Lean Six Sigma Textbook PDF

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CO N T ENT S
P R O C E S S IM P R O V E M E N T
E S S E N T IA L S
Le a n Si x S i g m a Or i g i n s
In t r o d u c t io
O r igin
1 / L e a n O r i gi n
3 / L e a n Si x Si g m
Ta k e A w
ay
T ip s
1
s
2 / Si x Si g m
7 / Su
9 / C ha pt er
fo
D e c is i o
9 /
y
10
L e a d e r s h i p Tr
Si g m
a
Kn
C u lt u
o w
St r a t e
m m ar
e st i o n s
I.
67 / Ch a p t e r
T ip s
en
2]
ay
T ip s
18 /
19
m m ar
Qu e st io n s
2 3 / Ta k e A w
T ips
Cu s t o m e r Fo c u s
9
24
2 4 / Qu a l i t y Fu n c t io
e F V a l u e Pe r c e p t i o n s
D e p lo y m e n t
2 6 / Su m m a r y
3 6 / Ta k e A w a y
T i p s 36 / C h a p t e ] . Q u e s t i o n s 36
37 / Edu c a t i o n a n d
P r o c e s s I m p r o v e m e n t Te a m s
40 /
T r a i n i n g 39 / E n h a n c i n g T e a m P e r f o r m a n c e
4
4
S
T
/ a ke
42 /
u m m ary
L e a n Si x Si g m a T e a m s
II
44 / C ha p t e r
Qu e st i o n s
44
C O S T S : D E F IN IN G
O P P O R T U N IT I E S F O R
6 Co s t s
of
Qu a l i t y
45
47 /
4 5 / D e f i n i n g Qu a l i t y C o s t s
o f Qu a l i t y
l
i
Typ e s o f Q u a l i t y C o s t s 4 9 / Q u a t y C o s t
52 / U t i l i z i n g Qu a l i t y C o s t s
M e a s u r e m e n t Sy s t e m
C o st s
r m an ce an
6 5 / Ta k e A w a y
67
Qu e s t i o n s
68
6 8 / Pr o je c t
Pr o je c t s
6 9 / P r o j e c t Se l e c t i o
69
7 3 / Pr o j e c t B u d ge t s
76
79 / C h a p t e r
Qu e s t i o n
79
Pr o b l e m S o l v i n g U s i n g De f i n e ,
M e a s u r e , An a lyz e , i m pr o v e ,
Co n t r o l 8 1
P r o b l e m So l v i n g 8 1 / D e fi n e
82
M e a su r e
82 / A n a l y z e
87 / I m p r o v
Co
n tr o
T ips
37
P r o c e s s I m p r o v e m e n t Te a m s
Aw a y T ip s
m m ar
easu r es o
f P e r fo
ay
23
Cu sto m
59
P r o j e c t C o n t i n g e n c y Pl a n s a n d C h a n ge C o n t r o l
7 8 / Pr o je c t
77 / Pr o je c t C o n t r o l
Sy s t e m s
19 / St r a t e g i c P l a n
/ Su
57
70 / Pr o j e c t G o a ls a n d
P r o je c t Pr o p o s a l s
72 / Pr o j e c t
O bje c t iv e s 7 0 / Pr o j e c t P l a n s
Sc h e d u l e s
Pla n n i n g
23 / Chapte r
Cr e a t i n g
18 / T a k e A w
Cha r a c te r ist ic s
16 / L e a d e r s h i p
57
es t io n s
59 / M
res o
Pr o j e c t M a n a g e m e n t
L e a n Si x Si g m
18
St r a t e g i c P l a n C r e a t i o
D e p lo y m
1 1 / C r e a t i n g a L e a s Si x
12 / M a n a g i n g b y F a c t a n d W i t h
f Va r ia t io
17 1 Su
C h a p t e r Qu
re
l e d ge
St y l e s
a it s
6 4 / Su
G a p A n a lysi s
Le a d e r s h i p f o r P r o c e s s
Im p r o v e m e n t
11
ar
Pr o c e s s Pe r f o r m a n c e M e a s u r e s
T ip s
M a k i n g 5 6 / Su m m
5 7 / C h a p t e r Qu
T ips
ay
D e fi n i n g P r o c e s s M e a s u r e s
60 / M e a s u
Pe r f o r m a n c e
m m ar
Qu e st io n s
Ta k e A w
III
9 4 / Su
m m ar
96 / Ch a pt e r
Qu e s t io n
94
9 6 / T a k e Aw
ay
97
P R O D U C T I V IT Y P R O C E S S
IM P R O V E M E N T
O P P O R T U N IT I E S
1 0 Va l u e A dd e d P r o c e s s M a p p i n g
98
D e fi n i n g Pr o c e sse s
98 / I d e n t i fy i n g K e y
Pr o c e s s e s 9 9 / C r e a t i n g V a l u e a n d G e n e r a t i n
Cu sto
m er
Va lu
St r e a m P r o
Sa t i s f a c t i o n
c e ss
99 / Pr o
M a ppin g
t h e N o n Va lu e A d d e d A c t iv i t i e s
A dd e d A c t i v i t i e s
Aw
ay
T i ps
1 12 / Su
c e ss
10 8 / Se p a r a t i n g
fr o
m m ar
the
1 13 / T a k e
1 16 / C h a p t e r P r o b l e m
Va
1 16
ii
iii
CO N T ENT S
1 1 Ju s t i n T i m e
and
Ju s t i n T i m e 1 18 / K a n b a n
( A u t o n o m a t i o n ) 12 2 / Su m
Aw
12
5S
1 2 4 / Se i r i
Se i k e t s u
12 5 / Se i t o
1 2 9 / Sh i t s u k e
Ta ke A w a y T i p s
Ka i z e n
K a izen
1 4 2 / Su -
ar
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p
14
12 9 / Su
m m ar
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128 /
Pr o
y
Pr o b le m
13 1
13 2
19
15
T ips
Pr o d u c t iv e M a i n t e n a n c e
Pr o du c t iv e M
a in
155
20
15 6
15 6 / E l i m i n
ten an ce
a in te n a n c e
T ips
16
1 6 2 / Su
m 1n a r
16 2 / C h a p t e F P r o b l e m s
tio n o
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M a n a g e m e n t B e n e fi t s
c e ss
es
Co
224
par ed
i t h A v e r a ge s
22 5 /
on
In dic e s
22 8 / C a l c u l a t i n g Pr o c e s s C a p a bi l it
y
2 30
23 0 / C a l c u l a t i n g 6 c i
Su
m m ar
Fo
r m u
234 / T a k e A w a y T i p s
234
235 / Ch a p t e r Qu e s t io n s
235
la s
Re l i a bi l it y
236
23 6 / R e l i a b il i t y
n ce pts
2 3 7 / P r o d u c t L i fe Cy c le C u
ce
T a k e Aw
ou s
f Re l i a b i l i t y
T ips
ay
u e st io n s
2 4 0 / Su
2 4 4 / Fo r m
2 39 /
y 2 44 /
2 4 5 1 Ch a t e r
p
rv e
m m ar
u la s
24 5
ay
16 4
2 1 De s i g n
16 5
D e sign
Ex p e r i m e n t s
f Ex p e r i m
Ex p e r i m
16 5 / Su p p l y C h a i n
of
en ts
24 7
24 7 / T r i a l
en ts
2 4 7 / D e f 1n i t i o
n s
an
d Er F o r
24 8
Co
16 7 /
Su p p l y C h a i n M a n a g e m e n t C h a l l e n g e s
17 4 /
17 4 / T a k e A w a y T ip s
Su m m a r y
17 5 / C h a p t e r
n d u c t i n g a n Ex
p e r i m e n t : St e p s i n P l a n n e d
Ex p e r i m e n t a t i o n
2 5 0 / E x p e r i m e n t D e s i g n s 251 /
Si n g l e F a c t o r E x p e r i m e n t s
2 5 1 / H y p o t h e s e s an d
Ex p e r i m e n t E r r o r s
2 5 5 / Ex p e r i m e n t A n a l ys i s
Pr o ble m
M e tho ds
a n a ge m e n t
El e m
166 / Su p p l y C h a i n
166 / M a n a ge m e n t
en ts
17 5
T ips
22
R E D U C T IO N
O P P O R T U N 1T I E S
17 6
St a t i s t i c s
Er r o
An
18 0 / D a t a A n
a lys is :
T he o
rem
An
ly t i c a l
19 3 / N o
lys is : G r a p h ic a l
18 7 / C e n t r a l L i m i t
r m a
l Fr e q u
en c
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m m ar
Qu
e s t io
2 6 1 / T a k e A w ay
26 1
n s
des
d E f fe c t s A n a l y s i s
26 3 / Sy s t e m s
c e ss FM E A
2 6 4 / D e s i g n FM EA
2 6 4 / C r e a t i n a n F M EA
2 6 4 / Su m m a r y 27 1 /
g
Ta ke A w a y T i s 2 7 1 1 C h a t e r
p
Q u e s t i o n s 27 1
p
re
F M EA
17 7 / D a t a C o l l e c t i o n
Po p u l a t i o n s V e r s u s Sa m p l e s
17 8 / A c c u r a c y , P r e c i s i o n , a n d M e a s u r e m e n t
2 5 7 / Su
26 1 / C h a pt e r
Fa i l u r e M o d e s a n d Ef f e c t s
An a lys is 2 6 3
Fa ilu
17
222
f Po p u l a t i o n Si g m a f r o m Sa m p l e
2 2 6 / C o n t r o l I I m i t s V e r s u s Sp e c i f i c a t i o
n
2 2 7 / T h e 6 c r Sp r e a d V e r s u s Sp e c i f i c a t i
Pr o g r a m s
M e a su r e s
16 2 / T a k e A w
S u p p l y Ch a i n M a n a g e m e n t
22 1 / T k
y
a e
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pt e r
m m ar
r m u la s
Re l i a b il iw C o
Eq u ip m e n t L o s se s
1 57 / P r e v e n t i v e M a i n t e n a n
16 0 / P r e d i c t i v e M a i n t e n a n c e
16 2 / A u t o n o m
M
as
a t io n o
L im it s
Qu e s t io n s
22 1 / Fo
P r o c e s s Ca p a b i l i t y
I Im it s
15 5 / C h a p t e r
2 1 3 / Su
T ips
D a ta
e B a la n c i n
14 9 /
g 14 8 / Se t u p T i m e R e d u c t i o n
Si n g l e P i e c e F l o w ( R e d u c e d B a t c h Si z e s ) 15 1 /
Sc h e d u l e L e v e l i n
152 / St a n d a r d i z e d W o r k
15 2 /
g
V i s u a l M a n a ge m e n t
153 / Su m m a r y
15 5 / Ta k e
ay
ay
Est i m
L in
Aw
+r u l
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r
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tro
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14 6
l Cha r t s
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Qu e s t i o n s
14 5
W o r k Opt i m i z a t i o n
20 0 / F
0rr
203
Aw
T ips
20 1
V a r ia ble Co
I n t er p r e t a t io
13 1 /
fi n g ( Po k a y o k e )
14 4 / T a k e A w a y T i p s
ro r
ay
u e st io n s
18 Va r i a bl e Co n t r o l Ch a r t s
12 3
13 1 / C h a p t e r P r o b l e m
and
200 / Ta ke A w
12 3 / T a k e
s
12 6 / Se i s o
m m ar
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1 20 /
12 4
5S
13
Su
m ary
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T ips
ay
1 18
Ka n ba n
an
2 6 3 / P Fo
2 3 Le a n Si x S i g m a
Le a n
2 7 2 / Si x Si m
g
272
a
27 3
CO N T EN T S
A pp e n d i x 1 N o r m a l Cu r v e A r e a s
P ( Z [ Zo ) 2 7 5
An s w
e rs to
S e l e c t e d Pr o b l e m s
B i b l i o g r a p hy
A ppe n d ix 2
Fa c t o r s f o r Co m p u t i n g
Ce n t r a l L i n e s a n d 3 c T Co n t r o i L i m i t s
',
fo r x s , a n d R
27 7
,
Ch a
A pp e n d i x 3 V a l u e s
t Di s t r i b u t i o n
27 8
of
In de x
289
28 1
ix
2 80
C H A PT ER O N E
L e a n Si x Si g m
F IG U R E 1 1
r em o v e w a st e a n
n o n
Pr o
v a lu e
c e ss
dde d
Im pro
ac
v em en
t iv it i e s , a n
d they
u se
Si x Si g m a t o o l s a n d t e c h n i q u e s t o a t t a c k t h e v a r i a t i o n
pr
e n t i n p r o c e ss e s T h is c h a p t e r in t r o d u c e s t h e c o n c e t s o f le a n
p
a n d Si x S i g m a F u t u r e c h a p t e r s e x
p l a i n t o o ls a n d t e c h n iq u e s
t h a t c a n b e u se d t o o pt im iz e c o st , p r o d u c t iv it
y a n d q u a l it y
(F i g u r e 1 1 )
,
(So u r c e :
H e n r y Fo r d
t h e r e c a n be
t o sp e e d u
qu alit y
sa
id
"
Ti m
n o sa lv a
p the
e w as the
e w a ste
m ov
in g
b ly li n
a sse m
Co
o n to
t e r ia
w a ste
i n t ha t
p a n y :s fi n a l a s s e m bl y l i n e , c a r
i t i n g c h a s s i s (F i gu r e 1 2 )
w a
e a p p r o a c h , so
d i &e r e n
fr o
pr
ds
q u a l i t y , p r o d u c t iv i t y a n d c o s t s L e a n t o o l s a n d
d e s i g n e d t o i m p r o v e p r o c e s s p e r fo r m a n c e ,
i n c r e a s e q u a l i t y a n d p r o d u c t iv i t y, w h il e r e d u c i n g c o s t s a n d
e n h a n c i n g p r o fi t a b i l i t y
key
c o n cep ts:
t e chn iqu es a r e
h is bo
In
k s T he M
(H a r p e r Pe r e n n i a l
rb
Le a n
a chin e
19 9 1 )
an
T ha t C ha n ge d t h e W o r l d
d Lea
T hi n ki n g
( Si m
o n
&
nese
is q u o t e d
b a r is t a s
Fo
s a sse m
it h c u s t o m
an
w or
pa rt n e rs
t o in t e r a c t
pa r t n e r s a s t he c o m p a n y c a l ls t he m
M o t io
e r s a n d i m p r o v e t h e S t a r b u c ks e x p e r ie n c e
are tw o
t im
is
d if f e r e n t t h in gs T h ir t y pe r c e n t o f t he
m o t io n ; t h e w a l k i n g r e a c h i n g be n d i n g
ys He w a n ts t o
in c l u d i n g D u n k i n
le a n t o o ls a n d t e c
sa
lo w
er
Do
n u ts
h n iq u
tha t
es
Ot h e r f o o d
M c Do
ld
to im pro v e
na
Co
'
pa
ssem
b ly l i n
e s, a
o f le a n
t hin kin g
Fo
co n cen
hav
b ly L i n
ack
p r e se n t s t h e p r in c iples a n d
m a n u fa c t u r i n g
Ju s t l i k e H e n r y
l e a n s ys t e m p r o v i d e s w h a t is n e e de d,
a m o u n t n eeded, w
h e n it is
n ee
t r ates o n
v a lu e
d e d T h e p r i n c i p a l fo c u s
a l u e a d d e d p r o c e s s fl o w
dd e d flo
w , t h e r e m u st be a n
p
i n t e r r u p t e d a d d i n g o f v a l u e t o a p r o d u c t o r s e r v i c e a s it i s
be i n g c r e a t e d I n t e r r u p t io n s o r n o n v a l u e a d d e d a c t iv it ie s
o cess to
u n
fo
u n d in t h e p r o c e s s , s u c h a s d o w n t im e r e w o r k w
,
in s p e c t io n , m u st be r e du c e d o r e lim in a t e d
L e a n t h in k i n g i s a m i n d s e t b e s t d e s c r ib e d a s
,
it in g
an
a r e l e n t le s s
C o m p a n i e s im p l e m e n t i n g le a n h a v e r e o r t e d
p
s
n i fi c a n t r e d u c t i o n s i n c c l e t i m e s h a n d l i n
l
d
i
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o
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a
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y
,
g
f l o o r s p a c e u s a g e , i nvent or a n d c u s t o m e r s e r v i c e a c t i v i t i e s
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e y s e e a s i gn f f i c a n t i m r o v e m e n t i n u a l it
p
q
y,
i n v e n t o r y t u r n s , p r o f i t m a r g i n s , a n d c u s t o m e r r e s o n s iv e n e s s
p
Le a n fo c u se s o n e lim in a t in g w a st e d t im e e ffo r t a n d
,
,
m a t e r ia
dde d
l T im
su c
t im e w a st e d
a s t im e w a s t e
i t i n g fo r v a lu e t o be
t o r y fo r a c u s t o m e r ,
w a
it in g i n i n v e n
e w a s t e d w a it in g fo r t h e n e x t s t e
is
p in t he pr o c e ss
p a r t i c u l a r ly c r u c i a l T h e r e a r e m a n y s o u r c e s o f w a s t e
o r
w a
o r tim
S IX S IG M A T O O L S
t W O R K
d p r o c e s s e s M r H e yd o n a n d h is le a n t e a m s s t u d y t h e w a y
p l e w o r k a n d s e e k w a y s t o i m p r o v e t h e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f
t h e i r a c t i v it i e s T h e i r a p p r o a c h t o l e a n m a n a g e m e n t i n c l u d e s
pe o
a stro ng
On e
t he
foc
u s o n c u sto m e r n e e ds w a n ts
p l e i n c l u d e s t h e r e a l iz a t io n t h a t
n d s m a d e w h i le g r i n d i n g c o f f e e a s
exam
an
ex
p e c t a t io
ns
c u s t o m e rs e n jo y
so u
w e ll a s t he s m e ll
f f r e s h ly Br o u n d c o f f e e T h e s e s o u n d s a n d s m e l l s a d d t o
t h e i r i m p r e s s io n o f o v e r a l l c o f f e e q u a l it y S t a r b u c k s i s a l s o
he
p r o v id e r s
a n d B u r ge r K i n g u s e
r Ba n i z a t i o n w o r k f l o w
s e r v ic e
an
w a r o n w a ste
L EA N
Te c h n i q u e s
M r H e y d o n , S t a r b u c k s s le a n m a n a g e r
a s s a y in g t h a t
r e d u c in g w a s t e w i ll f re e u p t im e fo r
or
to r
t St a r b u c k s
O n T u e s d a y A u g u s t 4 2 0 0 9 t h e Wa / / S t r e e t J o u r n a l r a n a
f r o n t p a s e a r t i c le e n t it le d La t e s t S t a r b u c k s B u z z w o r d : L e a n
Ja pa
Fo r d
fa c t u r i n g m e t h o d s r e gu l a r l y b r o k e d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n
V i t a l a d a p t iv e o r ga n i z a t i o n s c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h r e e
o u s m an u
r ec o r
m a
'
g e : W i t h t h i s i n m i n d , h e fo c u s e d o n w a y s
a n u fa c t u r in g p r o c e ss w it h o u t s a c r ific in
g
f i r s t t o u t i l i z e a m o v i n g a s s e m b ly l i n e o n a
gr a n d s c a l e O n Fo r d M o t o
bo die s s lid do w n a r a m p
T h is
d 1jde r s Tr o m
Fo r d M
e n ]"y
Sc h u s t e r , 1 9 9 6 ) Ji m W o m
p r a c t ic es r ela te d t o lea n
in t he
L E A N O R IG I N S
F IG U R E 1 2
d a b o u t e m p lo ye e s m
i m p r o v e m e n t s p r o v id e a b e t t e r
t h e i r b a r is t a s
c on c erne
k in g
s u re
t ha t t he pr o c e s s
t fo r
w o r k in g e n v iro n m e n
Le a
G lo b a l
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u s to m e r s
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c o m p la in ts
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O b j e c t iv e 4 2 : R e m o v e n o n v a l u e a d d e d a c t iv it ie s
A c t i o n : C r e a t e p r o c e s s m a p s f o r a l l c r it ic a l p r o c e s s e s
A c t io n : S e t u p o n e t e a m p e r p r o c e s s t o id e n t if y a n d r e m
a c t i v it i e s
R e s p o n s i b il it y : D S
D u e : De c e m b e r 1
P r io r it y : 1
I n d i c a t o r : C o s t p e r p r i n t e d u n it (i m p r e s s i o n )
PM P r i n t i n g
F IG U R E 3 5
d D e s ig n A c t io
g h o u t t h e o r ga n i z a t i o n E f fe c t i v e l e a d
e r s m a k e s u r e t h a t t h e s t r a t e g ic p l a n c o n t a i n s c le a r
ob j
t iv e s , p r o v i d e s a n d u t i l i z e s m e a s u r e s o f p e r f o r m a n c e , a s s i g n s
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o s p e c i fi c i n d i v i d Li a l s , a n d d e n n t e s t i m i n g
( Fi g u r e 3 5 ) Fo r e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g i c p l a n d e p l o y m e n t , t ll e
o r ga n
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d t hro
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T A K E A W A Y T IP S
I
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fo r t h e s t r a t e gic
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en
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p a n y yo u
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ll
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l it c o s t a n d
b a l a n c in g a c t b e t w e e n q u a y
ha l le n g e t h a t
su
p p l ie
rs
Di e s t , l u n e 19 9 9
Th e f r st A m o n g Eq u a l s , Qu a l i t y g
P r o c e s s Im p r o v e
Es s e n t ia ls
m e nt
O r ig in s
S t r a t e g ic
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u s to m e r
a r
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h a s i n g d e c i s i o n s Su c c e s s f u l c o m p a n i e s s e e k t o
u n de r st a n d t h e ir p r o du c t s
s e r v i c e s , a n d p r o c e s s e s fr o m
h
i
t e r c u s t o m e r s p o i n t o f v i e w To at t r a c t a n d r e t a i n
c
m a
k : p u
be g i ns t hi s c h a p t er di sc u s s e s ho w
r c
L EA R N I N G O P P O R T U N I T I E S
l e a n Si x Si g m a o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o c u s o n d e t e r m i n i n
g
d p r o v id in g w h a t th e i r c u st o m e r s w a n t a n d v a l u e
Adv
t isin g, m a r ke t p o s it io n in
d
g, p r o d u c t / s e r v i c e i m a gi n g,
c o u n t i n g c r i s i s h a n d li n
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h
a
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o
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g
t he c u sto m e r s a t te n tio n a r e n o t e n o u h O
u
r ga n i z a t i o n s
g
l i z i n g t h e l e a n Si x Si m a m e t h o d o l o i
d
l
l
g
g e s o w e be c a u se
t he y t a lk t o c u st o m e r s t r a n sl a t e w h a t t h i
,
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in t o a ppr o pr ia t e a c t io n s a n d a li n t h i
ke y bu sin ess
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p r o je c t s t o su p po r t w h a t t he i r c u s to m e r s w a n t
A r m a n d F e i g e n b a u m ( 19 2 0
) i s c o n sid
d t b t he
to
p la i n t he d if f e r e n c e be t w
iv e d v a l u e
e
r
c
e
p
1 To
ex
ho w
To d i s c
To i n t r o d u c e t h e
de p lo ym e n t
uss
c u sto m e rs
ee n sa
de f in e
t is f a c t io n
an
v a lu e
m er s,
an
re a
d e r t o q u a l it y f u
nc
t io n
C U ST OM ER VA L U E
P E R C E P T IO N S
T he
cu r ren
t gl o
ba l bu s in
ere
e ss e n v
ir o
n m en
t i s e x t r e m e ly c o m
p e t i t iv e To d a y s c o n s u m e r s a r e m o r e t h a n w i l l i n g t o sw i t c h
f r o m s u p p l ie r t o s u p p li e r i n s e a r c h o f b e t t e r s e r v ic e o r a v a i l
a b il i t y o r c o u r t e s
y o r fe a t u r e s o r f o r a n y v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s
24
o r
v
igin a t o
id e
r o
so u n
H is la n d m
19 5 1
an
f t he
to tal
qu a lity
H i s t e a c h i n gs
p
d t h e fi e l d o f q u a l i t y
m o v em en t
ge m e n t a d v i c e b e y o n
k t e x t To t a l Q u a l i t C o n t r o l fi r s t
y
p u blishe d i n
p d a t e d r e gu l a r l y s i n c e t h e n , c o n t i n u e s t o i n fl u e n c e
m an a
ar
Cu s t o m
Cr e a t in
Fo c u s
27
ho u l d be i n v e s t iga t e d i n c l u d e p e r fo r m a n c e k a t u r e s ,
l i a b i l i t y c o n f o r m a n c e dur abi l i t s e r v i c e a b i l i t y , a e s t h e t i c s ,
i d e t h e s u r v e y s a n d fo c u s g r o u p s
a n d p e r c e iv e d q u a l i t y To g u
i fo r m a t i o n fr o m
a i n p r e l i m in a r y c u s t o m e r n
r e se a r c he r s c a n
r an ty
fi e l d r e p o r t s c o m m e n t c a r d s c o m p l a i n t s y s t e m s w a r
l
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Re c o r d s
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r e q u ir e m e n ts
Te c h n i c a l
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In the
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A
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I c a n i 1e v e r f i n d p a r k i n n
d ily
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"
p r e te d a s c lo s e ,
fi r s t s t a t e m e n t , t h e
o m er
t he w ay t hey say it , m u st
a c t io n a bl e w o
in to
Cu sto m e r
r e q u ir e m e n t s
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t ex e r c is e , t r a n sl a t in g c u s t o m e r s w a n t s in t o
p r i o r i t ie s
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FIG U R E 4 2
ga n i z a t i o n s h o w s i s p a r a m o u n t t o t h e s u c c e s s o f a n y
o r ga n i z a t i o n s e e k i n g t o a l i g n i t s p r o d u c t s , s e r v i c e s , a n d t h e
p r u c e s se s t h a t p r o v i de i t w i t h w ha t t h e c u st o m e r w a n t s A n
an
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b l i c 1t
A M Co r p o r a t i o n s e l l s s p o r t s d r i n k s t o t h e g e n e r a l p u
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De t e r m i n e t h e v o i c e o f t h e c u s t o m e r : W h a t o e s
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3
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t h e l e f t s id e o f t h e m a t r i x ( F i g u r e
o r
en
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ga n i z a t i o
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be
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t can
t r u l y e f fe c t i v e
Ha v e t h e c u s t o m e r r a n k t h e r e l a t i v e
i mponc e o f h i s o r h e r
Af t e r t h e t e a m m e m b e r s o r g a n i z e d t h e d a t a t h e y r e c
v e n e d t h e f o c u s g r o u p s At t h a t t i m e t h e y a s k e d e a c h o f t h e
w a nts
p a r t i c i p a n t s t o r a n k t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f r o m o n e t o t e n w it h t e n
b e i n g t h e h ig h e s t v a l u e a w a r d e d t o t h e m o s t d e s i r e d
c ha r ac t er
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be t w
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t he
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t r i x ( F i g u r e 4 4 ) b y c o m b i n i n g t h e v a l u e s a s s ig n e d by a ll t h e
c
To m e r s a n d t a k i n g a n a v e r a g e Fo r i n s t a n c e h a v i n g a p r o d u c t t h a t
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on
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i n a g la n c e w ha t t h e c o n s u m e r v a l u e s
c o l u m n s ho w
cc o n t i n u e c h
28
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d is s e m i n a t e t h i s i n f b r m a t i o n t h r n u g h o u t t h e o r g a n i m t i o n
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to m e r
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an
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b e n e fi t s
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p le fr o
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do to
be
to
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at
m a in t a in a c u sto m er
een
m a in ta i n i n
pe r so n a l
s a t i s fa c t i o n
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fo c u s ?
p e r i e n c e , d e s c r i be
a n d p e r c e iv e d v a lu e
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li
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H A P T E R
11
F I V E
P R O C E S S IM P R O V E M E N T T E A M S
Th e
h o /e
q u e s t io
em
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p /o y e e i n
v o /v e m e n
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t pro c
e s s s p r in gs
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m e n
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of
t E s s e n t ia l s
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L e a d e r s h ip
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C a lle d q u
l i ty
( 19 15
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n
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I sh ik a w
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s,
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s:
,
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n t r o l c ha r t s,
( o r f s h b o n e ) d i a g r a m
I sh ik a w a d e v e l o p e d t h e
a n d Cha pte r 9) D r
r e
u s e t z n d e l e c t d i a g r a m i n t h e e a r l y 19 5 0 s T h i s d i a g r a m ,
fi n d t h e
to
u se o
ho li s t ic
d i n g r rt 1n
c o st
w a
a ft e r
its
ga n i z a t i o
im pr o
a sy s t e m
f p r o ble m s , is a lso c a lle d t h e

