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Cisco Learning World

CCIE R&S , Security, Voice..
CCNP,CCSP,CCVP,CCIP,CCDP
CCNA CCDA
CCENT
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Created by R.D.Ray
Cisco Certified Network Associate
ICND 1 640-822 - Interconnecting Cisco Networking Devices Part 1

ICND 2 640-816 - Interconnecting Cisco Networking Devices Part 2
COMPOSITE EXAM FOR CCNA 640-802
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CCNA EXAM
Exam Number - 640-802

Questions - 50-55
Duration 90 Minutes
Total Marks - 1000
Passing score 849
Multiple Choice
Simulations
Drag and Drop
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CCNA TOPICS
NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS
OSI LAYERS
TCP / IP LAYER
DATA ENCAPSULATION
IP ADDRESSING & SUBNETTING
ROUTER CONFIGURATION & USER-INTERFACE
MANAGING A CISCO INTERNETWORK
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
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CCNA TOPICS
Contd..
MANAGING CISCO DEVICES

ACCESS CONTROL LIST
NAT/PAT/DHCP
LAN SWICHING
STP
ETHERCHANNEL
VLAN
VTP
INTER-VLAN ROUTING
SWITCH SECURITY
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CCNA TOPICS
Contd..
WAN
TYPES OF CONNECTION
IPV6
SDM /SSH
WIRELESS
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About Network:A network is a connection between more than one device over
dedicated connections.
For configuring a network certain network
components are required. The network components are :-
1.
2.
3.
Network Model
Design and Topology
Devices
Network Model:Network Model tells about the distance and the structure of a
network. There are 3 core network models
1. LAN (Local Area Network)

2. MAN (Metro-Politan Area Network)
3. WAN (Wide Area Network)
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Local Area Network (LAN):As the name suggest Local means it is confined to a small area ..
For example a office, home , building, etc. The maximum distance it can
cover is 200 meter . In LAN you can not have more than one type of cable
media. Either co-axial or twisted pair. Other wise speed mismatch will
happen.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):As the name suggest Metropolitan .. It operates within a city limit
and can have different types of cable media. The maximum distance it can
cover is 100 km.
Wide Area Network (WAN):-
As the name suggest it covers the entire geographical area. A WAN

consists of multiple LANs, MANs. It is divided into 2 parts.
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Global WAN:No security . Example Internet

Enterprise WAN:Secured organization based
Design:tells about the structure of the network. There are 2 designs --1.
Server Client
2.
Peet-to-Peer
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Server Client
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Centralized administration
Highly secured
Authentication, password permission, user creation are all done on the
Server
Client request for the services from the server
Found in organizations
SWITCH/HUB
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Peer-to-Peer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Connection between more than one device

No centralized administration
Individual administration
Used at home
Used for file sharing
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Topology
Tells about the physical placement of the devices in a network.
There are 5 types of topologies available :1.
BUS
2.
STAR
3.
RING
4.
MESH
5.
CELLULAR/WIRELESS
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BUS Topology
Trunk Link
T Connector
Terminator
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In a bus topology all the devices are connected to single line of cable called as
backbone or a trunk
This link is called as back bone as all the devices depend on this link. If this link fails
entire network goes down
Devices are attached to this link through T connectors or drop cables
Both the ends of this link are closed down with Terminators
Terminators are used to remove unwanted data from the link
Data passes bi-directionally over the link

When data reaches the end of the link in the event of no one picks up the data,
terminator removes the data from the link
The cable that is used is co-axial cable
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Star Topology
Switch
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This is the most typical and practical

network setup. In a star network, each node
maintains an individual connection to a
switch, where all other nodes are
connected. Traffic between two known
nodes, therefore, only goes through the
switch and not through other nodes. This
increases the redundancy of the network
(one computer faltering will not cause the
network to fail), increases data privacy
(unicast traffic does not travel through all
nodes), and is a relatively easy-to-use setup.
Disadvantages include reliance on the
switch (a fail-point) and the amount of
wiring necessary.
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RING TOPOLOGY
1. In this topology all the devices
are connected to a single loop of
cable
2. Data
passes
unidirectional
passing through all the devices
3. The device that wants to send
data has to acquire a token
4. Therefore, it is called as token
passing mechanism
5. This topology is called as active
topology as the devices used to
regenerate the data passing
through them
6. Adding and removing of device
makes the entire network fail
DATA
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MESH TOPOLOGY
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1. This topology is a true pointto-point topology as each device is

connected with other device.
2. Mesh topology is divided into two parts full mesh and partial mesh
3. In full mesh all the devices are connected with each other
4. In partial mesh some of the links are not connected
5. Maximum speed :- 1000 mbps
Advantages
Provides redundant paths between devices
Disadvantages
Requires more cable than the other LAN topologies.
implementation.
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Complicated
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Cellular / wireless Topology
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1. This topology divides the geographical locations into smaller location.

2. It is considered to be a point-to-point as well as point-to-multipoint
topology
3. Within a location a centralized device operates with whom other
devices communicate
4. Centralized devices are connected with each other point-to-point basis
through satellite or microwave
NetworkingDevices
The devices are divided into 3 groups :1. Communication devices : MODEM , CSU/DSU , MULTIPLEXER
2. Network devices
: HUB, REPEATER, NIC , SWITCH
3. Internetwork devices
: ROUTER
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Communication Devices
These devices are used to communicate with pc over the network through
telephone line.
MODEM :- ( Modulation/Demodulation)
It is used to convert the digital signal in to analog signal at the source
end (modulation) and again convert the analog signal to digital signal at the
receiving end (demodulation).
Digital SIGNAL
analog signal
Digital SIGNAL
ISP
demodulation
modulation
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CSU/DSU
A CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) is a digital-interface device
used to connect a Data Terminal Equipment device or DTE, such as a router, to a
digital circuit (for example a T1 or T3 line).
The CSU provides termination for the digital signal and ensures connection
integrity through error correction and line monitoring. The DSU converts the data
encoded in the digital circuit into synchronous serial data for connection to a DTE
device.
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Multiplexer
a multiplexer is a device that combines several input information signals into one output
signal, which carries several communication channels, by means of some multiplex
technique.
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Network devices
Network Interface Card

A Network card, Network Adapter, LAN Card or NIC (network interface card) is a piece
of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer
network .
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Hub
A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used
to connect end devices. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at
one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see
all packets
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Switch
A common connection point for devices in a network. Switch are commonly
used to connect end devices. A switch contains multiple ports. When a packet
arrives at one port it determines the out going interface to forward it, it
forwards the frame to that particular destination port.
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Repeater
A repeater is a device that receives a digital signal on an electromagnetic or
optical transmission medium and regenerates the signal along the next leg of
the medium. Repeaters overcome the attenuation caused by free-space
electromagnetic-field divergence or cable loss. A series of repeaters make
possible the extension of a signal over a distance. Repeaters remove the
unwanted noise in an incoming signal. Unlike an analog signal, the original
digital signal, even if weak or distorted, can be clearly perceived and restored.
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INTERNETWORK DEVICES
ROUTER
Path Selection
Switching
Segmenting networks into subnets to reduce
broadcast
Interconnecting WAN links
Interconnecting different types of networks.
Filtering traffic
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Network Media
Coaxial Cables
Twisted pair
Shielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Fiber optic
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Coaxial Cable
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Advantages:
Requires fewer repeaters than twisted pair
Less expensive than fiber
It has been used for many years for many types of data communication,
including cable television
Disadvantages:
More expensive and more difficult to install than twisted pair
Needs more room in wiring ducts than twisted pair
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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
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Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP) combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation,

and twisting of wires.
Each pair of wires is wrapped in metallic foil.
The four pairs of wires are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil.
A new hybrid of UTP with traditional STP is Screened UTP (ScTP), also known as Foil
Twisted Pair (FTP).
ScTP is essentially UTP wrapped in a metallic foil shield, or screen.
Greater protection from all types of external and internal interference than
UTP.
Reduces electrical noise within the cable such as pair to pair coupling and
crosstalk.
Reduces electronic noise from outside the cable, for example
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference
(RFI).
More expensive and difficult to install than UTP.
Needs to be grounded at both ends
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire medium used in a

variety of networks.
TIA/EIA-568-A contains specifications governing cable performance.
RJ-45 connector
When communication occurs, the signal that is transmitted by the source
needs to be understood by the destination.
The transmitted signal needs to be properly received by the circuit
connection designed to receive signals.
The transmit pin of the source needs to ultimately connect to the receiving
pin of the destination.
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Fiber optic
An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length.
Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission
over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of
communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them
with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference.
SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or
strengthened.
RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or
other nearby cables.
MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.
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The core is the light transmission element at the center of the optical fiber.
All the light signals travel through the core.
Cladding is also made of silica but with a lower index of refraction than the
core. Light rays traveling through the fiber core reflect off this core-tocladding interface as they move through the fiber by total internal reflection.
Surrounding the cladding is a buffer material that is usually plastic. The
buffer material helps shield the core and cladding from damage.
The strength material surrounds the buffer, preventing the fiber cable from
being stretched when installers pull it. The material used is often Kevlar, the
same material used to produce bulletproof vests.
The outer jacket surrounds the cable to protect the fiber against abrasion,
solvents, and other contaminants.
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OSI ( Open System Interconnect )

Developed by International Organization for Standardization in late 1970s
The OSI model describes how data and network information are
communicated from an application on one computer through the network
media to an application on another computer.
it consists of 7 layers
Advantages: it divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler
components
it allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of network
components
it allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate
it prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not
hamper development
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Upper Layer
Bottom Layer
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Defines how the applications

within the end stations will
communicate with each other
and with users
Defines how data is transmitted

end to end.
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Application Layer (OSI Layer 7)

Also called as User interface
provides the user or operating system access to the network services.
It interacts with software applications by identifying communication
resources, determining network availability, and distributing information
services.
It also provides synchronization between the peer applications that reside on
separate systems.
Examples of application layer specifications are the following:
Telnet
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Network File System (NFS)
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Presentation Layer (OSI Layer 6)

Also called as OSI translator
The presentation layer provides data representation with a variety of coding
and conversion functions.
These functions ensure that data sent from a sending application on one
system is readable by the application layer on another system.
This layer provides the conversion of character representation formats, data
compression schemes, and encryption schemes.

Voice coding schemes are specified at this layer.
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Examples of specifications that operate at the presentation layer

are the following:
Abstract Syntax Notation 1 (ASN.1)
ASCII
EBCDIC
Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG)
Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)
G.711, G.729a, G.726, G.728

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Session Layer (OSI Layer 5)

provides a control structure for communication between applications.
It establishes, manages, and terminates communication connections called
sessions.
Communication sessions consist of service requests and responses that occur
between applications on different devices.
The management of sessions involves the synchronization of dialog control

by using checkpoints in the data stream.
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Transport Layer (OSI Layer 4)

The transport layer provides reliable, transparent transport of data segments
from upper layers.
It provides end-to-end error checking and recovery, multiplexing, virtual
circuit management, and flow control.

Messages are assigned a sequence number at the transmission end.
At the receiving end the packets are reassembled, checked for errors, and
acknowledged.
Examples of transport layer specifications are the following:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP)
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) AppleTalks Transaction Protocol (ATP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) (provides unreliable transport at this layer with less
overhead than TCP)
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Network Layer (OSI Layer 3)

The network layer is concerned with the routing of information and
methods to determine paths to a destination.
Information at this layer is called packets.
Specifications include routing protocols, logical network addressing, and
packet fragmentation.
Examples of network layer specifications are the following:
Internet Protocol (IP)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX)
Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP)
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Data-Link Layer (OSI Layer 2)

This layer is concerned with the reliable transport of data across a physical
link. Data at this layer is formatted into frames.
Data-link specifications include the following: sequencing of frames, flow
control, synchronization, error notification, physical network topology, and
physical addressing.
This layer converts frames into bits when sending information and converts
bits into frames when receiving information from the physical media.
data-link layer is divided into two sub-layers
The upper layer is the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer, which manages the
communications between devices.
The lower layer is the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer, which manages
protocol access to the physical media.
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Examples of data-link layer technologies are the

following:
Frame Relay
Asynchronous Transport Mode (ATM)
Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC)
High-level data-link control (HDLC)
IEEE 802.3z and IEEE 802.3ab (Gigabit Ethernet)
IEEE 802.3u (Fast Ethernet)
Ethernet version 2
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Token Ring
Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)
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Physical Layer (OSI Layer 1)

describes the transportation of raw bits over the physical media.
It defines signaling specifications and cable types and interfaces.
describes voltage levels, physical data rates, and maximum transmission
distances.
deals with the electrical, mechanical, functional, and procedural specifications
for physical links between networked systems.
Examples of physical layer specifications are the following:
EIA/TIA-232
EIA/TIA-449
V.35
RJ-45
Maximum cable distances of the Ethernet family, Token Ring, and FDDI
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Data Encapsulation
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TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP suite was created by the Department of Defense (DoD) to ensure
and preserve data integrity, as well as maintain communications in the event of
catastrophic war.
It has 4 layers
It is a condensed format of OSI layer
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TCP / IP PROTOCOL SUITE
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The Process/Application Layer Protocols

Telnet
Allows a user on a remote client machine called the Telnet client, to access the
resources of another machine, the telnet server.
Used to transfer file between any two machines. It also allows for access to both
directories and files and can accomplish certain types of directory operations
such as relocating into different ones.
Can be used only to send and receive files. It doesnt have any directory browsing
capabilities.
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Allows two different types of file systems to interoperate. Example NT with

Unix.
Used to send mails.
Used for printer sharing. It along with the Line Printer program allows print jobs
to be spooled and sent to the networks printer using TCP/IP.
Designed for client/server operations. It defines a protocol for writing

client/server applications based on a graphical user interface. The idea is to
allow client to run on one computer and have it display things through a
window server on another computer.
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It collects and manipulates valuable network information. It gathers data by

polling the devices on the network from a management station at fixed or
random intervals, requiring them to disclose certain information. It also notifies
any sudden turn of events.
The Host-to-Host Layer Protocols

It is a connection oriented protocol
provides reliable communication
segments the data
Retransmits the data if not received properly at the destination
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3 way Hand Shaking

Host A
Host B
Send SYN
SYN Received
2
SYN Received
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RELIABLE SERVICE
Sender
Receiver
Send 1
Receive 1
Send ACK 2
Receive ACK 2
Send 2
Receive 2
Send ACK 3
Receive ACK 3
Send 3
Receive 3
Receive ACK 4
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When the Internet layer receives the data stream, it routes the segment as
packets through an internetwork. The segments are handed to the receiving
hosts Host-to-Host layer protocol, which rebuilds the data stream to hand to
the upper-layer applications or protocols.
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The TCP header is 20 bytes long, or up to 24 bytes with options.

