sng ghp li vi
nhau theo hnh s 8. Cc on sng l cc it pht quang. Khi cho dng
in chy qua nhng on thch hp c th hin hnh bt k s no t 0-9.
C 2 loi: LED 7 on sng Ant chung
LED 7 on sng Catt chung
LED 7 on sng Catt chung: catt ca tt c cc it u c ni chung vi
im c in th bng 0 (hay cc m ca ngun). Tc ng vo u vo
(ant) ca it mc logic 1 it sng.
LED 7 on sng Ant chung: cc ant c ni chung vi cc dng ca ngun
(mc logic 1). Tc ng vo u vo (Catt) ca it mc logic 0 it
sng.
46
st p khi phn cc thun it l 1,2V v dng thun khi c chi hp l l

20mA.
Nhc im: cn dng tng i ln.
u im: ngun in p mt chiu thp, kh nng chuyn mch nhanh, bn, kch
tc b.
3.3.2 B ch th s dng tinh th lng (LCD):
-Tinh th lng l tn trng thi ca mt vi hp cht hu c c bit. Cc cht ny
nng chy 2 trng thi: lc u trng thi nng chy lin tc, sau nu nhit
tip tc tng th chuyn sang cht lng ng hng bnh thng.
-Pha trung gian gia hai trng thi ny l trng thi tinh th lng (va c tnh
cht lng va c tnh cht tinh th).
47
-B ch th dng tinh th lng (LCD) thng c
b tr cng theo dng s 7 on nh b ch th
LED.
-Trn 2 tm thu tinh c ph mt lp kim loi
dn in lm nn 2 in cc trong sut, gia 2 lp
kim loi l lp cht lng tinh th.
-Khi ch th ch s, ngoi in p t vo 2 in
cc ca phn t cn cn ngun sng t pha trc
hay pha sau ca b ch th v phng.
Cu to mi thanh
(a) ngun sng t trc: khi c tn

hiu th tinh th lng c nh sng
phn x t gng.
48
-(b) ngun sng t sau: khi c tn hiu th tinh
th lng c nh sng i qua to nn hnh s trn
mn hnh. Mn hnh l tm phng en.
-Ngun in cung cp l ngun 1 chiu hoc l
ngun in p xung. VD:
+ u chung ca cc phn t ch th
LCD ni vi +E qua R.
+ Cc in cc ring ni vi cc u ra
iu khin.
+ Khi transistor T6 tt, U6a = 0 o phn
t 6 khng ch th.
+ Khi T6 thng, U6a = +E o kch
thch phn t 6 tr nn trong sut,
cho nh sng i qua.
49
u im ca ch th tinh th lng:
9 Ngun cung cp n gin, tiu th cng sut nh, c mW
9 Kch tc b, ph hp vi cc thit b o dng mch t hp, k thut vi in t.
9 Hnh ch s kh r rng, ch to n gin.
Nhc im:
9 di nhit lm vic hp (100C-550C)
9 tui th cha tht cao
Tuy vy cc u im l c bn nn loi ny ngy cng c dng nhiu, bit l
trong thit b o y t v mu sc c th thay i theo nhit bnh nhn.
50
Chng 4. My hin sng (xil)

4.1 Nguyn l quan st tn hiu trn MHS:
1.
-
Phng php v dao ng ca tn hiu

Mt tn hiu thng c biu din di 2 dng:
+ Hm theo thi gian: u = f(t)
+ Hm s theo tn s: u =M(f)
U
AM
F
f
0
f-F
f+F
quan st dng sng, o cc c tnh v cc tham s ca tn hiu o

dng mt my o a nng l MHS (xil).
MHS l mt loi my v di ng theo 2 chiu X v Y hin th dng tn
hiu a vo cn quan st theo tn hiu khc hay theo thi gian. `Kim bt
v ` ca my l mt chm sng, di chuyn trn mn hnh ca ng tia in
t theo qui lut ca in p a vo cn quan st.
51

* Cc loi xil:
-xil tn thp, xil tn cao, xil siu cao tn
-xil xung (W/T b)
-xil 2 tia; xil nhiu knh
-xil c nh (loi tng t v loi s)
-xil s; xil c ci t VXL
2. Cng dng, tnh nng ca xil:
xil l mt my o vn nng, n c cc tnh nng:
-Quan st ton cnh tn hiu
-o cc thng s cng ca tn hiu:
+ o in p, o dng in, o cng sut
+ o tn s, chu k, khong thi gian ca tn hiu
+ o di pha ca tn hiu
+ v t ng v o c c tnh ph ca tn hiu
+ v c tuyn Vn-Ampe ca linh kin
+v t ng, o c tuyn bin -tn s ca mng 4 cc
52

3. Cc ch tiu k thut ch yu ca xil:
-Phm vi tn s cng tc: c xc nh bng phm vi tn s qut.
- nhy (h s li tia theo chiu dc): mV/cm
L mc in p cn thit a n u vo knh lch dc bng bao nhiu mV
tia in t dch chuyn c di 1 cm theo chiu dc ca mn sng.
nhy cng c th c tnh bng mm/V.
-ng knh mn sng: xil cng ln, cht lng cng cao th ng knh
mn sng cng ln (thng thng khong 70mm-150 mm).
-Ngoi ra cn c h s li tia theo chiu ngang, tr khng vo,...
4. Ch qut tuyn tnh lin tc
a) Nguyn l qut ng thng trong MHS
-a in p ca tn hiu cn nghin cu ln cp phin lch Y, v in p
qut rng ca ln cp phin lch X.
53

-Do tc dng ng thi ca c hai in trng ln 2 cp phin m tia in t
dch chuyn c theo phng trc X v Y.
-Qu o ca tia in t dch chuyn trn mn s vch nn hnh dng ca in
p nghin cu bin thin theo thi gian.
Ch : in p qut l hm lin tc theo thi gian o qut lin tc
in p qut l hm gin on theo thi gian o qut i
b) Nguyn l qut tuyn tnh lin tc

-in p qut tuyn tnh lin tc c tc dng
li tia in t dch chuyn lp i lp li 1 cch
lin tc theo phng ngang t l bc nht vi
thi gian.
- qut tuyn tnh lin tc cn phi dng in
p bin i tuyn tnh lin tc (tng tuyn tnh
hay gim tuyn tnh)
Qut t2 lin tc vi Tq = Tth
54

Chu k qut: Tq = tth + tng
Uq
tth
tng
Thng thng: tng d 15% tth tc l tng rt nh hn tth nn c th coi Tq | tth, l

tng: tng = 0 (Tq = tth)
-Nu tn s qut cao, mn hunh quang c d huy mc cn thit th khi
mi ch c Uq t vo cp phin X c mt ng sng theo phng ngang. Khi
c c Uth t vo cp phin Y v nu Tq = nTth n N th trn mn xut hin dao
ng ca mt hay vi chu k ca in p nghin cu (Uth).
-Nu Tq z nTth th dao ng khng ng yn m lun di ng ri lon o kh
quan st. Hin tng ny gi l khng ng b (khng ng pha gia Uq v Uth).
55

-Thc t, tng z 0. V tng << tth nn ng sng m
tia in t vch ln trn mn trong khong tth sng
hn so vi ng sng trong khong tng. Trn dao
ng ca in p n/cu cng b mt i mt phn
chu k (= tng) tia in t quay tr v v tr ban
u.
-Xo ng vch sng ca tia in t trong khong
tng: ng vi lc c tng th to nn mt xung in p
m c rng ng bng tng a ti cc iu ch
ca ng tia in t.
-Khi in p qut rng ca khng thng o mo
dao ng do tc qut khng u.
Gii php: ci tin mch in in p qut rng
ca c dng gn nh l tng
56

-H s khng ng thng (J):
dU
dU
dU
dU
dt max dt min
dt max dt min
% 2
%
dU
dU
dU
dt
dt
tb
max dt min
c nh quan st vi cht lng cao cn:

- tng << tth hay Tq | tth
-iu kin ng b phi tho mn: Tq = nTth
-Phi c mch tt tia qut ngc.
5. Nguyn l qut i
-Vi xung c xp ln (W/T b), c chu k hoc khng c chu k qut i.
-Qut i: in p qut ch xut hin khi c xung nghin cu a n knh Y
ca MHS.
57

(a) Tq = Tth ; tn hiu ch xut hin trong
mt t/g rt b (W << Tth) dao ng
c hnh dng xung rt bkhng
tin hnh quan st o lng c.
(b) Tq = Tth/6 (qut lin tc):
-Hnh dng xung c khuch i
ra.
-ng trn m, ng di m
kh quan st
-Kh thc hin ng b dao ng
khng n nh
NX: khng quan st c dng xung mt cch y (sn xung, nh xung,...).
(c) Qut i: ch c in p qut khi c tn hiu nghin cu.
-Hnh dng xung c khuch i ra.
-ng trn m d quan st
- quan st ton b xung nghin cu iu chnh Wq > W mt cht
58

6. Nguyn l ng b:
-Khi quan st dng tn hiu trn MHS, i khi nh b tri, nhy,... l do mt
ng b.
n N
* n Tth Tq1 nTth ,
4
Minh ha 3 Tth Tq1 Tth :

4
nh I, II, III l cc dao ng tng ng ti cc chu k qut tng ng. N
phn b ln lt t tri qua phi, do tnh cht lu nh ca mn hnh cc nh s
m dn theo th t tng ng cm gic dao ng chuyn ng t tri qua
phi.
1
* nTth Tq 2 n 4 Tth
Tth a
z
tng t, dao ng c cm gic chuyn ng t phi qua tri
Tq 2 b
59

Tth
Tq 3
a
b
Tth 4
):
Tq 3 3
Dao ng ng yn nhng khng phn nh ng dng tn hiu cn quan st
m ch gm nhng on tn hiu khc nhau cn quan st m thi.
*
(minh ha
* Tq = nTth (minh ha Tq = Tth ), n N

Dao ng n nh v phn nh ng dng tn hiu cn quan st.
iu kin ng b: Tq = nTth
Qu trnh thit lp v duy tr iu kin ny l qu trnh ng b ca MHS
-Cc ch ng b:
+ ng b trong: tn hiu ng b ly t knh Y ca MHS
+ ng b ngoi (EXT)
+ ng b li (LINE)
60

Uth
Tth
0
t
Tth
2Tth
3Tth
Uq1
t
Tq1
0
Uq2
t
Tq2
0
Uq3
t
0 Tq3
Uq4
t
0 Tq4
61

4.2 S cu to mt MHS in hnh
1. Cu to MHS:
- ng tia in t
- Knh lch ng Y
- Knh lch ngang X v ng b
- Knh Z (khng ch sng)
* ng tia in t:
+ l b phn trung tm ca MHS, s
dng loi ng 1 tia khng ch bng
in trng
+ C nhim v hin th dng sng trn
mn hnh v l i tng iu khin
chnh (Uy, Ux, UG).
Knh lch ng Y
Uth
AC S1
DC
Vpp
GND
Mch
vo v
phn
p Y
Tin
khuch
i
Dy
tr
Khuch
i Y
i
xng
To
xung
chun
X1
Y1
CRT
X2
Y2
K/i
To i
CH S2
To
ng b
in
p
lin 1 S3 K/i X
Ub v to Ux xung
EXT
qut
ng
b
tc 2
dng
i
LINE
AC
Uxb
xng
50Hz
3
Mch
Uqut
Ux
vo v
K X
UZ
Chn
cc tnh
Knh lch ngang X v ng b

