PROJECT

ON
REDISTRIBUTION

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of diploma in Computer Science Engineering

under Punjab Board of Technical Education,Chandigarh.

SUBMITTED TOSUBMITTED BYER.PARMEET KAUR

Satish Kumar

141076254899

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Apart from the efforts of me, the success of my project depends largely on the encouragement
and guidelines of many others. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the people who
have been instrumental in the successful completion of this project.

I would like to show my greatest appreciation to my project in-charge, Er. Parmeet kaur.
I cant say thank you enough for the tremendous support and help. I feel motivated and
encouraged every time I attend her meeting. Without her encouragement and guidelines this
project work would not have materialized.

Im highly grateful to Er. Sushil kamboj, our head of department (HOD), for her thorough
guidance right from day 1st till the end of project. She actually laid the ground for conceptual
understanding of technologies used in project.

COMPANY PROFILE
Students Space is an information technology services provider seeks to innovate in a way that
minimizes the gap between our offerings and client needs, until both are at zero distance from
one another, we have developed and refined solutions that support the consumer, enterprise, and
ecosystem while focusing on complete quality instead of a pure-play testing approach. Students
Space recognized for its ability to execute and completeness of vision. The company operates
through two segments i.e. offering innovative and customer-centric information technology
services and solutions, as well as extending its full-fledged contribution in teach division in
which we encourage candidates to opt an IT module that grooms them up for a new horizon of
opportunities to bridge up the gap of demands and supply.
5 TOWERS OF STUDENTS SPACE SUSTAINABLE GROWTH, YOU SHOULD KNOW
ABOUT THEIR SUCCESS
Sustainable business growth is a promised benefit to the users who hire us for complete web
solutions, as we:

Are dynamic yet professional at the same time.

Have remained quality centric to offer solutions to clients of medium to larger
enterprises.
Possess the capability of rendering the right business solutions.
Take it as our responsibility to render efficient solutions instantly.
House the best resources to offer services that could match up to the clients expectations

STUDENTS SPACE MISSION

Our Roadmap starts with our mission, which is enduring. It declares our purpose as a company
and serves as the standard against which we weigh our actions and decisions.
STUDENTS SPACE VISION

Our vision is to develop in a constant manner and grow as a major IT service provider to become
a leading performer, in providing quality Web and Software Development solutions in the
competitive global marketplace.
STUDENTS SPACE
Plot No. E-55,
Industrial Area Phase VIII,
Mohali (Pb)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Satish Kumar roll no.141076254899 student of Computer Science of
CHANDIGARH POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, GHARUAN has completed her project and
submitted a report for the same in partial fulfillment of requirement of the course .The student
has worked under our guidance as directed.

SIGNATURE GUIDE-

SIGNATURE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT-

TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO

TOPIC

PAGE NO.

1.

INTRODUCTION

2.

CISCO PACKET TRACER

3.

NETWORKING

4.

TOPOLOGIES

5.

SWITCHES

6.

RIP DISTRIBUTION

7.

REDSITRIBUTION

8.

LABORATARY REQUIREMENTS

9.

FUTURE SCOPE

INTRODUCTION

CISCO PACKET TRACER: Packet Tracer is a cross-platform visual simulation program

designed by Cisco Systems that allows users to create network topologies and imitate
modern computer networks. The software allows users to simulate the configuration of Cisco
routers and switches using a simulated command line interface. Packet Tracer makes use of
a drag and drop user interface, allowing users to add and remove simulated network devices as
they see fit. The software is mainly focused towards Certified Cisco Network Associate
Academy students as an educational tool for helping them learn fundamental CCNA concepts.
Students enrolled in a CCNA Academy program can freely download and use the tool free of
charge for educational use.
In addition to simulating certain aspects of computer networks, Packet Tracer can also be used
for collaboration. As of Packet Tracer 5.0, Packet Tracer supports a multi-user system that
enables multiple users to connect multiple topologies together over a computer network. Packet
Tracer also allows instructors to create activities that students have to complete. Packet Tracer is
often used in educational settings as a learning aid.Cisco Systems claims that Packet Tracer is
useful for network experimentation.

Role in Education
Packet Tracer allows students to design complex and large networks, which is often not feasible
with physical hardware, due to costs. Packet Tracer is commonly used by CCNA Academy
students, since it is available to them for free.However, due to functional limitations, it is
intended by Cisco to be used only as a learning aid, not a replacement for
Cisco routers and switches. The application itself only has a small number of features found
within the actual hardware running a current Cisco IOS version. Thus, Packet Tracer is
unsuitable for modelling production networks. It has a limited command set, meaning it is not
possible to practice all of the IOS commands that might be required.
Packet Tracer can be useful for understanding abstract networking concepts, such as
the Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol by animating these elements in a visual
form. Packet Tracer is also useful in education by providing additional components, including an
authoring system, network protocol simulation and an assessment system.