c r e a t o r o r t h e J s l t bo n e d i a g r a m
r o o t c a u se o
r e fi n e a n o r
t i v i t y, a n
u se o f p r o c e ss im p r o v e
f l 1e s e 1e a 1r s n r e e t r o s o l p e
pr o blem
en
5 1
To
e o n e o
c e ss
u se d
I s h i ka w
k o n d e v e lo p so l u t io
lo c k in q u a l it y i m p r o v
w o r
r es to
(Fi gu
T EA M S
r u
to
klin g pr o
c he c k she e ts
1s h i k t 1w
I n 19 6 2 , D r K a o
t im
o r
c e du
Pa r e t o
t
a
o v er
s e d i n l e a n Si x
tac
ha n ge
k T he q u a lit y c i r c le
d i fi e d
p lo y e e s
anc e
o
bec o
pr o blem
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ve m
p po r t p r o c e s s im p r o
5 To d i s c u s s t h e
o r ga n iz a t i o n
f team
m o
h e p r o c ess im pr o v e m e n t t e a m s u
i mp r o
ga n i z a t i o n s M e m b e r s h i p i n a p r o c e s s
i
i
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l
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L EA R N I N G O P P O R T U N I T I E S
1 To d i s c u s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e
S ig m a e n v i r o n m e n t s
n w or
v em en
n s a pp r o a c h t o
'
t,
f p r i n c ipl e s
D r I sh i k a w
a n
m a o r
q u a l i ty ,
a en co u ra
fo
o d
ge d t h e
c u s ar ea s as a
b u s i n e s s p e r fo r m a n c e i m p r o v e m e n t
Q u a l i t y P r o g r e s s (A p r i l 2 0 0 4 ) h i s s y s t e m
t o a c h ie v e
A s p r e se n t e d i n
37
38
C H A P T E R F IV E
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h
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k et in qu a lit :
Le a d e r sh i sho u ld e n c o
y
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p
h l e t h e o r ga n i z a t i o n t d
o
e t e r m in e ex t e r n al
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s , r e q u ir e m e n t s
,
d e x p e c t a t i o n s By
, a n
fo c u s i n g o n t h e s e e l e m e n t
s a n d de si n in
g
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liv e r v a l u e t o t h e m a r ke t
a n o r ga n i z a t io n
c a n i n c r e a se it s
Bu s i n e s s c o m e t i t i v e n e s s
p
e
l fo
ar
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t:
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d c a r r y i t o u t s s t e m a t i c a ll
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Se l f l e s s p e r s o n a l c o m m i t m e n t : D
r I s h i k a w a li v e d
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m it m e n t H e
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,
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n g t o ge t h e r he l s
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4
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g
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kaw a s t e a c h in s T he
s
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y
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gm a t o o l s a n d t e c h
n iqu e s w i ll i m p r o v e t h e
p r o c e s s e s t h a t p r o v id e p r o d u c t s a n d
s e r v i c e s fo r c u s t o m e r s
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sc p n a r y
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o f the pr o c e ss o r p r o ble m u n d
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an
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ex t
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p r o j e c t i s a l s o h e l p f u l Te a m
m em be r s m u st
p o sse ss a v a r ie t y o f s k i lls , i n c lu d in g
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g
p l a n n i n g s k i l l s fa c i l i t a t i o n a n d
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en ce
p p o r t s y s t e m s , l a c k o f gu id a n c e o r d i r e c t io n , a n d la c k o f
Re c o g n i t i o n
Se n i o r l e a d e r s h i p s s i n c e r e i n t e r e s t
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o s o lv e p r o b l e m s T h e t e a
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e r ship
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m it e d i n t e r fe r e n c e
g
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e r e s u lt s , a n d d i s ba n d t h e t e a m
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n g t h is t i m e T he t e a m
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fi n is he d w h e n t h e h a v e r o o s e d a la n o f a c t i o n t e a m w o r k
y
;
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a t io n
D u r in g
bje c t i v e s I t a l s o
ha t
Fo
tea m s
are a
l ign e d
an ce
go a l s t
gs
g i c d i r e c t i o n o f t h e fi r m W h e n
t h e t e a m i s m u c h m o r e fo c u s e d
,
b o gg e d d o
t e n d s n o t t o ge t
pr o c e ss T he te a m m u s t kn o w t he
it m u s t w o r k w i t h i n Le a d e r s h i p m
an
T his
b l i s h e s i t s go a l s a n d o
d r u l e s f o r t e a m p e r fo r m
g e , t h e t e a m fb r m
d i n t h e f i r s t fe w
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l
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i n t he p r o ble m se le c t io n
sc o pe a n d bo u n da r ie s th a t
w n
u st c o m m u n ic a te
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d
p r o g r e s s a n d p e r fo r m a n c e w i l l b e m e a s u r e
O f t e n t i m e s fo l l o w i n g t h e i r f o r m a t i o n t e a m s e x p e r i
k o u t t he ir in
en ce a ro c k
b
y pe r io d w he r e t e a m m e m e r s w o r
d iv i d u a l d i f e r e n c e s T h i s i s t h e t i m e t h a t t h e t e a m ge t s
a c q u a in t e d w it h e a c h o t h e r s id i o s n c r a s ie s a n d t he de
y
te am 's
'
f t h e p r o j e c t D u r i n g t h i s s t o r m y s t a ge t h e g o a l s a n d
sc o
pe o f t h e t e a m m a y be q u e s t i o n e d Be c a u s e a t e a m is
co m
po se d o f a gr o u p o f i n d iv id u a ls w h o a r e u n i t e d by a
m an
ds
in
v o lv e
d fu
n c
t io n a l a r e a s ,
la ck
t r a in in
g in a d e qu
,
su
'
p e r ie n c e
es
it h t h e
t iv it ie s
i n g t h e %r s t
u su a
de t e r m in
ac
'
j u d ge d
e ff e c t iv e
U n t il t he n , the te a m
can n o
b e d is b a n d e d
a te
t
44
O NS
C H A PT ER Q U ES T I
S U M M A RY
ga n i z a t i o
d t r a i n i n g To
a o r
w n o is D r K a o
le
ga ge i n a c o n t i n u o u s c y c
s u p p o r t t h i s c yc l e o f c o n t i n u o u s
o f le a r n i n g a n
i Si g m a
p r o d u c t iv i t y c o s t a n d q u a l i t y im pr o v e m e n t , l e a n S x
o r ga n i z a t i o n s d e s i g n r e c o g n i t i o n a n d r e w a r d s y s t e m s t h a t
T h e s e r e w a r ds a r e
m o t i v a t e t h e i r e m p l o y e e s t o c h a n ge
L e a n Si x Si g m
n s en
pr o
l ign e d w i t h c u s t o m e r n e e ds , w a n t s , a n d ex p e c t a t i o n s a s
i d e n t i fi e d i n t h e s t r a t e g i c p l a n a n d s u p p o r t e d l e a d e r s h i p
r eso u r ce
Si g m
o r
ga n i z a t i o
n s
fo l l o w
go o d h u
ga n i z a t i o n s p r o v i d e e m p l o y e e s w i t h
t h e k n o w l e d g e a n d s k i l l s t h e y n e e d t o d o t h e i r j o b s w e ll
i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e v a l u e fo r t he c u s t o m e r
L e a n Si x Si g m
C h a n ge is n t
e a sy; a n
in d iv idu a l
m u st
be
Le a d e r s
a r e r e s p o n s i b le
L e a de r s
a r e r e s p o n s i b le
p r e v e n t the ir
em
fo r
fo
p lo y e e s fr o
m a n a gi n
g c h a n ge
Pa r t i c i p a n t s
l e a n Si x Si g m
t a le n t s , s k il ls , a n
an
u se d to
a tea m s ca n
d p e r so n a lit y t ype s t o be
t h e i r be s t a d v a n t a ge
s o lv e
D e s c r i be
D esc r ibe
p e c t t he i r
p pr e c i a te d
situ a
tio
o r sh e
a cha n
t r a i n in
g
he r e yo
r e ce iv e d
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not
Fo r
each o
ex a m
yo
9
How
10
LJ t
Ho
w
gc
i /i y o
hr o u gh
w
it h yo
i l l yo
?
y o.
r th
u
a
u
:: u
her e
le a de r
d o ? H o w d id
u w er e r equ
c h a n ge
m o
f t h e p h a s ?s
p le r o
u r team
ge y o
D e sc r ib e t h e p h a s e s
yo
ex
a
to
bo t h ?
h e r e y o u r e c e i v e d (o r d i d n o t
l
e r i e n c e W a s i t a d e q u a t e?
r e c eiv e ) a n e du c a t io n a ex p
h
W
o u ld
t
w
a
y o u h a v e do n e
W hy ? W hy n o t ?
a sit u a t io n
D e s c r i be
in g t he ba r r ie r s t h a t
f
e
r
o
r m i n g w e ll
p
L e a n Si x Si g m a o r g a n i z a t i o n s u t i l i z e t e a m
p r o b le m s a n d e n ha n c e p r o c e s se s
tio n w
i t go ? W h a t d i d t h e
a c c o m p lis he d ? w h a t
r rem o v
o n
m o t iv a t e d t o
c h a n ge
a sit u a
ibe
w ha t d i d he
a o r
'
Si gm a
d i ff e r e n t l y ?
m an
pr a c t ic es
a dd t
o
Si x
W a s i t a d e q u a t e ? W n y ? w ny
i i
r e c e iv e ) j o b sk ill t r a n n g
h a v e d o n e d i f fe r e n t l y ?
n o t ?W n a t w o u ld yo u
4
Si x
esc r
le a n
the
e en e d u c a t io n a n
be t w
ce
W n y is it im po r t a n t t o ha v e
3
h a t di d he
d o l o gy ?
D e s c r i b e t h e d i f fe r e n
a c t io n s
Lea n
an
an
im pr o v em en t
cess
m e t ho
Ishika w
ru
t i v a t e d yo u
yo u r e a c t ? W n y?
ir e d t o
m a ke
H o w di d
p lish ? H o w
acco m
w as
it
t iv a t e d y o u ?
de v e lo p m
team
o
m o
tea m
u w n
ex
en
de v e lo pm
p e r ie n
ce
t
en
t , p r o v i de
an
d e s c r i b i n g ho w
s ti i . 1 p h a s e
g u id i p e o ple w h o
c h a n g ? pmc es s ?
m o t iv a t e
t he
w o r
pe o p le
k fo
ho
yo
w o r
o r w
k fo
i th
or
C O S T S O F Q U A L IT Y
Co s t s
of
q u a l ity
c o n fo r m s
t he
a re
t o t he ir
ex
c o s t s a s s o c ia t e d w
i t h p r o v id i n g
c u s to m e r s w
it h
pro d u c t
t ha t
o r s e r v ic e
p e c t a t io n s
P h i l i p Cr o s b y
C o s ts : De f in in g O p po r tu
f o r P r o c e s s Im p r o v e m
3
it i e s
e nt
Co s ts o f
Q u a lit y
P r o je c t
M a n a g o rn e n t
t ha t t he
'
L E A R N 1N G 0 p p 0 R T u N I T 1E s
1 To f a m i l i a r i z e t h e
rea
de
r w
it h t h e
co n c e
pt
f qu
l it y
c osts
2 To
y d o b u s in e s s a n d o n e o f t h e m o st im p o r t a n t is t h e
a l i t y Pr e s s u r e d b e t w e e n r i s i
n g c a st s a n d c o n su m e r
i, e m a n d f o r l o w e r r i c e s c o m e t i n i
p
p
g n t o d a y s gl o b a l m a r ke t
i s n u t e a s y Q u a l i t c o s t s t h (: c
o s t s t h a t w o u ld d is a
y
,
ppea r if
e v e r y a = t iv it
y w e r e p e r f o r m e d w i t h o u t d e fe c t s e v e r t i m e c a n
y
ha v e a big im pa c t o n a c o m a n
p y s fi n a n c ia l s t a t e m e n t
I n h i s b o o k Q 14 t Bl i t 1s F r e e P h i
l i C r o s b fo c u d
y
,
co st o
c re a te a n u n
be t w
ee n a n
de rs ta
am on
d in g
g t he
f t h e i n t e r r e la t io n s h i p s
o f q u a l it y
d if f e r e n t t y p e s
c osts
t qu
se
p
ni
y
ge m e n t a t t e n t i o n o n t h e c o s t s o f q u a l i t t h e c o s t f
o
n o t do i n
y
g
t h i n gs r i g h t t h e n r s t t i m e b
a s e d o n h i s u n d e r st
a n d in
g o f the
c o st s o
q u a l i t y C r o s b y ( 19 2 6 2 0 0 1 ) s e n t a m e s s a
m
ge t o
a ge m e n t t h a t e m
p h a s i z e s fo u r a b s o l u t e s ( Fi g u r e 6 1 ) T h e f o u
r
a
To g a i n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w q u a l i t y
be u s e d i n d e c is io n m a k i n g
c o sts c a n
Q u a lit y D e fi n it io n : C o n f o r m
a n c e t o R e q u ir e m
Q u a l it y S y s t e m : P r e v e n t io n
o f De fe c ts
C O S T S O F Q U A L IT Y
Wh a t d r iv e s a c o
fa c t io n ? G r e a t e r
ar e m a
n
m
m
p a n y t o i m p r o v e ? I n c r e a s e d c u s t o m e r sa t is
a r k e t s h a r e ? E n h a n c e d p r o %t a b i l i t y ? T h e r e
r e a so n s w
hy
co m
p a n ie s
se e
to
im p r o
v e t he w a y
e n ts
Q u a lit y Pe r f o r m a n c e S t a d
n a r d : Z e r o De fe c ts
Q u a lit y M e a s u r e m e n t : C o s t s f
o Q u a lit y
F I GU R E 6 1
C r o s hy
Fo
u r
A bs o lu t e s
f Qu a lit y
45
46
C H A P T E R S IX
bso lu
r q u a lit y
tes o
im p r o v e m
UOU S
en t
m a n a ge m e n t s e
p Fo
t e x p e c t a t i o n s fo r a c o n t i n
q u a l i ty
p ha s iz e s t he
d e %n
a bso l u t e
T h e fi r s t
c e ss
es
t o r e q u i r e m e n t s C r o s by e m
f d e t e r m i n i n g c u s t o m e r r e q u i r e m e n t s d e fi n i n g
t ho s e r e q u i r e m e n t s a s c le a r l a s o ss ible , a n d t h e n p r o d u c in g
y
p
p r o d u c t s o r p r o v i d i n g s e r v i c e s t h a t c o n fo r m t o t h e r e q u i r e
a s
co n
jo r m
im po r t a n
a n ce
ce o
m e n t s a s e st a b lis he d
d e fi n
to
Pr
by t h e
q u a li t y in
o r de r t o
ev e n t io n o
d e fe c t s
t he sys t e m
t ha t n e e ds t o
a co m
f d e fe c t s
an
d pr e v e n t in g t he ir
recu r ren ce ar e
r edu c in
g q u a l it y c o s t s
A c c o r d i n g t o C r o s b , t h e e r fo r m a n c e s t a n d a r d a a i n s t
y
p
g
h i c h a n y s y s t e m m u s t b e j u d e d i s z e r o d e fe c t s T h i s t h i r d
g
bso lu t e
J r s t
tim e
o n
cen tere
Sy s t e m s m
w o r ke r to
re
du
d e te c t s,
z ero
ith
n o
a ted w
co n o r
p
i sfie d
an
k i n g P r o d u c t s c o r r e c t ly t h e
Tr a d it io n a l qu a l it y c o n t r o l
i mper f ct i ons
fi n a l i n s p e c t i o n a n d a c c e p t a b l e d e f e c t l e v e l s
u s t be e st a blishe d o r im
pr o v e d t ha t a llo w t h e
d o i t r igh t t h e fi r s t t i m e p r e v e n t i n g d e f e c t s
u r th a
f q u a lit y
bso lu t e c o s t s
d e t e c t io
c u st o m e r s; r e w o r
co sts
i n v o lv e d
'
"
gy
f qu a
a r e t he c o s ts a ss o c i
an
yt im
"
o r se r v i c e t ha i
ar e
n c o s t s ; c o st s a s so c ia t e d w
sc r a
p do
,
w n
t im
e a reso u r ce
an
ha s bee n
fo
u n
d in
it h d iss a t
m a t e r ia
w a s te
c o s ts;
d in t he
t he m
u se
Tw
fi n
he r
Th a t
n o
(: c o n o m
ju s t i fy
l e a n Si x Si g m a p r o j e c t s
t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f p r o b le m s
t he ir
g in
ds
e st in
s e lv e s a t o
fi n d t h e m
num
se
a ir
s e r v ic e b a gg a g e k i o s k s i n m a j o r a i r p o r t s T h e s e k io s k s a l l o w
t r a v e l e r s t o t r a c e t h e i r c h e c k e d l u gg a g e b y s c a n n i n t h e i r b a r
g
c oded
l u gg a g e t a g s T h i s
s ys t e m
a ls o a
l lo w s t r a v e le r s t o r e po r t
t h e i r m i s s i n g b a g s i n le s s t h a n t w o m i n u t e s v e r s u s t h e a v e r a e o f
g
4 5 m i n u t e s i t t a k e s t o r e po r t lo s t b a g s t o a n a g e n t I n t h e e a r
y
2 0 0 9 t h e a v e r a ge n u m b e r o f lo s t b a g s p e r 1 0 0 0 p a s s e n e r s
g
w a s 3 9 9 T h is m e a n s t ha t 9 9 6 pe r c e n t o f t he
pa s s e n ge r s a n d
t h e i r l u gg a g e a r r i v e d a t t h e s a m e a i r p o r t a t t h e s a m e t i m e W h
y
w o u ld a n a ir l i n e c o m p a n y b e I n t e r e s t e d i n i m
p r o v i n g o p e r a t io n s
f r o m 9 9 6 pe r c e n t ? W hy is n t t h is o o d e n o u h ? W ha t
g
a r e t he
g
f q u a l i t y i n t h i s s it u a t i o n ?
I n t h e c a s e o f l o s t l u gg a g e t h e t y p e s o f u a l i t c o s t s a r
q
e
y
n u m e r o u s F o r i n s t a n c e i f a p a s s e n e r i s r e u n it e d
w it h h is o r h e r
g
l u g Ba g e a f t e r it a r r i v e s o n t h e n e x t f l i h t t h e c o t
s s o f q u a l it y
B
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g
pe n se s
'
Co s t s
f Qu a l i t y
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&
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6
6
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Ye a r
FIGU R E 6 2
M i s h a n d l e d L u gg a g e
D E F I N I N G Q U A L IT Y C O S T S
Co s t
a ll
a
ter
f qu a lit h
m s u se d
p o o r q u a l i t y c o s t a n d CO S I o f p o o r t 1u a 1i t y a r e
d e s c r ibe t h e c o st s a s s o c i a t e d w it h p r o v id i n g
,
to
qu a lit y p r o d u c t
o r se r v ic e
a n y c o s t t ha t a c o m
Pr o d u c t
p a r 1y
A qu
in c u
rs
l i ty
co st
is
co n s
id e r e d
to
be
t o e r rs u r e t h a t t i t e q u a l i t y o f t h e
i s P e r fe c t Q 14a l i 1y c o s t s a r e t h e Po r t i o n o t h e
o pe r a t i n
b
t
c
o
s
r
u g l/ t a b o u t by p r o v i t l i n g a P r o d u c t o r s e r v i c e
s
o
g
h
t a t d o e s n o r c o n f o r m t o p e r fo n n a n c e s t a n t l a r d s Q u a l i t y c o s t s
o r se r v ice
b o t he
i t l 1 t il e p r e v e n r io n o f p o o r q u a l i l T
m o s t c o m m o n ly l i s t e d c o st s o f q u a l it y i n c l u d e s c r a p , r e
r k , a n d w a Fr a n t y c o s t s A s F i gu r e 6 3 s h o w s t h e s e e a s i l y
a re a
o s t s a ss o c i a t e d w
T he
wo
i d e n t i fi e d
qu a
lit y
c o st s a r e m e r e ly t he t i p o
D o in g s o m e t h i n g a a i n is w a s t e a d d it i
o n a l Co s t s t h a t
g
,
t be i n c u r r e d C o m a n i e s i n v e st i a t
e
p
g
q u a lit y c o s t s i n
o r de r t o u n c o v e r t he se so u r c e s o f
w a st e a n d e l im in a t e t h e
m
T h e y d o n o t w a n t t o r e a d u s t Fe a l i
j ,
n
r
i
e
a
r
a
s
e
r
g ,
e a s se m b le ,
pp
,
r e a sse ss, r e a ss i n
g , r eb r o a dc a st , r e bu ild r e c he c k
a n ew
f t h e ic e be r g
n ee
n o
p r e d i r e c t , r e e n a c t , r e e s t a blis h ,
fo r m u l a t e , r e i n o c u l a t e r e i n s e r t r i
reco
gl e d e p a r t m e n t h a s t h e c o r n e r o f t h e m a r k e t
i
t
g m s a k e s t h a t m ig h t a f k c t t he q u a l i t y o f a p r o d
s e r v i c e Ev e n d e p a f t m e n t s f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e d a y
pa n y N o
sin
u ct o r
to
pe r a t i o n s o
Or se r v ic e
to m er
has
T he
fi r m
f e c t t h e q u a l i t y o f a p r o d u c t
f t e n t h e f i r s t p e Fs o n t h e c u s
p t i o n is t , o
t w i t h , c a n a ff e c t a c u s t o m e r s p e r c e p t i o n s
T h e c l e a n i n g p e o p l e p r o v id e a n a t m o s p h e r e o o n
o r k A n y t i m e a p r o c e s s i s p e r f o r m e d i n c o r r e c t l y,
r ece
'
f t h e i r m
d u c iv e t o w
q u di t y C o s t s
ar e
in
cu r red
Sa l e s p e o p l e m u s t c l e a r l y d e fi n e t h e
t h e c a p a b ilit ie s o r t he c o m p a n y
c u sto m e '
r s n e e d s a s w e ll a s
Lo o k
re
i n t he dic t io
is
a sign
in
c r e a se
n a r
a n
d i t i s d e fi n e d
as a
ga i n
o r
i f i c a n t fa c t o
fi n d s i t s
er ro r
can a
co n tac
reco n v en e
e , r eex
p la in
e n s p e c t , r e i n v e st r e lo
,
,
ca te,
,
go t i a t e , r e o p e n , r e o r d e r , r e p a c k , r e a i n t r e a i
p
,
p r , r etr a in ,
Or r ew o r k a n thin
y
g F i gu r e 6 4 p r o v i d e s a fe w m o r e e x a m l e s
p
o f qu a lit y c o st s N o t e ho w
m a n y re w o r ds a s i
n r e do , a r e in
,
t h i s l i s t Ev e r
y d e p a r t m e n t w i t h i n a c o m p a n s h o u ld i d e t i f
y
n
y,
c o ll e c t , a n d m o n i t o r
q u a lit y c o st s w it h i i
Qu a lit y in b o t h
On m a ki n
in
ren e
co m
r e ex a m
m an u
ly
in
it s
in
c u sto m e r
w ay
ic e
ba se
Pr e v
red o r
en tin
ts co n tro
fa c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s
,
in g a c o m a n t o m a in t i
a n an d
p y
A s a fa u l t y r o d u c t o r se v i
r
p
ce
an
a llo w
t o t he c u st o m
c r ea se
fa c t u
se r v
er
m an u
t h e c o s t s a sso c ia t e d
the n o n co n
g
pr e pa r ed to
se r v e
fo
i t y b e fo
it h t he
re
i t is
t he c u sto m e r is the
lea st
r m
a ppr o a ch to
pr o v idin g a qu a lit y pr o d u c t o r s e r v ic e
Po t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s s h o u l d b
e i d e n t i fi e d a n d d e a l t w i t h
d
i n g t h e d e s ig n a n d la n n i n s
t
A
a
e
p
n e r r o r a t t his p ha se o f
g
g
