Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Evolution
- information, overview, or tutorial about the basics of the 3GPP / 3G LTE, the
long term evolution plans for the next generation of cellular telecommunications
services
3G LTE evolution
Although there are major step changes between LTE and its 3G predecessors, it is nevertheless
looked upon as an evolution of the UMTS / 3GPP 3G standards. Although it uses a different
form of radio interface, using OFDMA / SC-FDMA instead of CDMA, there are many
similarities with the earlier forms of 3G architecture and there is scope for much re-use.
LTE can be seen for provide a further evolution of functionality, increased speeds and general
improved performance.
WCDMA
(UMTS)
Max downlink speed
bps
Max uplink speed
bps
Latency
round trip time
approx
3GPP releases
Approx years of initial roll
out
Access methodology
HSPA
HSDPA /
HSUPA
HSPA+
LTE
384 k
14 M
28 M
100M
128 k
5.7 M
11 M
50 M
150 ms
100 ms
50ms
(max)
~10 ms
CDMA
CDMA
Rel 8
2009 / 10
OFDMA / SCFDMA
In addition to this, LTE is an all IP based network, supporting both IPv4 and IPv6. There is also
no basic provision for voice, although this can be carried as VoIP.
enables high RF power amplifier efficiency in the mobile handsets - an important factor
for battery power equipment. Read more about LTE OFDM / OFDMA / SCFMDA
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): One of the main problems that previous
telecommunications systems has encountered is that of multiple signals arising from the
many reflections that are encountered. By using MIMO, these additional signal paths can
be used to advantage and are able to be used to increase the throughput.
When using MIMO, it is necessary to use multiple antennas to enable the different paths
to be distinguished. Accordingly schemes using 2 x 2, 4 x 2, or 4 x 4 antenna matrices
can be used. While it is relatively easy to add further antennas to a base station, the same
is not true of mobile handsets, where the dimensions of the user equipment limit the
number of antennas which should be place at least a half wavelength apart. Read more
about LTE MIMO
SAE (System Architecture Evolution): With the very high data rate and low latency
requirements for 3G LTE, it is necessary to evolve the system architecture to enable the
improved performance to be achieved. One change is that a number of the functions
previously handled by the core network have been transferred out to the periphery.
Essentially this provides a much "flatter" form of network architecture. In this way
latency times can be reduced and data can be routed more directly to its destination. Read
more about LTE SAE
These technologies are addressed in much greater detail in the following pages of this tutorial.
Details
100 (SISO), 172 (2x2 MIMO), 326 (4x4 MIMO)
50 (QPSK), 57 (16QAM), 86 (64QAM)
All packet switched data (voice and data). No
circuit switched.
1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20
FDD and TDD
0 - 15 km/h (optimised),
15 - 120 km/h (high performance)
Idle to active less than 100ms
Small packets ~10 ms
Parameter
Spectral efficiency
Access schemes
Modulation types
supported
Details
Downlink: 3 - 4 times Rel 6 HSDPA
Uplink: 2 -3 x Rel 6 HSUPA
OFDMA (Downlink)
SC-FDMA (Uplink)
QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM (Uplink and downlink)
These highlight specifications give an overall view of the performance that LTE will offer. It
meets the requirements of industry for high data download speeds as well as reduced latency - a
factor important for many applications from VoIP to gaming and interactive use of data. It also
provides significant improvements in the use of the available spectrum.
In view of its advantages, the use of ODFM and the associated access technologies, OFDMA and
SC-FDMA are natural choices for the new LTE cellular standard.
OFDM basics
The use of OFDM is a natural choice for LTE. While the basic concepts of OFDM are used, it
has naturally been tailored to meet the exact requirements for LTE. However its use of multiple
carrier each carrying a low data rate remains the same.