NETWORKING-In information technology, networking is the construction, design, and use of

a network, including the physical (cabling, hub, bridge, switch, router, and so forth), the
selection and use of telecommunication protocol and computer software for using and managing
the network, and the establishment of operation policies and procedures related to the network.
Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network
nodes. Nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well
as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one
device is able to exchange information with the other device, whether or not they have a direct
connection to each other.
Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals,
the communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network's size, topology and
organizational intent.
Computer networks support an enormous number of applications and services such as access to
the World Wide Web, digital video digital audio, shared use of application and storage
servers, printers, and fax machines, and use of email and instant messaging applications as well
as many others. In most cases, application-specific communications protocols are layered (i.e.
carried as payload) over other more general communications protocols.
Network Design

Computer networks also differ in their design approach. The two basic forms of network design
are called client/server and peer-to-peer.

Introduction to Client Server Networks

The term client-server refers to a popular model for computer networking that utilizes client and
server devices each designed for specific purposes. The client-server model can be used on the
Internet as well as local area networks (LANs). Examples of client-server systems on the Internet
include Web browsers and Web servers, FTP clients and servers, and the DNS.
Client and Server Devices
Client/server networking grew in popularity many years ago as personal computers (PCs)
became the common alternative to older mainframe computers. Client devices are typically PCs
with network software applications installed that request and receive information over the
network. Mobile devices as well as desktop computers can both function as clients.
A server device typically stores files and databases including more complex applications like
Web sites. Server devices often feature higher-powered central processors, more memory, and
larger disk drives than clients.

Client-Server Applications
The client-server model organizes network traffic per client application and also per device.
Network clients make requests to a server by sending messages, and servers respond to their
clients by acting on each request and returning results. One server supports many clients, and
multiple servers can be networked together in a pool to handle the increased processing load as
the number of clients grows.
A client computer and a server computer are usually two separate devices, each customized for
their designed purpose. For example, a Web client works best with a large screen display, while a
Web server does not need any display at all and can be located anywhere in the world. However,
in some cases a given device can function both as a client and a server for the same application.

Additionally, a device that is a server for one application can simultaneously act as a client to
other servers, for different applications.

Introduction to Peer-to-Peer Networks

Peer to peer is an approach to computer networking where all computers share equivalent
responsibility for processing data. Peer-to-peer networking (also known simply as peer
networking) differs from client-server networking, where certain devices have responsibility for
providing or "serving" data and other devices consume or otherwise act as "clients" of those
servers.
Characteristics of a Peer Network
Peer to peer networking is common on small local area networks (LANs), particularly home
networks. Both wired and wireless home networks can be configured as peer to peer
environments.
Computers in a peer to peer network run the same networking protocols and software. Peer
networks are also often situated physically near to each other, typically in homes, small
businesses or schools. Some peer networks, however, utilize the Internet and are geographically
dispersed worldwide.
Home networks that utilize broadband routers are hybrid peer to peer and client-server
environments. The router provides centralized Internet connection sharing, but file, printer, and
other resource sharing are managed directly between the local computers involved.
Peer to Peer and P2P Networks
Internet-based peer to peer networks emerged in the 1990s due to the development of P2P file
sharing networks like Napster. Technically, many P2P networks (including the original Napster)
are not pure peer networks but rather hybrid designs as they utilize central servers for some
functions such as search.

10

TOPOLOGIES-Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.)
of a computer network. Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network and may be
depicted physically or logically. Physical topology is the placement of the various components of
a network, including device location and cable installation, while logical topology illustrates how
data flows within a network, regardless of its physical design. Distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their
topologies may be identical.
An example is a local area network (LAN). Any given node in the LAN has one or more physical
links to other devices in the network; graphically mapping these links results in a geometric
shape that can be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Conversely, mapping the
data flow between the components determines the logical topology of the network.
Two basic categories of network topologies exist, physical topologies and logical topologies.

11

The cabling layout used to link devices is the physical topology of the network. This refers to the
layout of cabling, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the
cabling. The physical topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the network
access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost associated
with cabling or telecommunications circuits.
In contrast, logical topology is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that
the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical
interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its
physical topology. For example, the original twisted pair Ethernet using repeater hubs was a
logical bus topology carried on a physical star topology. Token ring is a logical ring topology, but
is wired as a physical star from the media access unit. Logical topologies are often closely
associated with media access control methods and protocols. Some networks are able to
dynamically change their logical topology through configuration changes to their routers and
switches.