p r o d u c t d e v e l o p m e n t w i l l r e q u i r e e f : r t t o s o l v e Bu t i n m o s t
.
c a se s the c ha n es c a n b
e m a d e b e fo r e c o s t l
g
y in v e st m e n t s in
equ ipm e n t o r c u st o m e
r s e r v i ce a r e m a de
c o st
C H A P T E R S IX
48
W a r r a n ty
c o sts
Sc r a p
Re w
o rk
Re o r d e r s
M is t a k e s
W a s te
In s p e c t i o
Defe c ts
Re t u
rn ed
go o ds
f a i lu
Co s t
p a n y im
Ev a lu a t io
F i e ld s e r v ic e
L o s t s a le s
Te s t i n g
Lo
c o s ts
c o s ts
R e w r it i n g
in s
an
R e d e s ig n in g
Re w o r k in g a
Lo
R e t e s t in g a
R e b u ild i n g
p u te r c
c o m
t io
p lo y e e s
t iv a t i o n
C u s to m
S p e c ia l
e r lo s t t i m e
ha
Lo s t c u s t o
m e rs
d li n g
c o sts
n c o s ts
A d m i n i s t r a t iv e
c o sts
A d d it io
R e c a ll s
n a
c o s ts
em
p lo y e e s
f Qu a lity Co s ts
p o li c y t o
u ra n c e
fa
m o
id e n t s
f g o o d w il l
lt y c o m p o
s ho c k a bs o rbe
a
em
L i a b ilit y
ss o
T he ic e be r g
F I G U RE 6 3
In s p e
es
Un h a p py
ns
c o s ts
ge
acc
E m p lo y e e lo s t t i m
P r e m iu m
f r e ig h t c o s t s
e r r o rs
E x p e d it i n g
P e n a lt i e s
t im e
w n
La t e fe
c u s to m e r s
In ju r i e s a n d
Do
O v e r t im
m p la i n t h a n d li n g
I n e f f ic i e n c y
s s iv e i n v e n t o r y
m
o v e r ru n s
D is s a t is f i e d
B illi n g
a c t io n
Co
Co s t
re
c o r r e c t iv e
Ex c e
o rd e rs
F\ e j e c t s
Co
fa ile d p r o d u c t s
Pro d u c t
Cha n g
r a
h ip t h a t
m atc
n e n t tha
f t e r it
w as
c u s to m e r e x
n e v e r w o rke
p e c t a t io
p l e t e ly
w a s co m
ns
r ig h t
m a m J fa c t u r e :
t e s t e d i n c o r r e c t ly
a t o o l t h a t w a s n o t b u i lt t o s p e c if i c a t i o n s
h a s i n g b e c a u s e o f n o n c o n f o r m in g m a t e r ia ls
R e s p o n d i n g t o a c u s t o m e r s c o m p la i n t
R e f i g u r i n g a c u s t o m e r s b ill w h e n a n e r r o r w a s f o u n d
Re p u
rc
R e p la c in g
R e t u r n in g
a s
h i r t t h e d r y c le a n e r lo s t
l t o t h e k it c h e n b e c a u
a m ea
s e t he m e a t w a s o v e rc o o
ke d
R e t r i e v i n g lo s t b a g g a g e
R e p la c i n g o r r e p a i r i n g d a
m a g e d o r lo s t g o o d s
C o r r e c t i n g b il l i n g e r r o r s
E x p e d it i n g l a t e s h i p m e n t s b y P u r c h a s i n g a m o r e e x e n s iv e m e
a
p
P r o v i d i n g o n s i t e a s s is t a n c e t o c u s t o m e r s e x e r i e n c i n
p
g P r o b le m
P r o v i d i n g c r e d it s a n d a ll o w a n c e s
Ex
F IG U R E 6 4
I f t he
lo
n o n co n
fo
r m
d d u r in g t he m
e s a t a s e r v ic e i n d u
c a te
sc e n
c o r r ec ted
in te r
it y
it h
am
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le v e !
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r e d u c e o v e r a ll p r o fi t a b i l i t y A
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C H A P T E R S IX
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e p r e v e n t io n o f d e
f e c t s p r o d u c t a p p r a is a l i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e
r n a l fa i lu r e c o s t s a n d
t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h e in t a n g i b le c o s t s B
y m o n it o r i n g c o s t o f
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g
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m id s i z e d f a r m t r a c t o r ( F i g u r e 6 9 ) E x t e r n a l f i l
a u r e c o s t s l i ke
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53
t W O R K
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t h r e e t im e s
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t h i s p r o b l e m a r e s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6 10
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s t u d ie d
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d a [ - i l N t s ; o i n t e d t a l o o s e w o r k h o l d i n g d e v i c e w h ic h
wo k d / nt er mi t en! i y W i t h o u t t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e w o r k h o l d i n g
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F I G U R E 6 10
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ly
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h e p a r t T h e t e a m r e p o r t e d it s
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: a r m b u s hin g
a s u re s w e re
ir n p o r t a
Fa r m e r Fr i e
FI GU R E 6 9
r tn:
t i n j j n : : rj y : m l : i r t i B t h e
i l F iE u r e 6 i 5
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: he c o
af f eci ri i h p
t in u t
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80 hrs
s a la r y
sts
t c o n t in u e ch
54
C H A P T E R S IX
Lo c a t io n
S iz e
o ff
W e ig h t s
In a tt e n t iv e t o
o r i e n t a t io n
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pa rt
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/
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FI GU R E 6 1 2
Pr o d u c t D i m
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55
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F IG U R E 6 13
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C H A P T E R S IX
56
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p j c t c a n d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e m o n e y fo r t h e r o e c t i s
p j
be in g w e l l s p e n t t o p r o lo n g t h e r o w t h f
o
the co m p an
g
y
I d e n t i %r i n g a n d q u a n t i f yi n g u a l i t c
q
y o s t s h a s a t w o f o ld b e n
e i t t C o s t s a v i n g s a r e i d e n t i fi e d a n d
q u a lit y i s i m p r o v e d By
i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a l i t y p e r fo r m a n c e o f
a c o mp a n t h e
c o m pa n y a l so i m p r o v e s i t s
q u a l i t y Co s t s
w ith
sc r a
ha v in g
as w e
a n o n co n
qu al i t y c o n t r o l de p a r t m
b Qu a l i t y c o s t s p r o v i d e
p r o ble m a r e a s a n d a c t io
c
f f ic i e n c y
f th e n u m be r
T he
o
SU M MA RY
3
T her e
fo
ar e
e tw o
an
i n gs g a i n e d b y p r e v e n t i n g u a l i t
q
y p r o b le m s in t h e
fi r s t p l a c e c a n b e u s e d f o r a d d i t i o n a l r o w t h a n d r o f t a b i l
g
p
it y O r ga n i z a t i o n s fo c u s e d o n p r e v e n t i o n c a n t a k e a d v a n t a e
g
o f t h e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s t o e n h a n c e c u st o m e r s a t i s fa c t i o n a n d
th u s t h e i r p o s i t io n i n a gl o ba l m a r k e t p la c e
w n a t is
D
esc r
yo u
c o st
sa v
f det e r m in in g
re
an
i fi c t y p e s
G iv
e an
do
f q u a l i t y c o s t s C l e a r ly
ex a m ple o f ea ch kin d o f
o
h a v e d e fi n e d
r eco
ow
il l
f fa ilu
pe r so
r e c o st s
W De r
gn i z e
reco
gn iz e d
e it
the
fo
t hey
do
her type
t yp e s o
u r
f qu a lit y
c o sts v a r
y in
r e la t i o n
ibe th e r ela t io n sh ip a m o n g p r e v e n t io
i
p r a s a l c o s t s , a n d fa i l u r e c o s t s W h e r e s h o
p a n y :s e f f o r t s b e f o c u s e d ? w n y ?
D
d in te r m
t o ea c h o ther
t w o types o
fr o m t H
ow
m etho
pr e v e n t io n c o st ? H o w c a n it be
w h e r e p r ev e n t i o n c o st s c a n be fo u
D e sc r ib e t he
fa il u r e
5
f them
n p r i o r it i e s
b
s in e s s is m e a su
u
y
f
f
d
i
t
v
e
e
c
e pr o du cts
o
o
spe c
u r
en
ib e
co m e
T he
57
q u a lit y c o st
'
u a
f t h e fo l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t q u a l it y c o s t s
Is t r u e ? w n y o r w h y n o t ?
a
Qu a l it y c o s t r e d u c t i o n i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e
W n ich
d e fi n
d d e p l o y i n g a n e f fe c t i v e u a l i t
q
y c o s t m a n a ge
is c r it ic a l t o su c c e ss i n t o da
m e n t sy s t e m
y s gl o b a l w o r k
en v ir o n m e n t D e t e r m in in
g a n d t h e n d e a lin g w ith t h e c o st s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l fa i l
u r e s c a n s i n i fi
g
c a n t ly c o n t r i b u t e t o
an
o r g a n i z a t i o n s o v e r a l l fi n a n c i a l
h e a l t h Sy s t e m a t i c a l l y e n h a n c i n t h e s s t e m s t h a t r v
g
y
p e en t er
r o r s le a ds t o gr e a t r e w a r d s A n i n c r e a s e i n
pr e v en tio n c o sts
l e a d s t o m u c h m o r e s i g n i f+c a n t d e c r e a s e s i n f a i l u r e c o s t
f g
C HA PT ER P RO B L EM S
D e v e lo p i n g
esc r
n
u
c o st s
ld
A l a m p m a n u fa c t u r i n g c o m p a n
y ha s in c u r r e d the
fo llo w i n g qu a li ty c o st s A n a lyz e h o w t hi s c o m a n is
p
y
do i n g o n t h e ba s is o f t h e se c o s t s C r e a t i n a r a h o f t h e
g g p
v a lu e s m a y h e l
p yo u s e e t r e n ds V a lu e s giv e n a r e i n
p e r c e n t a ge o t o t a l c o s t o f l a m p
1
Co st s
C o ll e c t i n g q u a l i t y c o
s ys t e m e ff e c t i v e n e s s
p r o v ides
sts
a m e
tho
to ev a lu ate
In ter
Ye a r
&
u a 11 t
L u b m
m ea su r in
g t he
Pr e v e n t i o
in g t he
L U LL
bC I V C
su c c ess o
c o sts a r e
crea
t io n o
d a
il
U i1H b
U C . 1L 1 1
u l
f in ter n al im pr o v em
t h e c o st s a s s o
er ro rs o r n o n co n
iated
fo
r m
a 1x
en ts
ith pr ev e n t
i t i e s i n t h e fi r s t
w
A pp r a i sa l
c o st s a r e t h e c o sts
se r v
ic e i s st u d ie d t o d e te r m in
sp ec
i fi c a t i o
cu r red w
e w
p r o du c t o r
i t c o n fo r m s t o
hen
het her
re
r e c o s t s a r e t h e c o s t s a s s o c ia t e d w
the
p r o du
ith
c o st s a s s o c ia t e d w
ith
O n c e q u a n t i fi e d
u a l it y c o s t s
, q
if t he a r e u se d t o d e t e r m i n e
y
gr e a t e s t
ec ts a r e m o st e
qu a lity
9
c o st
im pr o v e m
1 c
3 6
4 7
5 7
16
3 5
4 3
4 6
2 2
3 8
4 0
3 8
2 5
2 7
3 5
2 2
3 0
2 0
2 8
0 9
retu rn
f fe c t iv e
er ro rs
ith the
It
en
ha n
ce
d e c is io
n m a kin
h ic h p r o je c ts w ill a llo w
o n in v e s t m e n t a n d w h ic h p r o j
i l
a t l o w e r i n g fa i l u r e a n d a p p r a s a
How
can
q u a l it y
w ny i s t h e fo l l o w i n st a t e m e n t t
g
r u e ? T h e fu r t h e r a l o n
g
t h e p r o c e s s t ha t a fa il u r e i d i
s
sco v er ed the m o r e
x
p
e
s iv e i t i s t o c o r r e c t
12
W n a t sh o
13
W ha t
the
are
In g q u a l it y
i n fo
r m a
tio n
be
u se d fo r d e c i s i o n m
a k i n g?
W h e r e s h o u l d d o ll a r s s e n t o n
p
q u a l i t y i s s u e s b e in v e s t e d i n
o rd e r t o p r o v ide th e r e a t
e
s
t
r
e
t
u r n o n in v e st m e n t ?w n ?
g
y
Cho o se t w o in du st r ie s a n d li
st s p e c ific e x a m
l
e
s
o f
p
t h e i r c o st s o f u a l l
q
w
c o st s
c o st s
Qu a l i t y
n a
12
10
In t a n gi b le f a i l u r e c o s t s a r e t h e c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d
o f c u s t o m e r go o d w i l l a n d r e s p e c t
r t he
c t o r se r v ic e s r e a c h t h e c u st o m e r
Ex t e r n a l f a i l u r e c o s t s a r e t h e
fo u n d b y t h e c u s t o m e r
fo
erro rs
lo s s
8
Ex t e r
n s
I n t e r n a l fa i l u
fo u n d b e f o
6
in
n al
ev e n t io n
1u +
p la c e
4
Pr
sho u
en t
ld be
u se
to
gu i d e
14
ld
q u a lity
b e n e fi t s
e m ph a s i z e B
f h a v i n g fi n d i n g o r
de t e r m
c o st
p r o gr a m
,
c o s t s?
O n w ha t pr e m is e is t h e
Ba s e d ?
str a te
g y fo
r u sin
g qu a li t y
co sts
58
15
C H A P T E R S IX
Fo
r t he
Fa r m
w e r e u se
la t io
d fo
n sh ip
d e c i s io
Fr ie n dl y c a se d i s c u s s ho w q u a li t y c o s t s
d e c i s i o n m a k i n g B e s u r e t o e s t a bl i s h a
er
be tw
ee n t he
id e n t i fie d q u a li t y
co sts
a n d the
p p r a i s a l fa i l u
y:
Cu st o m
in q u ir e s a bo
er
b M a in ten
Co
an
fa c e p r o d u c t l ia b i l it y s u i t s L o c a t e a c o m p a n y
i e w i t s c o s t s o f q u a l i t y A n s w e r t h e fo l l o w i n g
r ev
qu
e st io n s:
Id e n t i f y
yo
can
t o t he
b D isc u
y d i f fe r e n t t y p e s o f q u a l it y c o s t s a s
C a t e go r i z e y o u r c o s t s o f q u a l i t y a c c o r d i n g
as m an
fi v e
c a t e go r i e s
ho
ss
pr e se n t e d in t he t e x t
q u a l it y c o s t s c a n b e u s e d fo
s e r v ic e
d e c i s i o n t h e y p l a y a r o l e i n fo r t h i s c o m p a n y
I n y o u r r e v i e w o f t h e c o m p a n y w e r e y o u a bl e t o fi n d
a n y i n fo r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e c o s t s t h i s c o m p a n y h a s o r
t ype o
il l i n c u
r r e la t e d
p r o du c t lia b i lit y
] f so , p r o v id e a
to pr o
du c t
d M
e
it s
o r an
su
su m m
y o t h e r c o s t s o f q u a l it y ?
a r y o t ho se c o st s a n d t he ir
Fo
r eac
co st s
in
c u
f t h e fo l l o w i n g a c t iv i t ie s i d e n t i f y w h e t h e r t h e
r r e d s h o u l d b e a ll o c a t e d t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n
Co s t s
T he
k/ t e st t he i r
chec
w o r
acco u n
is
u n a
w o r
b illi n g
bl e
to
st a t e m e n t
ga i n
a c c e ss
to
c a ll
b e c a u s e t he
s c he du le d a n d
de pa r t m
ts
o n t h l y fi g u
r e a l lo w
i n g it to
qu a l it y syst e m s a u dit
i s h a v i n g d i f f ic u l t y
res
en t
fr o m
m u st
ob t a
t he p r o du c t io n de pa r t m en t
b r e a k s be c a u se o f
i na
p u r c ha se
t r a in in g i n t he u se
'
c u st o m e r s
g M a n a ge m e n t
fr o m a c u s t o m
k b e fo
a r ea
t c a r r ie s o u t a
qu ate
r e pla c e d
de a l
f t he it e m
ith
w r
an
it ten
m u st
co m
be
pla in t s
po
p o o r se r v ic e
i
t
m
a n a p po n
e n t a ft e r d r iv i n g
p i c k u p e q u i p m e n t f r o m a n o u t s ide
fi n d i n g it o u t o f s t o c k in h is o w n
A n in st r u c t io
m an u al an
h A
su
w
er a
bo u
t co
t in u o u s
t e c h n ic ia n ke e ps
a c r o ss
r r ect
t i fi e d t h e c u s t o m e r
a n a ge m e n
in g
r e c a lls , w a r r a n t y c la im s ,
so u r c e s
17
W o r ke r s
t in c o
i n t a n gi bl e
o r
pr e m ises du r in g a se r v
o t be i n g p e r fo r m e d w h e n
le a v e t he i r
m akin
t io n
is
n o o n e n o
dec is io n
re
g i n t h i s c o m p a n y Be s u r e t o e s t a b l i s h a
sh i p b e t w e e n t h e id e n t i fie d q u a l i t y c o st s a n d t he
ic e
c u sto m e r s
p a n i e s t h a t c ho o s e t o ign o r e t h e c o s t s o f q u a l it y
e n d u p s pe n d in
g 20 t o 3 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r t o t a l c o s t s o n
r e w o r k in g a n d r edo in
g T he se c o m pa n ie s a r e a lso o n e s
m
that m ay
ex ter n al
a n c e t e c h n ic ia n
'
16
(i n t e r n a l
re
c a t e go r
a
t he y a f : c t e d
to w n t o
pp lie r
ar eho u
v e lo
T he
se
p e d fo
co m
r m a in
t a in in
pa n
cn n
r e q u i r e i n e n t :;
du
a n ew
c :s
f p r o c e du r e s a r e
p ie c e o f e q u ipm e n t
se t o
;1
su r v e
c u st o m er
P R O C ES S P E R F O R M A N C E M EA S U R ES
We
c an not m a na e w
g
ha t
w e
do
n o t m e a s u re
C o s t s : D e f i n in g O p p o r t u n it ie s
fo
m en
Co s t s o f
Q u a lit y
P r o je c t
Ma n a ge m e n t
r
r
t <l e i r e m
p l o ye e s p r o c e s s e s s c h e d u l i n g p r o d u c t i o n c y c l e
p p l ie r p a r t n e r s h i p s , s h i p p i n g a n d s e r v i c e
c
:
'
t r a i t s f :t r b u l l e r t h a n t h e i r c o m
pe t it io n D r D e m in g s
f a v n r i t e c u e s t i o n w a s H o w d o o u k n o w ? M e a s u r e s o f
y
Pt : r f o r m a n c e a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n E f f e c t i v e p e r f o r m a n c e
m e a s u r e m e n t syst e m s a r e u s e d fo r u n d e r st a n d in
al i
g,
i n g a n d i m p r o v in g p e r fo r m a n c e a t a ll le v e ls a n d i
n a ll
,
t i lT r e s , s u
L EA R N I N G OP P O RT U N ! T I ; S
"
1 To
ho w t h e l i n k b e t w
pe r fo r m a n c e
le v e l s
ee i1
a n
c h i e v ;r ;g
d t in e
u sE o
! I *: a n i/ i x
f me a s i . t
S ig t n a
To f a m i l i a r i z e t h e
re a
de r
it h t h e d e s ig n
m ea su res
p a r t s o f t h e o r ga n i z a t i o n
M e a s u r e s a r e i n d ic a to r s o
Pe r fu r m a n c e P r o p e r l y
d e s ig n e d m e a s u r e s , by c o m a r i n
p
g p a st r e su lt s w it h c u r r e n t
p e r f o r m a n c e , e n a b l e l e a d e Fs t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s , H o w
"
a r e w e d o i n g ? a n d H o w do w e k n o w h
o w w e ll w e a r e do i n ?
g
Eff e c t iv e l e a d e r s u n d e r s t a n d t h a t w it h o u t
"
D E F IN IN G P R O C E S S M E A S U R E S
Ve r y s i m p l y
so n
un
m ea su r es
o r ga n
t ha t
iz a t io
if they
n s
h a t ge t
pla y a
m e a su r e s
pr o c e ss , p r o d u c t , o r
if a r o c e
ss c a n n o t be
p
c
i fi c a n t
ca n n o t m ea su r e
gr e s s i n g t o w a r d t h e i r
kn o w t h a t i f t h e d o n
y
s i gn
L e a n Si x Si g m
de r s t a n d t h a t
m er c
y o
s m e a su r ed
ha n
ce
ge t s
do
n e
Fo
tha t rea
l e i n l e a n Si x Si g m a
r ga n i z a t i o n s r e c o g n i z e
ro
t h e y c a n n o t m a n a ge
t e ll the m
ho w
they a r e
T he y
pr o
T he y
d b
t iv e s
gi c g o a l s a n o j e c
i f r m a t i o n a bo u t
o t h a v e s u f fi c i e n t n o
t c o n t r o l it A n d
se r v ic e t h e y c a n n o
i a t i o n is a t t he
c o n t r o l l e d , t h e o r ga n z
st r a te
L e a n Si x
Si g m
a o r
ga n
iz a t io
n s m an a
ge
"
do
'
t he y
m e a su r e s , t
kn
ha t t h e y d o n
kn o w They w o n
o w
do n t
'
t
'
kn
ow
t sea r ch
T hey
fo
'
can t act o n
r a n sw e r s u n
hey
hat
less the y
q u e st io n a n d t he y w o n t q u e s t i o n w h a t t he y do n ' t m e a s u r e
L e a de r s r e c e iv e a w i d e v a r ie t o f i n fo r m a t i
o n e a c h da y
H
y
i n g e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n u s u a ll i s n t t h e r o b l m H v i
e
a
n g
y
p
u s e fu l i n fo r m a t i o n i s H u m o r i s t M a r k T
D ata
w a in o n c e sa id,
i s l i k e g a r b a g e Yo u h a d b e t t e r k n o w w h a t o u a r e o i n t o d o
y
g
g
w i t h i t b e fo r e
y o u c o l l e c t i t A s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 3 , ef f
t i v e s t r a t e g i c p l a n s c o n t a i n e r fo r m a n c e m e a s u r e s c h o s e n fo r
'
'
"
"
t h e i r a b i l it y t o
q u a n t i fy
p
i n fo r m
a t io n a b o u t t h e c r it ic a l s u c c e ss
59
C H A P T ER S EV EN
62
K e v p r o c e s s i n p u t v a r i a b l e s a r e m e a s u r e s o f t h i n gs
i n t o a p r o c e s s T he y t r y t o p r e d ic t t h e r e s u lt o f u s i n g
do
T he y
ne
fa c t
t he
in g
thin
b e in g m e t ? K e y b u s in e ss m e t r i c s
i bl u n it
i n c l u d e r e v e n u e d o l l a r s l a b o r r a t e s fi x e d a n d v a r a e
i
n v e n to r y
m a r gin r a t e s
ti
C O S TS g r o s s m a r g i n r a t e s o p e r a n g
c a s h flo w ,
i i
t iv e e x p e n s e s
co sts
ge n e r a l a n d a d m n s t r a
d c o st a v o ida n c e
w a r r a n t y c o s t s p r o d u c t l i a b il i t y c o s t s a n
ki n g
h
i
m
A n y o r ga n i z a t io n r e c o g n iz e s t e
po r ta n ce o f w o r
de r s
L
e
a
c
e
n
f
a
lin e pe r o r m
o n a c t iv i t ie s t h a t e n ha n c e bo t t o m
Si x
l
n
a
i
e
t
e
l t a pp r o p r a
u s e m e a s u r e s o f p e r fo r m a n c e t o s e e c
e r e c u st o m e r n e e ds
tio n
Si g m
p r o je c t s
CL a t U
i n e D a i a n c e a :) L U :
I n c ' "
K a p l a n a n d D a v id N o r t o n go e s
f r o m fo
a n d i n t e gr a t e s m e a s u r es
"
'
be yo
fo
ke y b u s i n
cu s o n
pro
e ss
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63
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EV EN
H A PT ER S
C
SEVEN
CHAPTER
6
6
66
'Measuring
" " r i"
"
m ance
Performance
JF leaders develop measures of performance to support the goals