K/i
Z
Ti G ca CRT
Knh Z
Hnh: S khi MHS 1 knh dng ng tia in t

62

* Knh lch ng Y: c nhim v nhn tn hiu vo cn quan st, bin i v to
ra in p ph hp cung cp cho cp li ng Y1, Y2. Gm cc khi chc nng:
+ Chuyn mch kt ni u vo S1: cho php chn ch hin th tn hiu.
S1 ti AC: ch hin th thnh phn xoay chiu ca Uth.
S1 ti DC: hin th c thnh phn mt chiu v xoay chiu ca Uth.
S1 ti GND: ch quan st tn hiu ni t (0V).
+ Mch vo phn p Y: c nhim v phi hp tr khng v phn p tn hiu vo
tng kh nng o in p cao. Thng dng cc khu phn p R-C mc lin
tip nhau, h s phn p khng ph thuc vo tn s. Chuyn mch phn p
c a ra ngoi mt my v k hiu l Volts/Div.
+ Tin khuch i: c nhim v khuch i tn hiu, lm tng nhy chung ca
knh Y. Thng dng cc mch K c tr khng vo ln v c h s K ln.
+ Dy tr: c nhim v gi chm tn hiu trc khi a ti K Y i xng,
thng dng trong cc ch qut i trnh mt mt phn sn trc ca tn
hiu khi quan st. Thng dng cc khu L-C mc lin tip.
63

+ K Y i xng: c nhim v K tn hiu, lm tng nhy chung ca knh Y,
ng thi to ra in p i xng cung cp cho cp li ng Y1Y2.
+ To in p chun: to ra in p chun c dng bin , tn s bit trc,
dng kim chun li cc h s lch tia ca MHS
* Knh lch ngang X v ng b: c nhim v to ra in p qut ph hp v
dng v ng b v pha so vi UY1, Y2 cung cp cho cp li ngang X1X2
+ Chuyn mch ng b S2: cho php chn cc tn hiu ng b khc nhau.
S2 ti CH: t ng b (Ub = Uth)
S2 ti EXT: ng b ngoi (Ub=UEXT), tn hiu ng b c a qua u vo
EXT.
S2 ti LINE: ng b vi li in AC 50Hz (Ub=UAC50Hz) ly t ngun nui.
+ K ng b v to dng: k/i tn hiu Ub ph hp v to ra dng xung nhn
n cc tnh c chu k: Tx=Tb
64

+ To xung ng b: chia tn Ux v to ra xung ng b c chu k:
Txb=nTx=nTb. Xung ny s iu khin b to in p qut to ra Uq rng
ca tuyn tnh theo ch qut i hoc qut lin tc v c chu k Tq=Txb.
+ K X i xng: K in p qut v to ra in p i xng a ti cp li
ngang X1X2.
+ Mch vo v K X: nhn tn hiu UX v k/i, phn p ph hp.
+ Chuyn mch S3: chuyn mch la chn ch qut (qut lin tc, qut i)
+ B to in p qut: to in p qut lin tc (hoc qut i) a n cp
phin X
* Knh iu khin ch sng Z: c nhim v nhn tn hiu iu ch sng

UZ vo, thc hin chn cc tnh v k/i ph hp ri a ti li iu ch G ca
CRT.
65

2. Cu to ca ng tia in t:
ng tia in t CTR (Cathode Ray Tube) l 1 ng thu tinh hnh tr c chn
khng cao, u ng c cha cc in cc, pha cui loe ra hnh nn ct, mt y
c ph 1 lp hunh quang to thnh mn hnh. Cu to gm 3 phn:
Mn hunh quang
Si t
F
A1
X1
A2
Lp
than ch
Y1
Y2
-E
R1
Rbright
R2
X2
A hu
Rfocus
Sng in t
H thng
li tia
Mn hnh
Hnh : S cu to ca ng tia in t
66

a) Mn hnh: - Lp hunh quang thng l hp cht ca Phtpho. Khi c in t
bn ti mn hnh, ti v tr va p, in t s truyn ng nng cho cc in t lp
ngoi cng ca nguyn t Phtpho, cc in t ny s nhy t mc nng lng
thp ln mc nng lng cao v tn ti trong 1 thi gian rt ngn ri t nhy v
mc nng lng thp ban u v pht ra photon nh sng.
- Mu sc nh sng pht ra, thi gian tn ti ca im sng ( d huy ca mn
hnh) s ph thuc vo hp cht ca Phtpho (t vi Ps n vi s).
b) Sng in t: gm si t F, catt K, li iu ch G (M), cc ant A1,A2.
Nhim v: to gia tc v hi t chm tia in t
- Cc in cc c dng hnh tr, lm bng Niken, ring Katt c ph mt lp xit
kim loi y tng kh nng bc x in t.
- Cc in cc pha sau thng c vnh rng hn in cc pha trc v c nhiu
vch ngn cc chm in t khng i qu xa trc ng vic hi t s d dng
hn. Vi cu to c bit ca cc in cc nh vy s to ra 1 t trng khng
u c bit c th hi t v gia tc chm tia.
67

Ngun cp:
UK = -2kV
UKG = 0-50V
UA2 = 0V
UA1 = 300V
+ Li iu ch G c cung cp in p m hn so vi K v c ghp st K
d dng cho vic iu chnh cng ca chm in t bn ti mn hnh.
+ Chit p trn G (iu chnh in p) thng c a ra ngoi mt my v k
hiu l Bright hoc Intensity dng iu chnh sng ti ca dao ng
trn mn hnh.
+ Ant A2 (Ant gia tc) thng c ni t trnh mo dao ng khi
in p cung cp cho cc in cc khng phi l in p i xng.
+ Ant A1 (Ant hi t) cng c chit p iu chnh a ra ngoi mt my, k
hiu l Focus, dng iu chnh hi t ca chm tia in t trn mn hnh.
68

c) H thng li tia: c nhim v lm lch chm tia in t bn ti mn hnh theo
chiu ng hoc chiu ngang ca mn hnh.
Cu to gm 2 cp phin lm lch c t trc, sau v bao quanh trc ca ng.
+ Cp li ng Y1Y2.
+ Cp li ngang X1X2 .
69

* Xt qu o ca chm tia in t khi i qua in trng ca 2 ant A1, A2:
+ UA2 > UA1 ng sc in trng c chiu i t A2 n A1
+ e- chuyn ng theo chiu t A1 ti A2 nn n ng thi chu tc ng ca 2
thnh phn lc, 1 thnh phn theo phng vung gc vi chm tia v 1 thnh
phn dc theo chm tia.
+ Ti im A: chm e- c khuynh hng chuyn ng dc theo phng trc ng,
ng thi hi t vi nhau theo phng bn knh ca chm tia
+ Ti B: thnh phn lc theo phng bn knh i chiu ngc li chm e- c
khuynh hng phn k khi tm theo phng bn knh.
Tuy nhin do cu to ca cc in cc, s
phn b ca ng sc B t b cong hn
phn v tr im A phn lng vn
tc theo phng bn knh B < im A
khuynh hng hi t ca chm e- >
khuynh hng phn k.
70

* Xt lch ca tia in t theo chiu ng:
Khi Uy= 0, tia in t bn ti chnh gia mn hnh ti im O.
Khi Uy z 0, in trng gia cc phin lm lch s lm lch qu o ca tia
in t theo chiu ng v bn ti mn hnh ti v tr M, lch 1 khong l y.
Soy
U y l y Ly
2d yU A
y
Uy
Y1
Uy
SoyU y
A2
nhy ca ng
2d yU A
tia in t
M
y
O
dy
l y Ly
chm e-
Y2
Ly
ly
Mn hnh
Ly: khong cch t cp li ng n mn hnh.

ly: chiu di ca cc cp phin lm lch.
dy: khong cch gia 2 phin lm lch.
UA: in p gia tc ca ng tia (ph thuc vo UA2 v K).
71

Tng t, lch ca tia in t theo chiu ngang:
U x l x Lx
2d xU A
SoxU x
* Nguyn l to nh trn mn my hin sng:

iu khin ng thi tia in t theo 2 trc: trc thng ng v trc nm
ngang, ngha l ng thi a vo n ng tia in t 2 in p iu khin UY
v UX . Gi s U th U m sin Z.t a vo knh Y v a ti cp li ng Y1Y2;
U q a.t a ti cp li ngang X1X2 in p trn cc cp li tia nh sau:
Uy
U y1 y 2
U th S y
Sy
K y S oy
72

* Mch to in p qut i (mch Boostrap)
Nhn xt s b:
-
D thng, tng T1 hot ng nh 1 mch TF n gin, T1- kho in t.
in p trn t C T2 C*. in p b a v im X b mo do s
gim dng in trn R gy ra.
Hot ng:
1. Trng thi ban u (t1 t 0):
- D thng: UX = EC UD # EC
- T1 thng bo ho: UC = UCbh # 0V
- T2 k/i C chung nn: URE = Uq # 0V
- UC* = UX - Uq # EC
73

2. Trng thi to Uq (t3 t t1):
t = t1: Uk c rng W = t3 - t2
T1 tt t C np in theo 2 giai on:
Giai on 1: t1 t <t2
Khi D cn thng, khi C np in UC
tng Uq tng, thng qua t C* lm cho
UX tng, nhng D cn thng nn Uq tng
theo qui lut ng cong.
Giai on 2:
khi t = t2: UX tng ln hn EC. UX tng
theo qui lut tuyn tnh v khi UC tng Uq
tng v do C* >> C nn UX tng tng ng.
UR = UX UC = const
IR =const dng np cho t C
khng i, vi thi gian np tq = t3 t2.
74

3. Trng thi hi phc:
t = t3: kt thc xung u vo. T1 bo ho, t C phng in qua T1 UC gim
nn Uq gim UX gim.
t = t4: UX d EC D thng tr li.
D thng, t C* c np b sung, khi C* c np y th thi gian
hi phc kt thc.
Nhn xt:
-Trong giai on to qut tq, UC tng tuyn tnh nh ngun np chnh l C* c
tr s cc ln tch in (lm nhim v ging nh ngun 1 chiu np cho C).
- gim mo phi tuyn tng K T2 phi c iu chnh sao cho kU 1
(R ln).
-T C* phi ln nhng khng qu ln v nu qu ln th thi gian hi phc ca
mch tng.
-T C phi nh nhng khng c chn qu nh v nu qu nh th n c gi tr
tng ng nh t k sinh mch lm vic khng n nh.
75
76
77

3. Mt s ch lm vic:
a. Qut lin tc ng b trong (ngoi)
-Dng quan st nh ca tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian v o cc tham s
ca chng.
-S2 v tr CH (hoc EXT nu l ng b ngoi), S3 v tr 2
-Tn hiu t li vo knh Y, qua Mch vo v b phn p Y c khuch i
ti mt mc nht nh, sau c gi chm li ri a qua B K Y i
xng to 2 tn hiu c bin ln, o pha nhau a ti 2 phin ng
78

b. Qut i ng b trong
-Dng quan st v o tham s ca dy xung khng tun hon hoc dy
xung tun hon c hng ln.
-S2 v tr CH, S3 v tr 1
-Qu trnh hot ng: ging ch 1
c. Ch khuch i
-Dng o tn s, gc lch pha, su iu ch, v c tuyn Vn-Ampe
ca it hoc dng lm thit b so snh. Hnh nhn c trn mn MHS gi
l hnh Lixazu
- S3 v tr 3
-B to qut trong c ngt ra khi qu trnh hot ng. MHS lm vic
theo 2 knh c lp X,Y v u vo X cng l u vo tn hiu
79

4.3 MHS nhiu tia
Dng quan st ng thi nhiu qu trnh (tn hiu)
1. MHS 2 tia c li vo cp phin lch ng
tch bit (knh A, knh B):
-Mi knh c mch K lm lch ring
-Mt b to gc thi gian chung cho c 2 knh
2. MHS 2 knh dng ng tia in t 1 tia
v CM in t
-Hai b K tn hiu vo ring cho knh A,
knh B
-Mt b K lch ng cho c 2 knh.
Tn hiu vo b K ny c chuyn
mch lun phin gia 2 knh.
-B to gc thi gian (b to sng qut
ngang) iu khin tn s chuyn mch
80

a) Phng php dng chuyn mch in t kiu
lun phin (ALT mode):
+ Tn hiu vo b K lch ng c chuyn
mch lun phin gia cc knh A v B.
+ B to gc thi gian iu khin tn s chuyn
mch
+ 0yt1: tn hiu t knh A c ni ti b K lch
ng, to thnh vt trn mn hin sng
+ t1yt2: tn hiu t knh B c ni ti b K lch
ng, to thnh vt trn mn hin sng
+ Hai tn hiu hai knh c cng chu k T v
c ng b vi nhau.
+ Dch chnh DC: dch chuyn tn hiu knh A
(knh B) trn mn theo phng thng ng bng
in p mt chiu
+ cc chu k tip theo: qu trnh lp li nh
trn. Tn s lp cao n mc m cc dng sng
nh c hin ng thi.
c)
Dng
sng
hin
81

b)Phng php dng chuyn mch in t kiu ngt qung (Chop mode switching):
S dng tn s chuyn mch cao hn nhiu so vi ch lun phin.
+ T1, T3, T5, T7,... tn hiu vo knh A c to
ra trn mn
+ T2, T4, T6,... tn hiu vo knh B c to ra
trn mn
+ Cc dng sng knh A v B c hin hnh
nh nhng ng t nt. Khi tn s chuyn
mch l cao tn khng th nhn ra nhng ch
t nt
+ fth nh: nh hin trn mn MHS gn nh lin
tc
+ fth ln; nfcm z mfth : cc on ngt b lp do
d huy ca ng v lu nh ca mt.
Ch : i vi tn hiu cao tn th kiu lun
phin l tt nht, cn i vi tn hiu tn s thp
th nn dng chuyn mch ngt qung
82