Note on OFDM:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) is a form of transmission that uses a large
number of close spaced carriers that are modulated with low rate data. Normally these signals
would be expected to interfere with each other, but by making the signals orthogonal to each
another there is no mutual interference. This is achieved by having the carrier spacing equal to
the reciprocal of the symbol period. This means that when the signals are demodulated they will
have a whole number of cycles in the symbol period and their contribution will sum to zero - in
other words there is no interference contribution. The data to be transmitted is split across all the
carriers and this means that by using error correction techniques, if some of the carriers are lost
due to multi-path effects, then the data can be reconstructed. Additionally having data carried at
a low rate across all the carriers means that the effects of reflections and inter-symbol
interference can be overcome. It also means that single frequency networks, where all
transmitters can transmit on the same channel can be implemented.
Click on the link for an OFDM tutorial
The actual implementation of the technology will be different between the downlink (i.e. from
base station to mobile) and the uplink (i.e. mobile to the base station) as a result of the different
requirements between the two directions and the equipment at either end. However OFDM was
chosen as the signal bearer format because it is very resilient to interference. Also in recent years
a considerable level of experience has been gained in its use from the various forms of
broadcasting that use it along with Wi-Fi and WiMAX. OFDM is also a modulation format that
is very suitable for carrying high data rates - one of the key requirements for LTE.
In addition to this, OFDM can be used in both FDD and TDD formats. This becomes an
additional advantage.
1.4 MHz
3 MHz
5 MHz
10 MHz
15 MHz
20 MHz
In addition to this the subcarriers are spaced 15 kHz apart from each other. To maintain
orthogonality, this gives a symbol rate of 1 / 15 kHz = of 66.7 s.
Each subcarrier is able to carry data at a maximum rate of 15 ksps (kilosymbols per second).
This gives a 20 MHz bandwidth system a raw symbol rate of 18 Msps. In turn this is able to
provide a raw data rate of 108 Mbps as each symbol using 64QAM is able to represent six bits.
It may appear that these rates do not align with the headline figures given in the LTE
specifications. The reason for this is that actual peak data rates are derived by first subtracting
the coding and control overheads. Then there are gains arising from elements such as the spatial
multiplexing, etc.
The length of the cyclic prefix, CP is important. If it is not long enough then it will not
counteract the multipath reflection delay spread. If it is too long, then it will reduce the data
throughput capacity. For LTE, the standard length of the cyclic prefix has been chosen to be 4.69
s. This enables the system to accommodate path variations of up to 1.4 km. With the symbol
length in LTE set to 66.7 s.
The symbol length is defined by the fact that for OFDM systems the symbol length is equal to
the reciprocal of the carrier spacing so that orthogonality is achieved. With a carrier spacing of
15 kHz, this gives the symbol length of 66.7 s.
Channel bandwidth
(MHz)
1.4
10
15
20
15
25
50
75
100
LTE MIMO
- overview, information, tutorial about the basics of how MIMO is used within
3G LTE.
Note on MIMO:
Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath interference, and the data
throughput limitations as a result of Shannon's Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the
multiple signal paths that exist between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the
data throughput available on a given channel with its defined bandwidth. By using multiple
antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex digital signal processing,
MIMO technology enables the system to set up multiple data streams on the same channel,
thereby increasing the data capacity of a channel.
Click on the link for a MIMO tutorial
MIMO is being used increasingly in many high data rate technologies including Wi-Fi and other
wireless and cellular technologies to provide improved levels of efficiency. Essentially MIMO
employs multiple antennas on the receiver and transmitter to utilise the multi-path effects that
always exist to transmit additional data, rather than causing interference.
The schemes employed in LTE again vary slightly between the uplink and downlink. The reason
for this is to keep the terminal cost low as there are far more terminals than base stations and as a
result terminal works cost price is far more sensitive.
For the downlink, a configuration of two transmit antennas at the base station and two receive
antennas on the mobile terminal is used as baseline, although configurations with four antennas
are also being considered.