he ir
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off ttheir
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ployees. and finances. Figure 7.8 provides a brief summary of
hey
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m e a s u re s U
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B e f o r e selecting
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:
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off tthe
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an
73
73
gun-Ivvu- unv-
151/
time estimates for each activity. Starting with the project due
d
h e aactivities
a t e tthe
te ppe d b
c t i v i t i e s are
i n time,
a r e sstepped
a c k w a r d s in
t i m e eventually
date,
ev e n t u a lly
backwards
l
l
ta r t d
h
rreaching
i
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a sstart
t
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s
a
t
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c
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fo r
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s
a
r
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date as all the activities are accounted
c c o u n t e d for.
l
i
i
i
R
i
t
t
e a s c time
m e estimates
b e created
e st m a t e s n
t o be
e e d to
i n order
Realistic
c r e a t e d in
o r d e r to
t o deterde t
need
in e h
m
i m e iitt will
o w m
t o t a l ttime
u c h total
t a k e tto
w i l l take
mine
how
much
o ccomplete
o m p l e t e the
t h e activact
iities
t i e s aand
t a s k s aassociated
n d tasks
w it h a
h
a project.
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r
o
t
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t
r o je c t
Ass thee pproject
p j c
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r o g r e s s e s it
o t unusual
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progresses,
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e c h n i c a l difculties
t o arise.
p
a r ise
h e s e ooften
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l o n g e r tto
a k e longer
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t h a n ooriginally
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l
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In
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e
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t h e r cases,
o
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a t e r i a l s and
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u
m
other
a
n
r
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materials
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o
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i
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human resources
a r e unavailable
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l a t e resulting
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n c
o schedules
orr late
s c h e d u l e s and
a n d ttask
changes
a sk s
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sequencing
h r o w off
t h a t tthrow
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o f f time
e st im a t e s
that
M
o n ito r in g a
i s often
s c h e d u l e is
Monitoring
o ft e n d
a project
t h r o u gh
o n e through
p r o j e c t schedule
done
h
r
h
T e uuse
se o
ile s t o n e s M
e c kp o in t s a
i l e s t o n e s represent
n d m
the
of ccheckpoints
r epr esen t
and
milestones.
Milestones
l o n g t e r m or
o r major
h a v e been
m a j o r events
b e e n or
t h a t have
e v e n t s that
long-term
be
t o be
o r need
n e e d to
ccompleted
o m p l e t e d ffor
T
h
l
i
o r a
r o j e c t To
o rreach
eac
a
m
e st o n e a
a s
e r ie s o
a pproject.
a milestone,
series
off
ssmaller
m a l l e r activities
h a v e taken
a c t iv i t i e s o
t a s k s will
P r o Ie c t s unw i l l have
t a k e n place.
orr tasks
p l a c e Projects
f o l d aass aa llogical
l a c e or
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t a s k s are
equ en ce o
c t i v i t i e s ttakes
o r tasks
are
a ke s p
fold
ofr aactivities
place
l
d
i
h
c
h e r e f o r e tthe
h e relationship
b e t w e e n these
c o m p e t e ; ttherefore,
a t i
t e s e activir e l a t o n s h i p between
completed;
t i e s iiss ccritical
t he se
W h e n taken
o r d e r these
t a k e n oout
u t o
r i t i c a l tto
o a
n y p
r o j e c t When
ties
off order,
any
project.
,
h e c k p o i n t s are
f o r t C
ar e
i t i e s oorr ttasks
t i m e and
a n d e
a s k s waste
w a s t e time
activities
effort.
Checkpoints
d
d
t
h
u
u
s
e
o
l
l
h
r
t
a
e
r o j e c t tthat
a
sm a er p
t h r o u g o u t aa p
o i n t s throughout
j ge
are used to judge
points
project
smaller
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o m p l e t io n
h e project
t o w a r d ccompletion.
a r tthe
how
pmj ect iiss toward
7
4
74
C
H A PT ER E
IG H T
CHAPTER
EIGHT
C
Te c h n o l o g y T
o m p u t e r Technology
nd U
Computer
r a n s it i o n a
Transition
and
Upgrade
pg ra de
Pro je c t S
c he d u le
Project
Schedule
T h e ccontractor
o n t r a c t o r whose
w hose p
The
r o je c t p
r o p o s a l was
f o r tthe
he
w as a
c c e p t e d for
project
proposal
accepted
C o m p u t e r Technology
Te c h n o l o gy Transition
Tr a n s i t i o n aand
Computer
nd U
u b m it t e d
Upgrade
pg r a d e project
p r o j e c t ssubmitted
t h e following
f o l l o w i n g sschedule
c h e d u le w
the
it h tthe
h e project
with
p r o j e c t plan.
p la n
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43/
(9
CHAPTER EIGHT
76
the costs associated with the activities must be estimated

