Page. Sewer Construction Methods in Singapore Journal of the Institution of Engineers, Singapore, Volume 25 No. 2, December 1986, 33 - 48.SEWER CONSTRUCTION METHODS IN SINGAPORE K Balasubramaniam Ministry of the Environment SYNOPSIS New methods and techniques for constructing sewers are being constantly developed to deal with problems caused by difficult soil conditions and environmental restrictions. particularly in congested urban areas. This paper describes the new methods and techniques that have been introduced into Singapore together with the conventional methods that are still in use for constructing sewers. Advanced tunnelling machines such as Slurry Pressure Balanced Shield (SPBS) and Earth Pressure Balanced Shield (EPBS) are used in Singapore for constructing large diameter sewers and effluent pipelines. For smaller diameter sewers, pipe jacking methods such as‘Earth Arrow ‘Ironmole’ Horizonger are being used in Singapore. 1, INTRODUCTION A sewerage system to carry and dispose of domestic wastes is one of the number of essential utilities upon which the modern community is very much dependent. Unfortunately, a substantial portion of this workis carried out underground and is not visible to the general public. Thus the absence of glamour often results in lack of appreciation and understanding of its importance and difficulties in constructing the system, The sewage or the wastewater orginates from where the fresh or portable water is spent, largely in a household kitchen, bathrooms, toilets and laundry etc. Generally the sewage fram these sources is conveyed through a net work of pipelines by gravity to a treatment plant or to an outfall for disposal. These pipelines are called sewers. The sewers, whose diameter can be from 100 mm at the household and as big as to 3000 mm at the outtall are constructed underground with adequate gradients so that the wastewater and the undissolved solid particles in the waste are conveyed to a treatment plant or to the final discharge point in the sea or river. ‘Sewerage systemsto carry and dispose of domestic wastes were built even during ancient periods when kings and emperors built capital cities and military, business and religious complexes. In the early days engineers built sewers, drains and aqueducts of considerable magnitude and complexity and one of the best known Roman sewers/drains is the Colaca Maxima which was built about 5008C and is still in use, carrying sewage and surface water. The first sewer network, which in effect became the main sewerage system in Singapore, was built during 1912 = 1915 by the then Municipal Engineer. Thereafter the sewer network continued to expand with the construction of more sewers in the urban areas before and after the World War 2. The expansion of the sewer network, gathered momentum in the early seventies to provide sewerage facilities for the government's extensive development programmes associated with public housing, industrialization and urban renewal across the island. Even today, the construction of sewers is one of the major ongoing engineering projects in Singapore. Constructing sewers in reclaimed areas,narrow streets, expressways,built up urban and residential areas and through varying types of soil conditions poses difficult problems for the engineer. Apart from engineering problems, there are numerous environmental restrictions facing sewer construction, particularly in congested city areas. : New methods and techniques of construction‘of sewers are being constantly devefoped to deal with such difficulties and problems. New technics particularly in tunnelling methods of constructing sewers has been introduced into Singapore during the last few years. The conventional open cut method and the various tunnelling methods including the new methods such as Earth arrow, Ironmole, Horizonger for constructing sewers are discussed in this paper. The advantages and disadvantages of these methods are also discussed. 2. OPEN CUT METHOD OF SEWER CONSTRUCTION This is the oldest method used in Singapore, having been used from the time the sewerage network was first built in Singapore. This is the most popular method despite its many disadvantages and public nuisance that is associated with this method. The main advantage of this method is its simplicity of construction. Besides, the whole trench is exposed for visual observation and examination and it permits pipe foundations to be strengthened where necessary. The important aspect in this method of construction is the shoring of the trench. Several types of shoring or sheeting such as timber sheeting, usually for smaller and medium depths, and steel sheeting, diaphram walls and column row of cast-in-piace piles for deeper depths and difficult ground conditions are used to support the excavation. TION OF ENGINEERS, SINGAPORE. VOL 25, NO2. DEC. 1985 JOURNAL OF THE INSTIT40 Although there are several advanced types of construction plant and equipment available for excavatio) trench shoring, dewatering, backfilling and ramming, this method is inefficient, due to the followin disadvantages: (a) There is a multitude of underground services running along and across every street. Care is required i locating and supporting these services which preclude the use of mechanical excavation for most of th top depth. Services inside the trench may require temporary or permanent diversions, entailing intensiv use of labour. (b) Mechanical excavation can damage existing services, sometimes seriously enough to cause a explosion or flooding. Damage to services creates public inconvenience and resentment due to th temporary curtailment of vital services that could affect businesses and production. (c) Repairs to services and temporary diversions, reinstatement of road foundation and surfacing are cost! and involve high manpower content (d) Excavation and removal, backfilling and closely controlled compaction, as welll as the need for selecte: or imported backfill material, require crane and lorries alongside the trench, thus causing roa obstruction. (2) Storage of all the paraphenalia of timber, pipes, pumps, compressors, lorries and other plant anc machinery causes obstruction on and off the roads. Disruption from open trench is obvious as one 0 more traffic lanes or even partial or total closure of roads and associated traffic control and diversior become necessary. From the foregoing, it will be seen that little can be done to mechanise or improve the open trench method anc reduce associated problems. In short this method is slow, obstructive and labour intensive, making it less attractive economically, particularly for deep and larger diameter sewers. Nevertheless, a careful study of the size and depth of sewer, around conditions underground services, adjoining structures, road traffic, etc. is necessary before deciding on the use of this method. 3. TUNNELLING METHODS OF SEWER CONSTRUCTION Construction of sewers in tunnel provides a good alternative to the open cut method particularly in congestec city areas. There are several tunnelling methods and techniques that have been developed to meet the increasing demand and the environmental restrictions in the construction of sewers particularly in congested urbar areas. The tunnelling methods and the techniques that have been used in Singapore for the construction o large and small diameter sewers can be classified into the following groups: ) Construction of Sewers in Heading ii) Construction of Sewers in Heading in compressed air ii Construction of Sewers in Tunnels using shield methods i) Construction of Large Diameter Sewers by Pipejacking w Construction of Large Diameter Sewers by Pipejacking in compressed Air vi) Construction of Small Diameter Sewers by Pipejacking 3.1 Construction of Sewers in Heading Heading is the oldest method of constructing sewers in tunnel and it provided a useful alternative to open trench method in Singapore until recently. In this method, soil is excavated in heading usually in square cross-section. As the excavation proceeds, the tunnel is temporarily lined with close timbering so that when completed it will form an underground passage way between two manholes or chambers. Pipes.are then laid inside the tunnel and the space between the pipe and the timber lining is filled with concrete. Except for the manhole openings which are used as working shafts, there is little surface obstruction and public nuisance. This method has been used in all types of soils, silts, running sand, marine clay and peat but it, has several disadvantages: (a) The timber used is hardwood or semi-hardwood. It is imported and costly. (b) There is always a tendency to over excavate, thus creating cavities behind timber lining. Besides, timber has a limited life and can eventually rot away leaving cavities. (c) The heading has to be carried through from shaft to shaft before the pipes are laid. In waterbearing ground, there is considerable water draw-down, affecting the bearing capacity of the adjacent grounds. (This is also true in the open trench method if timber instead of interlocking steel sheet piles is used for shoring). (d)_ In water-bearing sands and silts, the fines can be drawn into the heading, creating voids or cavities outside. Where this occurs at the face, the loss of soil is reflected upwards under roads, causing cave-ins and disrupting services, sometimes becoming apparent only long time later. The space between the pipe and the timber lining is filled with concrete. itis difficult to ensure that tie concrete is thoroughly packed all round, the crown of the heading in particular.