Chuyn mch in t phn ng theo thi gian:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
UZ
83

-Mi knh tn hiu c cng thm mt lng in p 1 chiu E khc nhau
cc ng biu din trn mn hnh MHS c tch ring tng ng, hnh (a).
-Sau tn hiu c a n mch ca, v ch qua c ca khi c tn hiu m
ca t b Pht sng chuyn mch.
-Tn hiu m ca l cc xung vung c thi gian xut hin xen k v ln lt
cho tng ca mt, hnh (b).
-Ti mi thi im ch c duy nht 1 ca c m v cho tn hiu ca mt knh
i qua.
-B tng cng cc tn hiu u ra cc ca, UY6 c dng xung vi bin t l
vi gi tr ca cc tn hiu cn quan st ti thi im c xung m ca tng ng
vi cc knh, hnh (c).
-Sau khi khuch i Y, MHS c c hnh biu din tn hiu ca cc knh di
dng ng nt t, hnh (c).
-MHS lm vic ch ng b vi chu k ca tn hiu cn quan st v khng
ng b vi tn hiu chuyn mch.
-Dng nhng xung c rng rt nh (UZ) c to ra t mch vi phn t cc
xung m ca a vo knh Z iu ch sng ca nh, hnh (d).
84

Chuyn mch in t phn ng theo mc:
En
85

-Phn hin th l ng truyn hnh lm lch bng t trng
-Nguyn l hot ng: chuyn cc gi tr tc thi ca tn hiu cc knh thnh cc
chui xung rt hp xut hin ti cc thi im m tu thuc vo in p tn hiu
nghin cu. Cc xung ny c a vo khng ch sng ca ng hin
hnh.
+ Mi knh tn hiu c cng thm mt lng in p 1 chiu E khc nhau,
ri a n so snh vi tn hiu l xung rng ca a ti t b K lch ng
ca MHS (tn hiu qut dng).
+ Mi khi URC = Uth, th u ra ca b so snh s xut hin mt xung hp. Cc
xung hp ny c cng vi nhau ri a vo khng ch sng ca ng hin
hnh.
+ Ti thi im c xung, trn mn hnh xut hin mt chm sng trong khi bnh
thng th ti. Vt ca chm sng trn mn hnh biu din hnh in p ca cc
tn hiu cn quan st.
86

4.4 xil in t s:
1.u im:
- Duy tr nh ca tn hiu trn mn hnh vi khong thi gian khng hn ch.
- Tc c c th thay i trong gii hn rng
- C th xem li cc on hnh nh lu gi vi tc thp hn nhiu
- Hnh nh tt hn, tng phn hn so vi loi xil tng t
- Vn hnh n gin
- S liu cn quan st di dng s c th c x l trong xil hoc truyn
trc tip vo my tnh khi ghp xil vi my tnh.
87

2. Cu to v hot ng:
Chuyn mch S v tr 1: xil a nng thng thng

Chuyn mch S v tr 2: xil c nh s.
-in p cn quan st c a ti u vo Y, ti b ADC. Lc b iu
khin gi 1 lnh ti u vo iu khin ca b ADC v khi ng qu trnh bin
i. Kt qu l in p tn hiu c s ho. Khi kt thc qu trnh bin i, b
ADC gi tn hiu kt thc ti b iu khin.
-Mi s nh phn c chuyn ti b nh v c nh v tr nh ring bit.
88

-Khi cn thit, mt lnh t b iu khin lm cho cc s nh phn ny sp xp
theo chui li theo th t xc nh v c a n b DAC
-DAC bin i cc gi tr nh phn thnh in p tng t a qua b khuch
i Y ti cp phin lm lch Y ca ng tia in t.
-Do b nh c lin tip qut nhiu ln trong 1 giy nn mn hnh c sng
lin tc v hin dng sng l hnh v cc im sng.
Nhc im: di tn b hn ch (khong 1-10MHz) do tc bin i ca b
ADC thp.
Hin nay, cc xil c nh s c di tn rng c pht trin nh ci t VXL,
cc b bin i ADC c tc bin i nhanh hn.
89
Chng 5. o tn s, khong thi gian v o di pha

5.1 Khi nim chung
-Tn s l s chu k ca 1 dao ng trong mt n v thi gian.
-Tn s gc: Zt biu th tc bin i pha ca dao ng
dM
Zt
dt
Zt 2Sf t
Zt , f t l tn s gc tc thi v tn s tc thi
-Quan h gia tn s v bc sng:
f
c
O
hay
c
f
-Quan h gia chu k v tn s:
1
T
c im ca php o tn s:
+ l php o c chnh xc cao nht trong k thut o lng nh s pht trin
vt bc ca vic ch to cc mu tn s c chnh xc v n nh cao.
+Lng trnh o rng (n 3.1011 Hz). Lng trnh o c phn thnh cc di
tn s khc nhau.
90

- Di tn thp: < 16Hz
- Di tn s m thanh: 16 Hz < f < 20 KHz
- Di tn s siu m: 20 KHz < f < 200 KHz
- Di tn s cao: 200 KHz < f < 30 MHz
- Di tn s siu cao: 30 MHz < f < 3000 MHz
- Di tn s quang hc: > 3GHz
Cc di tn s khc nhau c cc phng php o tn s khc nhau.
Bao gm:
+ Nhm phng php o tn s bng cc mch in c tham s ph thuc tn s
+ Nhm phng php so snh
+ Nhm phng php s
Php o tn s thng c s dng kim tra, hiu chun cc my to tn
hiu o lng, cc my thu pht; xc nh tn s cng hng ca cc mch dao
ng; xc nh di thng ca b lc; kim tra lch tn s ca cc thit b
ang khai thc
91

5.2 o tn s bng cc mch in c tham s ph thuc tn s:
5.2.1 Phng php cu
Dng cc cu o m iu kin cn bng ca cu ph thuc vo tn s ca
ngun in cung cp cho cu.
Z2
Z1
*Mch cu tng qut:
iu kin cn bng cu:
B
Z1.Z 3
Z 2 .Z 4 o U AB
0
Z4
VD1:
Z3
Hnh 5-1
iu kin cn bng cu:
R1.Z 3
L3
3
Hnh 5-2
Z3
R2 .R4
1
R3 j Z L3
C
Z
3
92

iu chun nhnh cng hng ni tip cho cng hng ti tn s cn o fx (iu
chnh C3).
Zx L3
Khi
Z3
1
fx
Zx C3
R3
R1.R3
1
2S L3C3
R2 .R4
B ch th cn bng l vn mt chnh lu, vn mt in t.

Nhc im:
-Kh o c tn s thp do kh ch to cun cm c L ln tn s thp.
-Kh thc hin ch th 0 do c tc ng ca in t trng ln cun cm
93

VD2:
iu kin cn bng cu:
R1' .R3
1 jZx R3C3
1
R2' R4
jZ x C4
R1'
'
R2
1
R4 C3

v
Z x C4
R3 C4
Zx
2Sf x
Z x C3 R3 R4
1
R3 R4C3C4
Chn R3
R4 R v C3 C4 C ta c:
1
R1'
fx
2
;
2SRC
R2'
R1' R1 VR1
R2' R2 VR 2
Hnh 5-3
VR1,VR2 l phn in tr ca bin tr VR trn nhnh 1,2 tng ng

94

VD3: Cu T kp
iu kin cn bng cu:
Z2x R22C1C2 2
2 2
2Z x C1 R1 R2 1
Khi C2
Zx
2C1
1
2 R1C1
R2
2R1
fx
1
4SR1C1
Hnh 5-4
Thang ca bin tr R1 c khc trc tip theo n v tn s.

Phng php cu dng o tn s t vi chc Hz n vi trm Khz.
Sai s: (0,5-1)%
95

5.2.2 Phng php cng hng
- Dng o tn s cao v siu cao
- Nguyn tc chung: da vo nguyn l chn lc tn s ca mch cng hng.
- Khi c bn ca s ny l mch cng hng. Mch ny c kch thch
bng dao ng ly t ngun c tn s cn o thng qua Khi ghp tn hiu.
- Vic iu chnh thit lp trng thi cng hng nh dng Khi iu chun.
- Hin tng cng hng c pht hin bng Khi ch th cng hng. Khi
ny thng l Vnmt tch sng.
-Tu theo di tn s m cu to ca mch cng hng khc nhau. C 3 loi mch
cng hng:
U(fx)
+ Mch cng hng c L, C tp trung

+ Mch cng hng c L, C phn b
+ Mch cng hng c L phn b, C tp trung.
Khi
ghp tn
hiu
Mch
CH
Ch th
CH
iu
chun
Hnh 5-5
96

1. Tn s mt cng hng c tham s tp trung.
+ y C v L u l cc linh kin c thng s
tp trung. B phn iu chnh cng hng chnh
l t bin i C c thang khc theo n v tn s.
+ Ufx c ghp vo mch cng hng thng qua
cun ghp Lg.
+ Mch ch th cng hng l mch ghp h cm
gia cun dy L2 v L v c tch sng bng it
v ch th bng c cu o t in.
+ Khi o ta a Ufx vo v iu chnh t C mch
cng hng. Khi c cu o s ch th cc i.
fx
Ufx Lg
T iu
chnh
D
L2
Ch th cng
hng
Hnh 5-6
1
2S LC
+ Tn s mt loi ny thng dng trong di sng: 10 kHz y500 MHz.