For the uplink from the mobile terminal to the base station, a scheme called MU-MIMO (MultiUser MIMO) is to be employed. Using this, even though the base station requires multiple
antennas, the mobiles only have one transmit antenna and this considerably reduces the cost of
the mobile. In operation, multiple mobile terminals may transmit simultaneously on the same
channel or channels, but they do not cause interference to each other because mutually
orthogonal pilot patterns are used. This techniques is also referred to as spatial domain multiple
access (SDMA).
has been an additional emphasis on including TDD LTE using unpaired spectrum. TDD LTE
which is also known as TD-LTE is seen as providing the evolution or upgrade path for TDSCDMA.
In view of the increased level of importance being placed upon LTE TDD or TD-LTE, it is
planned that user equipments will be designed to accommodate both FDD and TDD modes. With
TDD having an increased level of importance placed upon it, it means that TDD operations will
be able to benefit from the economies of scale that were previously only open to FDD
operations.
Duplex schemes
It is essential that any cellular communications system must be able to transmit in both directions
simultaneously. This enables conversations to be made, with either end being able to talk and
listen as required. Additionally when exchanging data it is necessary to be able to undertake
virtually simultaneous or completely simultaneous communications in both directions.
It is necessary to be able to specify the different direction of transmission so that it is possible to
easily identify in which direction the transmission is being made. There are a variety of
differences between the two links ranging from the amount of data carried to the transmission
format, and the channels implemented. The two links are defined:
Uplink: the transmission from the UE or user equipment to the eNodeB or base station.
Downlink the transmission from the eNodeB or base station to the UE or user
equipment.
Both FDD and TDD have their own advantages and disadvantages. Accordingly they may be
used for different applications, or where the bias of the communications is different.
LTE-TDD
Does not require paired
spectrum as both transmit and
Paired
receive occur on the same
spectrum
channel
Lower cost as no diplexer is
needed to isolate the
transmitter and receiver. As
Hardware cost cost of the UEs is of major
importance because of the vast
numbers that are produced,
this is a key aspect.
Channel propagation is the
same in both directions which
Channel
enables transmit and receive to
reciprocity
use on set of parameters
It is possible to dynamically
UL / DL
change the UL and DL
asymmetry
LTE-FDD
Requires paired spectrum with
sufficient frequency separation to
allow simultaneous transmission
and reception
Parameter
LTE-TDD
capacity ratio to match
demand
LTE-FDD
the regulatory authorities. It is
therefore not possible to make
dynamic changes to match
capacity. Regulatory changes
would normally be required and
capacity is normally allocated so
that it is the same in either
direction.
Guard band required to provide
sufficient isolation between
uplink and downlink. Large
guard band does not impact
capacity.
Continuous transmission is
required.
Not applicable
With the considerable interest from the supporters of TD-SCDMA, a number of features to make
the mode of operation of TD-LTE more of an upgrade path for TD-SCDMA have been
incorporated. One example of this is the subframe structure that has been adopted within LTE
TDD / TD-LTE.
While both LTE TDD (TD-LTE) and LTE FDD will be widely used, it is anticipated that LTE
FDD will be the more widespread, although LTE TDD has a number of significant advantages,
especially in terms of higher spectrum efficiency that can be used by many operators. It is also
anticipated that phones will be able to operate using either the LTE FDD or LTE-TDD (TDLTE) modes. In this way the LTE UEs or user equipments will be dual standard phones, and able
to operate in countries regardless of the flavour of LTE that is used - the main problem will then
be the frequency bands that the phone can cover.
The frame structures for LTE differ between the Time Division Duplex, TDD and the Frequency
Division Duplex, FDD modes as there are different requirements on segregating the transmitted
data.
There are two types of LTE frame structure:
1. Type 1: used for the LTE FDD mode systems.
These three fields are also used within TD-SCDMA and they have been carried over into LTE
TDD (TD-LTE) and thereby help the upgrade path. The fields are individually configurable in
terms of length, although the total length of all three together must be 1ms.