Source Port :the port number of the application on the host sending the data.
Destination Port:the port number of the application requested to the destination host.
Sequence Number :A number used by TCP that puts the data back in the correct order or
retransmits missing or damaged data, a process called sequencing.
Acknowledgement Number :The TCP octet that is expected next.
Header Length :The number of 32-bit words in the TCP header. This indicated where the
data begins. The TCP header(even one including options) is an integral number of
32 bits in length.
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Reserved :always set to zero
Code Bits:control functions used to set up and terminate a session

Window :the window size the sender is willing to accept, in octets.
Checksum :the cyclic redundancy check (CRC), because TCP doesnt trust the
lower layers and checks everything. The CRC checks the header and data
fields.
Urgent :a valid field only if the Urgent pointer in the code bits is set. If so, this
value indicates the offset from the current sequence number, in octets, where
the first segment of non-urgent data begins.
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Options :may be 0 or a multiple of 32 bits, if any. What this means is that no

options have to be present (option size of 0). However, if any options are used
that do not cause the option field to total a multiple of 32 bits, padding of 0s
must be used to make sure the data begins on a 32-bit boundary.
Data :-
handed down to the TCP protocol at the transport layer, which

includes the upper-layer headers.
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UDP
Connection Less
Un-Reliable
Faster than TCP
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TCP and UDP must use port numbers to communicate with the upper
layers because theyre what keep track of different conversations crossing the
network simultaneously. Originating source port numbers are dynamically
assigned by the source host and will equal some number starting at 1024, 1023
and below defined port numbers (well-known port numbers).
Virtual circuits that dont use an application with a well-known port
number are assigned port numbers randomly from a specific range instead.
These port numbers identify the source and destination application or process
in the TCP segment.
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Numbers below 1024 are considered well-known port numbers\

Numbers 1024 and above are used by upper layers to set up sessions with
other hosts and by TCP to use as source and destination addresses in the TCP
segment
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INTERNET LAYER PROTOCOLS

Internet Protocol (IP)
A connectionless protocol
Used for mapping logical address with physical address
Used for choosing the best path to reach the destination
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Version:IP version number

Header Length:Header length (HLEN) in 32-bit words
Priority and Type of Service:Type of Service tells how the datagram should be handled. The first 3
bits are the priority bits.
Total length :Length of the packet including header and data

Identification :Unique IP-packet value
Flags :-
specifies whether fragmentation should occur

Fragment offset:provides fragmentation and reassembly if the packet is too large to put
in a frame. It also allows different maximum transmissions units (MTUs) on the
internet.
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Time to Live:TTL is set into a packet when it is originally generated. If it doesnt get
to where it wants to go before the TTL expires--- its gone. This stops IP packets
from continuously circling the network looking for a home.
Protocol :Port of upper-layer protocol. Also supports Network layer protocols,
like ARP and ICMP. Can be called Type field in some analyzers.
Header checksum :CRC on header only

Source IP address :32-bit IP address of sending station
Destination IP address :32-bit IP address of the station this packet is destined for
Options :Used for network testing, debugging, security, etc.
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Its a management protocol and messaging service provider for IP.

Its messages are carried as IP datagrams
Provides hosts with information about network problems
They are encapsulated within IP datagrams
Common events and Messages

Destination Unreachable:If a router cant send an IP datagram any further, it uses ICMP to send
a message back to the sender, advising it of the situation.
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Buffer full:if a routers memory buffer for receiving incoming datagrams is full, it
will use ICMP to send out this message until the congestion abates.
Hops :Each IP datagram is allotted a certain number of routers, called hops,
to pass through. If it reaches its limit of hops before arriving at its destination,
the last router to receive that datagram deletes it. The executioner router then
uses ICMP to send obituary message, informing the sending machine of the
demise of its datagram.
Ping :-
Packet Internet Groper uses ICMP echo request and reply message to
check the physical and logical connectivity of machines on an internetwork.
Traceroute :using ICMP time-outs, Traceroute is used to discover the path a packet
takes as it traverses an internetwork.
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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):Finds the hardware address of a host from a known IP address.
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When an IP machine happens to be a diskless machine, it has no way

of initially knowing its IP address. But it does know its MAC address.
RARP discovers the identity of the IP address for diskless machines
by sending out a packet that includes its MAC address and a request for the IP
address assigned to that MAC address.
A designated machine, called a RARP server, responds with the
answer.
RARP uses the information it does know about the machines MAC
address to learn its IP address and complete the machines ID portrait.
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The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is the entity that

oversees global IP address allocation, AS number allocation, root zone
management for the Domain Name System (DNS), media types, and other
Internet Protocol related assignments. It is operated by the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, better known as ICANN.
Prior to the establishment of ICANN for this purpose, IANA was administered
primarily by Jon Postel at the Information Sciences Institute at the University
of Southern California, under a contract USC/ISI had with the United States
Department of Defense, until ICANN was created to assume the
responsibility under a United States Department of Commerce contract.
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IP addressing
An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each machine on an IP network. It designates the
specific location of a device on the network.
An IP address is a software address, not a hardware address
IP addressing was designed to allow hosts on one network to communicate with a host on a
different network.
IANA is one of the Internet's oldest institutions, with its activities dating back to the 1970s.
Today it is operated by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, an
internationally-organised non-profit organisation set up by the Internet community to help
coordinate IANA's areas of responsibilities.
Bit :-
a bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0
Byte :- a byte is 7 or 8 bits, depending on whether parity is used

Octet :- an octet, made up of 8 bits, is just an ordinary 8-bit binary number.
Network address :- this is the designation used in routing to send packets to

a remote network
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Broadcast address :the address used by applications and hosts to send

information to all nodes on a network .
An IP address consists of 32 bits information, divided into 4 sections, referred
to as octets or bytes, each containing 1 byte (8 bits), separated by dots.
Therefore, it is also called as dotted decimal.
Classes of IP address
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Binary number values

If it is
00000000=0
If it is
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 255
128
64
32
16
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
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Class A Addressing
IANA specifies that in Class A addressing the 1st bit should start with 0 . So
based on that the range for class A address is : 0 -127
00000000=01111111
0
64
32
16
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
= 127
0 is reserved for default routing and 127 is reserved for loop back testing .
Therefore, the range is 1 126.
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Class B Addressing
IANA specifies that in Class B addressing the 1st 2 bits should start with 1 & 0 .
So based on that the range for class B address is : 128 -191
10000000=10111111
128
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
128
32
16
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
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= 128
= 191
87
Class C Addressing
IANA specifies that in Class C addressing the 1st 3 bits should start with 1, 1 & 0 .
So based on that the range for class C address is : 192 - 223
11000000=11011111
128
64
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
128
64
16
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
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= 192
= 223
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Class D Addressing
IANA specifies that in Class D addressing the 1st 4 bits should start with 1, 1, 1 &
0 . So based on that the range for class D address is : 224 - 239
11100000=11101111
128
64
32
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
128
64
32
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
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= 224
= 239
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Class E Addressing
IANA specifies that in Class E addressing the 1st 4 bits should start with 1, 1, 1, 1
& 0 . So based on that the range for class D address is : 240 - 247
11110000=11110111
128
64
32
16
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
128
64
32
16
2^7
2^6
2^5
2^4
2^3
2^2
2^1
2^0
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= 240
= 247
90
No.of Network and hosts in classes

Class A
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Subnetting
Subnetting is the process of breaking down an IP network into smaller subnetworks called "subnets." Each subnet is a non-physical description (or ID) for a
physical sub-network (usually a switched network of host containing a single
router in a multi-router network).
Subnet
A subnet is a logical organization of network address ranges used to separate
hosts and network devices from each other to serve a design purpose.
Subnetmask
It is a 32 bit value that allows the recipient of IP packets to distinguish the
network ID portion of the IP address from the host ID portion of the IP address.
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Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR)

Its a method used by the ISPs to allocate IP addresses to a company. They
provide IP addresses in certain block sizes.
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How to do subnetting --- Class C address

Cidr
Subnet mask
Block size
No.of
networks
No. of
hosts
/25
255.255.255.128
128
126
/26
255.255.255.192
64
62
/27
255.255.255.224
32
30
/28
255.255.255.240
16
16
14
/29
255.255.255.248
32
/30
255.255.255.252
64
Break Down:The given IP address = 192.168.10.0/24

The given subnet mask = 255.255.255.0
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CIDR
/25 = To make /25 borrow a bit from the host bit.
(network bit represents 1 host bit represents 0)

192.168.10.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8bit 8bit 8bit 1bit borrowed = 8+8+8+1 =25
192 . 128 . 10 . 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
SUBNETMASK
192 . 168 . 10 . 0
255 . 255 .255 .128 = the value of the borrowed bit
Block Size
256 128 = 128
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Number of Networks possible

The formula to find the number of networks === 2 ^ M where M is the
number of 1 bits borrowed.
2^1 = 2
Number of Hosts possible

The formula to find the number of hosts === (2 ^ N) -2 where N is the number
of 0 bits left.
(2 ^ 7) 2 =128 2 = 126
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How to do subnetting --- Class B address

Cidr
Subnet mask
Block size
No.of
networks
No. of
hosts
/17
255.255.128.0
128
32,766
/18
255.255.192.0
64
16,382
/19
255.255.224.0
32
8,192
/20
255.255.240.0
16
16
4,096
/21
255.255.248.0
32
2,048
/22
255.255.252.0
64
1,024
/23
255.255.254.0
128
510
Break Down:The given IP address = 172.16.0.0/16

The given subnet mask = 255.255.0.0
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CIDR

172.16.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0
8bit 8bit 1bit borrowed = 8+8+1 =17
172.16. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0
SUBNETMASK
172.16. 0 . 0
255 . 255 . 128.0 = the value of the borrowed bit
Block Size
256 128 = 128
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Number of Networks possible

The formula to find the number of networks === 2 ^ M where M is the
number of 1 bits borrowed.
2^1 = 2
Number of Hosts possible

The formula to find the number of hosts === (2 ^ N) -2 where N is the number
of 0 bits left.
(2 ^ 15) 2 = 32768-2 = 32766
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CIDR

172.16.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0
8bit 8bit 1bit borrowed = 8+8+1 =17
172.16. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0
SUBNETMASK
172.16. 0 . 0
255 . 255 . 128.0 = the value of the borrowed bit
Block Size
256 128 = 128
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Practice Example #2B: 255.255.192.0 (/18)

172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.192.0 = Subnet mask
Subnets? 22 = 4.
Hosts? 214 2 = 16,382 (6 bits in the third octet, and 8 in the fourth).
Valid subnets? 256 192 = 64. 0, 64, 128, 192. Remember that the subnetting is
performed in the third octet, so the subnet numbers are really 0. 0, 64.0, 128.0, and
192.0, as shown in the next table.
Broadcast address for each subnet?
Valid hosts?
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255.255.240.0 = Subnet mask
Subnets? 24 = 16.
Hosts? 212 2 = 4094.
Valid subnets? 256 240 = 0, 16, 32, 48, etc., up to 240. Notice that these are the
same numbers as a Class C 240 mask we just put them in the third octet and add
a 0 and 255 in the fourth octet.
Valid hosts?
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255.255.254.0 = Subnet mask
Subnets? 27 = 128.
Hosts? 29 2 = 510.
Valid subnets? 256 254 = 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, etc., up to 254.
Valid hosts?
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Contrary to popular belief, 255.255.255.0 used with a Class B network address is
not called a Class B network with a Class C subnet mask. This is a Class B subnet
mask with 8 bits of subnettingits considerably different from a Class C mask.
Subnetting this address is fairly simple:
255.255.255.0 = Subnet mask
Subnets? 28 = 256.
Hosts? 28 2 = 254.
Valid subnets? 256 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., all the way to 255.
Valid hosts?
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255.255.255.128 = Subnet mask
Subnets? 29 = 512.
Hosts? 27 2 = 126.
Valid subnets? Okay, now for the tricky part. 256 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. for the third octet. But you
cant forget the one subnet bit used in the fourth octet. Remember when I showed you how to figure one
subnet bit with a Class C mask? You figure this the same way. (Now you know why I showed you the 1-bit
subnet mask in the Class C section to make this part easier.) You actually get two subnets for each third
octet value, hence the 512 subnets. For example, if the third octet is showing subnet 3, the two
subnets would actually be 3.0 and 3.128.
Valid hosts?
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Now, this is where Class B subnetting gets easy. Since the third octet has a 255 in
the mask section, whatever number is listed in the third octet is a subnet number.
However, now that we have a subnet number in the fourth octet, we can subnet this
octet just as we did with Class C subnetting. Lets try it out:
255.255.255.192 = Subnet mask
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Subnetting Practice Examples: Class A Addresses