Bus-In local area networks where bus topology is used, each node is
connected to a single cable, by the help of interface connectors. This central
cable is the backbone of the network and is known as the bus (thus the
name). A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines
connected on the bus cable until it finds the intended recipient. If the
machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the
machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data matches the machine
address, the data is accepted. Because the bus topology consists of only one
wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to other
topologies. However, the low cost of implementing the technology is offset
by the high cost of managing the network. Additionally, because only one
cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure.

12

Star-In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is
connected to a central hub with a point-to-point connection. So it can be said
that every computer is indirectly connected to every other node with the
help of the hub. In Star topology, every node (computer workstation or any
other peripheral) is connected to a central node called hub, router or switch.
The switch is the server and the peripherals are the clients. The network
does not necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star
network, but all of the nodes on the network must be connected to one
central device. All traffic that traverses the network passes through the
central hub. The hub acts as a signal repeater. The star topology is
considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of
the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary
disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub represents a single point of
failure.

13

Ring-A ring topology is a bus topology in a closed loop. Data travels around
the ring in one direction. When one node sends data to another, the data
passes through each intermediate node on the ring until it reaches its
destination. The intermediate nodes repeat (retransmit) the data to keep the
signal strong. Every node is a peer; there is no hierarchical relationship of
clients and servers. If one node is unable to retransmit data, it severs
communication between the nodes before and after it in the bus.

Mesh-He value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of

the number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two
endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's
Law.

14

Fully connected network-In a fully connected network, all nodes are interconnected. (In graph
theory this is called a complete graph). The simplest fully connected network is a two-node
network. A fully connected network doesn't need to use packet switching or broadcasting.
However, since the number of connections grows quadratically with the number of nodes:
This makes it impractical for large networks.

Partially connected network-In a partially connected network, certain nodes are connected to
exactly one other node; but some nodes are connected to two or more other nodes with a pointto-point link. This makes it possible to make use of some of the redundancy of mesh topology
that is physically fully connected, without the expense and complexity required for a connection
between every node in the network.

15

Hybrid-Hybrid networks combine two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting
network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example,
a tree network (or star-bus network) is a hybrid topology in which star networks are
interconnected via bus networks. However, a tree network connected to another tree network is
still topologically a tree network, not a distinct network type. A hybrid topology is always
produced when two different basic network topologies are connected.
A star-ring network consists of two or more ring networks connected using a multistation access
unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
Snowflake topology is a star network of star networks.
Two other hybrid network types are hybrid mesh and hierarchical star.

The star topology reduces the probability of a network failure by connecting all of the peripheral
nodes (computers, etc.) to a central node. When the physical star topology is applied to a logical
bus network such as Ethernet, this central node (traditionally a hub) rebroadcasts all
transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network,
sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all
others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only. The failure of a transmission
line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral
node from all others, but the remaining peripheral nodes will be unaffected. However, the
disadvantage is that the failure of the central node will cause the failure of all of the peripheral
nodes.

16

If the central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of
an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way round trip transmission time(i.e. to and
from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has
an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.
A tree topology (a.k.a. hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks
arranged in a hierarchy. This tree has individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which are required
to transmit to and receive from one other node only and are not required to act as repeaters or
regenerators. Unlike the star network, the functionality of the central node may be distributed.
As in the conventional star network, individual nodes may thus still be isolated from the network
by a single-point failure of a transmission path to the node. If a link connecting a leaf fails, that
leaf is isolated; if a connection to a non-leaf node fails, an entire section of the network becomes
isolated from the rest.
To alleviate the amount of network traffic that comes from broadcasting all signals to all nodes,
more advanced central nodes were developed that are able to keep track of the identities of the
nodes that are connected to the network. These network switches will "learn" the layout of the
network by "listening" on each port during normal data transmission, examining the data
packets and recording the address/identifier of each connected node and which port it is
connected to in a lookup table held in memory. This lookup table then allows future
transmissions to be forwarded to the intended destination only.

In a mesh topology (i.e., a partially connected mesh topology), there are at least two nodes with
two or more paths between them to provide redundant paths to be used in case the link providing
one of the paths fails. This decentralization is often used to compensate for the single-pointfailure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a central node (e.g., in star and
tree networks). A special kind of mesh, limiting the number of hops between two nodes, is
a hypercube. The number of arbitrary fork in mesh networks makes them more difficult to design
and implement, but their decentralized nature makes them very useful. In 2012 the IEEE
published the Shortest path bridging protocol to ease configuration tasks and allows all paths to
be active which increases bandwidth and redundancy between all devices.

17

This is similar in some ways to a grid network, where a linear or ring topology is used to connect
systems in multiple directions. A multidimensional ring has a toroidal topology, for instance.
A fully connected network, complete topology, or full mesh topology is a network topology in
which there is a direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes,
there are n(n-1)/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive
to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due to the multiple paths for data that are
provided by the large number of redundant links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen
in military applications.