Downlink to
uplink switch
periodicity
Subframe number
0
Uplinkdownlink
configuration
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Downlink to
uplink switch
periodicity
5 ms
5 ms
5 ms
10 ms
10 ms
10 ms
5 ms
Subframe number
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
D
U
U
D
U
U
D
D
U
D
D
U
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
S
S
S
D
D
D
S
U
U
U
D
D
D
U
U
U
D
D
D
D
U
U
D
D
D
D
D
D
Where:
D is a subframe for downlink transmission
S is a "special" subframe used for a guard time
U is a subframe for uplink transmission
Uplink / Downlink subframe configurations for LTE TDD (TD-LTE)
Security
See also: 4G LTE Advanced
In order that data can be transported across the LTE radio interface, various "channels" are used.
These are used to segregate the different types of data and allow them to be transported across
the radio access network in an orderly fashion.
Effectively the different channels provide interfaces to the higher layers within the LTE protocol
structure and enable an orderly and defined segregation of the data.
Physical channels: These are transmission channels that carry user data and control
messages.
Transport channels: The physical layer transport channels offer information transfer to
Medium Access Control (MAC) and higher layers.
Logical channels: Provide services for the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer within
the LTE protocol structure.
Downlink:
o Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH): This physical channel carries system
information for UEs requiring to access the network.
o Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH) :
o Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) : The main purpose of this
physical channel is to carry mainly scheduling information.
o Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) : As the name implies, this
channel is used to report the Hybrid ARQ status.
o Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH) : This channel is used for unicast
and paging functions.
o Physical Multicast Channel (PMCH) : This physical channel carries system
information for multicast purposes.
o Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH) : This provides
information to enable the UEs to decode the PDSCH.
Uplink:
o
o
o
Downlink:
o Broadcast Channel (BCH) : The LTE transport channel maps to Broadcast
Control Channel (BCCH)
o Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) : This transport channel is the main
channel for downlink data transfer. It is used by many logical channels.
o Paging Channel (PCH) : To convey the PCCH
o Multicast Channel (MCH) : This transport channel is used to transmit MCCH
information to set up multicast transmissions.
Uplink:
o Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) : This transport channel is the main channel
for uplink data transfer. It is used by many logical channels.
o Random Access Channel (RACH) : This is used for random access
requirements.
Control channels:
o Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) : This control channel provides system
information to all mobile terminals connected to the eNodeB.
o Paging Control Channel (PCCH) : This control channel is used for paging
information when searching a unit on a network.
o Common Control Channel (CCCH) : This channel is used for random access
information, e.g. for actions including setting up a connection.
o Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) : This control channel is used for
Information needed for multicast reception.
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) : This control channel is used for carrying
user-specific control information, e.g. for controlling actions including power
control, handover, etc..
Traffic channels:
o Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) : This traffic channel is used for the
transmission of user data.
o Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH) : This channel is used for the transmission of
multicast data.
LTE
Band
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Width
of
Band
(MHz)
1920 - 1980
2110 - 2170
60
1850 - 1910
1930 - 1990
60
1710 - 1785
1805 -1880
75
1710 - 1755
2110 - 2155
45
824 - 849
869 - 894
25
830 - 840
875 - 885
10
2500 - 2570
2620 - 2690
70
880 - 915
925 - 960
35
1749.9 - 1784.9 1844.9 - 1879.9 35
1710 - 1770
2110 - 2170
60
1427.9 - 1452.9 1475.9 - 1500.9 20
698 - 716
728 - 746
18
777 - 787
746 - 756
10
788 - 798
758 - 768
10
1900 - 1920
2600 - 2620
20
2010 - 2025
2585 - 2600
15
704 - 716
734 - 746
12
815 - 830
860 - 875
15
830 - 845
875 - 890
15
832 - 862
791 - 821
30
1447.9 - 1462.9 1495.5 - 1510.9 15
3410 - 3500
3510 - 3600
90
2000 - 2020
2180 - 2200
20
1625.5 - 1660.5 1525 - 1559
34
1850 - 1915
1930 - 1995
65
Uplink
(MHz)
Downlink
(MHz)
Duplex Band
Spacing Gap
(MHz) (MHz)
190
80
95
400
45
35
120
45
95
400
48
30
-31
-30
700
575
30
45
45
-41
48
100
180
-101.5
80
130
20
20
355
20
25
50
10
60
340
28
12
41
40
680
560
18
30
30
71
33
10
160
135.5
15
LTE Band
Number
Allocation (MHz)
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
1900 - 1920
2010 - 2025
1850 - 1910
1930 - 1990
1910 - 1930
2570 - 2620
1880 - 1920
2300 - 2400
2496 - 2690
3400 - 3600
3600 - 3800
20
15
60
60
20
50
40
100
194
200
200
There are regular additions to the LTE frequency bands / LTE spectrum allocations as a result of
negotiations at the ITU regulatory meetings. These LTE allocations are resulting in part from the
digital dividend, and also from the pressure caused by the ever growing need for mobile
communications. Many of the new LTE spectrum allocations are relatively small, often 10 20MHz in bandwidth, and this is a cause for concern. With LTE-Advanced needing bandwidths
of 100 MHz, channel aggregation over a wide set of frequencies many be needed, and this has
been recognised as a significant technological problem. . . . . . . . .