The Lean Six Sigma Tools at Work feature on the next Page
describes the creation of a CPM.
If the speed of the project needs to be increased fOr
any reason, then the path can be crashed or shortened by

determining which activities can be done more QUiCkly.
The critical path method also reveals the cost of doing Each
of these activities more quickly. For instance, if Maxs

Munchies wishes to complete the project in less than
28 weeks, the project managers must decide whether Or not

to speed up the ordering of the computers or one of the
four phases. Each week of increased speed in order pro-
cessing will cost them $5,000 compared to increasing the
speed of the actual transition at a cost of between $20,000
w~<vuon.\l'n 4mu
. .,
.
and $40,000.
PROJECT BUDGETS
Budgets are plans for allocating and monitoring the use of
scarce resources. They set the overall estimates for the costs
associated with a project. For budgets to be realistic, it is
FIGURE 8.6
Common Network Structures
CPM builds on PERT by adding the concept of cost per
unit time. CPM gets its name from its ability to determine the
longest series of interrelated events that must be completed in a
project, the critical path. To use this chart, both the times and
critical that the people actually closest to the work take part
in determining the time and money needed for a project. To
create a budget, project managers study the key activities

taking place and estimate as best as possible the time and
money needed to complete the project. A complete budget
will have information about any income or revenue
expected during the life of the project, all expenses related to

the project, and cash ow projections and their timing.
iGMA*if S'oL's" at WORK

Qt" '-'
Creating a PERT Network
.. zingers ;; . ,
b
The successful contractor for Max's Munchies' Computer Technology Transition and Upgrade project submitted the following
PERT network with the project plan. To create the network, the
contractor completed the following steps:
I. Compile a list of events/tasks/activities.
I Set up work area
I Order computers
I Hire people to perform exchange/upgrade
I Train people to perform exchange/upgrade
I Phase 1
I Phase 2
I
I
I
I
Phase 3
Phase 4
Set up equipment
Test equipment
2. Determine the relationships between the activities

(predecessors, successors).
3. Begin constructing the diagram from the end, working back
to the beginning. The key events/tasks/activities identified in
step 1 are placed on the diagram between the nodes as
shown in Figure 8.5.
Task
Predecessor
Set up work area (3)

Order computers (b)
Hire people to perform exchange/upgrade (c)
Train people to perform exchange/upgrade (d)
Phase 1 (e)
Phase 2 (f)
Phase 3 (2)
b,c,d.i
.,_.,-
Phase 4 (h)
Set up equipment (i)

Test equipment (j)
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Project Management
CreatingaCPM
77
LEAN SIX SIGMA TOOLS at WORK
/b
The steps to create a critical path begin much the same as creating a PERT network. Building on the previous example, to finish
the CPM, follow these steps:
4. Begin constructing the diagram from the end, working back

to the beginning (Figure 8.8).
5. Add up each of the individual paths to determine the critical
path. The critical path for this example is 1-3-6-7-8-9
and equals 28 weeks. The other paths are 1-4-5-6-78-9
(24 weeks) and 1-2-3~6-7-8-9 (26 weeks).
I. Compile a list of tasks/activities.

2. Determine the relationships between the activities
(predecessors, successors; see Figure 8.7).
3. Determine the costs and times associated with the activities
(Figure 8.7).
785k
Predecessor
Set up work area (a)
Order computers (b)
Hire people to perform exchange/upgrade (c)

Phase 1 (e)
Phase 3 (g)
Phase 4 (h)
e, f
e, f, g
Set up equipment (i)
Test equipment (j)

FIGURE 8.7
13
a, b, c, d, i
Phase 2 (f)
Train people to perform exchange/upgrade (d)
Weeks
Normal Crash
a, i
Cost
Normal
Crash
$25
$20
$12
$25
$100
4
3
$100
$6/wk
$10/wk
$20/Wk
$20/wk
3
2
$100
$100
$30/wk
$40/wk
$10
$3/wk
$5/wk
$13
$2/wk
Precedents, Timing, and Costs (1000)
Phase 1
Phase 2
49
GLPhase
4.3 V
4,3 V
4,3
Test
equipment
:8
Phase 4
3,2
Set up
equipment
FIGURE 8.8
CPM for Computer Installation
Budgets are not arbitrary; effort should be taken to ensure

that realistic cost and timing information has been found.
Budgets should be monitored throughout the life of a project to keep project costs on track. Variances should be
reported as soon as they are found. These variances can pomt
to problems and recommended actions necessary to keep
the project on target. Budgets can enable those working on a
project to be aware of how their actions add to or take away
from the end result of the project.
PROJECT CONTINGENCY
PLANS AND CHANGE CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Projects, due to their very nature, are complex. For every
project, there is a risk of failure. Organizing a project mto

manageable sections can reduce the fear of failure as well
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151/
as the potential for failure. Effective project managers

dont forget to ask: What it? They work with their proj
ect team members to identify potential activities or events
that may derail a project. Contingency plans are created to

ensure that the project team is ready to handle potential
problems. Although all problems cannot be foreseen, a
project plan that includes contingency plans keeps the
team members exible and aware that they may be asked
to make adjustments to their project plan some time
during its lifetime.
Effective project managers recognize that clients make
changes to the project as it progresses. All project propos-
als and plans should contain a description of how requests

for changes in the projects plan, budget, schedule, or
performance deliverables will be handled. An effective
change control system will have steps in plaCe that review
the requested changes for both content and procedure and
78
CHAPTER EIGHT
identify how the change will affect the project. This
change must be reected in adjustments to the projects
performance objectives, the schedule, and the budget.

Once accepted, change orders become part of the overall
project plan. Part of the job of a change control system is
to clearly communicate any changes to any person or part
of the project affected by the change. The best way to

ensure that this critical communication occurs is to have
all changes approved in writing by all appropriate repre
sentatives of the impacted areas. Ultimately, the change

should only be made if its benets outweigh the costs of
implementing the change.
PROJECT CONTROL
Throughout a project, effective project managers monitor
the progress a project is making toward completion. Performance, cost, and timethe three aspects of a project
all need to be monitored and controlled to ensure project
success. Performance of the project refers to the end result
and the steps taken to get to it. The performance of a project may be affected by unexpected technical problems,
quality or reliability problems, or insurmountable technical difculties. For instance, a building may have its completion delayed because the foundation must be redone
due to technical problems with the concrete being used.
Performance of a project may also be affected by insuf
cient resources brought about by poor planning, logistical
problems, or underestimating. Some performance prob
lems may be brought about by the projects end user. The
end user may have made a variety of changes to the
original specications for the project.
Project control and monitoring involve gathering and
appraising information on how the projects activities com
pare with the project plan. Actual progress is tracked against
the performance measures established in the project plan.
These performance measures help a project

produce
may have Changed

Client-related changes in specications
thus affecting the total

the scope of the work signicantly,
costs of the project. Or the budget
1. The contractor will provide a project manager who is

responsible for the entire scope of the project and the
direction of the contractor's personnel involved in the
project. This individual will be the single point
of contact.
2. The contractors project manager will develop the schedule
and logistical planning for the Computer Technology
Transition and Upgrade project. The schedule will include
milestones based on the number of computers to be
upgraded. The milestones will become the basis for the
Scanned by
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may have been inadequate
estimates, poor projec.

in the rst place due to inadequate
costs due to client-related
tions for ination, or additional
control when the PIOjeci
changes. Costs can also get out of
corrective cost control
costs are not watched closely and when
is not exercised in time.
measures aSsoBy closely monitoring the performance
can be premanager
ciated with the project, an alert project
in order to keep the
pare d to respond quickly to deviations
very few projproject on track and under control. Though
modied in
ects have not had their goals and objectives
to their end,
some way or another from their beginning
to minicareful project control enables a project manager
mize the effects of these changes on the overall project.
PROJECT MANAGERS
An effective lean Six Sigma project manager achieves the desired results within budget and on time and according to the
desired standards. Effective project managers realize that in
order to accomplish what needs to be done on time and
within budget, they must take time to plan their projects.
manOnce a good plan has been created, effective project
agers manage their plan.

Unlike functional managers, project managers are
generalists with knowledge and experience in a wider
variety of areas. Project managers are responsible for organizing, directing, planning, and controlling the events associated with a project. They deal with budgets and schedules.
MISWN Cant-titers: -::-';r
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The project plan submitted by the contractor contained this section detailing project control goals and objectives.
Objectives:
a pr0ject. Technical dif

costs need to be monitored during
than originally planned.
culties may require more resources
Computer Technology Transition

and Upgrade Project Control
GOAL: PROJECT CONTROL
manager aSSess
resources have been used to

how time, money, and other
reasons exist Wh
the expected outcomes. Many
3.
4.
5.
8.
forecast on each phase of the project. The schedule will

include resource planning indicating the level of staffing
necessary to achieve project milestones.
The contractors project manager will schedule and oversee
all phases on the Computer Technology Transition and
Upgrade project.
The contractors project manager will supervise on-site personnel directly or have assigned supervisory personis) during
periods of critical processes.
The contractor's project manager will participate in review
and problem-solving meetings scheduled over the course of
the project.
The contractor will create processes and procedures that
the objectives of schedule, user satisfaction in the
meet
equrpment exchange, and inventory control.
b)
Project Management
Responsibility for the project rests on their shoulders, and
79
they must understand what needs to be done, when it must

be done, and where the resources will come from. Through~
out a project, the manager will be the one who must clarify
managed projects are costly for an organization. A project that

does not achieve its goals and objectives, or one that is not
aligned with the goals and objectives of the organization,
wastes time, money, and other resources.
members; and meet the client's demands while keeping the

project on tlme and within budget. Project managers are responsible for nding the necessary resources, motivating
TAKE AWAY TIPS
misunderstandingS; calm upset clients, leaders, and team
personnel, dealing with problems as they arise, and making
project goal trade-offs. In essence, effective project managers

are individuals who do whatever is necessary to keep the
project on SChedule, Within budget, and able to meet performance
expectations. Project managers must be prepared
to make adjustments to schedules, budgets, and resources in
order to deal With the unexpected. For this reason, they must
be 800d at recognizing the early signs of problems and be

able to cope with stressful situations. As discussed under the
heading of project plans, effective project managers utilize
the checkpoints, activities, and time estimates established in

the project plan to guide those working on the project. Fol
lowing a clearly laid out project schedule with clearly delineated responsibilities enables effective project managers to
keep their projects on track in terms of time, performance,
and cost. Clear project plans enable effective project man-
agers to direct people both individually and as a team.

, Project managers manage people as well as projects. To
do this, effective project managers schedule frequent

progress reports. These meetings allow the project managers
to react quickly when they recognize that a difculty has
arisen. Effective meetings are essential when working on a
project.
Due to the very nature of a project, the people associated with a project are temporary, and the project work they
do is often in addition to their regular jobs. [i this is the case,
how does a project manager maintain the commitment and

involvement of these individuals in order to get the project
done? A project manager must motivate these individuals.
This can be done in a variety of ways, including increasing
the persons visibility in the organization. In other words,
make sure people working on the project are recognized for

their work and what they have accomplished. Project man-
agers also have it within their power to create interesting and

challenging possibilities for their team members. As d15cussed in the chapter on teams, people are much more mo-
tivated to perform when their assigned tasks enable them to
use and stretch the talents, skills, and knowledge they al-
ready possess. Another powerful tool a prOjCCt manager POS
sesses is praise. People like being recognized publicly and

privately for a job well done.
SUMMARY
Projects, when chosen because they support the overall goals
and objectives of an organization, fulll the strategic plan and
move the organization toward its vision andmtssron. Without
and instead
Projects, organizations lack a long-term Visron
focus solely on doing day-to-day activities. Conversely, poorly
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1. Lean Six Sigma organizations recognize that projects

managed by people with good project management
skills are crucial to the success of an organization.
2. Lean Six Sigma organizations select projects that
support the organizations mission and goals.
3. Projects have three objectives: performance, cost, and

schedule.
4. Project proposals are the documents that sell a project.
They concentrate on the goals and objectives that a
project hopes to achieve.

5. Project goals create clarity of focus for a project.
6. Project plans provide details related to how a project

will be accomplished, including:
Mission and deliverables
Goals and objectives
Tasks
Technicalities
Schedules
Resources
Cost analysis
Value analysis
Personnel
Evaluation measures
Risk analysis
Change management process

\l . Project plans should include contingencies.
8. Gantt charts show the ow and completion of tasks
within a project.
9. PERT charts show the relationships between tasks in a

complex project.
10. CPM builds on PERT by adding the concept of cost per
unit time.
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1. Why are project management skills important to apply
in order to be effective?
2. Describe the three basic project characteristics in terms
of a project you have worked on.
3. Why is completing a project like eating an elephant?
4. How is a project selected to be worked on?
5. What are the components of an effective project
proposal?
6. Consider a project you are working on either at work or
at school. Using the guidelines presented in this chapter,
8
0
80
C
H A PT ER E
CHAPTER
IG H T
EIGHT
.
write aa ppr0ject
r o j e c t proposal.
h y sshould
h o u l d your
r o jea
ec t
Why
pr o po sa l W
pro}
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p
bee
r o je c t
project
p
7
ha t
7. W
What
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accepted?
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Are
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o u r
your
apparent
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o u r p
p p a r e n t iin
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.
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f f e c t i v e preject
la n ?
off aann eeffective
plan?
p r o je c t p
are t
8. Consider a project you are working either at work or

on
sschool.
c 1 0 0 l U
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he g
Using
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r
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n
n tthis
p
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h a r t for
r o jec t y
o u a
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y0u
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ng
school.
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l
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0 What
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10.
ERT Chani
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c ha
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7
M
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ffrom
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9
r ea te
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9. C
write a project plan. Are the projects