Practice Example #1A: 255.255.0.0 (/16)
Class A addresses use a default mask of 255.0.0.0, which leaves 22 bits for
subnetting since you must leave 2 bits for host addressing. The 255.255.0.0 mask
with a Class A address is using 8 subnet bits.
Subnets? 28 = 256.
Hosts? 216 2 = 65,534.
Valid subnets? What is the interesting octet? 256 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. (all in the
second octet). The subnets would be 10.0.0.0, 10.1.0.0, 10.2.0.0, 10.3.0.0, etc., up
to 10.255.0.0.
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Variable Length Subnet Mask

A Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) is a means of allocating IP addressing
resources to subnets according to their individual need rather than some
general network-wide rule.
Network D
30 hosts
Network C
20 hosts
r1
r4
192.168.10.0/24
r2
Network A
6 hosts
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Solution:For Network A == 6 hosts

192.168.10.0 === 192.168.10. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Formula === for calculating host portion calculate from right to left
So for 6 host 3 bits are needed.
192.168.10. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Make the rest of the 0 bits as 1
192.168.10. 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 == /29 === 8 + 8 + 8 + 5
Subnet mask ==255.255.255.248 = adding the 1 bits value
Block size == 256 248 = 8
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Network possible are :192.168.10.0/29

192.168.10.8/29
192.168.10.16/29
|
|
192.168.10.248/29
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Cisco Router IOS

The Cisco IOS is a proprietary kernel that provides routing, switching,
internetworking, and telecommunication features. This is responsible for :-
Carrying network protocols and functions

Connecting high-speed traffic between devices
Adding security to control access and stop unauthorized network use
Providing scalability for ease of network growth and redundancy
Supplying network reliability for connecting to network resources
Cisco IOS can be accessed through the console port of a router, from a modem
into the auxiliary port or even through telnet. Access to the IOS command line is
called an EXEC session.
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Cisco Router
As per the manufacturing cisco routers can be divided into two parts :1.
2.
Fixed :- pre built connecting ports

Modular :- ports can be added to the router
Cisco 2600 series router
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Cables and Connections

Connecting a Rollover Cable to Your Router or Switch
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Terminal Settings
the settings that you should configure to have your PC connect to a router or switch.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Start
Program
Accessories
Communication
HyperTerminal
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LAN Connections
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Serial Cable Types

Serial Cable (2500)
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Smart Serial Cable (1700, 1800, 2600, 2800)
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V.35 DTE and DCE Cables
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USB-to-Serial Connector for Laptops
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Determining Which Cables to Use When Wiring Devices Together
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568A Versus 568B Cables

There are two different standards released by the EIA/TIA group about
UTP wiring: 568A and 568B. Although 568B is newer and is the recommended
standard, either one can be used.
The difference between these two standards is pin assignments, not in
the use of the different colors. The 568A standard is more compatible with voice
connections and the Universal Service Order Codes (USOC) standard for
telephone infrastructure in the United States.
In both 568A and USOC standards, the blue and orange pairs are now
on the center four pins; therefore, the colors match more closely with 568A than
with the 568B standard.
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UTP Wiring Standards
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Pinouts for Different Cables
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Cisco Router Boot Process

POST
When first powered up, a router will carry out a power-on self-test (POST). Recall
that the POST is used to check whether the CPU and router interfaces are capable of
functioning correctly.
Execute bootstrap to load IOS. After a successful POST, the router will execute the
Bootstrap program from ROM. The bootstrap is used to search Flash memory for a valid
Cisco IOS image. If one is present, the image is loaded. If an image cannot be found, the
router will boot the RxBoot limited IOS version found in ROM.
IOS loads configuration file. Once the IOS image is loaded, it will search for a valid
startup configuration in NVRAM. If a valid startup configuration file cannot be found, the
router will load the System Configuration Dialog, or what is sometimes called setup mode.
This mode allows you to perform the initial configuration of the router.
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Command Line Interface (CLI)

Shortcuts for entering commands
Using the key to enter complete
commands
Using the question mark (?) for help
enable command
exit command
disable command
logout command
Setup mode
Keyboard help
History commands
show commands
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Using the Question Mark for Help
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enable Command
exit Command
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Key board help
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History Commands
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show Commands
router# show ip interface brief
Lists the interfaces information
router# show run
Shows the running configuration
router# show ip route
Shows the routing table information
router# show ip protocol
Shows the configured routing protocol
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r1
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137
Router> en
Router# conf t
Router()# hostname r1 or host r1 to change the router name
Protecting Router through Password
R1()#enable password cisco set enable password (unencrypted)
R1()#enable secret cisco1 set the secret password (it overrides the enable
password command and also provides security by encrypting the password)
R1()# line console 0 enters console line mode

R1(config-line)#password console sets the console line password to console
R1(config-line)#login enables password checking at login
R1()# line vty 0 4 enters vty line mode for all 5 vty line (used for telnetting)
R1(config-line)#password telnet sets the vty line password to telnet
R1(config-line)#login enables password checking at login after telnetting to
another router
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R1()# line aux 0 enters auxiliary line mode

R1(config-line)#password backdoor sets auxiliary password to backdoor
R1(config-line)#login enables password checking at login
Password Encryption
R1()# service-password-encryption applies a weak encryption to
passwords like enable password , line console password, etc.
Configuring Interfaces
R1()#
interface s0/0
Ip address 200.200.200.1 255.255.255.0
Clock rate 64000
No shut
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R1()#
interface fa0/0
Ip address 192.168.10.100 255.255.255.0
No shut
R2()#
Interface s0/0
Ip add 200.200.200.2 255.255.255.0
Cl ra 64000
No sh
Int fa0/0
Ip add 200.200.201.2 255.255.255.0
No sh
Int fa0/1
ip add 192.168.20.100 255.255.255.0
No sh
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R3()#
Int fa0/0
Ip add 200.200.201.3 255.255.255.0
No sh
Int fa0/1
ip add 192.168.30.100 255.255.255.0
No sh
On R1, R2, R3
# show ip route === used to show the routing table
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Creating Banner
Banner is used to display the information. There are different types of
banners available :-
Message of the Day (MOTD) banner

Login Banner
Router(config)#banner motd # Building Power will be interrupted next Tuesday
evening from 8 10 PM. #
# is known as a delimiting character. The delimiting character must surround the
banner message and can be any character so long as it is not a character used within
the body of the message.
TIP: The MOTD banner is displayed on all terminals and is useful for sending messages
that affect all users. Use the no banner motd command to disable the MOTD banner.
The MOTD banner displays before the login prompt and the login banner, if one has
been created.
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Router(config)#
banner login # Authorized Personnel Only! Please enter your username and password.
#
TIP: The login banner displays before the username and password login prompts. Use
the no banner login command to disable the login banner. The MOTD banner displays
before the login banner.
Saving Configurations
Router#copy running-config startup-config
Router#copy running-config tftp
Erasing Configurations
Router#erase startup-config
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The term routing is used for taking a packet from one device and sending
it through the network to another device on a different network.
Routing is done through Protocols.

There are 2 types of protocols : - Routing Protocol and Routed Protocol
Routing Protocol
It is a set of rules that describe how routing devices send updates
between each other about the available network. If more than one path
exists to the remote network, the protocol also determines how the best
path or route is selected.
Routed Protocol
It is the layer 3 protocol used to transfer data from one end device to
another across the network. It carries the application data as well as the
upper layer information. The protocols are IP, IPXVINES, DECNET TV, etc.
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Routing
Routing can be done in 3 ways :1.
2.
3.
Default routing
Static routing
Dynamic routing
Default Routing
When the administrator doesnt have any knowledge about the other
networks at that time default routing can be used.
Configuring Default Routing
Syntax:Router()# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 <next-hop address> or <exit interface name>
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r1
r2
r3
R1()# Ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0/0

R2()# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0/0
R2()# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 fa0/0
R3()# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 fa0/0

# sh ip route on all the routers
#ping the routers
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Static routing:when the administrator manually adds the destination networks into
the routing table.
Benefits of Static Routing:There is no overhead on the router CPU
There is no bandwidth usage between routers
It adds security as the administrator can choose to allow routing access to
certain networks only
Disadvantages of Static Routing:The administrator must really understand the internetwork and how each
router is connected in order to configure routes correctly
If a network is added to the internetwork, the administrator has to add a
route to it on all routers --- by hand
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Syntax:
Router()# ip route <dest.nw.add> <sm> <next-hop add> or <exit int. name>
Loop back 0
192.168.10.0
Loop back 0
192.168.20.0
r1
r2
Loop back 0
192.168.30.0
r3
R1()#
Ip route 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0 s0/0
Ip route 192.168.30.0 255.255.255.0 s0/0
Ip route 200.200.201.0 255.255.255.0 s0/0
R2()#
Ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 s0/0
Ip route 192.168.30.0 255.255.255.0 fa0/0
R3()#
Ip route 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0 fa0/0
Ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 fa0/0
Ip route 200.200.200.0 255.255.255.0 fa0/0
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The permanent Keyword (Optional)

Without the permanent keyword in a static route statement, a static
route will be removed if an interface goes down. A downed interface will cause
the directly connected network and any associated static routes to be removed
from the routing table. If the interface comes back up, the routes are returned.
Adding the permanent keyword to a static route statement will keep

the static routes in the routing table even if the interface goes down and the
directly connected networks are removed. You cannot get to these routesthe
interface is downbut the routes remain in the table.
The advantage to this is that when the interface comes back up, the static
routes do not need to be reprocessed and placed back into the routing table, thus
saving time and processing power.
When a static route is added or deleted, this route, along with all other
static routes, is processed in one second. Before Cisco IOS Software Release
12.0, this processing time was five seconds.
The routing table processes static routes every minute to install or remove
static routes according to the changing routing table.
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To specify that the route will not be removed, even if the interface shuts down,
enter the following command, for example:
R1()#
Ip route 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0 s0/0 permanent
Static Routes and Administrative Distance (Optional)

By default, a static route is always used rather than a routing protocol.
By adding an AD number to your ip route statement, however, you can
effectively create a backup route to your routing protocol. If your network is
using EIGRP, and you need a backup route, add a static route with an AD
greater than 90. EIGRP will be used because its AD is better (lower) than the
static route. If EIGRP goes down, however, the static route will be used in its
place. This is known as a floating static route.
R1()#
Ip route 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0 200.200.200.2 200 --- AD value
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Dynamic Routing
When the router learns about the other networks from its neighbor.
Dynamic routing has 2 different types of protocol:1.
2.
IGP (interior gateway protocol)

EGP (exterior gateway protocol)
IGP:works within an autonomous system (AS). An AS is a collection of networks

under a common administrative domain, which means that all routers
sharing the same routing table are within the same AS.
EGP:works between 2 ASs.
Administrative Distance (AD):Tells about the trustworthiness of a routing protocol. The lowest the number
the higher trustiness.
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Routing protocol /Route source
Default Distance Values
Connected interface
Static route
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing

Protocol (EIGRP) summary route
External Border Gateway Protocol (eBGP)
20
Internal EIGRP
90
IGRP
100
OSPF
110
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)
115
120
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
140
On Demand Routing (ODR)
160
External EIGRP
170
Internal BGP
200
Unknown
255
Routing Protocols
There are 3 classes of routing protocols
1.
2.
3.
Distance vector
Hybrid
Link state
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Distance Vector routing Protocol

Sends its entire routing table at periodic intervals out of all interfaces. Also
sends triggered updates to reflect changes in the network
Uses broadcast to send updates to everyone on the network
Uses metric based on how distant the remote network is to the router
Has knowledge of the network based on information learned from its
neighbor
Includes a routing table that is a database viewed from the prospective of
each router
Uses Bellman Ford algorithm for calculating the best path

Involves slower convergence because information of changes must come
from the entire network
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Link State Routing Protocol
Doesnt send periodical updates rather sends incremental updates when

a change is detected
Typically involves, updates sent to those routers participating in the
routing protocol domain, via, a multicast address
Has a topological database that is same for every router in the area
The routing table built from this database is unique to each other
Uses Dijkstra algorithm
Involves quick convergence
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Distance Vector
Rip
Rip Version 2
IGRP
Metric
Hop Count
Hop Count
Bandwidth
Hop Count
15
15
255
Periodic Updates
30 sec
30 sec
120 sec
Hold down timer
180 sec
180 sec
280 sec
Flush down timer
240 sec
240 sec
630 sec
Administrative
Distance
120
120
100
Class
Full
Less
Full
VLSM
No
Yes
No
Convergence
Slow
Slow
Slow
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Routing Loop
Distance-vector routing protocols keep track of any changes to the
internetwork by broadcasting periodic routing updates out all active interfaces.
This broadcast includes the complete routing table. This works just fine, but its
expensive in terms of CPU process and link bandwidth. And if a network outage
happens, real problems can occur. Plus, the slow convergence of distancevector routing protocols can result in inconsistent routing tables and routing
loops. Routing loops can occur because every router isnt updated
simultaneously, or even close to it.
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When Network 5 fails, RouterE tells RouterC. This causes RouterC to

stop routing to Network 5 through RouterE. But routers A, B, and D dont know
about Network 5 yet, so they keep sending out update information. RouterC will
eventually send out its update and cause B to stop routing to Network 5, but
routers A and D are still not updated. To them, it appears that Network 5 is still
available through RouterB with a metric of 3.
The problem occurs when RouterA sends out its regular 30-second
Hello, Im still here these are the links I know about message, which
includes the ability to reach Network 5, and now routers B and D receive the
wonderful news that Network 5 can be reached from RouterA, so routers B and
D then send out the information that Network 5 is available. Any packet destined
for Network 5 will go to RouterA, to RouterB, and then back to RouterA. This is
a routing loophow do you stop it?
The routing loop problem just described is called counting to infinity,
and its caused by gossip (broadcasts) and wrong information being
communicated and propagated throughout the internetwork. Without some form
of intervention, the hop count increases indefinitely each time a packet passes
through a router.
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Maximum Hop Count

One way of solving this problem is to define a maximum hop count. RIP permits
a hop count of up to 15, so anything that requires 16 hops is deemed
unreachable. In other words, after a loop of 15 hops, Network 5 will be
considered down. Thus, the maximum hop count will control how long it takes for
a routing table entry to become invalid or questionable.
Split Horizon
Another solution to the routing loop problem is called split horizon.