+ Sai s: (0,25-3)%
97

2. Tn s mt cng hng c tham s phn b dng
cp ng trc.
+mch cng hng l 1 on cp ng trc
c ni tt 1 u, u kia c ni bng 1 pt tng P
c th dch chuyn dc trc bi h thng rng ca
xon c c khc .
+ vng ghp Vg a t/h vo, cn vng ghp V
ghp t/h ra mch ch th cng hng.
lt
Vg
Hnh 5-7
+ Cc ch ghp u gn v tr ni tt c nh sao cho cc v tr ny gn vi v

tr bng sng khi c chiu di tng ng ltd=O/2 th thit b ch th s ch
cc i.
+ Khi dch chuyn pt tng vi di bng bi s nguyn ln O/2 s t cng
hng c th xc nh bc sng bng cch ly 2 im cng hng ln cn
l1=nO/2; l2=(n-1) O/2 l1-l2=O/2
+ Kt qu bc sng o c ca tn hiu siu cao tn x bi cng thc:
O=2(l1-l2)
98

+Bc sng (hoc tn s) c khc trc tip trn h thng iu chnh pt
tng.
+Tn s mt loi ny thng dng trong di sng t 3cm - 20cm
+ Do c h s phm cht cao (khong 5000) nn sai s ca n khong 0,5%.
3. Tn s mt cng hng c tham s phn b dng ng dn sng
+ ng dn sng c th l loi ng dn sng ch
nht hay ng dn sng trn.
+ Piston P c th iu chnh dc theo ng bi h
thng rng ca xon c c khc tn s. Nng
lng kch thch hc cng hng c ghp qua l
hng G trn thnh c ni tt ca ng.
+ Khi iu chnh piston P c ltd=nO/2 th thit b
ch th s ch cc i.
+ Tn s mt vi hc cng hng thch hp vi di
sng nh hn 3cm.
+ Do c h s phm cht cao (khong 30000) nn
sai s ca n nh khong (0,01y0,05)%.
V
lt
Hnh 5-8
99

5.3 Phng php so snh
Phng php qut sin:
- MHS t ch khuch i.
- in p c tn s cn o Ufx c a vo knh Y,
in p c tn s mu Ufm a vo knh X.
- Hnh nh nhn c trn mn l hnh Lixazu. Thay
i fm sao cho trn mn nhn c hnh Lixazu n
nh nht.
nY=4, nX=2
Hnh 5-9
- Khi :
fm
fx
nY
nX
vi nY, nX nguyn dng

nY : s giao im ca ng ct dc vi nh
nX : s giao im ca ng ct ngang vi nh
fX
fY
nY
nX
fX : tn s a vo knh lch ngang X

fY : tn s a vo knh lch ng Y
- Tng qut:
100

5.4 o tn s bng phng php s
-L p2 hin i v thng dng nht o tn s
u im:
+ chnh xc cao
+ nhy ln
+ Tc o ln, t ng ho hon ton trong qu trnh o
+ Kt qu o hin th di dng s
1. Phng php xc nh nhiu chu k
a. S khi
b. Chc nng cc khi:
- Mch vo: thc hin tin x l nh
phn p, lc nhiu... hoc bin i t/h
tun hon dng bt k u vo
thnh hnh sin cng chu k vi t/h vo
.
- Mch to dng xung: bin i t/h
hnh sin c chu k Tx thnh t/h xung
nhn n cc tnh c chu k Tx.
To Ux
U B m
Kho
dng
xung
xung Uk
Ufx Mch
vo
xung xo
To
xung
chun
fch
Chia
tn
Uct
To N Gii m
x
xung
v ch
iu
th
khin xung
cht
Hnh 5-10
101

- To xung chun: to ra cc xung chun c chnh xc cao vi tn s f0,
xung chun ny c a qua b chia tn to ra xung c tn s l
fCT=f0/n=10k(Hz)
- To xung iu khin: nhn t/h fCT v to ra xung /k ng m kho c
rng 't=TCT=10-k(s)
- Mch gii m v ch th: Gii m xung m c v a vo cc c cu ch
th s, c th l dng Led 7 on hoc LCD ch th kt qu cn o.
- B m: m cc xung u ra.
Hnh 5-11
c. Nguyn l lm vic:
-Trong t/g c xung iu khin kho s c
m, xung m qua kho kch thch cho b
m xung.
-Gi s trong 1 chu k m 't, m c
Nx xung. S xung Nx ny s c a qua
mch gii m v ch th hin th kt qu
l tn s cn o 't=NxTx=Nx/fx
fx=Nx/'t=10k.Nx vi k=0, r1, r2,...
Gin thi gian
102

d. nh gi sai s:
- Sai s ca xung /k ('t) do sai s ca b to xung chun v b to xung /k gy
ra.
- Sai s lng t: r 1/Nx
fx tng Nx tng r 1/Nx gim.
fx gim Nx gim r 1/Nx tng.
- Khi fx nh nh hng ca sai s lng t s ln trong TH ny ta s chuyn
sang p2 o x 1 chu k.
2. Phng php xc nh mt chu k
a. S khi
b. Chc nng cc khi:
Nguyn l tng t nh trng hp nhiu
chu k nhng khc ch in p c tn s
cn o s c bin i thnh xung /k
ng m kho, cn xung m ly t b to
xung m chun.
To U
Gii
ch
U
N
xung
B m x m v
Kho
m
ch th
xung
chun
s
xung
Uk xo
Ufx Mch U To
x
dng
vo
xung
To
xung
k
Hnh 5-12
xung
cht
103

c. Nguyn l lm vic:
- T/h Ufx a qua Mch vo ti B to dng xung to ra xung nhn c chu
k Tx. Xung ny s /k B to dng xung /k to ra xung /k c rng
't=nTx (VD: n=1)
- Trong t/gian c xung 't, xung m chun Uch qua kho kch thch cho b
m xung.
- Gi s m c Nx xung th s xung Nx ny s c a qua mch gii m
v ch th t c kt qu l tn s hoc chu k cn o 't=Tx=Nx.T0, vi
T0 l chu k ca xung m chun
fx=1/Tx = 1/NxT0 = f0/Nx
d. nh gi sai s:
- Do sai s ca xung m
- Do sai s lng t (r1/Nx)
Kt hp 2 p2 o trn to ra 1 my m
tn c di tn o rng v chnh xc cao.
Hnh 5-13 Gin thi gian 104

5.5 o di pha
u1 U m1 sin Zt M1
u2
U m 2 sin Zt M 2
'M M1 M 2
Cc p2: phng php v dao ng ; pp bin i di pha thnh khong thi

gian; pp bin i di pha thnh in p; ...
105

5.5.1. o di pha bng pp o khong thi gian:
L phng php ph bin o pha
Nguyn l:
+ Bin i cc in p c dng hnh sin thnh
cc xung nhn tng ng vi cc thi im m
in p bin i qua gi tr 0 vi gi tr o hm
cng du.
+ Khong thi gian gia 2 xung gn nhau ca 2
in p o t l vi gc di pha ca chng.
Z
'M
2S / T v
2S
'M
Z'T
'T
(rad) hay 'M 0
T
3600
'T
T
Hnh 5-14
106

Pha mt dng mch a hi ng b
Hnh 5-15
- Cc in p hnh sin cn o di pha c a vo 2 u vo I v II

-in p hnh sin c bin i thnh cc xung vung nh Mch K hn ch
v a hi ng b, ri c a n Mch vi phn phn b.
(Cc chu k dao ng bn thn ca b a hi c chn sao cho n ln hn
chu k ca in p o c tn s thp nht)
- u ra ca Mch vi phn phn b l cc xung nhn, c a ti khng ch
hai b a hi ng b I v II.
- u ra ca 2 b a hi ny c a ti mt mch tng hp, mch ny c
ng h o thi gian lch gia cc xung, cng l gc di pha M ca 2 in p.
107

- Mch vi phn phn b:
+ u ra ca n a ti u vo B a
hi ng b I ch cc xung nhn dng
(hnh c) tng ng vi sn trc ca
xung vung ng th nht v cc xung
nhn m (hnh d) tng ng vi sn sau
ca xung vung ng th 2
+ a ti B a hi ng b II ch cc
xung nhn dng (hnh d) ca ng th
2 v cc xung nhn m (hnh c) ng
th nht
+ xc nh rng ca cc xung a ra
(hnh , e)
I0
Im
2 'T
T
M0
180 0
I0
Im
Hnh 5-16
108

5.5.2 Pha mt ch th s
a.Chc nng cc khi:
- Mch vo: thc hin tin x l tn hiu vo, lc nhiu.
- To dng xung: bin i tn hiu vo, to ra cc xung o n cc tnh c chu
k T=chu k tn hiu vo (Ux1, Ux2).
- Trigger: to ra xung vung c rng 'T v chu k T chnh l nh Ux1,
Ux2(Ux1 c a vo u thit lp S ca Trigger, Ux2 c a vo u xo R
ca Trigger).
- To xung m chun c chu k Tch .
- To xung o: chia tn s xung m chun to ra xung o c rng To.
U1(t)
U2(t)
Mch
vo 1
Mch
vo 2
To dng
Ux1
xung
To dng
xung
Ux2
To xung
chun
UT
Unx
U B m
Kho
xung
2
Nx
xung
xo
Uo
Gii m
To xung
v
o
xung cht ch th
Trigger
Kho
1
Uch
Hnh 5-17: S khi ca Phamt s
109

b/ Nguyn l lm vic:
- Xung UT t Trigger s iu khin ng
m kho 1. Mi khi c xung, xung m Uch
t b to xung m chun s c a qua
kho 1 v u ra ca kho 1 l xung Unx l
1 chui gm nhiu nhm xung m v
c a vo kho 2.
- Xung o Uo iu khin ng m kho 2
trong thi gian c xung o To .
- Gi s c h nhm xung c a qua
kho 2 vo kch thch cho b m xung,
tng s xung m c l Nx, s xung Nx
ny c a qua mch gii m v ch th
hin th kt qu l gc lch pha cn o.
- Ta c gc lch pha gia 2 tn hiu U1(t)
v U2(t) l
Uth
U1
U2
Ux1
Ux2
t
UT
'T
t
Uch
t
Unx
n xung
t
Uo
To
t
t
Nx xung
Hnh 5-18 Gin thi gian

110

'T ,
'T nTch
T
(n l s xung ca 1 nhm xung, Tch l chu k xung m chun).
'M
3600.
To =h.T, n
'M 360
Nx
h
Tch
.N x
Tdo
c. nh gi sai s:
- Do sai s ca Tch.
1
1
, r
-Do sai s lng t : r
n
-Sai s do khng ng nht ca knh 1, knh 2 l 'M' o 'Mdo 'M' 'M

-Khc phc:
+ a tn hiu U1(t) hoc U2(t) vo c 2 knh, gi s Phamt ch th gi tr l
'M'do 'M' , ta c: 'M 'M do 'M'do
+ Qu trnh hiu chnh ny c th c thc hin nh b m xung thun
nghch.
111

5.5.3 o di pha bng phng php v dao ng
1. Phng php dng qut tuyn tnh:
U1
U2
u1 U m1 sin Zt M1
U m 2 sin Zt M 2
'T
'M M1 M 2 3600.
T
u2
'T
T
Hnh 5-19
2. Phng php Lixazu:
Gi thit o di pha ca t/hiu qua 1 M4C. Phng php ny c th s dng
Oxilo 1 knh hoc 2 knh. Gi s ta s dng xil 2 knh, s nh hnh 5-20.
+iu chnh xil lm vic ch qut Lixazu:

Chn chuyn mch X-Y
Vert.Mode CH2 = UCH2Knh Y
Source CH1 = UCH1Knh X
U1(t) CH1
UV
CH2 U2(t)
Ur
M4C
Hnh 5-20
112

+iu chnh h s lch pha nhn c dao ng Lixazu nm chnh gia
v trong gii hn mn hnh.
y
Volts/div (CH1 v CH2)
POS-Y (CH1)
x
A
POS-X
Dao ng s c dng ng thng hoc ng Elip.
YMAX
+Xc nh gc trung tm ca dao ng : a cc

chuyn mch kt ni u vo ca c 2 knh v v tr
GND, trn mn hnh s l 1 im sng, dch chuyn im
sng v chnh gia mn hnh.
XMAX
Hnh 5-21
+a cc chuyn mch kt ni u vo v v tr AC, khi s nhn c dao

ng c dng ng thng hoc Elip.
+Xc nh gc lch pha:
A
B
'M
sin 'M
Ymax X max
A
B
arcsin
arcsin
Y
X
max
max
113
Chng 6. o dng in v in p
6.1 o dng in
6.1.1 o dng in 1 chiu bng Ampe mt t in
-Dng c o: Ampe mt t in, c mc ni tip vi mch c dng in cn o
sao cho ti cc dng dng i vo v ti cc m dng i ra khi ampe mt.
-Yu cu: ni tr RA nh m bo ampe mt nh hng rt t n n tr s
dng in cn o
-Ampe mt t in: lch ca kim t l thun vi dng in chy qua cun dy.
- o I ln mc in tr sn vo mch o:
Io max = IA max + IS max
Ta c:
IS max.RS = IA max.RA
I S max
I A max
I
I
RA
S max A max
RS
I A max
I do max
I A max
1
RA
RS
RA RS
RS
;
Hnh 6-1
I do max :h s m rng thang o