goals and
o b je c t iv e s c l e a r l
objectives
clearlyy sstated?
tated?H
ow d
How
o u k
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,
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ask
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e l e c t distribution
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12. Complete a CPM for the information in Question
1
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CHAPTER NINE
C H A P T E R N IN E
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8
84
C
H A PT ER N
IN E
CHAPTER
NINE
EQ U EST
C O R R E C T IV E / P R E V E N T I V E ACTION
A C T IO N R
REQUEST
CORRECTIVE/PREVENTIVE
T
O D
EP A R T M E N T N EN D O R :
TO
DEPARTMENT/VENDOR:
INSTRUMENT
ST R U M E NT PA
NEL
PANEL
1IN
DATE:
DA
TE:
/3 1/ 2 0 0 4
188/31/2004
F
IN D IN G / N O N C O N F O R M IT Y :
FINDING/NONCONFORMITY:
PA N E L 3
NS T RU M EN T PANEL
R IINSTRUMENT
6 0 1D A
RE
LA IM S FO
A RRA N T Y C
360ID
II CUSTOMER
T OMER W
ARE
CLAIMS
FOR
WARRANTY
A
P PA R E N T C
A US E :
APPARENT
CAUSE:
R IG IN A T O R :
O
ORIGINATOR:
S M IT H
lm
l R. SMITH
E R lc i i 5 1
IM E p
R T
HE T
/1 1 1 1 1
EX
C ES S Iv FO
THE
TIME
PERIOD
1/1/048/1/04
EXCESSIVE
FOR
AND
O B L E M S AND
E LEC T R IC A L PR
IT E ELECTRICAL
ND C
IG H IN
LA I M S A
RE H
U M B ER A
PROBLEMS
IC
CLAIMS
CITE
ARE
HIGH
AND
IN NNUMBER
N
NOISE/LOOSE COMPONENTS
OOK
IM
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A
S S IG N E D T
O:
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j
I
I QQ. SHEPHERD
S H EPH ER D
A
S S IG N E D T
O:
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ASSIGNED
IIMMEDIATE
O R R E C T IV E A
C T IO N :
M M E D IA T E C
CORRECTIVE
ACTION:
AT E R
ES P O N S E D
U E:
D
DATE
RESPONSE
DUE:
UE:
AT E R
ESP O N S E D
D
DUE:
DATE
RESPONSE
1 0 / 1/ 0 4
10/1/04
t
o l l /0 4
110/1/04
S H AT
o C
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U ST O M E R
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s N
E E D M REPLACE
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POI 1I 4T1I A
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NO
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S
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Y
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R
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s
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ROOT
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PREVENTIVE ACTION:
P R EV E N T IV E A C T I O N :
EFFECTIVE DATE: I
E F F E C T IV E D A T E :
DATE
ASSIGNEE
N S A T IS F A C T O R Y
I U
UNSATISFACTORYI
DATE
NAME
DA T E
NA M E
I S FA CT O RY
SAT
SATISFACTORY
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DA T E
O RIG INA T O R
DAT E
O M M EN T S / A U D IT/ R EV IE W
C
COMMENTS/AUDIT/REVIEW:
/ 3 / 20 0 4
| 88/3/2004
ORIGINATOR
DATE
QUALITY ASSURANCE
DATE
DA T E
S M IT H
iaH. SMITH
|::]
O UA U T Y A S S U RA N C E
GU R E 9
FI
9.44
FIGURE
A SS I G N E E
ASSIGNEE
DA T E
A S S IG N E E
l a st ic s
P
Plastics
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FIGURE
9.55
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86
IN E
NINE
H A PT ER N
55 CCHAPTER
"
O O L S at WORK
TOOLS
S IG M A T
LEAN SIX SIGMA
o n s t r u c t in g
Constructing
' " es: C
Plastics aand Dashes:
"
x:
a Pareto Chart
h e tteam
eam
a s h e s , tthe
nd D
Dashes,
A
a s t ic s a
and
Plastics
Att Pl
o r kin g o n
working
e m be r s w
m
members
on
n o n c o n l o r m t i e s
h e nonconformities
.
w i t h tthe
s o c i a t e d with
a sssociated
os ts a
h e ccosts
'
St e p 6
Determine
6. D
Step
InformatiOn
cost
clai ms also provided
or defects. The warranty
a t e g o ry
h
c
c
a
h
e
i
t
category.
w
d
t
each
i
e
with
sso c a
A
associated
he
tthe.
to begin their
instrument panel warranty issue have decided
t
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r
a
t
c
o
r
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e
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chart.
e
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r
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g a Pareto
iinvestigation
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Step 1. Select the subject for the chart. The
ane l
m ent p
t
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u
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l
s
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b
i
e
:
t
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r
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a
u t p u vvariable:
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output
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la i m s
a r r a n t y cclaims.
w
warranty
e
o b
a t a tto
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he d
be
data
The
a the r e d
e g
o b
gathered.
e e d tto
a ta n
ha t d
be
need
data
e t e r m in e w
S
te p 2
what
2. D
Determine
Step
e
h
v
a
r
s
e
t
m
cus o
have
e a s o n s customers
i f f e r e n t rreasons
he d
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h e cchart
different
r e a t e tthe
o ccreate
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s e d tto
c ost
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a r r a n ty w
work.
anel w
i
t
warranty
ru m e n t p
f
s
r
n
panel
i
o
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h
t
t
s
c
a
r
r
e
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g
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l s o aavailable.
s aalso
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w a rra nty w
work
a n e l warranty
n st r u m e n t p
panel
n iinstrument
i n f o r m a t i o n oon
information
he
T
The
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u a /i t y p
he q
problem.
o tthe
quality
e l a t e d tto
he d
a t a rrelated
S
te p 3
a t h e r tthe
data
Gather
3. G
Step
h
a rra n ty
t
e w
t
e
s
t
o
u
i
warranty
e
the
r
a
i
use
o
a
r
i
t
to
s
t
h
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d
t
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p
n
e
pp
tteam
ete rm
eam h
as d
that it is appropriate
determined
has
arra nty
of w
o p i e s of
warranty
ix m
o n t hs C
Copies
re c e d in g s
he p
months.
iinformation
six
o r tthe
preceding
n f o r m a t i o n ffor
m
h
t
a
e
t
e team.
t o the
i s t r i b u t e d to
een d
ave b
iinformation
n f o r m a t io n h
distributed
been
have
ca /
n d caland
o n c o n f o r m i t e s a
u m be r o
h e ttotal
o ta l n
off nnonconformities
number
S
te p 5
Determine
5. D
Step
t
F
o
m
r
t
t
h
o
i
l
a
e
the
ac
ccategory.
From h e
n e
h e ttotal
o t a in
g y
he p
each
erc e n tage o
cculate
u l a t e tthe
off tthe
percentage
h e nnumtthe
um
h
s
l
a
t
s
o
m
a
h
e
a
t
i
t
e
n
i
f
has
a
o
also
m
n
o
r
f
team
t
r
a
n
r
h
the
t
w
a
ix m
s o
on
ssix
of warrantyy information,
months
o
c c u rre n c e s
occurrences
ffor
a t e go ry :
e a c h ccategory:
o r each
anel
n st r u m e nt p
1
o o s e iinstrument
panel
1. LLoose
t
ne l
a
t
n
i
i
m
e
n
r
u
N
2
s
s
o
panel
p
2. Noisyy instrument
r o b le m s
le c t r i c a l p
3
problems
Electrical
3. E
n s t a l l a t io n
4
m p r o p e r iinstallation
4. IImproper
of
of
com
55
3
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ccomponents
o m po n e n t s
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00
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po n e n t s
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10
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h e iinstrument
n st ru m e n t
tthe
t s ccomponents
o m po n e n t s
anel o
orr iits
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p
anel
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5
panel
5. Ilnoperative
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o m po n e n t s
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6
a r p e d iinstrument
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1
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l
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n stru m e n t p
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2 N
Noisy
2.
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3 E le c t r ic a l p
3. Electrical
n s tru m e n t
t h e iinstrument
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4
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s5. Ilnoperative
l
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6 W a r p e d iinstrument
6. Warped
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o
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a ta a
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te p 4
4. M
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r
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h
r
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e
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a
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n
d
o
B
y
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e
a
warranty
t
a e g o ry
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a c h ccategory.
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ttal
u m b e r s 1in
a 1n
each
numbers
f tthe
he
h e xx aaxis
x is o
f
i
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of
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o
r
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c
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e
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n
w
f
o
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t
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o
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s
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tthe
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anel c
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o o s e iinstrument
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cchart:
f
h
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ro
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problems,
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anel
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t s ccomponents,
o m p o n e n t s iinoperative
anel o
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n stru m e nt p
orr iits
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5)
ig u r e 9
o F
r e f e r tto
9.5).
a n e ls ((refer
Figure
n str u m e nt p
panels
a r p e d iinstrument
nd w
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o m p o n e n t s aand
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er o
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4 1 5%
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55
a n e l s ttotal
ota l 8
n stru m e nt p
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855.
claims ffor
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00
4
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2
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oo l
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9
Cases
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anel
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.
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ra
t iv e
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Categories
F
IG U R E 9
FIGURE
9.77
P
l a s t ic s
Plastics
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
D a s h e s : IInstrument
andd Dashes:
n st r u m e n t P
P r o b l e m s by
a n e l Problems
Panel
b y Warranty
War ran ty C
la im T
Claim
Type
yp e
an
5 000
$
$5,000
1 00 0
$
$1,000
t h e ccauses
o f lloose
o o s e iinstrument
n s t r u m e n t panel
iinvestigating
a u s e s of
n v e s t i g a t i n g the
pa n e l
l
i g n i f i c a n t ly
i
d
l
i
h
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t
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t
t
a
m
o
s
c
w
a
r
r
a
o
v
s
n
s
n
o
n
e
n
components.
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p
ff e c t w
u m be rs a
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o sts
a rra nty n
A
warranty
numbers
and
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o
onn
00
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300
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10 0 0 0
$
$10,000
l a i m s are
m po r ta n t
h e warranty
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it h o u g in all
a l l tthe
h i s point,
claims
At
p o i n t aalthough
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h o u ld b
f f o r t s sshould
c o n c e n trated
t h a t eefforts
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h e Pareto
P a r e t o chart
as s
tthe
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c ha rt h
has
shown
Loose inst.
5 5 0 00
$
$55,000
t ha t
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h a r t s sshows
t h e ccharts
A n analysis
a n a ly s is o
ha r ts
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n a l p e tthe
S
te p 9
9. AAnalyze
Step
l
c
e
n
t
a
t
n
i
m
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r
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l
s
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p
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o
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t
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r e v a le n t w
he m
tthe
o st p
warranty
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l
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t
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s
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ponents.
p
i nst
t h i s nnoisy
o i s y instru7 ) reflects
r e f l e c t s this,
F ig u r e 9
c h a ((Figure
P a r e t o chart
h e Pareto
9.7)
n d tthe
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l
t
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n
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9.8,
T e second chart, in Figure
g
c :a m The
i n g :warranty
v a r r a s t y claim.
rring
anel
n str u m e nt p
o o s e iinstrument
panel
T h 1 category
: a t e go ry o
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s t o r y The
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p
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350
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ha v e
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o r tthe
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s c a /e s U
for
7 S
e l e c t tthe
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Select
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f
o
b
e
r
m
u
r
n
f
of
o
e
n
o
number
t
s
h
r
a
one for
a r e t o ccharts,
wo P
Pareto
c r e a t e ttwo
o create
d
e c id e d tto
decided
x a x is
t h e xaxis
h a r t the
a c h cchart.
o sts O
Onn eeach
o r ccosts.
t h e r ffor
t h e oother
n d the
and
c c u rre n c e s a
o
occurrences
i
l
i
w
x s willl b
h e yy aaxis
bee
a t e go r ie s T
The
l a i m ccategories.
h e warranty
w a r r a n t y cclaim
i s p l a y tthe
ill d
w
display
will
he d
ata
h o w aalll l tthe
data.
o sshow
c a le d a
sscaled
appropriately
p p r o p r i a t e ly tto
la i g e s t
h e largest
r a m tthe
d a t a ifrom
h e data
ha r t b
z rg tthe
organizing
a r e t o cchart
byy organi
raw a
S
te p 8
Pareto
aP
Draw
8. D
Step
i
F
i
n
n
h
w
o
s
r
Figures
a
e
in
g u re s
h a r t s are shown
P a r e t o ccharts
T
h e Pareto
m a l /e s t
t h e ssmallest.
The
o the
ccategory
a t e g o 1y tto
b
eated
r
e
c
l
ld
s
o
a
created.
c
o
u
s
t
be
e
a
n
also
e
f
e rc
could
or p
h a r t for
g
percentages
a r e t o cchart
8 A
7 aand
9
nd 9
Pareto
AP
9.8.
9.7
com
W
a rra n ty
Warranty
'
S IX
Problem Solving Using Define, Measure, Analyze. Improve, Control .
LOO
dollars
of
thousands
in
01O
Cost
at?
Loose inst.
panel comp.
Elec.
problems
Noisy
comp.
Improper
lnoperative
Warped
install
Categories
FIGURE 9.8
Plastics and Dashes: Costs of Instrument Panel Problems
by Warranty Type
A Pareto chart is constructed using the following steps:

. Select the subject for the chart. This can be a particular
product line exhibiting problems, a department, or
process.
. Determine what data need to be gathered. i.)eterrnine
whether numbers, percentages, or costs are going to be

tracked. Determine which noriconformities or defects
will be tracked.
9 Gather data related to the quality problem. Be sure that
the time period during which data will be gathered is

established.
Use a check sheet to gather data. Record the total num
bers in each category. Categories will be the types of
defects or nonconformities.
. Determine the total number of nonconformities and
calculate the percentage of the total in each category.

Determine the costs associated with the nonconformities or defects.
Select the scales for the chart. The y axis scales are typically the number of occurrences, number of defects,
dollar loss per category, or percent. The x axis usually
displays the categories of nonconformities, defects, or
items of interest.
Draw a Pareto chart by organizing the data from the
tallest category to the shortest. Include all pertinent in-
formation on the chart.

Analyze the chart or charts. The tallest bars represent
the vital few problems. If solved, getting rid of these
problems will provide the greatest gains for the organi-
zation. If there does not appear to be one or two major
Scanned
Q/
problems, recheck the categories to determine whether
another analysis is necessary.
ANALYZE
During the analyze phase of problem solving, lean Six Sigma
teams focus on identifying potential root causes of the probiem they are working on. They also seek to validate a causeandeffect relationship between the key process input variables
and the key process output variables. This analysis enables the
team to identify the vital few root causes of the problem.
Technique: Brainstorming
To identify potential root causes of problems, lean Six Sigma
improvement teams often turn to brainstorming. The
purpose of brainstorming is to generate a list ofproblems,
opportunities, or ideas from a group ofpeople. Everyone present at the session should participate. The discussion leader
must ensure that everyone is given an opportunity to comment and add ideas. Critical to brainstorming is that no arguing, no criticism, no negativism, and no evaluation of the
ideas, problems, or opportunities take place during the session. It is a session devoted purely to the generation of ideas.
The length of time allotted to brainstorming varies;
sessions may last from 10 to 45 minutes. Some team leaders
deliberately keep the meetings short to limit opportunities
to begin problem solving. A session ends when no more
items are brought up. The result of the session will be a list
of ideas, problems, or opportunities to be tackled. After being listed, the items are sorted and ranked by category, im
portance, priority, benet, cost, impact, time, or other

considerations.
CHAPTER NINE
88
ea
C H A P T E R N IN E
r a i n s t o r m in g
a s he s : B
nd D
l a s t i c s aand
P
Brainstorming
Dashes:
Plastics
L EA N
"
/b
t u dy
u r t h e r sstudy
o n du c ted a
n c cconducted
l a s t i c s aand
nd D
a s h e s IInc.
a ffurther
T
h e tteam
Dashes
eam a
att PPlastics
The
h e iinvestin vest i
o m po n e n t s T
a n e l ccomponents.
n stru m e n t p
o o s e iinstrument
The
tthe
h e ccauses
a u ses o
panel
off lloose
he
h e iinstrument
lo v e b
he g
a n e l was
w a s tthe
h a t tthe
o x iin
n tthe
nstru m e nt p
panel
e v e a l e d tthat
a t i o n rrevealed
glove
box
gation
g
h y tthe
he
F ig u r e 9
9) T
ette r u
n de rst a n d w
r e a ((Figure
o b
r o b le m a
a in p
m
9.9).
To
better
understand
why
area
problem
main
S
am:
Sam:
he p
h a t tthe
II was
h i n k i n g tthat
w a s tthinking
o s it i o n i n g o
h e llatch
atc h a
positioning
off tthe
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ass well
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in ge w
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f f e c t the
tthe
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t h e ttightness
ig h t n e ss of
hinge
would
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p o s it i o n i n g ooff tthe
of
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la t c h
tthe
JJerry:
e r ry:
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O
Okay.
o
off
h e tteam
ig h t b
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r a in s to r m
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it h tthe
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n p u t vvariables
a r i a b l e s aassociated
s s o c ia t e d w
r o c e s s iinput
tthe
ox
ey p
with
process
glove
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lorry: i think you all know why we are here today. Did you all get
he g
lo v e b
t h e oopportunity
o rreview
e v i e w tthe
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n f o r m a t io n ? G
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the
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et s g
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e t w e e n tthe
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while
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We'll
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F
h e ttightness
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r a n k : Of
h e llatch
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Frank:
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ttween
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a n e l! T
s
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Tell
ssomething
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on t k
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h e hinge?
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h e sstrength
t r e n g t h ooff tthe
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about
S
ue :
Sue:
W
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What
JJerry:
e r ry:
in ge
t r e n g t h ooff H
W r it e s oon
o a rd ) S
n b
((Writes
Hinge.
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ha t
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Sharon:
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h e glove
ox h
a n d l e sstrength?
b o u t tthe
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handle
g lo v e b
about
F
ra nk:
Frank:
ha n d le p
lo v e b
o s it io n i n g ?
A
he g
o x handle
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positioning?
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glove
And
JJerry:
e r ry:
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((Writes
S
b o u t tthe
h e ttightness
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am: H
h e llatch?
ow a
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Sam:
How
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of L
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lightness
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f
i
H
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g Any
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Gl o v e B
ox H
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o a r d ) Glove
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Fi g u r e 9
10 ) A
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een g
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9.10).
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meetings.
g discussion and clarification
q
he
o
off tthe
i d e a s ccan
om m ence
a n ccommence.
ideas
JJerry:
e n y: F
ra n k h
h e rrules
ave y
o u fforgotten
u le s o
s
o r g o t t e n tthe
r a i n s t o r m i n g sesFrank,
have
you
off aa bbrainstorming
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it
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g Sam, can yyou expand
p
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La tc h
9
FI GU R E 9
9.9
FIGURE
lo v e B
ox
l a s t i c s aand
ashes: G
n d D
P
Box
Glove
Dashes:
Plastics
lo v e B
ox
he G
P
o s it io n i n g o
Box
Glove
off tthe
Positioning
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l o v e Box
he G
t r e n g t h of
S
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h
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g
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i
H
h
f
t
h
t
n
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S
o
e Hinge
of the
Strength
ge
H a n d le S
tre n gth
G
o x Handle
lo v e B
Strength
Box
Glove
H a n d le P
o s it io n in g
Io v e B
o x Handle
G
Positioning
Box
Glove
C o n s t r u c t io n M
a t e r ia ls
lo v e B
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IG U RE 9
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8
9
39
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FIGURE
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IN E
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0
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F
IG U R E 99.13
13
FIGURE
S
i a g r a m Interpretations
c atter D
Scatter
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Diagram
Creating a Scatter Diagram
[0'
hi r l e y iis
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FIGURE
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R
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30
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INS
1987
1992
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1999
20m)
2001
2002
Copyright 0 IMZDOG by Stockchansgom Inc.. Redmond. wusmnglon, All rights reserved
FIGURE 9.15
Run Chart of Financial Performance
(Source: Copyright 19992008 by StockCharts.com Inc., Redmond, Washington. All rights reserved.)
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Problem Solving Using Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control
To construct a scatter diagram, use these steps:
Technique: Run Charts
1. Select the characteristic, the independent variable, you

wish to study.
2. Select the characteristic, the dependent variable,
that
you suspect affects the independent variable.
Run charts, also called time series plots, can be used to monitor process changes associated with a particular characteristic
over time. Run charts are versatile and can be constructed
with data consisting of either variables or attributes. These

data can be gathered in many forms, including individual
3. Gather the data about the two characteristics.