LAN-A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers within a
limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office building. and has
its network equipment and interconnects locally managed. By contrast, a wide area
network (WAN), not only covers a larger geographic distance, but also generally involves leased
telecommunication circuits or Internet links.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two most common transmission technologies in use for local area
networks. Historical technologies includeARCNET, Token ring, and AppleTalk. he increasing

18

demand and use of computers in universities and research labs in the late 1960s generated the
need to provide high-speed interconnections between computer systems. A 1970 report from
the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory detailing the growth of their "Octopus" network gave a good
indication of the situation.
A number of experimental and early commercial LAN technologies were developed in the
1970s. Cambridge Ring was developed at Cambridge University starting in 1974. Ethernet was
developed at Xerox PARC in 19731975, and filed as U.S. Patent 4,063,220. In 1976, after the
system was deployed at PARC, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published a seminal paper,
"Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching for Local Computer Networks". ARCNET was
developed by Datapoint Corporation in 1976 and announced in 1977. It had the first commercial
installation in December 1977 at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York.
The development and proliferation of personal computers using the CP/M operating system in
the late 1970s, and later DOS-based systems starting in 1981, meant that many sites grew to
dozens or even hundreds of computers. The initial driving force for networking was generally to
share storage and printers, which were both expensive at the time. There was much enthusiasm
for the concept and for several years, from about 1983 onward, computer industry pundits would
regularly declare the coming year to be, The year of the LAN.

19

MAN-A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local
area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). The term
is applied to the interconnection of networks in a city into a single larger network (which may
then also offer efficient connection to a wide area network). It is also used to mean the
interconnection of several local area networks by bridging them with backbone lines. The latter
usage is also sometimes referred to as a campus network.

WAN-A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network or computer network that
extends over a large geographical distance. Wide area networks are often established with leased
telecommunication circuits.
Business, education and government entities use wide area networks to relay data among staff,
students, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various geographical locations. In essence, this
mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function
regardless of location. The Internet may be considered a WAN.

20

Related terms for other types of networks are personal area networks (PANs), local area
networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs) which
are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area respectively.
Many technologies are available for wide area network links. Examples include circuit
switched telephone lines, radio wave transmission, and optic fiber. New developments in
technologies have successively increased transmission rates. In ca. 1960, a 110 bit/s (bits per
second) line was normal on the edge of the WAN, while core links of 56 kbit/s to 64 kbit/s were
considered fast. As of 2014, households are connected to the Internet
with ADSL, Cable, Wimax, 4G or fiber at speeds ranging from 1 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s and the
connections in the core of a WAN can range from 1 Gbit/s to 100 Gbit/s.

SWITCHES- A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting
the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch may be
operated directly by a human operator to control a circuit (for example, a light switch or a

21

keyboard button), may be operated by a moving object such as a door-operated switch, or may be
operated by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. A relay is a switch that is
operated by electricity. Switches are made to handle a wide range of voltages and currents; very
large switches may be used to isolate high-voltage circuits in electrical substations. A network
switch is a multiport network bridge that uses hardware addresses to process and forward data at
thedata link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches can also process data at the network
layer (layer 3) by additionally incorporating routing functionality that most commonly uses IP
addresses to perform packet forwarding; such switches are commonly known as layer-3 switches
or multilayer switches. Beside most commonly used Ethernet switches, they exist for various
types of networks, including Fibre Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode, and InfiniBand. The
first Ethernet switch was introduced by Kalpana in 1990.

What is a Network Switch?

To understand basic networking, you first need to answer the question, "What is a network
switch?"
Most business networks today use switches to connect computers, printers and servers within a
building or campus. A switch serves as a controller, enabling networked devices to talk to each
other efficiently. Through information sharing and resource allocation, switches save businesses
money and increase employee productivity.
Understand the different types of Ethernet switches and their capabilities.

UNMANAGED SWITCH-An unmanaged switch works right out of the box. It's not designed to
be configured, so you don't have to worry about installing or setting it up correctly. Unmanaged
switches have less network capacity than managed switches. You'll usually find unmanaged
switches in home networking equipment.

MANAGED SWITCH-A managed network switch is configurable, offering greater flexibility

and capacity than an unmanaged switch. You can monitor and adjust a managed switch locally or
remotely, to give you greater network control.

22

Layer 3 Switches
Traditional network switches operate at layer 2 (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model. Socalled layer 3 switches that blend the internal hardware logic of switches and routers into a
hybrid device also have been deployed on some enterprise networks. Layer 3 switches better
support virtual LAN (VLAN) configurations than traditional switches.