I A max
114
RS
RA
n 1
Thay i RS bng cc gi tr khc nhau cc thang o khc nhau

V d
Ampe mt nhiu thang o
-Thay i v tr CM ( B, C, D) o c cc dng c tr s khc nhau
Ch : s dng cng tc ng ri ct dng c khng b mt sn trnh
dng qua
qu ln gy hng
Hnh 6-2
115
-Sn Ayrton: bo v cun dy ca
khi b dng qu ln khi CM gia cc sn
-Phn tch:
CM B: RA // (R1 nt R2 nt R3)
CM C: (RA nt R3) // (R1 nt R2)
CM D: (RA nt R2 nt R3) // R1
Hnh 6-3
116
Sai s do nhit :
-Cun dy trong dng c o TNCVC c qun bng dy ng mnh, v in
tr ca n c th thay i ng k theo nhit
- I chy qua cun dynung nng nRcun dy thay i sai s php o dng
-Khc phc: mc Rb bng Mangan hoc Constantan vi cun dy (Mangan hoc
Constantan c h s in tr ph thuc t0 bng 0)
Hnh 6-4
nu Rb = 9 Rcun dy RA = Rb + Rcun dy = 10Rcun dy th khi Rcun dy thay i

1% s khin cho RA thay i 0,1%
RS cng c lm bng Mangan hoc Constantan trnh s thay i in tr
theo t0
117
6.1.2 o dng in xoay chiu hnh sin
C cu o in t c dng ph bin
m rng gii hn o dng bin p dng in (b bin dng)
B bin dng bin i I cn o c tr s ln sang dng in c tr s nh m c
cu o in t c th lm vic c.
Cun dy W1 mc nt vi mch c dng
in cn o
Cun dy W2 mc vi ampe mt in t
S vng W2 > s vng W1
I do max
I A max
vi n
W2
W1
W2
l h s bin dng
W1
Io = n.IA
Hnh 6-5
118
Ch : dng qua c cu o khng c vt qu IA max
- c cc thang o khc nhau cu to b bin dng vi cun th cp c nhiu
u ra.
Hnh 6-6
119
6.2 o in p
6.2.1 c im & yu cu
- Php o d tin hnh, thc hin nhanh chng, chnh xc cao.
- Khong gi tr in p cn o rng (vi PV-vi trm KV), trong di tn s rng
(vi % Hz hng nghn MHz), v di nhiu dng tn hiu in p khc nhau
- Thit b o in p phi c Zvo ln
* Cc tr s in p cn o
- tr s nh (Um), tr s hiu dng(Uhd, U),, tr s trung bnh(Utb, U0)
T
1 2
u t dt
T
in p c chu k dng khng sin:
U 02
U12
U 22
...
U k2
k 0
120
U0
1
T
u t dt
Quan h gia Um, U, U0 :

Um
kb
U
kd
U
U0
kb : h s bin ca tn hiu in p; kd : h s dng ca tn hiu in p

VD:
h(6-7a) l in p hnh sin:
Um
kb
2.U ;
1, 41;
U0
0,9U
kd
1,11
Hnh 6-7a
121
h(6-7b) l in p xung rng ca:
u t
U0
kb
Um
t U
T
1 U m2 2
t dt
T T2
0
Um
3
Um
2
1, 73; kd
1,15
Hnh 6-7b
122
h(6-7c) l in p xung vung gc:
u t
U
d
t
d
:
0
m
U : T d t d T
m 2
U = Um v U0 = Um kb = kd = 1
Hnh 6-7c
123
6.2.2 o in p 1 chiu
(a) Dng vn mt t in:
- Dng c o: Vn mt t in, c mc // vi mch c in p cn o sao cho

cc dng ca Vn mt ni vi im c in th cao v cc m ca Vn mt
ni vi im c in th thp hn.
- Yu cu: in tr vo ca vn mt RV ln m bo vn mt nh hng rt t
n n tr s in p cn o
- o in p ln mc in tr ph vo mch o:
Uo max = IV(Rp + RV)
U do max
U V max
U do max
U V max
RP RV
RV
1
RP
RV
Hnh 6-8
n ;
n : h s m rng thang o
124
RP
n 1RV
VD
* Vn mt nhiu thang o
- c cu to t mt dng c o lch, mt s in tr ph v mt cng
tc xoay
- 2 mch vn k nhiu khong o thng dng:
(H6-9a) 1 thi im ch c 1 trong 3 in tr ph c mc ni tip vi my
o. Khong o ca vn k: Uo = IV (RV + RP)
RP c th l RP1, RP2, RP3
Hnh 6-9a
125
Hnh 6-9b
B
A
(H6-9b) cc in tr ph c mc ni tip v mi ch ni c ni vi mt
trong cc u ra ca cng tc
Khong o ca vn k: Uo = IV (RV + RP)
RP c th l RP1, RP1+RP2, RP1+RP2+RP3
VD
* nhy ca vn mt
-l t s gia in tr ton phn v ch s in p ton thang ca vn mt
n v: :/V, nhy cng ln th vn mt cng chnh xc
VD: mt vn mt c: Rtp = RV + RP= 1M:, dng c o 100V trn ton thang
nhy ca vn mt: ?1M:/100V = 10k:/V
126
(b) Dng vn mt s
S khi n gin:
Hnh 6-10
* b lc tn thp cho Uo khng cn thnh phn sng hi

* b phn p: thay i thang o
* b chuyn i phn cc in p: thay i cc tnh ca Uo
+ B bin i in p - khong thi gian: bin i tr s Uo ra khong thi gian
't iu khin cng ng m
+ Cng: bin i khong thi gian 't thnh cng
+ T.B.V gm:
127
+ B to xung m: to ra cc xung m c tn s nht nh a ti Cng.
Ch cc xung m xut hin trong khong thi gian 't ng vi cng m mi
thng qua c cng ti b m xung
+ B m xung: m cc xung trong khong thi gian 't
+ Thit b hin th s: chuyn i t s xung m c thnh ch s hin th
- S khi chi tit:
C
CM
in t
Ux
Mch
vo
To xung
m chun
+ -
+
-
Uss
So
snh
Trigger
R
Uch
UT
Kho
B m
U0 xung
Nx
Ngun
in p
mu
E0
K1
K2
B iu khin
xung
xo
Gii m
v
ch th
xung
cht
K2
Hnh 6-11 S khi Vnmt s thi gian xung

128
b/ Nguyn l lm vic:
- Khi cha o, kho S h (khng v tr np hoc phng).
- Qu trnh bin i c thc hin theo 2 bc tch phn sau:
+ Bc 1: Ti t1, b iu khin a ra xung iu khin K1 a kho S v v tr
n, in p Ux qua mch vo qua R np cho C UC tng.
+ Bc 2: n thi im t2, b iu khin a ra xung iu khin K2 a S v
v tr p v kt thc qu trnh np, C s phng in qua ngun in p mu (ngun
in p khng i, 1 chiu E0), UC gim n thi im t3 UC= 0, b so snh
a ra xung so snh USS.
Xung K2 v xung USS s c a vo u vo thit lp (S) v xo (R) ca
Trigger u ra ca Trigger l xung vung c rng Tx, xung ny s iu
khin ng m kho cho php xung m chun qua kho kch thch cho b
m xung.
Gi s trong thi gian Tx c Nx xung qua kho, s xung Nx c a qua mch
gii m v ch th biu th kt qu UDC cn o.
129
* Xc nh Ux=f(Nx):
-Qu trnh C np:
Un
1 2
U c (t1 )
K v .U x .dt
RC t1
Kv: h s truyn t ca mch vo.

Gi s trong thi gian bin i, Ux=const:
Un
0
vi T1 = t2-t1
- Qu trnh C phng:
1
.K v .U x (t 2 t1 )
RC
K v .U x .T1
RC
1 3
U c (t 3 ) U c (t 2 )
E 0 .dt
RC t2
1
.E 0 (t 3 t 2 )
RC
K v .U x .T1
1
U c (t 3 )

.E 0 .Tx
RC
RC
Un
vi Tx=t3-t2
130
K v .U x .T1
N x .Tch
E0
Tch : chu k ca xung m chun.
U c (t 3 )
oUx
o S0
0 o Tx
Tch .E 0
.N x
K v .T1
Tch .E 0
K v .T1
(thng chn
oUx
S 0 .N x
K1
Uss
K2
C np
t1
t2
t1
Uc
Un
const
S0=10k
Uk
T1
C phng
t2
t
t3
t
vi k=0, 1,)
10 k .N x
UT
Tx
t
Uch
c/ Gin thi gian: hnh 6-12
t
U
t
Nx xung
Hnh 6-12
131
d/ nh gi sai s:
- Sai s Tch, Kv, E0, T1.
- Sai s lng t (do xp x Tx vi Nx).
- Sai s do tr ca cc Trigger.
- Sai s do nhiu tc ng t u vo. Tuy nhin, vi phng php tch phn 2
ln, c th loi tr hon ton nhiu chu k nu chn T1= n.Tnh vi Tnh l chu k
nhiu.
132
6.2.3 o in p xoay chiu
S khi ca vn mt o in p xoay chiu c tr s ln
Thit b
vo
Tch
sng
K dng
1 chiu
Thit b ch
th kim
S khi ca vn mt o in p xoay chiu c tr s nh

K in p
xoay chiu
Thit b
vo
Tch
sng
Thit b ch
th kim
Thit b vo: gm cc phn t bin i in p o u vo nh b phn p,

mch tng tr khng vo... vi mc ch l ghp Uo mt cch thch hp vi
mch o l vn mt.
B tch sng: bin i in p xoay chiu thnh dng in hay in p 1 chiu.
133
Cc loi mch tch sng:
a) Tch sng nh (bin )
- L tch sng m Ura trc tip tng ng vi tr s bin ca Uvo. Phn t
gim gi li tr s bin ca Uo l t in. T in c np ti gi tr nh ca
Uo thng qua phn t tch sng.
- Mch c th dng diode hoc Transistor. y ta dng mch tch sng nh
dng diode.
+mch tch sng nh c u vo m:
U x t U m sin Zt
D
UX(t)
Cnp
C
UX
In
Ip
Rt
Um
Cphng
UC=Um
t
-Um
Hnh 6-13
134
Nguyn l lm vic:
- Trong na chu k (+) u tin, D thng, C c np in nhanh qua tr
R thng vi hng s np Wn=R thng.C v UC tng n khi UC Ux(t). Lc ny
D tt v t C s phng in qua Rt vi hng s phng Wp=Rt.C
-Khi UC gim n khi UC < Ux(t) th t li c np.
Nu chn Wn<< Wp th sau vi chu k UC c gi tr khng i v xp x Um
Nhn xt: - di tn rng
- nu in p o c c thnh phn 1 chiu th in p ng h
o c URt=U0+Um
135
+ Mch tch sng nh c u vo ng
U x t U 0 U m sin Zt
Nguyn l lm vic:
Cho in p vo hnh sin, trong 1/2 na chu k
(+) u tin D thng, C c np in vi hng
s np W n=RD thng . C v UC tng n khi UC >
UX(t). Lc ny D tt v t C s phng in qua
Rt vi hng s phng Wp=Rt.C ; v UC gim n
khi UC < UX(t) t li c np.
Nu chn Wn<< Wp :
C.RD th<<RtC
RD th<< Rt
Th sau 1 s chu k t/hiu t C s c np
UC# U0+Um.
URt Ux| UC U0 Um sinZt U0 Um Um sinZt 1
Zt
Zt
3S
2kS , k 1,2,... URt 2Um
2
S
2
2kS , k 1,2,... URt 0
C
UX
UC
UD
Rt
UX(t)
U0
t
-Um
-Um
-2Um
t
Hnh 6-14
136
b) Mch tch sng trung bnh:
C nhim v bin i in p xoay chiu thnh in p 1 chiu c gi tr trung
bnh t l vi tr s in p trung bnh ca in p vo.
Thng dng cc mch chnh lu c chu k hoc na chu k.
+ Mch chnh lu na chu k:
D1 l chnh lu na chu k. D2 l ngn khng in
p ngc qu ln nh thng D1 t ln Vn k v
lm cho in tr trong mch tch sng ng u trong
c chu k.
Chn Rt>> RD1thun
Rt+ RD1th=R2+RD2th
Rt
Kiu mc 1 diode
Rt
D1
URt
Um
D2
Utb=Um/S
R2
Kiu mc 2 diode //
Hnh 6-15
137
+Chnh lu c chu k:
Ux AC
D1
URV
D2
Um
Utb=2Um/S
D4
V
D3
t
0
Hnh 6-16
c) Mch tch sng hiu dng