4. Draw, scale, and label the horizontal
and vertical
axes.
measurements, counts, or subgroup averages. Time is dis-
played on the x axis of the chart; the value of the variable or

attribute being investigated is recorded on the y axis. The
median value of the data can be used as the centerline of the
chart. Cycles, trends, runs, and other patterns are easily spot-
5. Plot the points.
6. Interpret the scatter diagram to see whether there

is a
relationshlp between the two characteristics.
ted on a run chart. As Figure 9.15 shows, nancial performance over time is often displayed in the form of a run chart.
Using Run Charts in Decision Making
A US. state highway route through a small town has had an

increase in traffic accidents in recent years. The city manager
has
decided to do a traffic study to support the reduction of the speed
limit, in hopes of reducing the number of traffic accidents. The
January 2000
May 2000
December 2000
January 2001
May 2001
December 2001
January 2002
May 2002
December 2002
January 2003
May 2003
December 2003
study will cost approximately $2,000. Upon completion, the
study will be turned over to the states Department of Transportation. Factors that weigh into studying the speed limit include accident history, traffic volume, average speed of motorists, access
points, and the width of the shoulder and roadway.
Part of the study includes creating and studying run charts of
the accident history:
Step 1. Determine the time increments necessary to study the
process properly. Under their current system. the city combines
and reports accident information in January, May, and December.
Information is available for the past four years. Time. increments
based on these months were marked on the x axis of the chart.
FIGURE 9.16
Step 2. Scale the y axis to reflect the values that the measurements
or attributes data will take. The y axis is scaled to reflect the
number of accidents occurring each month.
Step 4. Record the data on the chart as they occur.
were recorded on the chart (Figure 9.17).
10
15
10
23
26
22
30
25
30
35
38
36
Accident Data
Step 5. Interpret the chart. The chart, when interpreted, showed

that accidents have definitely been increasing over the past four
years. This will be very useful information when the state tries to
determine whether to lower the speed limit.
The data were collected (Figure 9.16).
Step 3. Collect the data.
93
The data
40 35 30
25 20..
Accidents
of
15#
10-
836
FIGURE 9.17
gob/o
Ll,
Jan.
2000
2001
I
Ma .
20th
Run Chart of Accident Data
UUUI II IUU
Dec.
Vul I IUVuI II IUI
Dec.
2001
Jan.
2002
loii
Dec.
Jan.
2002
2003
Ma.
2033
Dec.
2003
10/
4
9
94
N IN E
H A P T E R NINE
C
CHAPTER
A
A
'
for a particular process 0;
the companys future plans
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L EA N S
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W O R K
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18
F
IG U R E 9
9.18
FIGURE
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9
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96
H A P T ER N
C
IN E
CHAPTER
NINE
2
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F I G U R E 9 19
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r a p hic a l
m a p iis
s a
map
a ggraphical
no w d
ia gr a m s
a n d p
r o c e s s ow
and
process
diagrams.
l l oof
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
l 1e
of a
representation
all
f tthe
i n aan
i
t
i
n
l
t e p s iinvolved
n v o l v e d in
e
n e
r
ssteps
r
o
c
t
e
s
s
o
a
r
a
r
1
c
a
t
r segment
s e gm e n t o
entire process
or a Pparticular
p
fa
ofa
A
e x a m p le
r o c ess
o
i s sshown
h o w n iin
m ap
process.
Ann example
ofr aa process
n
p
is
p r o c e s s map
A
r o c ess
A pprocess
i a g r a m m i n g the
i g u r e 10
3 D
F
l o w ooff aa p
t h (: fow
Figure
r o c e s s or
10.3.
Diagramming
o r system
sys t e m
process
i d s iin
it F
l o w c h a r t i n g iiss eeffectively
n understanding
u n d e r s t a n d i n g it.
f f e c t i v e l y used
aids
Flowcharting
u s e d iin
n
i r s t sstages
h e ffirst
t a g e s of
tthe
o f p
r o b l e m solving
b e c a u s e the
s o l v i n g because
problem
t h e charts
l
b
c h a r t s enable
en a
e
d y i n g the
t h e process
to q
u i c k ly u
those studying
n de r sta n d w
h a t is
quickly
i s inp r o c e s s to
understand
what
t h o se s t u
l v e d iin
f r o m sstart
n a
a p
r o c e s s from
fi n i s h Problem-solving
t a r t tto
volved
o nish.
process
Pr o b l e m s o l v i n g
b
T
ea m m
em
e r s ccan
a n clearly
c l e a r l y see
i s being
s e e what
team
w h a t is
b e i n g done
members
d o n e tto
o a
a prodp r
v o
b y aa service
u
ct o
r o v i d e d by
s e r v ic e a
uct
orr pprovided
t h e various
v a r io u s s
in a
t a g e s in
att the
a
stages
l o w c h a r t s cclarify
r o c e ss P
F o c e s s fowcharts
l a r i f y the
process.
t h e rroutines
Process
d
p
o u t i n e s used
tto
u se
se r v e
o serve
ccustomers.
u st o m e r s P
r o b l e m s or
o r non-valueadded
n o n v a l u e a d d e d activities
Problems
a c t iv i t ie s n e st c d
nested
i t h i n aa p
r o c e ss a
id e n t i f ie d b
re e
a s i l y identied
within
process
are
nt n v c h a r t
easily
sin g a
byy uusing
a flowchart.
h e cconstruction
T
o n s t r u c t i o n of
The
o f p
r o c e ss m
a p s iis
s ffairly
process
a i r l y straightfors t ra i ght f
maps
T h e steps
s t e p s tto
o creating
c r e a t i n g such
s u c h charts
ward. The
f o ll o w i n g :
c h a r t s are
t h e following:
a r e the
w ard
1
he p
e fi n e tthe
m c e ss b
h e purpose
o u n da r ies F
1. D
Dene
t he
o r tthe
process
boundaries.
For
p u r p o s e oofr the
ha r t d
cchart.
e t e r m i n e where
he p
w h e r e tthe
e n ds
ro ce ss b
e i n s and
a n d ends.
determine
process
begins
2
2.
D e f i n e the
t he p
d e n t i fy
r o c e s s ssteps.
te ps U
t o iidentify
se b
r a i n s t o r m i n g to
Dene
process
Use
brainstorming
Fo r existing
o r n
ac
ew p
r o c e s s e s For
e x i s t i n g processes,
the steps ffor
new
processes.
p r o c e s s e s actull
h
h
i
i
t
a
s e r v e the
e p
n action.
ac l n n
r o c e s s in
allyy oobserve
process
t he s t e p s
10
2
102
C
H A P T E R TEN
T EN
CHAPTER
CE
S IM

@:
1d 3
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t t
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S
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e n d ro repair
sonata
be $5.,
v.-
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a 3
3 p
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11 at
pumpup
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ep a ' " r t
Hepairplrt
Document failure
and where located

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nil-ll
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F
IG U R E 1
0 3
FIGURE
10.3
E
x a m p le
Example
P r o c e s s Map
M ap
off aa Process
3. Sort the steps into the order of their occurrence in the

r o c e ss
process.
p
Pla c e
4
4. Place
IInspection
n s p e c t io n
f l o w c h a r t ssymbols
t h e ssteps
t e p s iin
n
a
the
appropriate
p p r o p r i a t e owchart
ym bo ls
F i g u r e 10.4)
10 4 ) aand
ha r t
h e cchart.
((Figure
n d create
c r e a t e tthe
'
/
\
V
\ /
v
E v a l u a t e the
5 Evaluate
f o r ccompleteness,
t h e ssteps
t e p s for
f f i c i e n c y aand
o m ple t e n e s s
5.
e
n d
efciency,
,
r o b l e m s ssuch
u c h as
as n
o n v a l u e a d de d a
possible
problems
c t iv i t i e s
p o s s i b le p
non-value-added
activities.
B
e c a u se p
r o c e s se s a
n d systems
f t e n ccomplex,
Because
syste m s a
processes
re o
and
i n the
o m p l e x , in
t he
are
often
f
f
t
l
s
a
e
h
s
o
o w c a r t cconstruction,
stages
o n s t r u c t i o n , removable
3 by 5 i n c h
r e m o v a b l e 3-by-5-inch
g of owchart
ssticky
t i c k y notes
n o t e s placed
n a
a r g e piece
b o a r d aallow
o f p
a p e r or
a llarge
o r board
p l a c e d oon
llo w
paper
p i e c e of
c r e a t o r s greater
n e x i b i l i t y wwhen
creators
h e n ccreating
r e a t in g a
n d rrening
g r e a t e r exibility
e fi n in g a
and
a owf l
h a r t When
w n e n tthe
cchart.
h e cchart
h a r t is
i s ccomplete,
i n a l ccopy
o m p le t e , a
a fnal
o p y ccan
a n b
ade
bee mmade
ly
early
S
to r a g e
Storage
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O
Operation
p e r a t io n
ea r
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
Delay
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e la y
_
F
I G U R E 10.4
10 4
FIGURE
P
r o c e ss M
Sy m b o l s
a p Symbols
Process
Map
Transportatior
n s p o r t a t io r
Tr a
D
e c is i o n
Decision
rug
value-Huueu rrocess mapping
Creating a Process Map
LEAN SlX SIGMA TOOLS at WORK
fb
To help determine the current baseline performance of the
process. the team at Plastics and Dashes inv '

esti atrn
.
warranty
claims
panel
created a flowchart of theginstrgu'rEZtrtJment
n
panel assembly process.
Step 1. Define the boundaries. First the team

examined the
'
Step 3. Sort the steps into the order of their occurrence in the
process.
After reconciling their observations with their
brainstorming efforts, the team sorted the steps into the order of
their occurrence.
Step 4. Place the steps in appropriate flowchart symbols.
With
' '
process from the customers point of view. Th e team
identlf led
~
the steps in the correct order. it was a simple task to add the ap-
2. Define the process steps. The team

members
sup
brainstormed the steps in the assembly process. They
Step 5. Evaluate the steps for completeness, efficiency, and possible problems. The team reviewed the finished chart for completeness. Several team members were unaware of the complete
process. Because it creates a greater understanding of the process.
this diagram will be helpful during later problem-solving efforts.
where the process begins and ends in the customers

experience
double
checked their steps by observing the actu al rocess. Th wrote

6y
9
down each step on sticky notes.
Mold
retainer
Spray
adhesive
on retainer
propriate flowchart symbols and create the chart (Figure 10.5).
Barrier
Storage
clad
ratainer
Storage
Foam
mold
Insert
retainer
Insert
pad
pad
Assemble
A/C outlets
Assemble
glove
box
Storage
>
Attach
passenger
air bag
InSpect
Ship
FIGuRE 10.5
Plastics and Dashes: Glove Box Assembly Flowchart
.
1
04
104
C
HA PT ER T
EN
CHAPTER
TEN
i l i z i n g tthe
h e ccorrect
utilizing
o r r e c t ssymbols.
i t h e r tthe
h e ssymbols
Either
an b
y m bo ls E
bee
y m b o l s ccan
h a t h e a d i n g (Figure
d e p a r t m e n t are
e l o w tthat
w r it t e n b
a r e written
o b o
below
( F i gu r e
orr department
jjob
heading
l s o be
b e constructed
i
l o w c h a r t s ccan
10 6 ) F
w i t h pictures
c o n s t r u c t e d with
t
an a
c
u
r e s fm
also
fo r
10.6).
Flowcharts
p
W
f
l
10
7
i
n e n process
o w c ha r t s
e
a sie r u
n d e r s t a n d i n g (Figure
) When
(F g u r e 10.7).
easier
understanding
p r o c e s s owcharts
D
h
h
h o w n in
t
t
d
i
o
e
n
a
e
a
r
a
s
e
t
e
e
s
s
n
s
a
r
e
a
s
o
u
s
e
r
u
they
often
appear
as
in
shown
are used as routingg sheets,
pp
y
u t
la c e d
placed
p
he d
nextt ttoo tthe
e sc r ipt io n o
h e sstep,
description
h e y ccan
t e p oor
r tthey
off tthe
a n ssuru r
rround
h e iinformation.
o u n d tthe
n fo r m a t i o n
n ex
A
a r ia t io n o
A vvariation
h e ttraditional
r a d i t i o n a l process
onn tthe
o w c h a r t iis
he
s tthe
owchart
p r o c e s s fl
d
l
e
deployment
o w c ha r t
p o y m e n t fl
W ' e n aa d
owchart.
l
fl
e
When
o
o w c h a r t iis
deployment
s
p y m e n t owchart
ccreated,
r e a t e d job
e p a r t m e n t ttitles
j o b oorr ddepartment
i t l e s are
are w
r it t e n a
h e ttop
c r o s s tthe
written
o p of
o f
across
he p
tthe
a ge a
h e activities
n d tthe
page,
a c t iv i t i e s o
and
he p
h a t ooccur
r o c e s s tthat
off tthe
hat
process
c c u r iin
n tthat
ddit i o n a l d
h i c h iincludes
10 9 w
n c lu de s a
e t a i l s such
additional
details
SU CH
10.9,
which
- in s ec tio n n o te
f
l
i
i
t
i
e
e
r
a
o
r
s
t
t
o
a
s
r
v
e
s
o
c
e
s
s
a
c
s
an d
self-inspection
notes, and
activities, operator
as process
p
p
p
F
i g u r e s 10.8
10 8
Figures
Plant
Sales
Representative
Customer
lIdenties
d e n l H e s p
r o b le m
problem
mme
Section AA
Send 90005
Receive
Receive
R e c e iv e
Section A
R e c e iv e
Section A
Ouel
Smognlglggt
ope
Request samples
;
'
L
[>
Receive pink GA
form
1
Receive goods
ssection
e : t ro n A
A
E ND
Department
e c e i' "
ccomplaint
o m p la in t
l> RReceives
Fill out RGA
E ND
Shipping
Depa ment
lssue RGA numbers
E ND
sp e c
Customer
Servlce
i fi c a t i o n s
specications.
Manager
n d
a
and
A pink
c o py!
lGive
Ge 00A.
p i n k copy
&
o o ds
8. ggoods
L--.
Gw e p
l n k ccopy
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pink
c
to
h i p p in g
sshipping
Fill Ooutt
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h it e &
WM?
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Give white & yellow
copies at
to
RQA
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RO
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c c o u n tin g
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Accounting
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I
Fill out
.
Section C
of RGA
R
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Receive
LEG
E N D/
K
LEGEND/KEY
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ro ce i s
Process
white copy
py
w h il e c o
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GA
at1 R
RGA
"Complete Section
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of RGA
Pink a white copies
my.
Re t u m white
* m i l copy
Return
of RGA to
0. Department
1
of
RGA are led
WW
Fm out
credit memo
w
_
F
I GU RE 10
FIGURE
10.66
Issue
credit, 5
Yellow copy oi RGA A

credit stamp attached
and llled
D
e p lo y m e n t P
Deployment
l o w c h a r t ffor
r o c e ss F
Process
Flowchart
o r R
etu r n G
o o ds A
Return
u t ho r iz at io n (
Goods
R G A ) Forms
Authorization
Fo r m s
(RGA)
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
Ma pp in g
r o c e s s Mapping
V
a lu e Adde d P
Process
Value-Added
1
05
105
Boiler ue gas
from air heaters
r e c i p it a t o r
p
precipitator
: air
xcompressor
\\ l Oxidation
1
:)
:Chimney
h im n e y
Combined
i i gl :
spray tower
. . .
recirculation tank
From limestone
slurry tank
From process
H20 storage tank
____-> To hydroclones >

.
if E:
I
Ra i lc a r
Renew:
1 1l
ld 1 =
Limestone
slurry tank
I: w-v
'
LimestoM
receiving _.
system
.
Frorn reactron
bank
C
a !c i lj m ssulte
u l fi t e
Calcium
l u r r y :tank
sslurry
an k
FI
GU R E 10
FIGURE
10.77
sl""9
. .
Label Unit
Dry
~ 0:0
lo w c ha r t
Flowchart
P
process
r o c e ss F
Insert
Pin
mix
tanks
To reaction
Calcium sulte
to landll
Cover orientation
Snap ring inserted
1Is
ln
s th
e p
the
pln
sseated
e a t e d ccorrectly?
o r r e c t ly ?
Does the unit lunction properly?
Is we cover aligned correctly?
Functional
Assembly
Assemble
Uh"
re a s e
of G
A m o u n t of
Grease
Amount
Material
M a t e r ia l
Sp e c i fi c a t i o n s
n d Specrcatrons
s a
and
n st r u c t io n
w i t h IInstructions
with
Warehouse
Rework
M
a t e Da l
Material
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
&
n p
o s it i o n
Pin
position
.
Greased Unrt
.
Screw postron ad].
Flush w/ surface
Force
P
r e s s Fo r c e
Press
l e a n li n e s s
C
Cleanliness
M
a t e ri a l
Materral
FIGUR
0 8
F'GUREE 110.8
Orientation
Label adhesion
i
I
"
m
a te ri a l s
materials
llsllbot
so P
ro c ed u r e s
Procedures
Filter
system
>
lu e G
D e s t t l i\ i r i z a t i o n P
F
r o c ess
a s Desuilurization
Process
Gas
Flue
Route Ticket
ir l Process H20
t... w storage tank
Hydroclone
mrx tank
(9
To reaction
mix tanks
A d j u s t m e n t Position
Po s it io n
Adjustment
in g
Sn a p R
Snap
Ring
In s e r t i o n
Insertion
lTam
C a p a b i my
e s t Capability
Ca lib r a t io n
Calibration
CHAPTER TEN
106
BUSHING PRESS
SAFETY
ITEMS
CYCLE TIME (SECONDS)
GLASSES
56
SLEEVES
TAKT nME (SECONDS)
SHOES
COTTON
GLOVES
BUMPCAP
STANDARD
ST
56
STANDARD IN PROCESS PARTS

2
3
QUAIJTY
A Sub Assy with

hand and Pick-up painted FtHAsLs/ywllhlheright
lefthandandsetoninmtable.
lnspectdlmarktubeweldswithbothhands
then stage picking up one LIA in each hand.
Pick-up (2) #1 bushings one in each hand from
CHECK
box and set into upper #1 bushing
L "
SSEHd
Pick-up (2) #1 bushings with One In each hand
SAFETY
CHARACTERISTIC
from box and set in box.

5
v
SAFETY
Pick-w painted m L/A Sub
a
7
Pickup (2) #2 bushings with one In each hand

from box and set In busha holders.
Orient #2 bushings correctiy by makln sure the
light comes on. Do not run machine wil out OK
light on.
Pickup RH HA 5 U1 LIA SIN! from staging area
with both hands and set into locating blocks.
SNIHSDS
Pick-up complete LH LIA 8x RH LIA with both
hands from pans catcher and start.
Inspect the position 01 the #1 bushings to Insure

that they were pressed properly.
Set complete RH LIA a. U-l LIA from parts
catcher into minomi rack and start rack.
.4
FIGURE 10.9
Bushing Press Flowchart with Instructions and Specifications
Improving the Quoting Process
Prior to new leadership at JF, the activity of turning a quote into
a finished part had no uniform process. This led to incorrect

quotes, lost quotes or orders, past-due orders, incorrect orders,
improperly priced orders, and other problems. Knowing that standardized processes reduce the chance of errors, leadership
. LEASIXSIGMATOOLSEt WORK
costs of quality (see Chapter 6) from producing the parts
incorrectly.
When the team members reviewed their findings, the first

thing that they noticed was that there were no checks or
balances in the process. Quotes were rarely checked to ensure
entry clerk, the scheduler, and the process engineer. The order
correct material costs, routings, or part print revisions. Those

converting a quote into an order did not verify up-to-date material price, shop schedules, or delivery availability information.
Promised due dates often did not correspond to true equipment
quote/order.
(see Chapter 15). So. although the activities in the process were
value added, they did not create value because of the variation in
formed a team with the objective of defining order processing.

The boundaries of the process were set at customer requests
quote to customer receives parts. The team included the order
entry clerk was designated the process owner since the clerk is
responsible for a majority of the initial interaction with the
By tracking the flow of an actual order through the shop, the
team members developed a list of activities that must take

place. As they studied the existing process, they used the five
W5 and two Hs from Figure 10.10 to help them see the whole
picture. Following a number of orders through the shop also
helped. The original shop layout (Figure 10.11) resembled
a spider web of parts moving here and there in the plant, so

order tracking was not easy. Further complications arose when
incorrect routers accompanied the orders. These were modified
when necessary, before, it was hoped, incurring significant
uptime availability. This frequently was the cause of late orders
processing technique.
As the team members analyzed the process, they could

clearly see that a better order processing method was needed.
They readily considered the idea of computerizing the process;
however, they recognized that computerizing a nonfunctional
process failed to help company performance. Their efforts
focused on redesigning the process. Figure 10.12 shows the new
process map. The new steps in the process are shown in bold
italics. Errors have declined significantly. Computerization of the
new process speeds the quoting/order process even more.
Value-Added Process Mapping
Questions to Be Asked
What?
Why does the company need this process?

Why is this process important?
Why must it be done?
Why?
Who performs the process?

Who is affected by this process?
What is the purpose of this process?
Who?
How does this process relate to other
How?
What are the steps in this process?

What sequence should the steps take?
company processes?
How is the work being done?
How could it be done differently?
What does this process accomplish?

What is being done better?
What could be done differently?
How can it be changed to match or exceed

the best?
What purpose does it serve?