Traditional network switches operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model while network routers operate
at Layer 3. This often leads to confusion over the definition and purpose of a Layer 3 switch.
A Layer 3 switch is a specialized hardware device used in network routing. Layer 3 switches
technically share much in common with traditional routers. Both can support the same routing
protocols. Both inspect incoming packets and make dynamic routing decisions based on the
source and destination addresses inside. Both types of boxes share a similar physical appearance.
Purpose of Layer 3 Switches

23

Layer 3 switches were conceived as a technology to improve network routing performance on

large local area networks (LANs) like corporate intranets.
The key difference between Layer 3 switches and routers lies in the hardware internals. The
hardware inside a Layer 3 switch blends that of traditional switches and routers, replacing some
of a router's software logic with integrated circuit hardware to offer better performance for local
networks.
Additionally, being designed for use on intranets, a Layer 3 switch will typically not possess
the WAN ports and wide area network features a traditional router will always have.
These switches are most commonly used to support routing between virtual LANs (VLANs).
Benefits of Layer 3 switches for VLANs include:
reduction in the amount of broadcast traffic
simplified security management
improved fault isolation
How Layer 3 Switches Work
A traditional switch dynamically routes traffic between its individual physical ports according to
the physical addresses (MAC addresses) of devices connected. Layer 3 switches use this
capability when managing traffic within a LAN. They also expand on this capability by
utilizing IP address information to make routing decisions when managing traffic between
LANs. (In contrast, Layer 4 switches also utilize TCP or UDP port numbers.)
Using a Layer 3 Switch with VLANs
Each virtual LAN must be entered and port-mapped on the switch. Routing parameters for each
VLAN interface must also be sp
Some Layer 3 switches implement DHCP support that can be used to automatically assign IP
addresses to devices within a VLAN. (Alternatively, an outside DHCP server can be used,
or static IP addresses must be configured separately.)
Issues with Layer 3 Switches

24

Layer 3 switches cost more than traditional switches (but less than traditional routers).
Configuring and administrating these switches and VLANs also requires additional effort.
The applications of Layer 3 switches are limited to intranet environments with a sufficiently
large scale of device subnets and traffic. Home networks typically have no use for these devices.
Lacking WAN functionality, Layer 3 switches are not a replacement for routers.
The naming of these switches comes from concepts in the OSI model, where layer 3 is known as
the Network Layer. Unfortunately,this theoretical model doesn't well distinguish the practical
differences between industry products, and the naming has caused much confusion in the
marketplace.

25

ROUTER-A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer
networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. A data packet is
typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that constitute
the internetwork until it reaches its destination node.
A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data packet
comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine
the ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs
the packet to the next network on its journey. This creates an overlay internetwork.

When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers exchange information
about destination addresses using a dynamic routing protocol. Each router builds up a routing
table listing the preferred routes between any two systems on the interconnected networks.
A router has interfaces for different physical types of network connections, such as copper
cables, fibre optic, or wireless transmission. It also contains firmware for different
networking communications protocol standards. Each network interface uses this specialized
computer software to enable data packets to be forwarded from one protocol transmission system
to another.
Routers may also be used to connect two or more logical groups of computer devices known
as subnets, each with a different network prefix. The network prefixes recorded in the routing
table do not necessarily map directly to the physical interface connections.
A router has two stages of operation called planes.

Control plane: A router maintains a routing table that lists which route should be used to
forward a data packet, and through which physical interface connection. It does this using
internal pre-configured directives, called static routes, or by learning routes using a
dynamic routing protocol. Static and dynamic routes are stored in the Routing Information
Base (RIB). The control-plane logic then strips non essential directives from the RIB and
builds a Forwarding Information Base (FIB) to be used by the forwarding-plane.

Forwarding plane: The router forwards data packets between incoming and outgoing
interface connections. It routes them to the correct network type using information that the
packet header contains. It uses data recorded in the routing table control plane.

26

Routers may provide connectivity within enterprises, between enterprises and the Internet, or
between internet service providers' (ISPs) networks. The largest routers (such as the Cisco CRS1 or Juniper T1600) interconnect the various ISPs, or may be used in large enterprise
networks.Smaller routers usually provide connectivity for typical home and office networks.
Other networking solutions may be provided by a backbone Wireless Distribution
System (WDS), which avoids the costs of introducing networking cables into buildings.
All sizes of routers may be found inside enterprises. The most powerful routers are usually found
in ISPs, academic and research facilities. Large businesses may also need more powerful routers
to cope with ever increasing demands of intranet data traffic. A three-layer model is in common
use, not all of which need be present in smaller networks.