Nhim v: Bin i in p xoay chiu thnh 1 chiu c gi tr t l vi gi tr
hiu dng ca in p xoay chiu.
UX AC
Tch sng
hiu dng
UR DC=k.UXhd
138
tch sng hiu dng cn phi nhng bc sau:
+Bnh phng in p: dng mch bnh phng in p hoc dng mch c c
tuyn Vn-Ampe bc 2 (i=S0UX2)
+Ly tch phn, v dng cc mch khai cn hoc dng phng php khc
thang o.
t T
1 0
U x2 t dt
T
t0
U hd
Ta xt mch tch sng hiu dng dng cc mch c c tuyn Vn-Ampe bc 2:

tng kh nng o in p hiu dng xy dng cc mch c c tuyn VnAmpe bc 2 bng cch xp x c tuyn thnh nhng on tuyn tnh lin tip
nhau.
Gi s xy dng mch c c tuyn xp x thnh 4 on nh hnh v (0yU1),
(U1yU2), (U2yU3), (U3yf).
139
4 on tng ng vi cc khu diode mc lin tip vi nhau nh s :
En
D1
R1
R2
D3
D2
R3
U3
UX
R0
iD0
iD1
R2
R1
U1
iD2
U2 i
D3
R3
0
mA
iA
Hnh 6-17
-Diode Di c phn cc bi cp in tr Ri v Ri im lm vic ca chng

l Ui (i=1, 2, 3)
-Tnh ton mch nh sau:
Gi s cn xp x c tuyn: i=S0U2
140
Voi 0 Ux d U1 : D1 , D2 , D3 tat
Ux
R0
o R0 ?
Ux
Ux U1 o iA i1 S0 U12
R 0
Voi U1 Ux d U2 : D1 thong, D2 , D3 tat
iA
iD0
iA
S0U22
1
1
iA iD0 iD1 Ux

R 0 R 1 o R1 ?
Ux U2 o iA i2 S0 U22
S0U12
iD0 iD1 iD2 ` o R 2
UX
iD0
'iA
Tuong tu voi U2 Ux d U3 : D1 , D2 thong, D3 tat

iA
iD0+
iD1
S0U32
iD0+
iD1+
iD2
iD0+
iD1+
iD2+
iD3
UX
voi U3 U x : D1 , D2 , D3 thong
iA
iD0 iD1 iD2 iD3
Hnh 6-18
1
1
1
1
Ux

o R3
R 0 R1 R 2 R 3
En.R i
Ui
Ri Ri '
Biet R i o Tinh duoc R i '

141
Chng 7. o cng sut

7.1 Khi nim
Cng sut: nng lng in t trng tiu th trn ti trong mt n v thi gian.
Mch in mt chiu: P = U.I
Mch in xoay chiu: p = u.i
Mch in c dng iu ho:
1
T
pdt
U .I .cosM : CS thc hin
CS phn khng: Q = U.I sinM
R
Z
cos M
; Z
R2 X 2
Mch in hot ng ch xung CS xung (Pxung): l tr s CS trung bnh

trong khong t/g c xung (W)
T
Pxung
1
uidt
W 0
Ptb
1
uidt
T 0
Ptb
Pxung
W
T
142
Chng 7. o cng sut

- Lng trnh o CS: 10-6 W y 107 W
- n v o CS: ot (W)
- n v o CS tng i: dBW, dBmW: dng so snh cc mc CS cc v
tr khc nhau.
D 10 lg
P
P1
D : CS tng i; P: tr s CS W(mW) ti mt v tr no ;
P1: tr s CS ban u (1W hoc 1mW)
7.2 Cc phng php o cng sut

c im o CS tn s cao:
- Bin i CS v i lng trung gian ri o i lng
- Sai s ca php o ph thuc vo s phi hp tr khng gia ngun pht v
ph ti, ph thuc vo tn s v cc tc ng ca mi trng.
Cc phng php o CS tn s cao:
-o CS dng chuyn i Hall (dng cho c t/s thp v t/s cao)
-o CS bng cch o in p trn ti thun tr
-o CS bng in tr nhit
143
Chng 7. o cng sut

o CS tn s thp: dng phng php nhn
Phng tin o cng sut: ot mt, gm ot mt o CS hp th v ot mt o
CS truyn thng.
- Ot mt o CS hp th: l phng tin o CS tiu tn trn ti phi hp ca
chnh phng tin o (hnh 7-1). N hp th ton b CS ca ngun pht khi
ngun pht khng mc ti ngoi
- Ot mt o CS truyn thng: l phng tin o CS truyn theo ng truyn
ti ti (hnh 7-2). N ch hp th mt phn nng lng ca ngun pht cn
phn ln nng lng truyn ti ti ring ca n.
Ti hp
th
Ot mt
Ti
thc
P
Ot mt
Bin i
nng lng
Hnh 7-1
Thit b
ch th
Bin i
nng lng
Thit b
ch th
Hnh 7-2
144
Chng 7. o cng sut

7.2.1. Phng php nhn:
- Khi dng in l iu ho th CS tc dng cn o trn ti: P UI cos M
-o CS trn ti c th thc hin trc tip bng cch dng 1 thit b nhn
nhn in p v dng in trn ti.
-S khi:
(x1+x2)2
4x1x2
x
+
x
x1
1
2
B bnh
B
ng h
B
x2
x1
x2
B o
cc
-x2
phng
tng
B
tng
x1-x2
B bnh
phng
t in
tng
-(x1-x2)2
(x1-x2)2
B o
cc
Hnh 7-3
x1 x2
>
1
x1 x2 2 x1 x2 2
4
x1 U sin Zt , x2
I sin Zt M
145
Chng 7. o cng sut

4 x1 x2
4UI sin Zt sin Zt M

2UI cos M 2UI cos2Zt M
- in p c o bng mt ng h t in mc song song vi 1 t in. Ch

s ca ng h l thnh phn 1 chiu: 2UIcosM, l CS cn o trn ti.
- Phn t c c tuyn bc 2: ly phn u ca c tuyn V-A ca it hoc
transistor. (yu cu n phi c c tuyn ng nht).
- Sai s: r (5-10)%
7.2.2. o CS dng chuyn i Hall:
- Chuyn i Hall c cu to bng
bn mng cht bn dn n tinh th
(Si hoc Ge) vi 2 cp cc t vung
gc vi nhau v nm trn cc thnh
hp ca bn tinh th (Hnh 7-4).
Hnh 7-4
146
Chng 7. o cng sut

-cp cc dng D c cp I mt chiu hoc xoay chiu, cp cc p A cho ra
in p t l vi tch ca I v t cm tc ng vung gc ln b mt ca tinh th.
-Sc in ng Hall:
eH = KH.B.i
(*)
KH: h s chuyn i, ph thuc vo vt liu, kch thc, hnh dng ca tm bn
dn v nhit mi trng.
-Nu B ~ Ut; i ~ It
eH = KH.KI.Ut.It
KI : h s t l
mch in 1 chiu, sc in ng Hall :
eH = KH.KI.Pt
mch in xoay chiu hnh sin, sc in ng Hall:
eH = KH.KI.Um.Im.sin(Zt).sin(Zt - M)
= KH.KI.U.I.cos M - KH.KI.U.I.cos(2Zt - M)
Nu mc vo 2 cc p 1 dng c t in th ch s ca dng c t l vi Ptb
trong mch dng xoay chiu thang o ca dng c c th c khc trc
tip theo n v CS.
147
Chng 7. o cng sut

T (*) mun eH tng th hoc i tng, hoc B tng; thng tng B v i tng
tng nhit ca bn dn (t dng)
tng B cn nh hng v gn chuyn i Hall v tr thch hp trong ng
sng v cp ng trc, hoc s dng mi trng c t thm cao.
u im:
- Khng c sai s do mt phi hp tr khng.
- Qun tnh nh
- Di tn rng
- Cu trc n gin
Nhc im:
- eH ph thuc mnh vo nhit
148
Chng 7. o cng sut

7.2.3 o CS bng pp o in p trn ti thun tr:
- Phng php o cng sut bng cch o in p trn ti thun tr l c s
ch to ot-mt o cng sut hp th ca ngun pht vi 1 ti mu thun tr.
Ti mu l 1 in tr b mt hoc dng khi c cu trc c bit.
Cu to: phn in tr c dng hnh tr li
bng gm, trn ph lp than ch c bit; mn
chn phi hp nm dc theo theo chiu di ca
phn in tr, c ng knh bin thin theo
hm m.
Vi kt cu nh vy sng in t lan truyn t
ngun pht ti khng b mo, ti l thun tr
phi hp tr khng tt vi ngun pht.
phi hp tr khng, in tr b mt ton
phn Rt theo dng 1 chiu phi bng tr khng
sng U ca cp ng trc vi mc ch
mn chn phi hp
Ti
cp
ng
trc
vi tr
khng
sng U
U=Rt
Rt
Rt
Ot mt
Vn mt
t
Hnh 7-5
149
Chng 7. o cng sut

gim vic mt phi hp tr khng khi mch vo ca Vn mt mc song
song vi ti.
m rng phm vi o cng sut, Vn mt ch o mt phn in p trn ti.
m rng di tn ta thng dng Vn-mt in t loi tch sng bin c
u vo m.
Khi c phi hp tr khng cng sut tiu th trn ti c xc nh thng qua
gi tr bin Um v gi tr hiu dng U ca in p ri trn ti Rt
U2
Rt
U m2
2 Rt
Cng sut trn ti Rt thng qua gi tr in p Um m vn mt o c bng:
Rt
U m' 2
'2
2 Rt
- Vn mt c khc thang o theo n v cng sut.
Sai s: sai s do lch phi hp tr khng; sai s ca Rt ; sai s ca Vn mt.
Sai s tng d 20% cng sut o.
Ot mt loi ny o c CS n hng chc nghn W di tn n vi GHz
P
150
Chng 7. o cng sut

7.2.4 o cng sut dng in tr nhit
Ot mt dng in tr nhit c xy dng trn c s mch cu in tr, 1
trong nhng nhnh ca chng mc in tr nhit. Thng dng o CS nh
t hng chc mW (t/s hng chc GHz).
a/ Cu to ca in tr nhit:
* Cu to ca Blmt: l 1 si dy in tr rt mnh lm bng bch kim hay
vnfram, c t trong bnh thu tinh (hnh 7-6).
+ Trong bnh c cha kh tr hay c chn khng
cao gim s truyn nhit ra mi trng v tng
tc t nng dy in tr.
+ Chiu di ca si dy in tr phi tho mn k:
l
O min
8
, s phn b dn in trn si dy
Hnh 7-6
c ng u; Omin : di cc tiu ca bc sng

in t ca ngun cng sut cn o.
151
Chng 7. o cng sut

+ Quan h gia in tr ca Blmt v cng sut cn o (hnh 7-7):
Rb = R0 + aPb
R0 :in tr ca Blmt khi P = 0;
a,b : h s t l, ph thuc kch thc, vt liu ca blmt
+ Di in tr ca blmt: hng chc n vi trm m vi nhy
(3y12):/mW
Hnh 7-7
152
Chng 7. o cng sut

* Cu to ca Tesmitor: l in tr cn bng bn dn c h s nhit m .
+ Hai dy bch kim hoc iridian c ng knh (20
y 30) Pm ni vi nhau ti ht cu lm bng bn
dn, tt c c t trong bnh thu tinh.
+ in tr ca Tesmitor khong (100 y 3000) : .
+ Quan h gia in tr ca Tesmitor v cng sut
cn o (hnh 7-9)
Hnh 7-8
* So snh gia blmt v tesmitor:

+ Blmt c u im l d ch to, c tnh t ph
thuc nhit mi trng; nhc im: d b qu
ti, kch thc ln nn hn ch s dng on
sng cm, Zvo nh nn kh thc hin phi hp tr
khng vi ng truyn.
+ Tesmitor c u im l nhy cao, t b qu ti,
tr s R ln, tr s L,C bn thn nh, kch thc
nh, bn cao; nhc im: kh ch to, c tnh
ph thuc t0 mi trng.
Hnh 7-9
153
Chng 7. o cng sut

b/Otmt dng in tr nhit
* Otmt xy dng trn mch cu n khng cn bng:
Px
+ Otmt c nui bng ngun in p 1 chiu vi chit

p Rc dng iu chnh dng qua cc nhnh cu, vi
PA ch dng mt cn bng trong nhnh ch th.
+ 1 nhnh cu ta mc in tr nhit, trc khi o cn
thay i in tr Tesmitor bng nhit nng ca dng in
qua chuyn i (/chnh chit p Rc) cu cn bng.
Lc ny MicroAmpemet ch "0".
+ Khi c ngun cng sut cao tn tc ng ln RT lm cho
n gim tr mt cn bng cu xut hin dng in
qua PA vi thang o khc trc tip theo cng sut.
+ Sai s: khong 10%, ph thuc ch yu vo s thay i
nhit mi trng, s khng phi hp tr khng ca
Otmt vi ng truyn v sai s ca thit b ch th.
R1
RT
PA
R2
R3
Rc
Ngun
in p 1
chiu
Hnh 7-10
154
Chng 7. o cng sut

* Otmt xy dng trn mch cu n cn bng:
+ PA ch th cn bng cu, mA cho bit tr s ca cng sut.
RT mc vo 1 nhnh cu, chn R1=R2= R3=RT~Px= 0 = R.
+ Khi cha c ngun CS t/ng ln RT, tng t nh TH
trn ta iu chnh dng in trong mch thay i RT v
thit lp cn bng cu. thi im cu cn bng, PA ch
"0", cn mA ch dng in I0 .
+ Khi c ngun CS t/ng ln RT lm cho RTp, cu mt cn
bng. cu cn bng ta phi tng /tr bng cch p dng
in trong mch. thi im cn bng mA ch I 0' .
+ Qua hai bc /chnh cn bng cu, RT ca Tesmitor
khng i nn CS tiu th trn Tesmitor trong 2 bc nh
nhau do :
Pt
I 02 RT
4
I 0'2 RT
Px Px
4
RT 2
I 0 I 0'2
4
Px
R1
RT
PA
R2
R3
mA
Rc
Ngun
in p 1
chiu
Hnh 7-11

155
Chng 7. o cng sut

+ u im: m bo c s phi hp tr khng v RT ca Tesmitor khng
thay i di tc ng ca cng sut Px cc thi im cn bng cu. Tuy
nhin thang o ca mA khng khc trc tip theo cng sut v dng I0 lun
thay i theo nhit mi trng khi Px = 0.
156
Chng 8. o cc tham s iu ch & c tnh ph ca t/hiu

8.1 Phn tch ph ca tn hiu
-C th dng MHS quan st v nghin cu ph ca tn hiu. Dao ng c
c l theo quan h ph thuc gia bin cc thnh phn sng hi ca tn
hiu theo tn s.
-Khi trc X ca MHS l trc thang tn s, cn trc Y l trc thang bin
.
- v th ph bin -tn s ca dao ng tn hiu, o tn s v t s bin
cc phn lng ring bit ca ph o dng my phn tch ph
-Da vo cc th ph ta c th phn tch c tnh v o lng c cc thng
s ca tn hiu
U
VD:
+ o c h s iu ch bin thng
qua th ph ca dao ng iu bin
mU 0
2
f0 -F
mU 0
2
f0
f0 +F
Hnh 8-1: Ph ca dao ng iu bin

157

* Nguyn l ca thit b phn tch ph: da trn c s dng hin tng cng
hng chn lc tn s.
+ i vi cc mch cng hng c di thng tn hp (h s phm cht Q cao)
th bin ca dao ng cng bc s l cc i nu tn s tc ng trng
hp vi tn s bn thn (tn s cng hng) ca mch cng hng v bin
l rt nh khi c lch cng hng.
+ Do , mch cng hng c tc dng nh mt b lc, b lc ny c kh nng
tch ring c cc phn lng sng hi khc ca tn hiu vi phn lng
sng hi c tn s trng vi tn s bn thn ca mch (tn s cng hng).
* My phn tch ph c 2 loi:
+ Loi phn tch song song
+ Loi phn tch ni tip
8.1.1 My phn tch ph theo phng php p/tch song song
Gi s c mt h thng b lc di hp c sp xp lin tip k st nhau theo
thang tn s trong di tn t fminyfmax. Mi ng cong cng hng ca b lc
c biu th n gin bng mt hnh CN, di thng tn ca b lc l 'f (hnh
8-2.a). Trong di tn ca thit b phn tch c n b lc.
158

n
f max f min
'f
-Nu tn hiu c phn tch c ph nm trong di tn s cng tc ca b lc

trn (hnh 8-2.b) th khi c tn hiu vo, mi b lc s c tc ng i vi
ring tng thnh phn ph m tn s ca thnh phn ph ny tng ng vi tn
s ca bn thn b lc.
-in p u ra ca mi b lc s t l vi bin ca thnh phn ph tng
ng. Cc in p ny c o bi cc Vn mt (hnh 8-2.c)
-Tr s ch th ca cc vn mt v tn s cng hng ca mi b lc cu to
c th ph ca tn hiu in p nghin cu.
Hnh 8-2
159

8.1.2. My phn tch ph theo phng php p/tch ni tip
-Ch c mt b cng hng.
-B cng hng ny c th iu chnh c tng ng vi tng tn s mt
trong di tn s phn tch t fminyfmax.
1. S khi: gm 1 b lc di hp iu chnh c v mt MHS
2. Nguyn l hot ng:
+in p t b To in p qut rng ca c a ti cp phin lm lch X
ca ng tia in t, ng thi c a ti b To sng iu tn iu ch tn
s b ch sng ca n.
Hnh 8-3 My phn tch ph ni tip
160

+Ti b Bin tn c hai tn hiu c a ti l tn hiu cn nghin cu ph v
in p ca b To sng iu tn. y tn s ca b To sng iu tn ngoi
sai cng vi mt trong cc thnh phn sng hi ca tn hiu s to ra mt tn s
mi bng hiu ca 2 tn s trn.
+Khi tn s hiu ny bng tn s cng hng ca b Khuch i trung tn th
phn lng in p c tn s c khuch i, sau c tch sng ri li
c khuch i bng b Khuch i tn thp trc khi a ti cp phin lm
lch Y ca ng tia in t.
+Tia in t b lch i so vi ng nm ngang (v tr ban u) mt tr s t l
vi tr s trung bnh ca in p tn hiu nghin cu trong di thng tn 'f.
+Mi khi tr s tc thi ca tn s b To sng iu tn bin i to nn mt tn
s hiu bng trung tn vi ln lt 2 thnh phn sng hi k tip nhau ca tn
hiu th ng thi tia in t c dch chuyn theo trc ngang v trn mn li
xut hin mt vch sng khc theo trc dc.
+Bin ca cc vch ny tng ng vi in p (hay cng sut) ca cc phn
lng thnh phn ca ph.
+Sau mt chu k qut, ton b cc vch ph ca tn hiu nghin cu c v
trn mn MHS.
161

VD: tn hiu phn tch ph l mt xung vung bin
i c chu k v c h s W/T ln (hnh 8-4.a)
-Mi thnh phn ph c biu th bng 1 vch sng
trn mn hnh. Khong cch gia 2 vch trn thang
tn s bng tn s lp li ca xung tn hiu F = 1/T.
-Yu cu: b To sng iu tn phi c tn s trung
tm n nh. Nu khng n nh s lm dch chuyn
tt c cc ph theo trc tn s (khi tn s bin i t
t) hoc l lm dch chuyn tng thnh phn ring
bit ca ph (khi tn s bin i nhanh) o kh quan
st & lm gim chnh xc khi o lng cc thng
s ph
Hnh 8-5
Hnh 8-4
162

-c tuyn iu ch ca b to dao ng
iu tn phi thng (hnh 8-6)
-Khi c tuyn thng th ph c hnh dng
nh hnh 8-7(a), nu khng thng th thang
tn s s khc nhau theo ng qut
ngang & ph s b mo dng theo chiu
ngang ,hnh 8-7(b).
Hnh 8-6
Hnh 8-7
163

-B to in p qut: to ng qut ngang trn ng tia in t v iu ch
tn s.
-B pht sng iu tn: c tc bin i tn s sao cho in p tn hiu tng
ti c mc in p cc i trong khong thi gian ng vi di thng tn ca
b khuch i trung tn (KTT).
-Cc thng s ca khi KTT: di thng tn, tn s cng hng, h s K.
Di thng tn: tu thuc vo mc ch, cng dng ca my phn tch ph.
My phn tch ph tn s thp o chn di thng tn sao cho c th phn bit
c r rng 2 thnh phn ph cnh nhau.
Nu my phn tch ph c bng tn rng, v gm nhiu thnh phn o ch cn
v ng bao ca ph.
-Cc xung u ra ca b K c bin t l vi nng lng ca tng b phn
ca ph.
-Chn tn s trung tn sao cho loi b c s cho qua tn hiu tn s nh (gii
php: tng tn s trung tn). Nu khng th trn mn MHS s xut hin ng
thi 2 dng ph: mt ph thc v mt ph nh.
Mu thun gia tng tn s trung tn v gim nh di thng tn o gii php:
dng 2 b bin tn v K trung tn.
164

-Chn h s khuch i da trn yu cu v bin cc tiu ca tn hiu nghin
cu v bin a vo b tch sng.
-o b rng ph bng cch so snh ph cn o vi ph chun.
-Ph chun thng dng l ph ca tn hiu iu tn m tn s iu ch c dng
iu ho.
S khi ca b phn to tn hiu c ph chun:
+B to sng iu ch pht ra in p
hnh sin c tn s 1-10 Mhz a ti
iu ch b to sng chun.
+Tn hiu iu tn t b to sng
chun c a vo b trn tn cng
vi tn hiu nghin cu.
+Trn mn ca MHS xut hin ph
ca tn hiu nghin cu v ph ca tn
hiu iu tn chun. Khong cch gia
cc thnh phn ca ph chun l
bit.
Hnh 8-8 B to tn hiu c ph chun

165

+Bit tn s iu ch v cc s lng cc thnh phn ca ph chun th c th
xc nh c ng cc phn on ca ph cn o.
Tm li, bin i bin in p iu ch o bin i s lng cc thnh phn
ca ph chun. Bin i tn s iu ch o bin i c khong cch gia
cc thnh phn ca ph chun. Do c th o c b rng ca bt k ph
no.
VD:
Hnh 8-9 Cc vch ph khi so snh
(a) Cc thnh phn ca ph cn o

(b) Cc thnh phn ca ph chun
166
Chng 9. o cc tham s ca mch in

-Mt s thng s: R, L, C, Q, gc tn hao tgG.
Cc phng php o tham s mch: phng php Vn-Ampe, phng php so
snh bng mch cu, phng php cng hng, phng php o dng cc thit
b ch th s.
9.1 o tham s mch bng pp vn-ampe:
Theo s hnh 9-1a , gi tr in tr o c l:
Rx'
UV
IA
U Rx U A
IA
Rx R A
RA: in tr trong ca ampe mt
G pp
RA
Rx
: sai s phng php
Hnh 9-1a
167

Theo s hnh 9-1b:
Rx'
UV
IA
G pp
UV
I Rx IV
Rx
Rx
1 R
V
RV: in tr vo ca vn mt
Rx
Rx RV
Sai s: + sai s ca ampe mt

+ sai s ca vn mt
+ sai s phng php
Hnh 9-1b
5%-10%
gim sai s phng php: chn vn mt c RV ln, ampe mt c RA nh, v

chn mch o thch hp.
o R ln: chn ampe mt c nhy cao, v bc kim ampe mt gim nh
hng ca dng r tnh in.
168

9.2 Phng php so snh bng mch cu
Sai s: 1-5%
a. Cu cn bng kiu 4 nhnh: dng o R,L, C,...
-Mi nhnh cu c th l mt hay hn hp cc R, L, C.
-iu kin cn bng cu:
Z1. Z3 = Z2. Z4
M1 + M3 = M2 + M4
Hnh 9-2
Khi cu cn bng: IDC = 0