This reduces incorrect routing information and routing overhead in a distancevector network by enforcing the rule that routing information cannot be sent
back in the direction from which it was received.
In other words, the routing protocol differentiates which interface a
network route was learned on, and once this is determined, it wont advertise
the route back out that same interface. This would have prevented RouterA
from sending the updated information it received from RouterB back to
RouterB.
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Route Poisoning
Another way to avoid problems caused by inconsistent updates and stop
network loops is route poisoning. For example, when Network 5 goes down,
RouterE initiates route poisoning by advertising Network 5 as 16, or unreachable
(sometimes referred to as infinite).
This poisoning of the route to Network 5 keeps RouterC from being
susceptible to incorrect updates about the route to Network 5. When RouterC
receives a route poisoning from RouterE, it sends an update, called a poison
reverse, back to RouterE. This ensures that all routes on the segment have
received the poisoned route information.
Holddowns
A holddown prevents regular update messages from reinstating a route
that is going up and down (called flapping). Typically, this happens on a serial
link thats losing connectivity and then coming back up. Holddowns prevent
routes from changing too rapidly by allowing time for either the downed route to
come back up or the network to stabilize somewhat before changing to the next
best route. These also tell routers to restrict, for a specific time period, changes
that might affect recently removed routes. This prevents inoperative routes from
being prematurely restored to other routers tables.
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The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) was
originally designed for the Xerox Network Systems (XNS)
protocol suite. Developed at the Xerox Palo Alto Research
Center (PARC), RIP was initially named GWINFO (the
Gateway Information Protocol).
In 1982, RIP was introduced to the TCP/IP suite of
protocols in the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) of Unix.
RIP is supported by almost every major manufacturer of
network equipment, as well as popular network operating
systems such as Windows NT.
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Is a distance vector routing protocol used to exchange

routing information among routers and hosts
It is widely used in medium sized networks.
It uses 2 packet types to convey information : - update and
request
It broadcast updates in every 30 seconds to all directly
connected neighbors
Request messages are used by the router to discover other
rip enabled devices
It uses hop count as the metric to measure the distance to a
network
There are 3 types of rip based on versions:Rip default, Rip version 1, Rip version 2
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RIP Timers
Route update timer Sets the interval (typically 30 seconds) between periodic
routing updates in which the router sends a complete copy of its routing table out to
all neighbors.
Route invalid timer Determines the length of time that must elapse (180 seconds)
before a router determines that a route has become invalid. It will come to this
conclusion if it hasnt heard any updates about a particular route for that period.
When that happens, the router will send out updates to all its neighbors letting
them know that the route is invalid.
Holddown timer This sets the amount of time during which routing information is
suppressed. Routes will enter into the holddown state when an update packet is
received that indicated the route is unreachable. This continues either until an
update packet is received with a better metric or until the holddown timer expires.
The default is 180 seconds.
Route flush timer Sets the time between a route becoming invalid and its removal
from the routing table (240 seconds). Before its removed from the table, the router
notifies its neighbors of that routes impending demise. The value of the route
invalid timer must be less than that of the route flush timer. This gives the router
enough time to tell its neighbors about the invalid route before the local routing
table is updated.
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RIP Default :sends version 1 information and receives both version

RIP version 1 :Sends and receives version 1 information only
RIP version 2 :Sends and receives version 2 information only
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Configure R1 with RIP version 1

Configure R2 with RIP version 2
Configure R1 with RIP default
RIP version 1
R1
Router rip
Ver 1
net 192.168.10.0
net 192.168.11.0
net 200.200.200.0
RIP version 2
R2
Router rip
Ver 2
no auto-summary
net 200.200.200.0
net 200.200.201.0
net 172.168.20.0
RIP default
R3
Router rip
net 200.200.201.0
net 152.168.30.0
Communicating between different versions of RIP

R2
Int s0/0
Ip rip receive version 1
R1
Int s0/0
Int s0/1
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Configuring RIP Timers
There are 4 configurable RIP timers

Update , Invalid , Hold down , Flush Down
Update timer control the rate in seconds that routing updates are sent.
The three other RIP timers are all dependent on the value of the update
timer
The invalid timer should be at least 3 times the value of update timer
The hold down timer should be at least 3 times the value of update timer
The flush down timer must be at least the sum of invalid and hold down
timer
R1()# router rip

# timers basic 5 15
R1()#service timestamps
R1# debug ip routing
R1# debug ip rip
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Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a Cisco-proprietary distance-vector
routing protocol. This means that to use IGRP in your network, all your routers
must be Cisco routers. Cisco created this routing protocol to overcome the
problems associated with RIP.
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

Its a Cisco proprietary advanced distance vector routing protocol, released in
1994. It is a class less protocol that directly interfaces to IP as protocol 88.
Eigrp uses the multicast address of 224.0.0.10 for hellos and routing
updates.
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Features:. Rapid convergence

. 100% loop-free classless routing
. Easy configuration
. Incremental updates
. Load balancing across equal and unequal-cost pathways
. Flexible network design
. Multicast and unicast instead of broadcast address
. Support for VLSM and discontiguous subnets

. Manual summarization at any point in the internetwork
. Support for multiple network-layer protocols
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EIGRP characteristics:Rapid convergence:

EIGRP uses DUAL to achieve rapid convergence. A router using EIGRP stores
all available backup routes for destinations so that it can quickly adapt to
alternate routes. If no appropriate route or backup route exists in the local
routing table, EIGRP queries its neighbors to discover an alternate route. EIGRP
transmits these queries until it finds an alternate route.
Reduced bandwidth usage:

EIGRP does not make periodic updates. Instead, it sends partial updates when
the path or the metric changes for that route. When path information changes,
DUAL sends an update about only that link rather than the entire table. DUAL
sends the information only to the routers that require it, in contrast to link-state
protocols, in which an update is transmitted to all link-state routers within an
area.
Multiple network-layer support:
EIGRP supports AppleTalk, IP, and Novell NetWare through the use of protocoldependent modules (PDMs). PDMs are responsible for protocol requirements
specific to the network layer.
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EIGRP Neighbor ship establishment

Hello / Acknowledgement receive
Same autonomous number (AS)
Identical K values
For establishing neighbor ship AS number and K values should match

K = metric for EIGRP
EIGRP Metrics:The EIGRP metric is a 32 bit number, which is calculated using :

Bandwidth = k1
Load = k2
Delay = k3
Reliability = k4
MTU (maximum transmission unit) = k5 (not used in path calculation)
By default EIGRP uses only bandwidth and delay for cost calculation.
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Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)

EIGRP uses a proprietary protocol called Reliable Transport Protocol
(RTP) to manage the communication of messages between EIGRP-speaking
routers. And as the name suggests, reliability is a key concern of this protocol.
Cisco has designed a mechanism that leverages multicasts and unicasts to deliver
updates quickly and to track the receipt of the data.
When EIGRP sends multicast traffic, it uses the Class D address

224.0.0.10. As I said, each EIGRP router is aware of who its neighbors are, and for
each multicast it sends out, it maintains a list of the neighbors who have replied. If
EIGRP doesnt get a reply from a neighbor, it will switch to using unicasts to resend
the same data. If it still doesnt get a reply after 16 unicast attempts, the neighbor is
declared dead. People often refer to this process as reliable multicast.
Routers keep track of the information they send by assigning a sequence
number to each packet. With this technique, its possible for them to detect the
arrival of old, redundant, or out-of-sequence information.
Being able to do these things is highly important because EIGRP is a

quiet protocol. It depends upon its ability to synchronize routing databases at
startup time and then maintain the consistency of databases over time by only
communicating any changes. So the permanent loss of any packets, or the out-oforder execution of packets, can result in corruption of the routing database.
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EIGRP Terminology
Neighbor Table:lists adjacent routers. EIGRP keeps a neighbor table for each network
protocol supported such as IP, IPX & AppleTalk. When newly discovered neighbors are
learned the address and the interface of the neighbor is recorded. This information is
stored in the neighbor data structure.
The neighbor table includes the following information:
The Layer 3 address of the neighbor.
The interface through which the neighbor's Hello was heard.

The holdtime, or how long the neighbor table waits without hearing a Hello from a
neighbor, before declaring the neighbor unavailable and purging the database.
Holdtime is three times the value of the Hello timer by default.
The uptime, or period since the router first heard from the neighbor.
The sequence number. The neighbor table tracks all the packets sent between the
neighbors. It tracks both the last sequence number sent to the neighbor and the last
sequence number received from the neighbor.
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Retransmission timeout (RTO), which is the time the router will wait on a
connection-oriented protocol without an acknowledgment before retransmitting
the packet.
Smooth Round Trip Time (SRTT), which calculates the RTO. SRTT is the
time (in milliseconds) that it takes a packet to be sent to a neighbor and a reply
to be received.
The number of packets in a queue, which is a means by which administrators
can monitor congestion on the network
Topology Table:is populated by the PDMs and acted upon by DUAL. It contains all
destinations advertised by neighboring routers. Associated with each entry is
the destination address and a list of neighbors that have advertised the
destination. For each neighbor the advertised metric is recorded.
The topology table includes the following information:
Whether the route is passive or active.
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Whether an update has been sent to the neighbor.
Whether a query packet has been sent to the neighbor. If this field is positive, at
least one route will be marked as active.
Whether a query packet has been sent; if so, another field will track whether
any replies have been received from the neighbor.
That a reply packet has been sent in response to a query packet received from
a neighbor.
Prefixes, masks, interface, next-hop, and feasible and advertised distances for
remote networks.
Routing Table:
contains the best route to reach the destination.
Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)

is used by EIGRP to maintain the network database. It selects the shortest path to a
destination and then maintains a back up path if available. In EIGRP successor is
the best path to a destination. The successor is chosen by DUAL from all of the
known paths to the end destination.
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EIGRP uses Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) for selecting and maintaining the
best path to each remote network. This algorithm allows for the following:
Backup route determination if one is available
Support of VLSMs
Dynamic route recoveries
Queries for an alternate route if no route can be found

Distance:
is the total distance from source to the destination based on cost calculation.
Feasible distance :is the best distance among all the distances
Reported distance:is the distance advertised by the neighbor router for the destination.
Feasible Successor:is the path whose reported distance is less than equal to feasible distance.
Successor :is the best path to reach a particular destination
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Configuring Eigrp
R1
Router eigrp 100
No auto-summary
Net 200.200.200.0
Net 200.200.201.0
Net 200.200.202.0
*** configure other routers accordingly

Sh ip route
-----------shows the routing table . Eigrp routes marked with D
Sh ip eigrp neighbors ----- shows the neighbor adjancency

Ship eigrp topology -------- show the topology table . Feasible Distance /
Feasible successor
Reported Distance
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Configuring Delays :R1 R2 ==== delay 10

R1 R3 ==== delay 15
R1 R4 ==== delay 20
R2 r5 ==== delay 5
R3 r5 ==== delay 10
R4 r5 ==== delay 25
Configure the delay on router interfaces.
R1()# int s0/0
#delay 10
. Configure accordingly on all the router interfaces
R1()# router eigrp 10
TOS K1 K2 K3 K4 K5
# metric weights 0 0 0
1 0 0
TOS=== Type Of Service . What type of service we are using here we are using delay as the
value is 1
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Configuring unequal load balancing

EIGRP supports up to 4 equal cost load balancing and up to 6 unequal cost load balancing. In
load balancing EIGRP sends the packets through all the available port.
Equal Cost Load balancing :If multiple paths have same cost to reach the destination then EIGRP uses all the
available paths for sending packets.
Un-Equal cost load balancing :EIGRP can use paths whose cost are different from each other to reach the
destination.
NOTE:-
By default EIGRP supports equal cost load balancing and by using VARIANCE it
uses unequal cost load balancing.
VARIANCE:command controls the load balancing over multiple EIGRP paths. This command
allows the administrator to load balance across multiple paths even if the metrics of the pats
are different.
R1()# router eigrp 10
# variance 2
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Configuring Eigrp Authentication

Authenticate the link between r1 and r2
R1()# key chain cisco ----- from where the key should get
#key 1
#key-string hbf ---- password
R1()#int s0/0
#ip authentication mode eigrp 100 md5
# ip authentication key-chain 100 cisco
**** do the same int r2s link to r1
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Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