Access-Access routers, including 'small office/home office' (SOHO) models, are located at
customer sites such as branch offices that do not need hierarchical routing of their own.
Typically, they are optimized for low cost. Some SOHO routers are capable of running
alternative free Linux-based firmwares like Tomato, OpenWrt or DD-WRT.
Distribution
Distribution routers aggregate traffic from multiple access routers, either at the same site, or to
collect the data streams from multiple sites to a major enterprise location. Distribution routers are
often responsible for enforcing quality of service across a wide area network (WAN), so they
may have considerable memory installed, multiple WAN interface connections, and substantial
onboard data processing routines. They may also provide connectivity to groups of file servers or
other external networks.
Security
External networks must be carefully considered as part of the overall security strategy. A router
may include a firewall, VPN handling, and other security functions, or these may be handled by
separate devices. Many companies produced security-oriented routers, including Cisco PIX
series, Juniper NetScreen and WatchGuard. Routers also commonly perform network address
translation, (which allows multiple devices on a network to share a single public IP address )
and stateful packet inspection. Some experts argue that open source routers are more secure and
reliable than closed source routers because open source routers allow mistakes to be quickly
found and corrected.

27

Core
In enterprises, a core router may provide a "collapsed backbone" interconnecting the distribution
tier routers from multiple buildings of a campus, or large enterprise locations. They tend to be
optimized for high bandwidth, but lack some of the features of Edge Routers.
Internet connectivity and internal use
Routers intended for ISP and major enterprise connectivity usually exchange routing information
using the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). RFC 4098 standard defines the types of BGP routers
according to their functions:

Edge router: Also called a Provider Edge router, is placed at the edge of an ISP network.
The router uses External BGP to EBGP routers in other ISPs, or a large
enterpriseAutonomous System.

Subscriber edge router: Also called a Customer Edge router, is located at the edge of the
subscriber's network, it also uses EBGP to its provider's Autonomous System. It is typically
used in an (enterprise) organization.

Inter-provider border router: Interconnecting ISPs, is a BGP router that maintains BGP
sessions with other BGP routers in ISP Autonomous Systems.

Core router: A core router resides within an Autonomous System as a back bone to carry
traffic between edge routers.

Within an ISP: In the ISP's Autonomous System, a router uses internal BGP to
communicate with other ISP edge routers, other intranet core routers, or the ISP's intranet
provider border routers.

"Internet backbone:" The Internet no longer has a clearly identifiable backbone, unlike its
predecessor networks. See default-free zone (DFZ). The major ISPs' system routers make up
what could be considered to be the current Internet backbone core. ISPs operate all four
types of the BGP routers described here. An ISP "core" router is used to interconnect its edge
and border routers. Core routers may also have specialized functions in virtual private
networks based on a combination of BGP and Multi-Protocol Label Switching protocols.

28

Port forwarding: Routers are also used for port forwarding between private Internet
connected servers.

Voice/Data/Fax/Video Processing Routers: Commonly referred to as access

servers or gateways, these devices are used to route and process voice, data, video and fax
traffic on the Internet. Since 2005, most long-distance phone calls have been processed
as IP traffic (VOIP) through a voice gateway. Use of access server type routers expanded
with the advent of the Internet, first with dial-up access and another resurgence with voice
phone service.

Larger networks commonly use multilayer switches, with layer 3 devices being used to
simply interconnect multiple subnets within the same security zone, and higher layer
switches when filtering, translation, load balancing or other higher level functions are
required, especially between zones.

RIP PROTOCOLS-The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is one of the oldest distancevector routing protocols which employ the hop count as a routing metric. RIP prevents routing
loops by implementing limit on the number of hops allowed in a path from source to destination.
The maximum number of hops allowed for RIP is 15, which limits the size of networks that RIP