(1) Finally, itis also labour intensive requiring skilled and semi-skilled manpower to cut and fix the timber lining and to haul out the excavated material 3.2. Construction of Sewers in Heading in compress air In sites where the soil is water-logged, and the tunnel face is not stable, the soil will keep coming down in 3 watery state and make it impracticable for either manual or mechanical excavation. To overcome the problem of an unstable tunnel face in water-logged soil, compressed air is introduced into the tunnel as a means of restraining the in-flow of water and to hold the face of the excavation against collapsing. This method has been used in Singapore to lay a 1500mm diameter sewer where the soil was clayey sandand water bearing. In this method air was pumped continuously into the tunnel and maintained at the desired pressure of just below 10 KN/m (14psi). An airtight bulkhead was used to keep the pressure inthe tunnel andan airlock chamber was formed at the end of the tunnel for decompression purposes. The use of compressed air for heading has certain drawbacks: (a) Leakage of air at the face and through the timber lining can be quite substantial, making increasing demands on the volume of air supplied () itis essential to have standby arrangement to ensure the continuity of air supply at all times. (c) Strict procedures have to be followed to ensure safety of workmen moving in and out of the tunnel (d) The workers have to go through a thorough medical examination before being allowed to work in compressed air. A doctor has to be available on call in case of an emergency. (e) Workers suffering from minor ailments have to be laid off temporarily, resulting in shortage and wastage of manpower. (1) Actual and effective working hours are reduced as the men can stay inside at any one time for only a few hours depending on the working pressure. They have togo through decompression and stay outside for some time betore being allowed to resume work (g)_ Therates of excavation, haulage, pipe laying and concreting are much slower than conventional heading because of the strict procedures to follow in passing in and out of the air lock (h) Compressed air provides a greater absolute concentration of oxygen and therefore enhances fire risks. (i) Thepressure compressors, receivers, scrubbers andcoolers have to be located at the surface occupying space. Noise from the compressors will be continuous day and night. 3.3. Construction of Sewers in Tunnels using Shields The construction of main sewers of large diameter usually very deep, pose many engineering problems particularly in the cities which are situated near rivers and the sea. A wide variety of tunnelling techniques and materials have been specifically developed for these, partly in response to the new problems encountered. In the construction of sewers in tunnel, the excavation is usually carried out by shields andas the shield moves forward, either precast reinforced concrete segmental rings are erected at the rear of the shield or reinforced concrete pipes are jacked from a manhole to form the sewer. The tunnel shield is a moving metal casing, which is driven in advance of the permanent tunnel lining by hydrdulic jacks, to support the ground surrounding the tunnel bore and to give protection for construction of the permanent lining without any temporary support or timbering. In fact the shieldis arrigid steel casing usually cylindrical in shape, open at both ends providing facilities at its front for the excavation and at its rear for the erection of precast lining such as segmental rings or pipes. ‘The shield method of tunnelling has been further developed to meet the increasing demand and to overcome the various difficulties arising from soil, ground water and environmental restrictions. Today in the market various types of shields from ordinary to special are available for sewer tunnel excavation. 3.3.1. Ordinary Shields ‘The ordinary shield is an improved version of the earlier shields. The shields commonly used in sewer tunnels can be divided into three groups such as : (i) Manual a) Ordinary Type 8) Blind Type (ii) Semi Mechanical (ili) Mechanical The different types of ordinary shields are described briefly figure 1 3.3.2 Special Shields (Advanced Type) Aconsiderable amount of research and development into the nature and mechanism of ground movement due ng operations in different soils has been carried out in the last ten years, notably in Japan and Germany. As a consequence. a new generation of machines has come to the forefront in the field of sewerconstruction for use in all varieties of soil. The two popular tunnelling machines as shown in figure 2 are: (a) Slurry Pressure Balanced Shield (SPB Shield) (b) Earth Pressure Balanced Shield (EPB Shield) Tyee T_ Description Form T= oo | & [peo unm na mace ane face | Siury ear oee | 3 |eouomentaucn's ence] sree | 5018 May be eaansed wih |B |rood"movabe eccx ie ss | SS = srast formavesoowennnesey lcontanng sess sarc Nuck | arth [Stcrarge rate conraiee oy or [S000 for ely an clay sans Soit One themaie etree [2susing the peru rat Bsarcee —_|conevavelolomasandoce |fecordance aki sscoing | (eee it “appleabie “to para ooen oe easoons n'a freaure | E| Sememecnenen!fasethae, boom cuter or the Batencoo 3) Frees BES” || locate mueaucra ay | = lectenettancarens | | 3 | mihari i scores — | 3 Fig. 1 Ordinary Shields Fig. 2 Special Shields These special shields have the following advantages: (a) Environment impact is minimised by overcoming excessive settlement which frequently causes damage to structure and services. (b) The machines can operate effectively in a wide variety of soil conditions. (c) Sewer