It is a link-state routing protocol developed for IP networks to be used within a
single AS to distribute routing information .
It was created to :Decrease routing overhead
Speed up convergence
Confirm network stability to single areas of network
Characteristics of OSPF:Consists of Areas and AS
Minimizes routing update traffic
Allows scalability
Supports VLSM and CIDR
Has unlimited hop count
Finds the best path by applying dijkstra
Responds quickly to network change
Sends triggered update
Sends periodic update in every 30 minutes
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OSPF Terminology
Link
A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network.
When an interface is added to the OSPF process, its considered by OSPF to be a
link. This link, or interface, will have state information associated with it (up or
down) as well as one or more IP addresses.
Router ID
The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco
chooses the Router ID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback
interfaces. If no loopback interfaces are configured with addresses, OSPF will
choose the highest IP address of all active physical interfaces.
Neighbor
Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common
network, such as two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link.
Adjacency
An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the
direct exchange of route updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing
informationunlike EIGRP, which directly shares routes with all of its neighbors.
Instead, OSPF directly shares routes only with neighbors that have also
established adjacencies. And not all neighbors will become adjacent this
depends upon both the type of network and the configuration of the routers.
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Hello protocol
The OSPF Hello protocol provides dynamic neighbor discovery and
maintains neighbor relationships. Hello packets and Link State Advertisements
(LSAs) build and maintain the topological database. Hello packets are addressed
to 224.0.0.5.
Neighborship database
The neighbor ship database is a list of all OSPF routers for which Hello
packets have been seen. A variety of details, including the Router ID and state,
are maintained on each router in the neighborship database.
Topological database
The topological database contains information from all of the Link State
Advertisement packets that have been received for an area. The router uses the
information from the topology database as input into the Dijkstra algorithm that
computes the shortest path to every network.
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Link State Advertisement
A Link State Advertisement (LSA) is an OSPF data packet containing

link-state and routing information thats shared among OSPF routers. There are
different types of LSA packets. An OSPF router will exchange LSA packets only
with routers to which it has established adjacencies.
Designated router
A Designated Router (DR) is elected whenever OSPF routers are
connected to the same multi-access network. To minimize the number of
adjacencies formed, a DR is chosen (elected) to disseminate/receive routing
information to/from the remaining routers on the broadcast network or link. This
ensures that their topology tables are synchronized. All routers on the shared
network will establish adjacencies with the DR and backup designated router
The election is won by the router with the highest priority, and the Router
ID is used as a tiebreaker if the priority of more than one router turns out to be the
same.
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Backup designated router

A Backup Designated Router (BDR) is a hot standby for the DR on multiaccess links (remember that Cisco sometimes likes to call these broadcast
networks). The BDR receives all routing updates from OSPF adjacent routers but
doesnt flood LSA updates.
OSPF areas
An OSPF area is a grouping of contiguous networks and routers. All
routers in the same area share a common Area ID. Because a router can be a
member of more than one area at a time, the Area ID is associated with specific
interfaces on the router. This would allow some interfaces to belong to area 1
while the remaining interfaces can belong to area 0. All of the routers within the
same area have the same topology table.
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Configuring OSPF in a single Area
R1
Router ospf 10 ---- process-id
Netw 200.200.200.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Net 192.168.10.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Net 192.168.11.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
Configure other routers accordingly
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The Internal Components of a Cisco Router
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Managing Configuration Register

All Cisco routers have a 16-bit software register thats written into NVRAM. By
default, the configuration register is set to load the Cisco IOS from flash memory and to look for
and load the startup-config file from NVRAM. The 16 bits (2 bytes) of the configuration register
are read from 15 to 0, from left to right. The default configuration setting on Cisco routers is
0x2102.
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The boot field, which consists of bits 03 in the configuration register, controls the router boot
sequence.
Checking the Current Configuration Register Value

Router#
sh version
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Changing the Configuration Register

To force the system into the ROM monitor mode
To select a boot source and default boot filename
To enable or disable the Break function
To control broadcast addresses
To set the console terminal baud rate

To load operating software from ROM
To enable booting from a Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) server
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Recovering Passwords
The default configuration register value is 0x2102, meaning that bit 6 is off. With the default setting,
the router will look for and load a router configuration stored in NVRAM (startup-config). To
recover a password, you need to turn on bit 6. Doing this will tell the router to ignore the NVRAM
contents. The configuration register value to turn on bit 6 is 0x2142. Here are the main steps to
password recovery:
1. Boot the router and interrupt the boot sequence by performing a break,
which will take the router into ROM monitor mode.
2. Change the configuration register to turn on bit 6 (with the value 0x2142).
3. Reload the router.
4. Enter privileged mode.
5. Copy the startup-config file to running-config.
6. Change the password.

7. Reset the configuration register to the default value.
8. Save the router configuration.
9. Reload the router (optional).
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Cisco ISR/2600 Series Commands

rommon 1 >confreg 0x2142
You must reset or power cycle for new config to take effect
rommon 2 >reset
Cisco 2500 Series Commands
>o/r 0x2142
Boot System Commands

Configuring router to boot another IOS if the flash is corrupted?
Router(config)#boot ?
bootstrap
config
host
network
system
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Configuration file
Router-specific config file
Network-wide config file
System image file
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Router(config)#boot system flash c2800nm-advsecurityk9-mz.124-12.bin

The above command configures the router to boot the IOS listed in it. This is a helpful command for when
you load a new IOS into flash and want to test it, or even when you want to totally change which IOS is
loading by default.
Router(config)#boot system tftp c2800nm-advsecurityk9-mz.124-12.bin 1.1.1.2
Router(config)#boot system rom

The Cisco IOS File System
NOTE:
The Cisco IOS File System (IFS) provides a single interface to all the file systems
available on a routing device, including the flash memory file system; network file systems
such as TFTP, Remote Copy Protocol (RCP), and File Transfer Protocol (FTP); and any
other endpoint for reading and writing data, such as NVRAM, or the running configuration.
The Cisco IFS minimizes the required prompting for many commands. Instead of
entering in an EXEC-level copy command and then having the system prompt you for more
information, you can enter a single command on one line with all necessary information.
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dir
Same as with Windows, this command lets you view files in a directory. Type dir,
hit Enter, and by default you get the contents of the flash:/ directory output.
copy
This is one popular command, often used to upgrade, restore, or back up an IOS.
more
Same as with Unix, this will give you a text file and let you look at it on a card. You
can use it to check out your configuration file or your backup configuration file.
show file
This command will give you the skinny on a specified file or file system, but its
kind of obscure because people dont use it a lot.
delete
it deletes stuff. But with some types of routers, not as well as youd think. Thats
because even though it whacks the file, it doesnt always free up the space it was
using. To actually get the space back, you have to use something called the
squeeze command too.
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erase/format
Use these with caremake sure that when youre copying files, you say no to the
dialog that asks you if you want to erase the file system! The type of memory
youre using determines if you can nix the flash drive or not.
cd/pwd
Same as with Unix and DOS, cd is the command you use to change directories.
Use the pwd command to print (show) the working directory.
mkdir/rmdir
Use these commands on certain routers and switches to create and delete
directoriesthe mkdir command for creation and the rmdir command for deletion.
Use the cd and pwd commands to change into these directories.
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Using the Cisco IFS to Upgrade an IOS

start with the pwd command to verify our default directory and then use the dir command to verify the
contents of the default directory (flash:/):
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R1#show file info flash:c1841-ipbase-mz.124-1c.bin
flash:c1841-ipbase-mz.124-1c.bin:
type is image (elf) []
file size is 13937472 bytes, run size is 14103140 bytes
Runnable image, entry point 0x8000F000, run from ram
R1#delete flash:c1841-ipbase-mz.124-1c.bin
R1#copy tftp://1.1.1.2//c1841-advipservicesk9-mz.124-12.bin/ flash:/
c1841-advipservicesk9-mz.124-12.bin
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Backing Up the Cisco IOS Software to a TFTP Server

copy flash tftp
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Restoring/Upgrading the Cisco IOS Software from a TFTP Server

copy tftp flash
Using Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP)

Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) is a proprietary protocol designed by Cisco to
help administrators collect information about both locally attached and remote
devices. By using CDP, you can gather hardware and protocol information about
neighbor devices, which is useful info for troubleshooting and documenting the
network.
Getting CDP Timers and Holdtime Information
#sh cdp
Global CDP information:

Sending CDP packets every 60 seconds
Sending a holdtime value of 180 seconds
Sending CDPv2 advertisements is enabled
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CDP timer is how often CDP packets are transmitted out all active interfaces.
CDP holdtime is the amount of time that the device will hold packets received
from neighbor devices.
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Using Telnet
Telnet, part of the TCP/IP protocol suite, is a virtual terminal protocol that
allows you to make connections to remote devices, gather information, and run
programs. TELecommunication NETwork is a network protocol which is mostly used
to connect to remote machines over a local area network or the internet.
Configuring TELNET
R1()
Line vty 0 4
Password telnet ---- it will ask for the pass word
Login
Do the same in rest of the routers
R1# telnet 200.200.200.2
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R1()
Line vty 0 4
No login ---- no password required direct access
Do the same in rest of the routers
R1# telnet 200.200.200.2
Checking Telnet Connections

#sh sessions
To see the connections made from your router to a remote device,
See that asterisk (*) next to connection 2? It means that session 2 was your last session. You can return to
your last session by pressing Enter twice.
Checking Telnet Users

#sh users
Building a Host Table
A host table provides name resolution only on the router that it was built upon. The command to
build a host table on a router is as follows:
ip host host_name tcp_port_number ip_address

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R1()#
Ip host r2 200.200.200.2
Ip host r3 200.200.201.3
#ping r2
#ping r3
# telnet r2
# telnet r3
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Restoring the Cisco IOS Software from ROM Monitor Mode Using
Xmodem
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Restoring the Cisco IOS Software Using the ROM Monitor

Environmental Variables and tftpdnld Command
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Configuring the Secure Shell Protocol (SSH)

To work, SSH requires a local username database, a local IP domain,
and an RSA key to be generated.
The Cisco implementation of SSH requires Cisco IOS Software to
support Rivest- Shamir-Adleman (RSA) authentication and minimum Data
Encryption Standard (DES) encryptiona cryptographic software image.
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ICMP Redirect Messages
The ping Command
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Configuring SNMP
NOTE: A community string is like a password. In the case of the first command, the community
string grants you access to SNMP.
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Configuring Syslog
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Setting a level means you will get that level and everything below it. Level 6
means you will receive level 6 and 7 messages. Level 4 means you will get
levels 4 through 7.
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Introduction to Access Lists

An access list is essentially a list of conditions that categorize packets. It is used
to either deny or permit packets.
There are a few important rules that a packet follows when its being compared
with an access list:
Its always compared with each line of the access list in sequential
orderthat is, itll always start with the first line of the access list, then go
to line 2, then line 3, and so on.
Its compared with lines of the access list only until a match is made.
Once the packet matches the condition on a line of the access list, the
packet is acted upon and no further comparisons take place.
There is an implicit deny at the end of each access listthis means
that if a packet doesnt match the condition on any of the lines in the
access list, the packet will be discarded.
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There are two main types of access lists:

Standard access lists
These use only the source IP address in an IP packet as the condition test. All decisions are
made based on the source IP address. This means that standard access lists basically permit or deny
an entire suite of protocols. They dont distinguish between any of the many types of IP traffic such as
web, Telnet, UDP, and so on.
Extended access lists

Extended access lists can evaluate many of the other fields in the layer 3 and layer 4
headers of an IP packet. They can evaluate source and destination IP addresses, the protocol field in
the Network layer header, and the port number at the Transport layer header.
Inbound access lists

When an access list is applied to inbound packets on an interface, those packets are
processed through the access list before being routed to the outbound interface. Any packets that are
denied wont be routed because theyre discarded before the routing process is invoked.
Outbound access lists

When an access list is applied to outbound packets on an interface, those packets are
routed to the outbound interface and then processed through the access list before being queued.
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Standard Access Lists

Standard IP access lists filter network traffic by examining the source IP address
in a packet. You create a standard IP access list by using the access-list numbers 199 or
13001999 (expanded range).
Access-list types are generally differentiated using a number. Based on the
number used when the access list is created, the router knows which type of syntax to
expect as the list is entered.
By using numbers 199 or 13001999, youre telling the router that you want to
create a standard IP access list, so the router will expect syntax specifying only the source
IP address in the test lines.
ACL Keywords
any
Used in place of 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255, will match any address that it is compared against
host
Used in place of 0.0.0.0 in the wildcard mask, will match only one specific address
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Controlling VTY (Telnet) Access

Lab_A(config)#access-list 50 permit 172.16.10.3
Lab_A(config)#line vty 0 4
Lab_A(config-line)#access-class 50 in
Extended Access Lists
Extended access lists allow you to specify source and destination
address as well as the protocol and port number that identify the upper-layer
protocol or application. By using extended access lists, you can effectively
allow users access to a physical LAN and stop them from accessing specific
hostsor even specific services on those hosts.
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Network Address Translation (NAT)

When Do We Use NAT?
You need to connect to the Internet and your hosts dont have globally unique
IP addresses.
You change to a new ISP that requires you to renumber your network.
You need to merge two intranets with duplicate addresses.
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Types of Network Address Translation
Static NAT
This type of NAT is designed to allow one-to-one mapping between local and global
addresses. Keep in mind that the static version requires you to have one real
Internet IP address for every host on your network.
Dynamic NAT
This version gives you the ability to map an unregistered IP address to a
registered IP address from out of a pool of registered IP addresses. You dont
have to statically configure your router to map an inside to an outside address as
you would using static NAT, but you do have to have enough real, bona-fide IP
addresses for everyone whos going to be sending packets to and receiving them
from the Internet.
Overloading
This is the most popular type of NAT configuration. Understand that overloading
really is a form of dynamic NAT that maps multiple unregistered IP addresses to a
single registered IP addressmany-to-oneby using different ports.
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NAT Names
Addresses used after NAT translations are called global addresses.