29

can support. A hop count of 16 is considered an infinite distance and the route is considered
unreachable. RIP implements the split horizon, route poisoning and holddown mechanisms to
prevent incorrect routing information from being propagated.
Originally, each RIP router transmitted full updates every 30 seconds. In the early deployments,
routing tables were small enough that the traffic was not significant. As networks grew in size,
however, it became evident there could be a massive traffic burst every 30 seconds, even if the
routers had been initialized at random times. It was thought, as a result of random initialization,
the routing updates would spread out in time, but this was not true in practice. Sally Floyd and
Van Jacobson showed in 1994[1] that, without slight randomization of the update timer, the timers
synchronized over time.
In most networking environments, RIP is not the preferred choice for routing as its time to
converge and scalability are poor compared to EIGRP, OSPF, or IS-IS. However, it is easy to
configure, because RIP does not require any parameters unlike other protocols.
The RIP metric is composed of hop count, and the maximum valid metric is 15. Anything above
15 is considered infinite; you can use 16 to describe an infinite metric in RIP. When
redistributing a protocol into RIP, Cisco recommends that you use a low metric, such as 1. A high
metric, such as 10, limits RIP even further. If you define a metric of 10 for redistributed routes,
these routes can only be advertised to routers up to 5 hops away, at which point the metric (hop
count) exceeds 15. By defining a metric of 1, you enable a route to travel the maximum number
of hops in a RIP domain. But, doing this increases the possibility of routing loops if there are
multiple redistribution points and a router learns about the network with a better metric from the
redistribution point than from the original source, as explained in the Administrative
Distance section of this document. Therefore, you have to make sure that the metric is neither too
high, preventing it from being advertised to all the routers, or too low, leading to routing loops
when there are multiple redistribution points.
RIP version 1
The original specification of RIP, defined in RFC 1058, was published in 1988 and
uses classful routing. The periodic routing updates do not carry subnet information, lacking
support for variable length subnet masks (VLSM). This limitation makes it impossible to have
different-sized subnets inside of the same network class. In other words, all subnets in a network
class must have the same size. There is also no support for router authentication, making RIP
vulnerable to various attacks.

30

RIP version 2Due to the deficiencies of the original RIP specification, RIP
version 2 (RIPv2) was developed in 1993[4] and last standardized in 1998.It
included the ability to carry subnet information, thus supporting Classless
Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). To maintain backward compatibility, the hop
count limit of 15 remained. RIPv2 has facilities to fully interoperate with the
earlier specification if all Must Be Zero protocol fields in the RIPv1 messages
are properly specified. In addition, a compatibility switch feature allows finegrained interoperability adjustments.

OSPF-Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol for Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
It uses a link state routing (LSR) algorithm and falls into the group of interior routing protocols,
operating within a single autonomous system (AS). It is defined as OSPF Version 2 in RFC
2328 (1998) for IPv4. The updates for IPv6 are specified as OSPF Version 3 in RFC
5340 (2008).
OSPF is perhaps the most widely used interior gateway protocol (IGP) in large enterprise
networks. Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS), another link-state dynamic
routing protocol, is more common in large service provider networks. The most widely
used exterior gateway protocol is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), the principal routing
protocol between autonomous systems on the Internet.
OSPF sends only the part that has changed and only when a change has taken place. When routes
change -- sometimes due to equipment failure -- the time it takes OSPF routers to find a new path
between endpoints with no loops (which is called "open") and that minimizes the length of the
path is called the convergence time.

EIGRP-EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) is a network protocol that lets
routers exchange information more efficiently than with earlier network protocols. EIGRP
evolved from IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) and routers using either EIGRP and
IGRP can interoperate because the metric (criteria used for selecting a route) used with one
protocol can be translated into the metrics of the other protocol. EIGRP can be used not only for
Internet Protocol (IP) networks but also for AppleTalk and Novell NetWare networks. Using

31

EIGRP, a router keeps a copy of its neighbor's routing tables. If it can't find a route to a
destination in one of these tables, it queries its neighbors for a route and they in turn query their
neighbors until a route is found. When a routing table entry changes in one of the routers, it
notifies its neighbors of the change only (some earlier protocols require sending the entire table).
To keep all routers aware of the state of neighbors, each router sends out a periodic "hello"
packet. A router from which no "hello" packet has been received in a certain period of time is
assumed to be inoperative.
EIGRP uses the Diffusing-Update Algorithm (DUAL) to determine the most efficient (least cost)
route to a destination. A DUAL finite state machine contains decision information used by the
algorithm to determine the least-cost route (which considers distance and whether a destination
path is loop-free).

Redistribution
This section examines different scenarios involving redistribution. Please note that the examples
below show the minimum required to configure redistribution. Redistribution can potentially
cause problems, such as below-optimal routing, routing loops, or slow convergence. To avoid
these problems, please see "Avoiding Problems Due to Redistribution" in Redistributing Routing
Protocols.
Redistribution Between Two EIGRP Autono

He mechanics of route redistribution is proprietary on Cisco routers. The rules for redistribution
on a Cisco router dictate that the redistributed route be present in the routing table. It is not

32

sufficient that the route be present in the routing topology or database. Routes with a lower
Administrative Distance (AD) are always installed in the routing table. For example, if a static
route is redistributed into IGRP on R5, and then IGRP subsequently redistributed into RIP on the
same router (R5), the static route is not redistributed into RIP because it never got entered into
the IGRP routing table. This is due to the fact that static routes have an AD of 1 and IGRP routes
have an AD of 100 and the static route is installed in the routing table. In order to redistribute the
static route into IGRP on R5, you need to use the redistribute static command under the router
rip command.
The default behavior for RIP, IGRP and EIGRP is to advertise directly connected routes when
a network statement under the routing protocol includes the connected interface subnet. There
are two methods to get a connected route:

An interface is configured with an IP address and mask, this corresponding subnet is

considered a connected route.