construction is feasible in restricted site conditions. (d) Constructional safety is enhanced (2) Mechanisation saves labour which meets the present social con wages. (1) Rate of sewer laying is faster, thus reducing construction time. (g) Environmental noise and vibrations are minimised and there is no health hazard to workers. (h) Auxiliary measures such as dewatering, pumping, chemical grouting for soil stabilisation are virtually: eliminated. , (i) These have centralised control and instrumentation systems that can efficiently and accurately monitor and control and excavation, using a panel of conventional gauges or featuring a micro-processorthat can store and use data for future projects. ns of labour shortage and high 3.3.3 Slurry Pressure Balanced Shield (SPBS) Method (Figure 3) In this method, the excavated soil is made into slurry by mixing it with water or bentonite in a pressure chamber just behind the cutter. The pressurised slurry exerts a counter balancing pressure at the tunnel face to counteract the earth pressure and the ground water pressure. The slurry is continuously pumped through pipelines to the slurry separation tanks or ponds located at ground level where the soil is separated and the fluid is pumped back to the shield to form slurry with the excavated soil. Sometimes, depending on the type of soil excavated, filter pressing equipment is used to separate the soil from the slurry. As the shield excavates and moves forward, either pipes are jacked or segments are erected at the back of the shield to form the sewer. An essential feature of the shieldis a built-in crushing device which can crush boulders or similar hard material encountered during excavation so that these materials too can be pumped along with the slurry. The shield movement is controlled by steering jacks located in the shield. A laser beam at the head of the tunnel is used to check the uireciion and gradient of the shield.Within the shield is a compartment that houses the motor and the control equipment. The indicators of all the measuring and control devices are centralised in a panel in this compartment and a TV camera sends the picture of the pane! back to a monitoring board located in the manhole shaft at the head of the tunnel. The progress and direction of the shield, the rate of excavation, the pumping of slurry and the jacking of the pipes are all monitored and controlled by the operator at the control board in the manhole The entire tunnelling operation is mechanised with remote monitoring, control and operation. The greatest advantage is the saving in manpower. Not only does this method result in higher productivity but alsoit has the advantage of not requiring the use of timber for the tunnel lining, concrete to fill the voids between the pipe and the tunnel, and rails, muck carts and cranes to haul out the excavated soil. The tunnel is remarkably clean and the working environment is safer. There is no health hazerd to workers, constructional safety is enhanced and ground settlement is reduced to a minimum. This method of tunnel construction was used for the first time in Singapore to construct a 1500mm diameter sewer of length 1.6 km at Tampines New Town in 1982. Aremote control type SPB shield combined with pipe jacking was used in this method. Since then the SPB shield method has been used in many projects in Singapore. Sit control cylincer Steering jack sit ‘Reduction gear i uti bit ~ leasuring panel —Motoe ! | TV camera | aT cuner — 1 teeta Power pack | conte ot | Broass vale | Concrete pine V —Siury stop vate Guusner "charging Dschareing pipes Fig. 3 Slurry Pressure Balanced Shield (SPBS) 3.3.4 Earth Pressure Balanced Shield (EPBS) Method Figures 4(a) & 4(b) In this method, as the name signifies, the excavated earth is pressurised to balance or support the tunnel face against collapsing. The controllable rotating cutter in front of the shield cuts the soil and pushes it into a clamber just behind the cutter. The soil in the chamber is pressurised so that the soil exerts an equivalent pressure on the tunnelling face thus balancing it against collapsing. Moreover, the pressure so exerted prevents any free flow of soil into the chamber thus minimizing any over excavation. Water is sometimes added to the soil in the chamber depending on the type of soil excavated and ground water conditions. The important component in this shield is the screw conveyor attached to the chamber which not only transports the earth to the discharge point but also enables the soil pressure in the chamber to be increased or decreased. This method is most suitable for tunnelling in unstable, water-bearing and highly permeable sandy soil where even the slurry shield method may find it difficult to maintain face stability because slurry flow and leakage can cause ground disturbance. This method has two types, viz the Earth Pressure type and the Water Pressure type. In the Earth Pressure type, the soil filling the cutter is forced out by the screw conveyor and loaded directly into a belt conveyor or trucks for conventional disposal. The Water Pressure