These are usually the public addresses used on the Internet, but remember, you
dont need public addresses if you arent going on the Internet.
Local addresses are the ones we use before NAT translation. So, the
inside local address is actually the private address of the sending host thats trying
to get to the Internet, while the outside local address is the address of the
destination host.
The latter is usually a public address (web address, mail server, etc.) and
is how the packet begins its journey. After translation, the inside local address is
then called the inside global address and the outside global address then
becomes the name of the destination host.
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How NAT Works
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NAT overloading example (PAT)
PAT allows us to use the Transport layer to identify the hosts, which in turn allows us
to use (theoretically) up to 65,000 hosts with one real IP address.
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Static NAT Configuration

ip nat inside source static 10.1.1.1 170.46.2.2
!
interface Ethernet0
ip address 10.1.1.10 255.255.255.0
ip nat inside
!
interface Serial0
ip address 170.46.2.1 255.255.255.0
ip nat outside
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Dynamic NAT Configuration

access-list 1 permit 10.1.1.0 0.0.0.255
!
ip nat pool todd 170.168.2.2 170.168.2.254 netmask 255.255.255.0
ip nat inside source list 1 pool todd
!
interface Ethernet0
ip address 10.1.1.10 255.255.255.0
ip nat inside
!
interface Serial0
ip address 170.168.2.1 255.255.255.0
ip nat outside
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PAT (Overloading) Configuration
access-list 1 permit 10.1.1.0 0.0.0.255

!
ip nat pool globalnet 170.168.2.1 170.168.2.1 netmask 255.255.255.0
ip nat inside source list 1 pool globalnet overload
!
interface Ethernet0/0
ip address 10.1.1.10 255.255.255.0
ip nat inside
!
interface Serial0/0
ip address 170.168.2.1 255.255.255.0
ip nat outside
Simple Verification of NAT
# show ip nat translation

#debug ip nat
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Configuring DHCP
r1
r2
200.200.200.0/24
R1()#
Ip dhcp pool dev
Network 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0
Default router 192.168.10.100
Netbios-name-server 192.168.10.1
Dns-server 192.168.10.2
Lease 12 14 30 or infinite
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Ip dhcp excluded-address
192.168.10.1 192.168.10.5
Copy
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Why Do We Need IPv6?

IPV4 is limited by its 32 bits, which causes problems for the long term growth of
the internet.
Parts of IPV4 address scheme like class D and class E are reserved for special use
IPV4 has a limitation upto 4 billion users
Explosion of new IP enabled devices, growth of undeveloped region, etc.
IPV6 Features
IPV6 addresses are 128 bits. The usable address is 5 * (10 ^ 28) per user
The total number of IPv4 addresses is 232 (or 4 * 109); when reserved
addresses are considered, approximately two billion (2 * 109) usable addresses
remain.
IPv6 also includes a simplified packet header which provides better routing
efficiency for performance and forwarding rate scalability.
Provides support for mobility and security by the use of IPSEC which is by
default present in IPV6 addressing
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IPv6 Address Notation

IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long, compared to 32 bits long for IPv4. In other
words, IPv6 addresses are 296 times more numerous than IPv4 addresses.
IPv6 addresses are represented in hexadecimal rather than decimal and use
colon-separated fields of 16 bits each, rather than decimal points between 8-bit
fields, as in IPv4.
Globally unique IPv6 addresses can be configured automatically by a router

using the built-in auto configuration process without the assistance of protocols
such as DHCP.
IPv6 uses built-in neighbor discovery, by which an IPv6 node can discover its
neighbors and any IPv6 routers on a segment, as well as whether any routers
present are willing to serve as a default gateway for hosts.
In IPV6, 128 bits are divided into 16 bit boundaries and each 16 bit boundary is
converted to a 4 digit hexadecimal number. Each set of 4 digit hexadecimal
numbers are separated by colons ( : ) . Therefore, it is also called as colon-hexa.
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Example:2035:0001:0000:0000:0000:2bc5:000a:bc0f
Compressing Zeros
leading zeros in each 16-bit field may be omitted
once, and only once, in an address, sequential zeros can be replaced with a pair
of colons (::)
only one pair of colons can be used within an IPv6 address. This is because the
number of missing 0s is calculated by separating the two parts of the address and
filling in 0s, until there are a total of 128 bits.
2035:1::2bc5:a:bc0f
Types of IPv6 Addresses

IPv6 supports three types of addresses:
Unicast
for sending to a single interface. The two currently defined types of
unicast addresses are global-aggregatable unicast (also known as global unicast)
and link local unicast.
Multicastfor sending to all of the interfaces in a group. An IPv6 multicast
address identifies a set of interfaces on different devices.
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Anycast
for sending to the nearest interface in a group. An IPv6 anycast address also
identifies a set of interfaces on different devices; however, a packet sent to an anycast
address goes only to the nearest interface, as determined by the routing protocol in use.
Therefore, all nodes with the same anycast address should provide the same service.
IPv6 Interface Identifiers

Interface identifiers (IDs) in IPv6 addresses are used to identify a unique interface
on a link and are sometimes referred to as the "host portion" of the IPv6 address. Interface
IDs must be unique on a link. They are always 64-bits long and can be dynamically created,
based on the data-link layer address.
For Ethernet, the interface ID is based on the media access control (MAC)
address of the interface, in a format called the extended universal identifier 64-bit (EUI64) format.
The EUI-64 format interface ID is derived from the 48-bit MAC address by
inserting the hexadecimal number FFFE between the organizationally unique identifier
(OUI) field (the upper three bytes) and the vendor code (the lower three bytes) of the MAC
address.
The seventh bit in the first byte of the resulting interface ID, corresponding to
the Universal/Local (U/L) bit, is set to binary 1.
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The U/L bit indicates whether the interface ID is locally unique (on the link
only) or universally (globally) unique; IDs derived from universally unique MAC
addresses are assumed to be globally unique.
The eighth bit in the first byte of the interface ID is the individual/group (I/G)
bit for managing multicast groups; it is not changed. note
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IPV6 Global Unicast Address

Consists of a 48-bit global routing prefix, a 16-bit subnet ID and a 64-bit Interface ID (EUI-64 format)
/48 global prefix /16 subnet ID
/64 Interface ID
The first 48 bits of the IPv6 global unicast address are used for global routing at the Internet
service provider (ISP) level
The next 16 bits are the subnet ID, allowing an enterprise to subdivide their network.
The final 64 bits are the interface ID, typically in EUI-64 format
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is currently assigning addresses that start with
the binary value 001, which is 2000::/3, for IPv6 global unicast addresses. This is one-eighth of
the total IPv6 address space.
The IANA is currently allocating address space in the 2001::/16 ranges to the registries.
Registries typically have a /23 range, and allocate /32 ranges to ISPs.
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IPv6 Link-Local Unicast Addresses

Link-local unicast addresses allow devices on the same local network to
communicate, without requiring them to have global unicast addresses. Link-local
addresses are used by routing and discovery protocols and are auto configured
using the FE80::/10 prefix and the EUI-64 format interface ID.
IPv6 Routing Protocols

RIPng (RIP next generation)
The Routing Information Protocol next generation (RIPng) is an interior
gateway protocol (IGP) that uses a distance-vector algorithm to determine the best
route to a destination, using the hop count as the metric.
RIPng is a routing protocol that exchanges routing information used to
compute routes and is intended for Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)-based
networks.
The RIPng IGP uses the Bellman-Ford distance-vector algorithm to
determine the best route to a destination. RIPng uses the hop count as the metric.
RIPng allows hosts and routers to exchange information for computing routes
through an IP-based network. RIPng is intended to act as an IGP for moderatelysized autonomous systems (ASs).
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EIGRP for IPv6

EIGRP for IPv6 is directly configured on the interfaces over which it runs. This
feature allows EIGRP for IPv6 to be configured without the use of a global IPv6
address. There is no network statement in EIGRP for IPv6.
In per-interface configuration at system startup, if EIGRP has been configured on an
interface, then the EIGRP protocol may start running before any EIGRP router mode
commands have been executed.
An EIGRP for IPv6 protocol instance requires a router ID before it can start running.
EIGRP for IPv6 has a shutdown feature. The routing process should be in "no
shutdown" mode in order to start running.
When a user uses passive-interface configuration, EIGRP for IPv6 does not need to
be configured on the interface that is made passive.
EIGRP for IPv6 provides route filtering using the distribute-list prefix-list command.
Use of the route-map command is not supported for route filtering with a distribute
list.
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OSPF V3 For IPV6

OSPFV3 is a new protocol implementation for IPV6.
Based on OSPFv2, with enhancements
Distributes IPv6 prefixes

Runs directly over IPv6
Ships-in-the-night with OSPFv2

In OSPFV3 the IPV6 features that are included are :-
every ospf v2 IPV4 specific semantic is removed

uses 128 bit IPV6 address
Uses link-local based address as the source address
supports authentication using IPSec
runs over a link rather than a subnet
Basic packet types

Hello, DBD, LSR, LSU, LSA
Mechanisms for neighbor discovery and adjacency formation
Interface types
P2P, P2MP, Broadcast, NBMA, Virtual
LSA flooding and aging
Nearly identical LSA types
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Migrating to IPv6
The transition from IPV4 to IPV6 does not require upgrades. The Methods that are
used are:
1.
2.
DUAL STACK
TUNNELLING
DUAL STACK
It is an integration method where a router has connectivity to both IPV4 and IPV6.
CONFIGURE RIP V2 AND RIPNG ON BOTH THE ROUTERS
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TUNNELING
It is an integration method in which an IPV6 packet is encapsulated within another
protocol, such as IPV4. tunneling IPV6 inside of IPV4 uses IPV4 protocol 41.
While tunneling an IPV6 packet over an IPV4 network, one edge router encapsulates
the IPV6 packet inside an IPV4 packet and the router at the other end and the router at the other
end de-capsulates it.
IPV6 TUNNELLING
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Configure the routers accordingly

R1()#
Int tunnel 0
Ipv6 add 2001:0:0:2::1/64
Tunnel source s0/0
Tunnel destination
200.200.201.3
Tunnel mode ipv6ip
Ipv6 rip ccnp enable
R3()#
Int tunnel 0
Ipv6 add 2001:0:0:2::2/64
Tunnel source s0/1
Tunnel destination
200.200.200.1
Tunnel mode ipv6ip
Ipv6 rip ccnp enable
Sh int tunnel
Clear counters tunnel
The command IPV6IP specifies that manual IPV6 tunnel has IPV6 as the
passenger protocol and IPV4 as both the encapsulation & transparent protocol
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CSU/DSU
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WAN Terms
Customer premises equipment (CPE)
Is the equipment thats owned by the subscriber and located on the
subscribers premises.
Demarcation point
is the precise spot where the service providers responsibility ends and
the CPE begins. Its generally a device in a telecommunications closet owned and
installed by the telecommunications company (telco). Its your responsibility to
cable (extended demarc) from this box to the CPE, which is usually a connection
to a CSU/DSU or ISDN interface.
Local loop
connects the demarc to the closest switching office, which is called a
central office.
Central office (CO)

This point connects the customers network to the providers switching
network and is sometimes referred to as a point of presence (POP) .
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WAN Connection Types
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Leased lines
These are usually referred to as a point-to-point or dedicated connection.
A leased line is a pre-established WAN communications path that goes from
the CPE through the DCE switch, then over to the CPE of the remote site.
The CPE enables DTE networks to communicate at any time with no
cumbersome setup procedures to muddle through before transmitting data.
it uses synchronous serial lines up to 45Mbps.

HDLC and PPP encapsulations are frequently used on leased lines
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Circuit switching
When you hear the term circuit switching , think phone call. The big advantage is
costyou only pay for the time you actually use. No data can transfer before an
end-to-end connection is established. Circuit switching uses dial-up modems or
ISDN and is used for low-bandwidth data transfers.
some people do have ISDN and it still is viable (and I do suppose someone does
use a modem now and then), but circuit switching can be used in some of the
newer WAN technologies as well.
Packet switching
This is a WAN switching method that allows you to share bandwidth with other
companies to save money. Packet switching can be thought of as a network thats
designed to look like a leased line yet charges you more like circuit switching. But
less cost isnt always better theres definitely a downside: If you need to
transfer data constantly, just forget about this option. Instead, get yourself a
leased line. Packet switching will only work for you if your data transfers are the
bursty typenot continuous. Frame Relay and X.25 are packet-switching
technologies with speeds that can range from 56Kbps up to T3 (45Mbps).
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WAN protocols
Frame Relay
A packet-switched technology that made its debut in the early 1990s,
Frame Relay is a high-performance Data Link and Physical layer specification. Its
pretty much a successor to X.25, except that much of the technology in X.25 used
to compensate for physical errors (noisy lines) has been eliminated. An upside to
Frame Relay is that it can be more cost effective than point-to-point links, plus it
typically runs at speeds of 64Kbps up to 45Mbps (T3). Another Frame Relay
benefit is that it provides features for dynamic bandwidth allocation and congestion
control.
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of digital services that
transmit voice and data over existing phone lines. ISDN offers a cost-effective
solution for remote users who need a higher-speed connection than analog dial-up
links can give them, and its also a good choice to use as a backup link for other
types of links like Frame Relay or T1 connections.
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LAPB
Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) was created to be a

connection-oriented protocol at the Data Link layer for use with X.25, but it can
also be used as a simple data link transport. A not-so-good characteristic of
LAPB is that it tends to create a tremendous amount of overhead due to its
strict time-out and windowing techniques.
LAPD
Link Access Procedure, D-Channel (LAPD) is used with ISDN at the
Data Link layer (layer 2) as a protocol for the D (signaling) channel. LAPD was
derived from the Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) protocol and is
designed primarily to satisfy the signaling requirements of ISDN basic access.
HDLC
High-Level Data-Link Control (HDLC) was derived from Synchronous
Data Link Control (SDLC), which was created by IBM as a Data Link connection
protocol. HDLC works at the Data Link layer and creates very little overhead
compared to LAPB.
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It wasnt intended to encapsulate multiple Network layer protocols across the same
linkthe HDLC header doesnt contain any identification about the type of protocol
being carried inside the HDLC encapsulation. Because of this, each vendor that
uses HDLC has its own way of identifying the Network layer protocol, meaning
each vendors HDLC is proprietary with regard to its specific equipment.
PPP
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a pretty famous, industry-standard

protocol. Because all multiprotocol versions of HDLC are proprietary, PPP can be
used to create point-to-point links between different vendors equipment. It uses a
Network Control Protocol field in the Data Link header to identify the Network layer
protocol and allows authentication and multilink connections to be run over
asynchronous and synchronous links.
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High-Level Data-Link Control (HDLC) Protocol
The High-Level Data-Link Control (HDLC) protocol is a popular ISOstandard, bit-oriented, Data Link layer protocol. It specifies an encapsulation
method for data on synchronous serial data links using frame characters and
checksums. HDLC is a point-to-point protocol used on leased lines. No
authentication can be used with HDLC.
In byte-oriented protocols, control information is encoded using entire
bytes. On the other hand, bit-oriented protocols use single bits to represent the
control information. Some common bit-oriented protocols include SDLC, LLC,
HDLC, TCP, and IP.
HDLC is the default encapsulation used by Cisco routers over
synchronous serial links. And Ciscos HDLC is proprietaryit wont communicate
with any other vendors HDLC implementation.
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Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
PPP contains four main components:

EIA/TIA-232-C, V.24, V.35, and ISDN
A Physical layer international standard for serial communication.
HDLC
A method for encapsulating datagrams over serial links.
LCP
A method of establishing, configuring, maintaining, and terminating the point-topoint connection.
NCP
A method of establishing and configuring different Network layer protocols. NCP
is designed to allow the simultaneous use of multiple Network layer protocols.
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Link Control Protocol (LCP) Configuration Options

Link Control Protocol (LCP) offers different PPP encapsulation options, including
the following:
Authentication
This option tells the calling side of the link to send information that can identify the
user. The two methods are PAP and CHAP.
Compression
This is used to increase the throughput of PPP connections by compressing the
data or payload prior to transmission. PPP decompresses the data frame on the
receiving end.
Error detection
PPP uses Quality and Magic Number options to ensure a reliable, loop-free data
link.
Multilink
Starting with IOS version 11.1, multilink is supported on PPP links with Cisco
routers. This option makes several separate physical paths appear to be one
logical path at layer 3. For example, two T1s running multilink PPP would show up
as a single 3Mbps path to a layer 3 routing protocol.
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PPP callback
PPP can be configured to call back after successful authentication. PPP callback
can be a good thing for you because you can keep track of usage based upon
access charges, for accounting records, and a bunch of other reasons. With
callback enabled, a calling router (client) will contact a remote router (server) and
authenticate as I described earlier. (Know that both routers have to be configured
for the callback feature for this to work.) Once authentication is completed, the
remote router will terminate the connection and then re-initiate a connection to the
calling router from the remote router.
PPP Session Establishment
When PPP connections are started, the links go through three phases of session
establishment
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Link-establishment phase
LCP packets are sent by each PPP device to configure and test the link.
These packets contain a field called the Configuration Option that allows each
device to see the size of the data, compression, and authentication. If no
Configuration Option field is present, then the default configurations will be used.
Authentication phase
If required, either CHAP or PAP can be used to authenticate a link.
Authentication takes place before Network layer protocol information is read. And
its possible that link-quality determination will occur simultaneously.
Network layer protocol phase

PPP uses the Network Control Protocol (NCP) to allow multiple Network
layer protocols to be encapsulated and sent over a PPP data link. Each Network
layer protocol (e.g., IP, IPX, AppleTalk, which are routed protocols) establishes a
service with NCP.
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PPP Authentication Methods
There are two methods of authentication that can be used with PPP links:
Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
The Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) is the less secure of the two
methods. Passwords are sent in clear text, and PAP is only performed upon the
initial link establishment. When the PPP link is first established, the remote node
sends the username and password back to the originating router until
authentication is acknowledged. Not exactly Fort Knox!
Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)
The Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is used at the
initial startup of a link and at periodic checkups on the link to make sure the router
is still communicating with the same host. After PPP finishes its initial linkestablishment phase, the local router sends a challenge request to the remote
device. The remote device sends a value calculated using a one-way hash function
called MD5. The local router checks this hash value to make sure it matches. If the
values dont match, the link is immediately terminated.
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Configuring PPP
On both r1 and r2 serial link:
()# int s0/0

encapsulation ppp
Configuring PPP Authentication
Create a host name for the router if it is not present as it is necessary
Set the username and password for the remote router
The password on both routers must be same (password name is case
sensitive)
The username is the host name of the remote router
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Router()# Host name r1
Router()# Host name r2
r1()#username r2 password cisco
r2()#username r1 password cisco
r1()#int s0/0
ppp authentication chap pap
r2()#int s0/0
ppp authentication chap pap
Verifying PPP Encapsulation

#sh int s0/0
Debugging PPP Authentication

To display the CHAP authentication process as it occurs between two routers in
the network, just use the command
#debug ppp authentication
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Frame Relay
A packet switching technology
Derived from the earlier deployment of x.25 technology
Operates on a single subnet
By default frame-relay is Non-broadcast-Multiaccess (NBMA)
Works on Serial link
There are 2 types of bandwidth specifications for frame-relay

1. Access rate
The maximum speed at which the Frame Relay interface can transmit.
2. CIR
The maximum bandwidth of data guaranteed to be delivered. In reality,
its the average amount that the service provider will allow you to transmit.
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Virtual Circuits
Frame Relay operates using virtual circuits as opposed to the actual
circuits that leased lines use. These virtual circuits are what link together the
thousands of devices connected to the providers cloud. Frame Relay provides a
virtual circuit between your two DTE devices, making them appear to be
connected via a circuit when in reality, theyre dumping their frames into a large,
shared infrastructure.
There are 2 types of VCs used by Frame-relay
1. Permanent VC
works like a leased line which is always up.
2. Switched VC
works like a dial-up connection. When data passes at that time it is up
else it is down.
Data Link Connection Identifiers (DLCIs)
Frame Relay PVCs are identified to DTE end devices by Data Link
Connection Identifiers (DLCIs). A Frame Relay service provider typically assigns
DLCI values, which are used on Frame Relay interfaces to distinguish between
different virtual circuits.
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Local Management Interface (LMI)

Local Management Interface (LMI) is a signaling standard used between
your router and the first Frame Relay switch its connected to. It allows for passing
information about the operation and status of the virtual circuit between the
providers network and the DTE (your router). It communicates information about
the following:
Keepalives
These verify that data is flowing.
Multicasting
This is an optional extension of the LMI specification that allows, for
example, the efficient distribution of routing information and ARP requests over a
Frame Relay network. Multicasting uses the reserved DLCIs from 1019 through
1022.
Global addressing
This provides global significance to DLCIs, allowing the Frame Relay
cloud to work exactly like a LAN.
Status of virtual circuits
This provides DLCI status. The status inquiries and messages are used
as keepalives when there is no regular LMI traffic to send.
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Configuring Frame-Relay
Rip v2
router()# hostname frsw

frsw()# frame-relay switching ---- it enables frame-relay switching capability on the router
()#
int s0/0
Encapsulation frame-relay
Frame-relay intf-type dce
Clock rate 64000
Frame-relay route 102 int s0/1 201
No sh
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()#
int s0/1
Frame-relay intf-type dce
Clock rate 64000
Frame-relay route 201 int s0/0 102
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HQ()#
int s0/0
Ip add 200.200.200.1 255.255.255.0
Frame-relay intf-type dte
bandwidth 64
Frame-relay interface-dlci 102
No sh
()#
Router rip
Ver 2
No auto
Net 200.200.200.0
Net 192.168.10.0
BR1()#
int s0/0
Ip add 200.200.200.2 255.255.255.0
Frame-relay intf-type dte
bandwidth 64
Frame-relay interface-dlci 102
No sh
()#
Router rip
Ver 2
No auto
Net 200.200.200.0
Net 192.168.20.0
Verirying:On HQ and BR1

#show frame-relay map
#Show frame-relay pvc
On FRSW
#show frame-relay route
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Switch Operation
When you power on the switch it does 3 things :Address learning
Layer 2 switches and bridges remember the source hardware address of each frame
received on an interface, and they enter this information into a MAC database called a
forward/filter table.
Forwarding and Filtering
When a frame is received on an interface, the switch looks at the destination hardware
address and finds the exit interface in the MAC database. The frame is only forwarded out
the specified destination port.
Loop avoidance
If multiple connections between switches are created for redundancy purposes, network
loops can occur. Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is used to stop network loops while still
permitting redundancy.
If no loop avoidance schemes are put in place, the switches will flood broadcasts endlessly
throughout the internetwork. This is sometimes referred to as a broadcast storm.
A device can receive multiple copies of the same frame since that frame can arrive from
different segments at the same time.
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The MAC address filter table could be totally confused about the devices location because the
switch can receive the frame from more than one link. And whats more, the bewildered switch
could get so caught up in constantly updating the MAC filter table with source hardware
address locations that it will fail to forward a frame! This is called thrashing the MAC table.
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)

Once upon a time a company called Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) was purchased
and renamed Compaq. DEC created the original version of Spanning Tree Protocol, or STP.
The IEEE later created its own version of STP called 802.1D. By default, Cisco switches run
the IEEE 802.1D version of STP, which isnt compatible with the DEC version.
STPs main task is to stop network loops from occurring on your layer 2 network (bridges or
switches). It monitors the network to find all links, making sure that no loops occur by shutting
down any redundant links. STP uses the spanning-tree algorithm (STA) to first create a
topology database and then search out and destroy redundant links. With STP running,
frames will be forwarded only on STP-picked links.
Spanning Tree Terms

Data messages are exchanged in the form of Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDU). A switch
sends a BPDU frame out a port, using the unique MAC address of the port itself as a source
address. The switch is unaware of the other switches around it, so BPDU frames are sent
with a destination address of the well-known STP multicast address 01-80-c2-00-00-00.
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By default, BPDUs are sent out all switch ports every 2 seconds so that current topology
information is exchanged and loops are identified quickly. It contains:Protocol ID
Version
Message Type
Flags
Root Bridge ID
Root Path Cost
Sender Bridge ID
Port ID
Message Age (in 256ths of a second)
Maximum Age (in 256ths of a second)
Hello Time (in 256ths of a second)
Forward Delay (in 256ths of a second)
Two types of BPDU exist:

Configuration BPDU, used for spanning-tree computation
Topology Change Notification (TCN) BPDU, used to announce changes in the network
topology
Bridge ID
The bridge ID is how STP keeps track of all the switches in the network. It is determined by a
combination of the bridge priority (32,768 by default on all Cisco switches) and the base MAC
address. The bridge with the lowest bridge ID becomes the root bridge in the network.
Bridge Priority (2 bytes)The priority or weight of a switch in relation to all other switches.
The priority field can have a value of 0 to 65,535 and defaults to 32,768 (or 0x8000) on every
Catalyst switch.
MAC Address (6 bytes)The MAC address used by a switch can come from the Supervisor
module, the backplane, or a pool of 1,024 addresses that are assigned to every Supervisor or
backplane, depending on the switch model. In any event, this address is hardcoded and unique,
and the user cannot change it.
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Root Bridge
For all switches in a network to agree on a loop-free topology, a common frame of
reference must exist to use as a guide. This reference point is called the Root
Bridge.
Election of Root Bridge
The election of Root Bridge is based on priority value. If the priority is

same then the switch with the lowest mac address becomes the root
bridge.
Designated Ports
By default all the ports of a Root Bridge are Designated Ports and they
are always in forwarding state.
On a Non-Root-Bridge the port which is not the Root Port and has the
lowest path cost to reach the destination.
Port cost
Port cost determines the best path when multiple links are used between two
switches and none of the links is a root port. The cost of a link is determined by
the bandwidth of a link.
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Root Ports
On a Non-Root Bridge the port which is either directly
connected to the RB or has the lowest path cost to reach the RB is
called as Root Port.
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Root Port Election
1.If a switch has multiple ports connected to reach the RB then the port with
the lowest path cost becomes the RP.
2. If a switch has multiple ports with same cost to reach the RB then the
port with the lowest port number becomes the RP.
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Spanning-Tree Port States

Blocking A blocked port wont forward frames; it just listens to BPDUs. The
purpose of the blocking state is to prevent the use of looped paths. All ports are in
blocking state by default when the switch is powered up.
Listening The port listens to BPDUs to make sure no loops occur on the network
before passing data frames. A port in listening state prepares to forward data frames
without populating the MAC address table.
Learning The switch port listens to BPDUs and learns all the paths in the switched
network. A port in learning state populates the MAC address table but doesnt
forward data frames. Forward delay means the time it takes to transition a port from
listening to learning mode, which is set to 15 seconds by default and can be seen in
the show spanning-tree output.
Forwarding The port sends and receives all data frames on the bridged port. If the
port is still a designated or root port at the end of the learning state, it enters the
forwarding state.
Disabled A port in the disabled state (administratively) does not participate in the
frame forwarding or STP. A port in the disabled state is virtually nonoperational.
A port takes about 50 seconds to be fully active.
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Virtual LANs (VLANs)

A VLAN is a logical grouping of network users and resources connected to
administratively defined ports on a switch.
Characteristics of VLAN
1.
2.
3.
All devices in a vlan are member of the same broadcast domain.

The broadcast is filtered from all ports or devices that are not members of
same vlan.
Vlan membership is always associated with a switch port.
Benefits of VLAN
1.
2.
3.
Efficient use of Bandwidth utilization

Security
Active redundant path
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There are 2 types of VLAN.