Additional information on LTE frequency bands.
Security
See also: 4G LTE Advanced
In the same way that a variety of other systems adopted different categories for the handsets or
user equipments, so too there are 3G LTE UE categories. These LTE categories define the
standards to which a particular handset, dongle or other equipment will operate.
Category
Downlink
Uplink
Category
1
10
5
50
100
150
25
50
50
LTE UE category data rates
300
75
Category
Downlink
Uplink
Category
2 Rx
diversity
2 x 2 MIMO
4 x 4 MIMO
3
4
5
QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM
QPSK,
QPSK, 16QAM
16QAM,
64QAM
LTE UE category modulation formats supported
1
2 3 4
5
Assumed in performance requirements across all LTE UE
categories
Not
Mandatory
supported
Not supported
Mandatory
LTE UE category MIMO antenna configurations
level of automatic configuration is introduced and this reduces the set-up and
commissioning time.
The main element of the LTE SAE network is what is termed the Evolved Packet Core or EPC.
This connects to the eNodeBs as shown in the diagram below.
Mobility Management Entity, MME: The MME is the main control node for the LTE
SAE access network, handling a number of features:
o Idle mode UE tracking
o Bearer activation / de-activation
o Choice of SGW for a UE
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
It can therefore be seen that the SAE MME provides a considerable level of overall
control functionality.
Serving Gateway, SGW: The Serving Gateway, SGW, is a data plane element within
the LTE SAE. Its main purpose is to manage the user plane mobility and it also acts as
the main border between the Radio Access Network, RAN and the core network. The
SGW also maintains the data paths between the eNodeBs and the PDN Gateways. In this
way the SGW forms a interface for the data packet network at the E-UTRAN.
Also when UEs move across areas served by different eNodeBs, the SGW serves as a
mobility anchor ensuring that the data path is maintained.
PDN Gateway, PGW: The LTE SAE PDN gateway provides connectivity for the UE to
external packet data networks, fulfilling the function of entry and exit point for UE data.
The UE may have connectivity with more than one PGW for accessing multiple PDNs.
Policy and Charging Rules Function, PCRF: This is the generic name for the entity
within the LTE SAE EPC which detects the service flow, enforces charging policy. For
applications that require dynamic policy or charging control, a network element entitled
the Applications Function, AF is used.
The additional levels of flexibility and functionality given to the new eNBs mean that they are
more complex than the UMTS and previous generations of base-station. However the new 3G
LTE SAE network structure enables far higher levels of performance. In addition to this their
flexibility enables them to be updated to handle new upgrades to the system including the
transition from G LTE to 4G LTE Advanced.
The new System Architecture Evolution, SAE for LTE provides a new approach for the core
network, enabling far higher levels of data to be transported to enable it to support the much
higher data rates that will be possible with LTE. In addition to this, other features that enable the
CAPEX and OPEX to be reduced when compared to existing systems, thereby enabling higher
levels of efficiency to be achieved.
SMS is used to set-up many mobile broadband connections, and a lack of SMS is seen as a
show-stopper by many.
As mobile operators receive over 80% of their revenues from voice and SMS traffic, it is
necessary to have a viable and standardized scheme to provide these services and protect this
revenue.