* Cu tch s:
Rx
R1.R3
Rx jZLx
Rx
R1 R3
R4
Pt cn bng cu:
Gc tn hao ca t in:
1
1
j ZC 4
R4
Lx
R1 R3C4
tgG 1 / ZR4C4
Hnh 9-3
169

* Cu t s:
Pt cn bng cu:
R1 R3
Z
j
C
3
Rx
R1
R3
R2
Gc tn hao ca t in:
R2 Rx
Z
j
C
x
Cx
R2
C3
R1
tgG ZRx C x
ZR3C3
Hnh 9-4
* Sai s:
- do cc Rtn hao trong cc nhnh c cun cm mu, t in mu; hoc do in
khng trong cc nhnh in tr.
-do s thay i tn s ngun nui
-Do in dung k sinh gia cc phn t vi nhau trong mch, gia cc phn t
trong mch vi cc vt xung quanh.
* Khc phc:
- bc kim cc phn t trong mch
- gim mo phi tuyn ca tn s ngun nui.
170

b. Cu ch T cn bng:
Gm hai M4C ch T mc song song.
Dng in u ra M4C th nht: I1 (ngn mch u ra)
I1
Z td 1
U
Z1.Z 2

Z1 Z 2
Z 3
Z1.Z 2

Z1 Z 2
Z
U
Z td 1
I2
Za
I1
Z3
Dng in u ra M4C th hai: I2
I2
Z td 2
U
Z a .Z c

Za Zc
Z b
Z a .Z c

Za Zc
Z
Zb
U
Z td 2
Hnh 9-5
171

Cu cn bng khi: I
Z td 1.Z td 2
Z td 1 Z td 2
I1 I2
f Z td 1 Z td 2
0
C1: t mu
VD: Mch cu ch T dng o L

iu kin cn bng:
R
2
1
1
2 2
jZC1 0
jZC Z C rx jZLx
rx
r
4 2 2
x
Z Lx C 1 2
Z Lx
1
2 C1
rx2
2
Z Lx C 1 2
Z Lx
rx
(*)
Hnh 9-6
172
Chng 9. o cc thng s ca mch in

Khi tn s cao,cho
T (*),(**) ta c:
Khi C1<<C:
rx2 Z2 Lx
(**)
|
L
x
Z 2 2C C1
RC 2
r |
x 2C C1 2
|
L
x 2Z2C
r | R
x 4
c im: c th dng o L cao tn ti f = 30MHz

u im: gia ngun CC, ng h ch th, tr khng cn o c 1 im chung ni
t bc kim n gin hn, tn on cao hn
Nhc im: gii hn o b hn ch theo tr s ca vt mu
173

9.3 Phng php mch cng hng
Nguyn l: da trn hiu ng cng hng ca mch dao ng.
c im: chnh xc cao, sai s: 2-5%
Nguyn nhn sai s:
+ xc nh khng chnh xc v tr im cng hng ca mch in
+ tn s b to dao ng khng n nh
+ nh hng ca cc thng s in khng tp tn trong mch o
9.3.1 o in dung (C)
- Lm, Cx to thnh khung dao ng.
- H cm gia cun cm Lm v cun
cm thuc b dao ng phi rt nh.
- Mch cng hng tn s:
1
f0
2S LmC x
Hnh 9-7
174

Cx
1
4S 2 f 02 Lm
- Sai s ph thuc vo:

+ chnh xc ca vic xc lp im cng hng (do thit b ch th)
+ n nh ca tn s my pht
+ chnh xc ca in cm mu (Lm), ln ca in dung k sinh (Cks)
-Cch loi b Cks: s dng phng php th
* Cx < Cm max :
Mc Cm vo mch, iu chnh tn s
ca b to dao ng c cng hng
Cm1 Cks
Cx
Cks
Hnh 9-8
Gi nguyn tn s , mc in dung cn o Cx // Cm ri iu chnh Cm c

cng hng.
Cm 2 C x Cks
175

Cx
Cm1 Cm 2
khng ph thuc Cks
* Cx >= Cm max :
Thc hin php o 2 ln cng tn s
cng hng v Lm khng i.
Ln 1: CM v tr 1; iu chnh tn s
ca b to dao ng c cng hng
Ln 2: CM v tr 2; iu chnh Cm
c cng hng (f0 khng i)
Cx
Cks
Cm1 Cks
Hnh 9-9
C x Cm 2
Cks
Cm 2 C x
Cm1.Cm 2
Cm 2 Cm1
khng ph thuc Cks
176

9.3.2 o in cm (L)
- Tng t php o in dung, mch cng hng gm in dung mu Cm v
in cm cn o (Lx).
1
Lx
4S 2 f 02Cm
- Cch gim sai s do s khng n nh ca Cm: phng php th
Thc hin 2 ln o, tn s ca b
to dao ng c gi c nh
trong c 2 ln o
Ln 1: ni Lx vo mch, iu
chnh Cm c cng hng (Cm1)
Ln 2: ni Lm vo v tr ca Lx,
iu chnh Cm c cng hng
(Cm2)
Hnh 9-10
177

Nu Cks nh hn Cm1, Cm2 nhiu ln th:
1
Lx Cm1
Z0
Lx
Lm
1
LmCm 2
Cm 2
Cm1
Sai s ca php o:
G Lx
G Lm GCm 2 GCm1
Chn Lm | Lx th G Cm 2 GCm1 | 0 sai s ca php o in cm ph

thuc ch yu vo chnh xc ca Lm
178

9.3.3 o in tr (R)
Phng php thay i in dung:
R2
I
I ch
R ZL
ZC
Khi mch c cng hng:
ZL
Hnh 9-11
1
ZC
1 C1 C2
Z 2C02
C0 : in dung khi c cng hng
C1, C2 l tr s in dung hai pha ca C0 ng vi:
I
I ch
1
2
0,707
179

Phng php thay i tn s:
1
iu kin I
cn c th t c bng cch thay i tn
0,707
I ch
2
s ca b to dao ng. Cc tn s tng ng: Z1 , Z2 , Z0
Z1Z2
Z02
1 Z1 Z2
C 2Z02
Sai s: ph thuc vo mc xc nh chnh

xc hiu s in dung (phng php thay i
in dung), hiu s tn s (phng php thay
i tn s)
Hnh 9-12
180

Phng php dng in tr mu:
B1: ni tt in tr mu R0, iu
chnh tn s ca b dao ng cho
mch cng hng. I1 l dng in
trong mch cng hng.
ec/ng = I1(Rx + RM)
L
Rx
Hnh 9-13
B2: ni R0, iu chnh tn s ca

b dao ng cho mch cng hng. I2 l dng in trong mch cng hng.
ec/ng = I2(Rx + RM + R0)
Sc in ng cm ng trong c 2 ln o l bng nhau, do :
I1(Rx + RM) = I2(Rx + RM + R0)
Rx
I 2 R0
RM
I1 I 2
ch : chn ng h o c RM nh
181

9.3.4 o h s phm cht (Q)
ZL
RL
RL: tr s in tr ca cun dy tn s o
Dng Q mt o h s phm cht ca mch cng hng, ca cun dy, ca t

in,...
S khi cu to ca Q mt:
Lx
B to
dao ng
V1
U1
Rx
U2
V2
Cm
Cx
Hnh 9-14
182

- Qu trnh o c tin hnh nh thay i Cm (hoc tn s b to dao ng)
mch cng hng,
1
Cm
2
Z Lx
- Khi c cng hng vn mt V2 ch gi tr cc i:
U2
U2
Qx
I
ZC m
U1Z Lx
Rx
vi
U1
Rx
U1.Qx
U2
U1
- Gi U1 c nh Thang ca vn mt in t c khc theo tr s Q.

- Ngoi o Q, Q mt cn dng o R, L, C, tgG,...
183

-VD: thay cun cm mu (Lm) vo v tr Lx; chuyn t xoay mu v v tr gi
tr i Cm1, iu chnh tn s mch cng hng. Vn mt V2 ch gi tr Q1.
- Mc Cx // Cm, gim gi tr ca Cm mch c cng hng (Cm2). Vn mt
V2 by gi ch gi tr Q2.
- Tn s b to dao ng c gi c nh trong c 2 ln o, ta c:
Cx = Cm1 Cm2
Qx
Q1Q2
Q1 Q2
tgG x
1
Qx
- Sai s ca Q mt:
+ sai s do tn s ca b to dao ng khng n nh
+ sai s ca ng h o dng in v Vn mt in t
+ sai s khc ca Cm
+ sai s do cc in dung, in cm k sinh ca dy ni
184

9.4 o tham s mch dng phng php hin s
u im: d c, thc hin o nhanh v c chnh xc cao.
My o R,C loi hin s: da trn nguyn l bin i thi gian - xung
DK
DAM
CM
SS
BDX
HTS
2
U0/e
Rx
f0
Cm
TXC
Hnh 9-15
185

Hot ng:
-CM v tr 1; t Cm c np n U0 trc thi im khi ng (t1)
- thi im t1, CM v tr 2; ng thi b iu khin m kho K, qu trnh
m xung bt u. Cm phng in qua Rx v gim dn theo qui lut hm m:

Up
U 0e

tp
U0
e
Rx Cm
U0
tp
Rx Cm
tp
e 1
Rx C m
U0 /e
t 2 t1
Nx: s xung b m m c trong khong thi gian t2-t1
Nx
t 2 t1
T0
Nx
t1
t2
t2 t1 f 0
Rx C m f 0
Thay Rx bng Rm, Cm bng in dung cn o Cx, ta c my o in dung loi

hin s
186

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C S O LNG IN T

Sch tham kho

C s k thut o lng in t, V Qu im, nh xut

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

- VD: o in p bng vn-mt, o tn s bng tn s-mt, o cng sut

- VD: o cng sut bng vn-mt v ampe-mt, o h s sng chy bng

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

Cc phng php o khc:

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

+ Thit b o tng hp v h thng thng tin o lng: l cc phng tin o phc

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

+Phm vi o: l phm vi thang o bao gm nhng gi tr m sai s cho php ca

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

B to sng ch: xc nh cc c tnh ch yu ca tn hiu nh dng v tn s

Chng 1. Gii thiu chung v o lng in t

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

-Sai s tng i qui i: l gi tr tuyt i ca t s gia sai s tuyt i v gi

Xdm= Xmax -Xmin : gi tr nh mc ca thang o

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

n2 ,... l tn sut ( hay tn s xut hin) cc ln o c cc

sai s ngu nhin nm trong khong c gi tr gii hn

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

h  h 2 x12  x22 ... xn2

Sai s TBBP (V):

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Hm phn b tiu chun:

Xc sut xut hin cc sai s c tr s < V :

* Ly V nh gi sai s ca KQ o tin cy cha m bo.

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

5. tin cy v khong tin cy:

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

l khong tin cy, khong ny c xc sut cha ng tr s thc ca i lng

m bo tin cy P =0,997 th ly t=3 ta c:

Quan h gia tin cy P, t, vi n >10 (bng 1)

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Sai s th: sai s |Hi| ca ln quan st no ln hn sai s cc i th l sai

1. Tnh tr s trung bnh cng:

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

3. Tnh sai s TBBP:

4. Kim tra xem c sai s th?

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

* Cch vit hng ch s ca KQ o:

Bng 1 Gi tr t theo gi tr xc sut cho trc

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Chng 2. nh gi sai s o lng

Wdt : ph thuc vo in p, dng in t vo cun dy.

Phn ng: gm 1 khung dy nh (4) c th

nh v kim ng im `0` khi cha o th mt u ca l xo phn

Dng in trong cun dy ca c cu TNCVC phi chy theo mt chiu

B.N .S .dD : bin thin ca t thng qua khung dy

Thang o tuyn tnh c th khc thang o ca dng in I theo gc

Dng ton thang (Itt) rt nh (c PA)

chnh xc cao, c th to ra cc thang o c cp chnh xc ti 0,5%

h h 2 x12 x22 ... xn2

Minh ha 3 Tth Tq1 Tth :