type is specially used to prevent water being discharged with the excavated soil. The excavated soil is transported into a muck adjuster into which water is supplied to generate a water pressure at the face. Inside the muck adjuster, the soil is agitated so that it may be transported in the form of slurry to the surface treatment facilities. The speed of the water feeding pump and water discharging pump is equalised to the ground water pressure. The Earth Pressure type shield has been employed to construct an effluent outfall pipe line, which is 3m diameter and 3000m long, through marine clay in Jurong area. The performance of the 3.75m diameter EPBS, specially designed for this project, has been very satisfactory. The monitoring of groundsettlement and ground movement indicates very minimum distrubance to the ground surface and hardly any ettects on adjoining structures and services. 4344 2350 {Shiela Jocks (12 nos. 199 Tons eaen) | ~Aubber seat ed = Hydraulic moter (4 nos) aaa] Lae J (Lb head Fig. 4(a) Earth Pressure Balanced Shield (EPBS Crane Fig. 4(b) Shield Tunnelling Method 3.4 Construction of Sewers by Pipe Jacking. e | This technique has been used in soft ground conditions for crossings under urban roads; railways, rivers and buildings and for other shallow crossings. It has considerable advantages over the open cut and heading methods. Conventional pipe jacking process consists of pushing concrete or steel Pipes forward from a manhole by large capacity hydraulic jacks as shown in fig 5. While the pipes are being pushed, excavation in front of the pipe is normally carried out from within the pipe or shield but the exact method of excavation will depend on the type of soil being excavated. The excavated material is loaded into muck skips fortransterto the manhole. . To reduce the jacking force it may be necessary to apply a suitable lubricant to the outside of the pipe such as. bentonite to reduce the frictional resistance on the pipes. Intermediate jacking stations are sometime used. A steel cylindrical pipe containing jacks placed around the periphery and bearing against purpose made distribution pads or rings is introduce between pipe and the jacks. Some of the drawbacks in this technique are: {@) Steering the pipe is one major problem and the tremendous jacking loads is another. About 30m is the maximum length for pipe jacking beyond which steering and jacking to line and level become difficult, Careful checks and control are essential. Today, this is overcome substantially by the use of laser bean. (bd) Walignment is not accurate, spalling could occur at the joints. (¢) Excessive pushing pressures can cause ground upheavel ahead of the face. (4) Friction varies according to the soil strata and in variable ground it could result in the drive being frustrated. 1€) The construction and removal of a heavy thrust wall is expensive {f) At shallow depths, the drag effect of the moving pipe could add to the Settlement of the surface.awe: RIVER OR CANAL RECEIING PY HVORS LIC JA HYDRAULIC STEERING JACKS, RUBSER RING ay 1B TYPICAL JOINT (© HooDED SHIELD MENT SHAFT Fig 5 Pipes Jacking Operation 3.5 Construction of Sewers by Pipe Jacking in Compressed Air In this method, compressed airs introduced into the pipes to hold the excavation face against collapse and to prevent the in-flow of water into the pipes in water -logged soft soil This technique was used in Singapore in 1982 to lay a 1800mm diameter pipeline across East Coast Parkway (60m) at a relatively shallow degth. The site was reclaimed from the sea and the water level in the sandy soil was Subject to tidal influence. in such soil it was known to be difficult to maintain the stability of the face as the ground water would flow in bringing loose fine material with possible settlement of the road. Compressed air was used to hold back the water, and the pipe jacked through without undermining the stability of the road or surrounding ground or causing any interruption or interference to the heavy traffic on the expressway. The first pipe was turned into the working chamber and the second pipe the airlock where the men were subject to compression and decompression prior to'entry and exit. This system of operating a short one-pipe length working chamber together with a similar one-pipe length air-lock has the advantage of using limited volume of compressed air. 3.6 Construction of Small Diameter Sewers by Pipe Jacking Several pipe jacking methods for laying small and medium diameter pipes have been recently developed, notably in Japan. These methods are claimed to be an epoch making break-through developed for laying small and medium diameter pipes that avoid the problems of noise, vibrations, disruption to traffic, subsidence of roads, services and nearby structures. These methods use a small working shaft, are suitable fora great variety of soils, can achieve a high degree of accuracy over 100m, and the jacking speed is fast. The machines are simple in operation and the operator can easily master the technique. Three types that have been introduced into Singapore