A static route is configured with only an outgoing interface, and not an IP next-hop, this
is also considered a connected route.
Router#conf t
Router(config)#ip route 10.0.77.0 255.255.255.0 ethernet 0/0
Router(config)#end
Router#show ip route static
10.0.0.0/24 is subnetted, 1 subnets
S 10.0.77.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0/0
A network command configured under EIGRP, RIP or IGRP that includes (or "covers") either of
these types of connected routes includes that subnet for advertisement.

For example, to configure TCP/IP addresses on Router1, execute the following commands:
Router1(config)#interface fa0/1
Router1(config-if)#ip add 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shut

33

Router1(config-if)#exit
Router1(config)#interface S1/0
Router1(config-if)#ip add 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
Router1(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router(config-if)#no shut
The

following

figure

shows

the

34

IP

configuration

of

Router1.

Steps to Configure RIP Routing

Once you have configured the appropriate IP addresses on each device, perform the following
steps to configure RIP routing. The default version of RIP is RIPv1. In the later section, we will
also configure RIPv2 routing.
1. On Router1, execute the following commands to configure RIP routing.
Router1(config)#router rip
Router1(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
Router1(config-router)#network 192.168.1.0
Router1(config-router)#exit
2. On Router2, execute the following commands to configure RIP routing.
Router2(config)#router rip
Router2(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
Router2(config-router)#network 192.168.1.0
Router2(config-router)#network 150.150.150.0
Router2(config-router)#exit
Router2(config)#
3. On Router3, execute the following commands to configure RIP routing.
4. Router3(config)#router rip
5. Router3(config-router)#network 150.150.150.0
Router3(config-if)#exit

35

6. Once you have configured RIP routing protocol on each router, wait for a few seconds
(let complete the convergence process), and then execute the show ip routecommand
on any router to show the routing information.
Router(config)#do show ip route
7. In the following figure, you can see the routes learned by the RIP protocol on
Router3.

Verifying RIP Configuration

To verify and test the RIP configuration, perform the following steps:
1. To verify which routing protocol is configured, use the show ip protocols command.

36

Router#show ip protocols
2. To view the RIP messages being sent and received, use the debug ip rip command.
Router#debug ip rip
3. To stop the debugging process, use the undebug all command.
Router#undebug all
Configure RIP Version 2 (RIPv2)
The configuration process of the RIPv2 protocol is similar to configuring RIPv1 protocol. To
configure the RIPv2 routing protocol, you just need to type version 2 command before executing
the network command. To configure the RIPv2 protocol, perform the following tasks on each
router.
1. On Router1, execute the following commands:
2. Router1(config)#router rip
Router1(config-router)#version 2
3. On Router2, execute the following commands:
4. Router2(config)#router rip
Router2(config-router)#version 2
5. On Router3, execute the following commands:
6. Router3(config)#router rip
Router3(config-router)#version 2
7. Once you have executed the preceding commands, execute the following command
on each router, and verify the configuration as shown in the following figure.
Router#show ip protocols

37

FUTURE SCOPE

38

The network of the future will seamlessly interconnect a tremendous number of terminals,
devices, machines, and smart objects at the edgewhere the users arewith the enormous
processing power available in the cloud. Cloud computing, SDNs, and NFVare different facets
of the same worldwide industry transformation toward the IT-ization of any process.
There is scope for Networking in india , but it has not yet grown up. For networking , its the
service providers which hire most of the professionals for configuring/maintaining/designing
their network. We have big service providers like Airtel/Reliance but they don't really hire
network professions as the US Service providers hire becuse in india we really dont care about
SLA (Service level agreement) .
In case you want to start your career from networking, you need to know what do you want to do
first :
a) If you want to design new protocols or work on existing protocols , you should focus on
programming aspects and now with the advent of Openflow & SDN , things are much easier. Get
some courses from coursera on SDN and start programming such stuff.
Coursera
b) If you want to work on designing of network , then you should go for CCNA and have sound
knowledge of some technology , be it routing & switching or voice protocols or video protocols
and get into companies like Cisco Customer Advocacy or Cisco Technical Assistant division or
Juniper or netapp or emc2.
c) If you want to do programming on network interfaces like SDN or network operating
systems , then focus more on C programming , Java internals ,operating system and data
communication. Lot of companies are for this area like Tejas , Cisco , juniper, alcatel Lucent,
netapp, arista networks.

39

d) If you are looking for H/W programming on network devices, then you should focus on
Verilog , Matlab and stuff where companies like Tejas, Broadcom , intel hire people for.

40