Static VLAN:are created manually by the administrator. Each port receives a
port vlan id that associates it with a vlan numbering. The ports on a
single switch can be assigned and grouped into many vlans.
Dynamic VLAN:provides the membership based on the MAC address of an enduser device. When a device is connected to a switch-port, the switch
must query a database to establish VLAN membership. The
administrator must assign users MAC address to a vlan in the database
of a vlan membership policy server (VMPS).
with cisco switches dynamic vlans are created and managed
using network management tools, cisco works 2000.
There are 2 types of links used with VLAN
1. access-link
2. Trunk link
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Access-Link:Its a link between a switch and pc , switch and hub. No vlan

information passes through access-link.
Trunk Link:Its a link between a switch to switch , switch to router. Multiple
vlan information passes through this link.
Trunking Methods:There are 3 types of trunking Methods available ;
1. ISL (Inter Switch Link)
2. IEEE802.1q
3. DTP (Dynamic Trunking Protocol)
Inter Switch Link:Its a cisco proprietary protocol that supports multiprotocol like
ethernet token ring , FDDI. It supports 1000 vlans and PVST. It performs
frame identification in layer 2 by encapsulating each frame between a
header and trailer. When a frame is sent out to another switch ISL adds a
26 byte header and a 4 byte trailer to the fame. The trailer contains a CRC
value to ensure the data integrity of the frame.
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IEEE802.1Q :An IEEE standard method for identifying vlans by inserting a vlan
identifier into the frame header. This process is called frame tagging. It supports
ethernet and token ring and upto 4096 vlans. It also supports enhanced stp like
PVST, MST, RSTP.
Dynamic Trunking Protocol (DTP):It is a cisco proprietary point-to-point protocol that negotiates a common
trunking mode between two switches. The negotiation covers the encapsulation
(ISL or DOT1Q) and whether the link becomes a trunk at all.
VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP)
its a protocol used to distribute and synchronize information about vlans
configured throughout a switched network. It maintains consistency by managing
addition, deletion and name changes of vlans within a vtp domain.
A vtp domain is one switch or several interconnected switches sharing the same
vtp environment.
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VTP modes
VTP operates in one of the three modes :1.
Server
2.Client 3. Transparent
Server Mode :Create, delete, modify vlans

Forwards advertisements to other switches
Synchronizes vlan configuration with latest information received from other switches
Saves vlan configuration in NVRAM
Client Mode:Can not create, delete, change vlans
Forwards advertisements to other vlans
Does not save vlan configuration in NVRAM
Acts as a VTP relay
Transparent Mode :Doesnt participate in VTP
doesnt advertise its own vlan configuration
Doesnt synchronize its vlan database with received advertisements
Vtp version 2 transparent switches forward received vtp advertisements out of their trunk
port acting as vtp relays.
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VTP Operation
Vtp advertisements are sent as multicast frames

Vtp servers and clients are synchronized to the latest revision number
Vtp advertisements are sent in every 5 minutes or when there is a change
Vtp switches use an index called the vtp configuration revision number to
keep track of the most recent information
The vtp advertisement process always starts with configuration revision
number 0
VTP Prunning
Uses vlan advertisements to determine when a trunk connection is flooding
traffic needlessly. It increases the available bandwidth by restricting
flooded traffic to those trunk links that the traffic must use to access the
appropriate network devices. By default, vtp pruning is disabled.
Switch ()# vtp prunning
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192.168.10.0
Dg - 192.168.10.100
192.168.20.0
Dg - 192.168.20.100
Configuring VLAN
SW()# VLAN 2
# NAME HR
SW()# VLAN 3
# NAME SALE
Sw # show vlan
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Adding Port to Vlan / configuring access port

Sw()# int fa0/1
# switchport mode access
# switchport access vlan 2
Sw()# int range fa0/2 - 4
Sw()# int range fa0/5 - 8

Sw# show vlan
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Configuring Trunk port

For 2950 switch
SW()# int fa0/9
# switchport mode trunk
For 3550/3560 switch
SW()# int fa0/9

# switchport trunk encapsulation {isl : dot1q}
# switchport mode trunk
Configuring Router for Inter-vlanning

Router()#
int fa0/0
No ip address
No shut
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Router()#
int fa0/0.1
Encapsulation dot1q 2 vlan 2
ip address 192.168.10.100 255.255.255.0
Router()#
int fa0/0.2
Encapsulation dot1q 3 vlan 3
ip address 192.168.20.100 255.255.255.0
Pc1:\>ping 192.168.20.1
Pc2:\>ping 192.168.10.1
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Configuring the Switch Priority of a VLAN

Switch(config)#spanning-tree vlan 5 priority 12288
NOTE:
With the priority keyword, the range is 0 to 61440 in increments of 4096. The
default is 32768. The lower the priority, the more likely the switch will be chosen
as the root switch.
Only the following numbers can be used as a priority value:
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8192
12288
16384
20480
25576
28672
32768
36864
40960
45056
49152
53248
57344
61440
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Redundant Link Convergence

PortFast
Enables fast connectivity to be established on access-layer switch ports to
workstations that are booting up by-passing listening and learning state. By
default, PortFast is disabled on all switch ports. You can configure PortFast as
a global default, affecting all switch ports with a single command. All ports
that are configured for access mode (non-trunking) will have PortFast
automatically enabled.
Switch(config)# spanning-tree portfast default
Switch(config)#int fa0/10
Switch(config-if)# spanning-tree portfast
Switch# show spanning-tree interface fastethernet 0/1 portfast
UplinkFast
Enables fast-uplink failover on an access-layer switch when dual uplinks are
connected into the distribution layer. When UplinkFast is enabled, it is
enabled for the entire switch and all VLANs. UplinkFast works by keeping
track of possible paths to the Root Bridge. Therefore, the command is not
allowed on the Root Bridge switch.
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Switch(config)# spanning-tree uplinkfast

Switch(config)# spanning-tree uplinkfast [max-update-rate pkts-per-second]
This limits the amount of bandwidth used for the dummy multicasts if the CAM
table is quite large. The default is 150 packets per second (pps), but the rate can
range from 0 to 65,535 pps.
Switch# show spanning-tree uplinkfast
BackboneFast
Enables fast convergence in the network backbone (core) after a spanning-tree
topology change occurs.
BackboneFast works by having a switch actively determine whether alternative

paths exist to the Root Bridge, in case the switch detects an indirect link failure.
Indirect link failures occur when a link that is not directly connected to a switch
fails.
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A switch detects an indirect link failure when it receives inferior BPDUs from its
designated bridge on either its Root Port or a blocked port. (Inferior BPDUs are
sent from a designated bridge that has lost its connection to the Root Bridge,
making it announce itself as the new Root.)
Normally, a switch must wait for the Max Age timer to expire before responding
to the inferior BPDUs. However, BackboneFast begins to determine whether
other alternative paths to the Root Bridge exist according to the following port
types that received the inferior BPDU:
If the inferior BPDU arrives on a port in the Blocking state, the switch considers
the Root Port and all other blocked ports to be alternate paths to the Root
Bridge.
If the inferior BPDU arrives on the Root Port itself, the switch considers all
blocked ports to be alternate paths to the Root Bridge.
If the inferior BPDU arrives on the Root Port and no ports are blocked,
however, the switch assumes that it has lost connectivity with the Root Bridge. In
this case, the switch assumes that it has become the Root Bridge, and
BackboneFast allows it to do so before the Max Age timer expires.
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When used, BackboneFast should be enabled on all switches in the network .
Switch(config)# spanning-tree backbonefast

Switch# show spanning-tree backbonefast
Troubleshooting STP
Because the STP running in a network uses several timers, costs, and
dynamic calculations, predicting the current state is difficult. You can use
a network diagram and work out the STP topology by hand, but any
change on the network could produce an entirely different outcome.
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Protecting the Spanning Tree Protocol Topology

This chapter discusses two basic conditions that can occur to disrupt
the loop-free topology (even while STP is running):
On a port that has not been receiving BPDUs, BPDUs are not
expected. When BPDUs suddenly appear for some reason, the STP
topology can re-converge to give unexpected results.
On a port that normally receives BPDUs, BPDUs always are
expected. When BPDUs suddenly disappear for some reason, a switch
can make incorrect assumptions about the topology and unintentionally
create loops.
Protecting Against Unexpected BPDUs
BPDU guard
BPDU filter
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BPDU Guard
The BPDU guard feature was developed to further protect the integrity of switch
ports that have PortFast enabled. If any BPDU (whether superior to the current
root or not) is received on a port where BPDU guard is enabled, that port
immediately is put into the errdisable state. The port is shut down in an error
condition and must be either manually re-enabled or automatically recovered
through the errdisable timeout function. By default, BPDU guard is disabled on all
switch ports.
Portfast enabled
RB
switch
client
switch
New
switch
hub
BPDU with superior information

Errdisable state
Switch(config)# spanning-tree portfast bpduguard default

Switch(config-if)# spanning-tree bpduguard enable
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BPDU Filtering
Is another way of preventing Root Bridge placement in the network. It can
be configured globally and also on interface.
In global mode if a portfast interface receives any BPDUs it is taken out
of Portfast status.
In interface mode it prevents the port from sending and receiving

BPDUs.
Switch(config)# spanning-tree portfast bpdufilter default
Switch(config-if)# spanning-tree bpdufilter enable
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RSTP (802.1w)
RSTP is designed to speed up the re-calculation of the Spanning-Tree

when a L2 network topology changes. The characteristics of RSTP are :They are integrated into protocol at a low level
They are transparent

Do not require additional configuration
Performs better than STP configuration
RSTP achieves its rapid nature by letting each switch interact with its
neighbors through each port. This interaction is based on a ports role.
Switch(config)# spanning-tree mode rapid-pvst
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Switch Port Aggregation with Ether-Channel

Aggregation means bundling, which is done through ether
channel or Port channel.
Ether channel or port channel bundles individual ethernet links
into a single logical link that provides up-to 1600 Mbps between 2 catalyst
switches.
2 to 8 links of wither FE, GE, or 10-GE are bundled as one logical
link of fast ether channel, GEC, 10GEC. This bundle provides a full-duplex
bandwidth upto 1600 mbps, 16gbps.
Ether channel uses 2 protocols :1. Port Aggregation Protocol (PAGP)
2. Link Aggregation Control Protocol (LACP)
PAGP
Its a cisco proprietary protocol that learns the capabilities of
interface groups dynamically and informs other interfaces. After identifying
correctly matched ethernet links it groups the links into an ether channel.
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PAGP has two modes auto and desirable which are grouped as :Desirable-desirable
auto desirable
By default, PAGP operates in silent sub-mode with the desirable
and auto mode and allows ports to be added to an ether channel even if
the other end of the link is silent and never transmit PAGP packets.
LACP
Its an open standard IEEE protocol. In LACP the switch with the
lowest system priority is allowed to make decisions about what ports are
actively participating in the ether channel at a given time. To create a
channel in lacp the links must be set to :Active active
Active passive
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Interface Modes in Ether Channel
Mode
ON
Protocol
---
AUTO
PAgP
Desirable
PAgP
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Mode
Protocol
Description
Active
LACP
places the interface into an active state
Passive
LACP
places the interface into a passive

negotiation
There are 2 types of ether-channel .

1. Layer 2
2. Layer 3
As ports are configured to be members of an Ether-Channel, the switch
automatically creates a logical port-channel interface. This interface represents the
channel as a whole. Guidelines that apply to the switch ports that will be grouped
into an EtherChannel: All ports should be assigned to the same VLAN or configured for trunking (an
EtherChannel can be used as a trunk link).
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If the EtherChannel will be a trunk link, all ports should have the same trunk
mode and should carry the same VLANs over the trunk.
All ports should be configured for the same speed and duplex mode.
Do not configure the ports as dynamic VLAN ports.
All ports should be enabled; a disabled port will be seen as a failed link, forcing
its traffic to be moved to the next available link in the bundle.
Configuring Etherchannel
4
5
6
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1
2
3
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2
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Configuring PAgP mode

4
5
6
sw2
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
Both switch 1 and switch 2 should initiate negotiation via PAgP
. On both sw1 and sw2 ------()#

int rang fa0/1 3
Channel-group 1 mode desirable
()#
Int port-channel 1
Switchport mode dynamic desirable
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Securing Switch Access
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Cisco Learning World

Cisco Certified Network Associate

ICND 1 640-822 - Interconnecting Cisco Networking Devices Part 1

Exam Number - 640-802

MANAGING CISCO DEVICES

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

As the name suggest it covers the entire geographical area. A WAN

Global WAN:No security . Example Internet

Connection between more than one device

Data passes bi-directionally over the link

This is the most typical and practical

1. This topology is a true pointto-point topology as each device is

Cellular / wireless Topology

1. This topology divides the geographical locations into smaller location.

: HUB, REPEATER, NIC , SWITCH

Network Interface Card

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP) combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation,

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire medium used in a

OSI ( Open System Interconnect )

Defines how the applications

Defines how data is transmitted

Application Layer (OSI Layer 7)

Presentation Layer (OSI Layer 6)

compression schemes, and encryption schemes.

Examples of specifications that operate at the presentation layer

G.711, G.729a, G.726, G.728

Session Layer (OSI Layer 5)

The management of sessions involves the synchronization of dialog control

Transport Layer (OSI Layer 4)

circuit management, and flow control.

Network Layer (OSI Layer 3)

Data-Link Layer (OSI Layer 2)

Examples of data-link layer technologies are the

Physical Layer (OSI Layer 1)

TCP / IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The Process/Application Layer Protocols

Allows two different types of file systems to interoperate. Example NT with

Used to send mails.

Designed for client/server operations. It defines a protocol for writing

It collects and manipulates valuable network information. It gathers data by

The Host-to-Host Layer Protocols

3 way Hand Shaking

The TCP header is 20 bytes long, or up to 24 bytes with options.

Reserved :always set to zero

Code Bits:control functions used to set up and terminate a session

Options :may be 0 or a multiple of 32 bits, if any. What this means is that no

handed down to the TCP protocol at the transport layer, which

Numbers below 1024 are considered well-known port numbers\

INTERNET LAYER PROTOCOLS

Version:IP version number

Total length :Length of the packet including header and data

specifies whether fragmentation should occur

Header checksum :CRC on header only

Its a management protocol and messaging service provider for IP.

Common events and Messages

When an IP machine happens to be a diskless machine, it has no way

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is the entity that

a bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0

Byte :- a byte is 7 or 8 bits, depending on whether parity is used

Network address :- this is the designation used in routing to send packets to