CSFB, Circuit Switched Fall Back: The circuit switched fallback, CSFB option for
providing voice over LTE has been standardised under 3GPP specification 23.272.
Essentially LTE CSFB uses a variety of processes and network elements to enable the
circuit to fall back to the 2G or 3G connection (GSM, UMTS, CDMA2000 1x) before a
circuit switched call is initiated.
The specification also allows for SMS to be carried as this is essential for very many setup procedures for cellular telecommunications. To achieve this the handset uses an
interface known as SGs which allows messages to be sent over an LTE channel.
Note on IMS:
The IP Multimedia Subsystem or IP Multimedia Core Network Subsystem, IMS is an
architectural framework for delivering Internet Protocol, IP multimedia services. It enables a
variety of services to be run seemlessly rather than having several disparate applications
operating concurrently.
Click for a IMS tutorial
User Network interface, UNI: This interface is located between the user's equipment
and the operators network.
Roaming Network Network Interface, R-NNI: The R-NNI is an interface located
between the Home and Visited Network. This is used for a user that is not attached to
their Home network, i.e. roaming.
Interconnect Network Network Interface, I-NNI: The I-NNI is the interface located
between the networks of the two parties making a call.
Work on the definition of VoLTE, Voice over LTE is ongoing. It will include a variety of
elements including some of the following:
It will be necessary to ensure the continuity of Voice calls when a user moves from an
LTE coverage area to another where a fallback to another technology is required. This
form of handover will be achieved using Single Radio Voice Call Continuity, or SRVCC).
It will be important to provide the optimal routing of bearers for voice calls when
customers are roaming.
Another area of importance will be to establish commercial frameworks for roaming and
interconnect for services implemented using VoLTE definitions. This will enable
roaming agreements to be set up.
Provision of capabilities associated with the model of roaming hubbing.
For any services, including LTE, it is necessary to undertake a thorough security and
fraud threat audit to prevent hacking and un-authorised entry into any area within the
network..
In many ways the implementation of VoLTE at a high level is straightforward. The handset or
phone needs to have software loaded to provide the VoLTE functionality. This can be in the
form of an App.
The network then requires to be IMS compatible.
While this may appear straightforward, there are many issues for this to be made operational,
especially via the vagaries of the radio access network where time delays and propagation
anomalies add considerably to the complexity.
LTE Security
- overview, about the basics of LTE security including the techniques used for
LTE authentication, ciphering, encryption, and identity protection.
LTE security had to provide at least the same level of security that was provided by 3G
services.
The LTE security measures should not affect user convenience.
The LTE security measures taken should provide defence from attacks from the Internet.
The security functions provided by LTE should not affect the transition from existing 3G
services to LTE.
The USIM currently used for 3G services should still be used.
To ensure these requirements for LTE security are met, it has been necessary to add further
measures into all areas of the system from the UE through to the core network.
The main changes that have been required to implement the required level of LTE security are
summarised below:
A new hierarchical key system has been introduced in which keys can be changed for
different purposes.
The LTE security functions for the Non-Access Stratum, NAS, and Access Stratum, AS
have been separated. The NAS functions are those functions for which the processing is
accomplished between the core network and the mobile terminal or UE. The AS
functions encompass the communications between the network edge, i.e. the Evolved
Node B, eNB and the UE.
The concept of forward security has been introduced for LTE security.
LTE security functions have been introduced between the existing 3G network and the
LTE network.
LTE USIM
One of the key elements within the security of GSM, UMTS and now LTE was the concept of
the subscriber identity module, SIM. This card carried the identity of the subscriber in an
encrypted fashion and this could allow the subscriber to keep their identity while transferring or
upgrading phones.
With the transition form 2G - GSM to 3G - UMTS, the idea of the SIM was upgraded and a
USIM - UMTS Subscriber Identity Module, was used. This gave more functionality, had a larger
memory, etc.
For LTE, only the USIM may be used - the older SIM cards are not compatible and may not be
used.