are known as: (i) Earth Arrow Method (ii) Iron Mole Method ) Horizonger Method 3.6.1 Earth Arrow Method This method consists of two stages of construction. In the first stage a 100mm or 150mm diameter pilot pipe is laid from the thrust shaft to the reception shaft by pipe jacking method. In the second stage, pipe is laid by the jacking method from the thrust shaft to the reception shaft, using the pilot pipe as a guide. The pilot pipes are steel pipes, each is about a metre long, and threaded at both ends so that the pipes can be jointed together. The pines are jacked one after the other from the thrust shaft to correct aradient and direction using an‘arrow head’ as shown in figures 6(a) and(d). The arrow head used for excavating through sandy and48 hard soil comprises an arrow in front and a short cutting screw at the back The cutting screw when rotate excavates the soil. The arrow head is fitted on to the hollow screw conveyor as shown in figure 6(d). The hollo screw conveyor consists of metre long sections with an outer diameter same as the inner diameter of the pik pipe. Itis inserted concentrically into the pilot pipe as the jacking of pipes proceeds. The hollow screw convey. acts as a shaft to jack the arrow head and also transports the excavated soil from the arrow head to the thru: shaft. Besides. the hollow portion enables the target at the back of the arrow head to be seen from the thru: shaft. By suitably positioning the arrow while jacking the arrow head from the thrust shaft, the pilot pipe cand steered to the correct gradient and direction. reception shatt thrust shatt @ STEP 1 Jacking of Pilot STEP2 Replacing Hollow Screw Conveyc by a Screw Conveyor i) STEP3 Jacking of Pipe Using Pilot Pipe as a Guide i utting: sexe Hollone screw conveyor Cc) Holiow shatt q a z Pitot pipe Detail A Arrow Head (eo) sitter g Ae tian =~ Power Supply LS tydrautic off Detail B Excavation Head Pressurised water Figs. 6(a) to(e) Earth Arrow Method The arrow headis first pushed into the soil by jacking the hollow screw conveyor. The length of penetration by the arrow head varies depending on the strength of the soil. The pilot pipe is then jacked to cover the same length pentrated by the arrow head while the hollow screw conveyor is rotated to cut and to remove the soil from the arrow head. This cycle is repeated until the pilot pipe is jacked from the thrust shaft to the reception shaft. ‘When the jacking of the pilot pipe is completed, the hollow screw conveyor is replaced as shown in figure 6(b) bya newscrew conveyor which is screwed counter clock wise and capable of transporting larger volume of soil. Inthe thrust shaft an excavation head is connected to the new screw conveyor and pilot pipe as shown in figure 6(e). The cutter in the excavation head and the screw conveyor rotate while the excavation head and the pipe are being jacked from the thrust shaft. As the cutter digs the earth, the screw conveyor sends it in the pilot tube to the reception shaft. As the pipes are jacked one after the other from the thrust shaft, the pilot and the screw conveyor is pushed towards the reception shaft where the pilot pipe and the screw are removed one after the other as shown in figure 6(c). 3.6.2. trom This method is very similar to the arrow head method. In this method instead of an arrow head, a pilot head is used. There are two types of pilot head, for soft soils and for hard soils. jsthod(a) reception shatt thrust shaft A __STEP1 a J ‘Screw and Casing set in the Pipe = to be laid (Machine is retracted) see cetail & (b) i STEP2 Airection centro Jacking ot Pigs x - excavaieg sol ——— 's discnargea id STEP3 Steps 1 & 2 are repeated until the Pipe reaches Reception Shaft Cc) I ullout wire a a STEP 4 i nt ‘Screw Conveyor and Casing is removed jaca | 11 th @ ~ ee Colimation axis Heed Screw conveyor Fipe 5 x S LSS Detail ‘A’ - Excavation Head Figs. 8(a) to (e) - Horizonger Method i a P.S. The views expressed are the author's own and are not necessarily those of the Ministry of the Environment or the Sewerage Department. REFERENCES: 1. K Fujita (1983) Tunnelling in Soft Soils international Seminar on Construction Problems on Soft Soils, Pane 48 Singapore. Issac P.G.G. (1980) “Roman Public Health Engineering”, Proceedings of the Instn Civ Engrs Part | 1980, 68 may 215-239. Publication on Shield Machines by Hitachi Zosen, Japan and Mitsubishi Heavy Industrial Ltd Japan. Ronald E Bartleft (1970) Public Health Engineering Design in Metric - Sewerage. Szechy K (1967) The Art of tunnelling Akademiai Kiado Budapest. Tan Teng Huat (1972) Sewerage, Sewage Treatment and Disposal in Singapore, Paper Presented at the Regional Workshop on Water Resources, March 13-17, 1972, “Underground Services” August 1973 Published by Foundation Publications Ltd for Mini Tunnels International Ltd Surrey, England. Underground Pipe Jacking Method Catalogue by Kidoh Construction Co, Ltd, Japan. G Wayne Clough, Bryan P Sweeney and Richard J Fino (1982) Measured Soil Response to Advanced Shield Tunnelling, Paper presented at the National ASCE meeting Las Vegas, Nevada April 1982.