Where does the activity take place?
Where does it need to take place?
When do the activities take place?
Where?
When?
107
How will results get measured?

How much does the old method cost?
How much?
How much will the new method cost?
When should the activities take place?
When is the right time for the activities to

take place?
FIGURE 10.10
Five W5 and Two Hs

MalnDraln.Plumblng,
Lunch Room, Offices, Bathroom
| arent
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10 8
108
C
H A P T E R TEN
T EN
CHAPTER
Customer
C
u 1to m e r
Order
En tr y
O r d e r Entry
Requests
Receives
quote
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request
order
iIn
n
s c * ?
stock?
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s h ip m e n t
shipment
l
W Into
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"9W quote
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N I
l
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I
1
>l
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programming?
R
e p a i r / r e p la c e
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Ch
ec k
Check
parameters:
->
N
o Wy
Notify
receivable
Parts pass
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A-
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'
to
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Ship pens l
Run parts
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information
> T
E
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. Gather
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l pparts
Up d B t e
o l
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es
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order/quote?
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programing
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[Y I
S h i p p i n g Accounts
Ac c o u n ta R
Shipping
Recent...
m lv 1 b l
S
c h e d u le r
Scheduler
P
r o g r a m m in g
Programming
P
n g in e e r in g
ro c e a s E
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Engineering
e e de d
a
ass nneeded
purchase
order number;
revision
level 0!
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quote?
print:
pricing
IE] on...
Ask shop
to, space
computer to
compare with
Pl
ace o
rde r
Place
order
last order
$
Co n i r m
Conrm
n_
mten'el
a _
availability
Receive parts
Pay for
pans
F
I G U R E 10.12
10 1 2
FIGURE
N
D e p l o y m e n t Process
Pr o c e ss M
e w Deployment
ap
New
Map
b/
VA L U E S
T R EA M P
R O C ESS
VALUE
STREAM
PROCESS
M
A
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P
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FIGURE
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10 1 4
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F
IG U R E 1
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FIGURE
10.15
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ro c e s s M
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F ig u r e 10
process
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10.16).
scrap and rework rates, and '3 Inspection and overtime costs.
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FI
GU R E 1
0 16
FIGURE
10.16
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r o c e s s Map
h o c o la t e s P
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(Continued)
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12
1
112
dam.
EN
H A PT ER T
C
TEN
CHAPTER
chocolates were improperly

discovered that the rejected
b e i n g tthrown
hr o w n
c h o c o l a t e being
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m o u n t of
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l
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h
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trays on the conveyor belt. This prompted the
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um m y C
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FIGURE
10.17
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e t h o d o l o g i e s which
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Process
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f
d
l
d
i
i
l
i
i
h
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i
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l
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o v e r e d in
ccovered
R
t h e nnon-value-added
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i
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r a
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a lu e a d de d p
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69 h
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im e )
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ttwo
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ing
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ey d
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able
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omet i mes tthe
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a
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S
U MMA RY
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o c u se s
m p r o v e m e n t ffocuses
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a ste
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on eeliminating
o n
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w
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knowledge
gained
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rb
f f o r t s tthat
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o r g a n i z a t i o n to
to d
ann organization
i t s own
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o w n b
develop
e st
best
r a c t ic es a
n d rreach
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l
practices
l
n
e
f
w
and
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e
v
p
e
o
a new level of performance,
r e s u l t i n g iin
n
p e r o r m a n c e resulting
d
i t s ccustomers.
e l i g h t ffor
o r its
delight
u st o m e r s
e
Using a Process Map to Improve Work Flow

H
: Customer
::3 :Satisfaction
= Ix
and Increase
D
i s t r i b u t io n
Distribution
"
L
E A N SIX
s lx S
IG M A T
LEAN
O O L S
SIGMA
TOOLS
Flo w
W O R K
att WORK
ic k p
centers ppick,
ac k a
h i p oorders
n d sship
r d e r s iin
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n one
one o
tw o
and
off two
c e n te rs
m
e t ho ds : w
methods:
ave
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a l le d b
a t c h) a
is c r e t e T
nd d
h e nnewly
batch)
and
e w ly
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f C
ead o
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is t r i b u t o r s h
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has
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pack,
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M
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r
Mr. H. Co
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ow
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orr aarea?
many
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b e t t e r uunderstand
u p ? To
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muchh space
r e a t e d tthe
he p
ccreated
F i g u r e 10.18.
10 18
h o w n iin
roc ess m
a p sshown
n Figure
process
map
f t e r creating
A
t he p
c r e a t i n g the
b s e r v i n g the
ro c e s s m
t h e workap b
ased o
wo
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e
rs d
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it H
t u d i e d it.
o bs M
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ers
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H H
as
Mr.r H.
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___________
EN
HA PT ER T
C
TEN
CHAPTER
14
1
114
Computer selects
Order received
appropriate box
via phone/fax/website
Pi
a it s
c ke r w
Picker
waits
NO
O
rde rs ?
Orders?
1
I
"
r packs
' "
w M s 'box
Packer
Yes
Orders arranged by
customer to be picked by
that customers designated
Packer seals box
picker
(picker walks
great distances)
r
Shipper packs
paperwork in
shipping envelope
Orders picked
(walks to appropriate
shelving unit taking
4tiered cart)
V
Packed boxes
queued for shipment
(one order
:K
=
per shelf)
e
"
Order placed on
4-tiered cart
Shipper generates
shipping label
Order paperwork
placed
with picked items
Shipper affixes shipping

label to package
(carts walked
long distances)
Carts walked to
packing area
Boxes placed on skids
C
a r t s queued in
Carts
a c k in g a
re a
packing
area
p
(wait)
(w a it )
Skids shrink-wrapped
for shipment
P a c k e r iinspects
n s p e c ts
Packer
paperwork
pa pe rw o rk
Packer inspects
..
picked
items
FIGURE 10.18
F I G U R E 10 18
C
H O
r igi n a l P
CH
Original
r o c e s s Map
M ap
Process
he r e d
where
e l a ys w
e re o
delays
c c u r r in g w
were
occmring,
here w
where
or ke r s w
workers
e r e iidle.
d l e aand
were
he re
nd w
where
obacklogs
a c ro g s w
e r e ccreated.
rea ted B
were
a se d o
he p
Based
roc ess m
onn tthe
process
ap a
nd h
i s oobsermap
bse r
and
his
vvations.
a t 1o n s h
h e ffollowing
a d e tthe
hee mmade
o l l o w i n g cchanges:
h a n ge s :
l lo w e d w
A
Allowed
o B k e r s tto
workers
o P
IC K o
r d e r s iin
pick
orders
n o
rde r o
order
e c e i p t rregardless
off rreceipt,
e ga r d le s s
o
u sto m e r e
rim l n a t l n s
off ccustomer,
eliminating
i
l
c
g specialized
pe a ize d P
i c k e r s ffor
pickers
or e
ac h c
each
us
custtomer,
o m e r This
T h Bs change
c h a n ge e
l im i n a t e d
eliminated
i c k e r idle
I d l e ttime,
picker
P
i m e which
w h ic h
OCC
u rred w
occurred
h e n nno
when
o o
r d e r ffor
order
or a
a r t ic u la r c
a pparticular
u s to m e r e
customer
x is t e d
existed.
T
h e cchange
h a n g e aalso
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ls o b
a l a n c e d tthe
balanced
he w
o r k lo a d a
workload
m ong a
among
l
l
he
all ooff tthe
i c k e r s eeliminating
li m in a t in b
pickers,
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lO-fOOt
l l e r cconveyor
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h is
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t a t io n s
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n the
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ro s s t ra in e d p
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h ip pe r s D
shippers.
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During
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s h ip p in g s a v in gs
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Packer selects
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rd e rs ?
Orders?
1
15
115
appropriate box
1 =
Packer packs box
Yes
Orders arranged by order of
receipt and by
type (air freight or ground)
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Orders picked
(walks to appropriate shelving
unit taking 4-tiered cart)
Pairokstiri peaksgrizelwgrk
pp 9
/
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with picked items
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queued for shipment
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V
Carts walked to
packing area
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label to package
i
Carts queued in
packing area
30" placed on skids
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Skids shrink-wrapped for

shipment
paperwork
Packer inspects
picked items
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1r r
7,
EN
H A PT ER T
C
TEN
CHAPTER
1
16
116
o i l e d garments
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13. WP Uniforms provides a selection of lab coats, shirts,

ttrousers,
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RO B L EM S
H A PT ER P
C
PROBLEMS
CHAPTER
eyo n d
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shir t b
s shirt
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la u n d r y
f r o m laundry.
arrive from
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S
Shirts
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t o size.
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s iz e
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h
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t
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r
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o
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ar ea
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note
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began
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d
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i s an
ccoated
o a t e d ccandies
a n d i e s is
a n iinteresting
n t e r e s t i n g process.
F i r s t the
t he
p r o c e s s First
h o c o l a t e centers
cchocolate
f o r m e d iin
cen ter s a
l i t t l e molds.
r e formed
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d
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em en t m
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e m p e r a t u r e tto
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o preenough
o n
h o c o l a t e from
t h e cchocolate
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ventt the
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o l l i n g around
ar o u n d
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he d
n tthe
h
r
h
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t e cchocolates
m
o c o la t e s a
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r e sprayed
li
s p r a y e d with
are
w i t h ssugary
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u i d tthat
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i n t o tthe
uid
h e white
w h i t e candy
c a n d y shell.
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t he
s h e l l Since
h o c o l a t e s aare
cchocolates
r e constantly
c o n st a n tl
r o t a t i n g they
t h e y do
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l
n o t clump
y rotating,
c u m p toh i l e wet
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while
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g
t h e sugary
s u g a r y liquid.
liqu id O
t h e white
n c e the
w h it e
Once
v en
d y sshell
h e ll h
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candy
a s hardened,
has
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e c o n d colored,
li u id
c o l o r e d sugar
s u a r liquid
can
is sp r ay e d in t o t h e d r u m O
he
n c e tthe
is sprayed into the drum. Once
h e ccolored
tthe
o l o r e d ccandies
a n die s a
r e removed
r e m o v e d fr o
are
color
dr ies
c o l o r coating
c o a t i n g drie8.
t he d
m the
b y pourfrom
po
r u m by
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h e m onto
o n to a
a c o n v e o r be lt w h e r e
to
h
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0-111:
candy-shaped
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ibr a t e s g
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r ga n i z e d o n
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they proceedk
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a m
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i m p r i n t s aa makers
gently
m ar
m a k e r s mark
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n t o each
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onto
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n k M
h
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p r o c e ss
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1 17
117
Ma ppin g
r o c e s s Mapping
Process
Va l u e A d d e d P
Value-Added
using SYmbols for the information

15. Create ad owchart
in t he t a bl e b l
provided
r o v ide
p
e ow
in the table below.
Materials
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il p
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plug
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h
r en c
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h
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16.
process
for e mmilk processing
in
ex a m
le
in
i n C h a p t e r 15
Chapter 15,
Process
l
t
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Controls
Pr o c e s s
o n
r o
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u y fi
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tar t
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components:
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t m
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yst em s
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customer. In
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6
1 1 1Z a u o n the
th e w
o r d ccustomer
word
u s t o m e r refers
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ased O
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n d
h
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r S
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t a t e d ttheir
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IT g
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n
an ces
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tthe
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f pprocesses
r o c e sse s a
n d e
n a bles a
and
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ann oorganization
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rrespond
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u i c k l y to
to m
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market
u
W a s t e iin
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m o t io n s
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p o c e s s occurs
58S
a
n d k
a iz en a
and
kaizen
c t i v i t i e s (see
h a p t e r s 12
activities
(s e e C
Chapters
a n d 13).
1 3 ) Mura
M u r a oorr un12 and
e
v e n n e s s rrequires
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e q u i r e s tthat
h a t aa b
a la n c e b
balance
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b e t w e e n tthe
bee aachieved
he
k
w
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workstations
n a
b e t w e e n integrated
a process
n d between
i n t e gr a t e d p
p r o c e s s aand
r o c e sses
processes.
S
t a n da r diz a tio n
Standardization,
llevel
ev el s
c h e du lin
scheduling,
e t u p time
t i m e rreduction,
e du c t io n
g , ssetup
,
a
n d rreduced
edu ced b
and
i z e s ssupport
a t c h ssizes
batch
u p p o r t the
l i m i n a t i o n ooff mura
t h e eelimination
m u r a o
orr
u
n e v e n n e s s iin
unevenness
n p
r o ce sse s O
processes.
v er bu r den o
Overburden
m u r i occurs
o c cu r s w
orr muri
hen
when
"
"
O
h n o T.
T 'Ibyota
To y o M P
Ohno,
r o d u c t io n S
Production
B e y o r 1d L
System:
y s t e n t : Beyond
a r g e Scale
Sc a l e P
Large
r o d u c t io n N
Production.
ew
New
Y
o r k: P
York:
r o d u c t iv i t
Productivity
r e s s , 19
88
Press,
1988.
y P
'
USH
push
P
r m a t io n
information
ns)
(instructions)
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upstream
ps tre a m
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o w n stre a m
downstream
ro c e ss
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p
pstre a m
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1 1
IG U R E 1
F
11.1
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ro c e s s
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p
s to r e
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es
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t im e s
,
o w e r iinventory
n d llower
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ttime,
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119'];
C
o n t i n u o u s Ho w
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ow processing
o c u se s o
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n o
n e
on
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pi e
at-a-time pproduction.
r o du c tio n
T
h
i
h a t stagnation
e a n s tthat
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s t a gn a t io n
o
off
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o r k in
work-in-process
i n v e n t o r y in
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n d b
et w ee n p
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e
s
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l i m i n a t e d IInventory
be
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n p
r e p a r a t i o n for
y iiss ooften
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r o b l e m s ssuch
problems
p
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e fe c t s
ass ddefects,
m
a c h i n e breakdowns,
b r e a k d o w n s , and
machine
a n d rraw
aw
m
a t er ia l s
material
h o r t a g e s Iustin-time
shortages.
Ju s t i n t i m e systems
s y s t e m s encourage
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o r ker s
workers
en ts,
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'
downstream
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1
20
120
C
H A PT ER E
L EV E N
CHAPTER
ELEVEN
rb
T O O L S
S I G M A TOOLS
l x SIGMA
E A N sSIX
L
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C
m e
a lc u la t i n g T
a k t Ti
Calculating
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D u r i n g tthe
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d
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ay e
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employees
15-minute
a 330-minute
and
ttomer
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h a f t s iis
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or e
ay T
a lc u
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demand
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Too ccalcumotor
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llate
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h a ft s
i m e tthe
a t e tthe
h e rrate
t h e sshafts
a k t ttime,
he p
r o d u c e the
ro c e ss m
u st p
a t e tthe
process
must
produce
iin
n o
r d e r tto
o m
e e t ccustomer
u sto m e r d
em a nd:
order
meet
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h e n ccompared
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i t h tthe
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work
im e T
h e s e cconcepts
o
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n g
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Chap
fl o w oorr ssingle
tter
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o n t i n u o u s flow,
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14. C
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o
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ssible
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a pprocess.
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in u tes
4 67 m
minutes
da y
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9
e r day
90
per
4
20
420
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in u t e s
4 67 m
v e r y 4.67
h a f t must
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minutes
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every
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la
'
o n e w o r
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re b
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t e m s ffrom
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t h e customer
ate a
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e
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ay
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att w
WORK
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rrate
ate a
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em a n d T
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ay
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Customer
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w o r
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im e s
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a se d o
u s t o m e r rrequirements.
the
equ ir e m en ts
are bbased
onn ccustomer
a re
l l o t t e d ffor
he p
ba se d
t i m e aallotted
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n e complete
t e m based
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time
production
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h e ccustomer
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e m a n d rrate.
the w
a t i: T
a stes o
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Tou eeliminate
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i
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b
h o L. l d nnever
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o
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a
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overproduction
overburden,
a process
p r o c e s s sshould
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than w
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as b
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produce
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i m e s aare
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o b
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c
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balance
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d
d
t
ttomer
m
a
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e
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o m e r demand
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I T tto
F
u n c t io n e
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o ffunction
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o r J
effectively,
must
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f
f
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i
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t
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o
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d
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h
l
P
h
b
b
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m
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e
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o
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e
e
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in s
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r o
Problems
problems
y
p
n c l u de :
m
a y iinclude:
may
o n
f l e x i b il it y
a n d flexibility
simplicity
p li c it y and
t
w as e
waste
im e s
R e d u c e setup
s e t u p ttimes
Reduce
E
n c o u ra g e
Encourage
s im
E
l i m in a t e
Eliminate
R
in v e n t o r y
e d u c e inventory
Reduce
w o rk
work
e
r r o r proofing
error
p r o o f in g
S
t a n d a r d iz e
Standardize
P
r a c t ic e
Practice
I m p l e m e n t 58
5S
implement
l
h
d
L
e v e sschedules
c e u le s
Level
id o k a
t ili z e jjidoka
U
Utilize
U
se a
a P
u ll system
s y s t e m (kanban)
(k a n b a n )
Use
pull
f
A
h
i
i
c
e v e first-pass
rs t pa s s q
u a lit y
Achieve
quality
M
l
t
e a s u r e rresults
es u s
Measure
IImplement
m p l e m e n t preventive
p r e v e n t iv e
U
i
li
i
t
z e vvisual
s u a l controls
c o n t r o ls
Utilize
M
a in t a in
Maintain
maintenance
m a in t e n a n c e
ssupplier
u p p lie r rrelationships
e la t io n s h ip s
E
n c o u ra g e
Encourage
C
r o s s t r a in
Cross-train
e m p lo y e e iinvolvement
n v o lv e m e n t
employee
e m p lo y e e s
employees
i
i
k
i
P
r a c c e kaizen
im p r o v e m e n t
a z e n and
a n d continuous
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U
l e x ib l e eequipment
t iliz e fflexible
a yo u t d
e s ig n s
Utilize
designs
q u i p m e n t llayout
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r e a kdo w n s
breakdowns
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qu ip m e n t b
E
Equipment
qu ipm en t
b i l it y
capability
c a pa
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r o d u c t i o n Kanban,
K a n ba n
jjust-in-time
production.
hic h m
i s p l a y card
ea n s d
which
c a l d iin
n Japanese,
means
a
i
display
a
n
l
l
J p e s e iss normally
n or m a y a
a sign,
s i g n ccard,
ard
l
b
l
h
o
r
t
a
t
e
a
ccommunicates
o m m u n i c a t e s what
or label that
i s nneeded
w h a t is
T he
e e d e d and
a n d when.
w h e n The
k a n b a n sserves
e r v e s three
t h r e e purposes:
kanban
l a b e l for
f o r the
i t e m s an
t h e items,
o r de r
a n order
p u r p o s e s : aa label
,
o o r d i n a t e s tthe
h e inow
i n f l o w of
tem ccoordinates
i t e m s tto
o f items
K a n ban
o a
o rk a
r e a Kanban
a wwork
area.
ssystems
m p r o v e process
r
o
c
e
s
s
m
a
b
n
a
y s t e m s iimprove
e
t
f
m
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n
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p
o n vvisual
byy focusing
g
f
h
co n tr o l o
t
e
control
h
r
o
W
c
e s s Whether
of the pprocess.
h e kanban
k a n b a n cards
e t h e r tthe
c a r d s are
a r e physiphy
c a lly p
i g i t a l oon
r e s e n t or
cally
o r d
present
n a
h
a ccomputer-based
o m p u t e r ba se d s
digital
eir
t
t
s
m
e
their
system,
y
i s tto
u r p o s e is
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purpose
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c r e a t i o n of
d
an
p
o a
a product
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s e r v i c e on
p r o u c t or
d
d
b
a
n
i
s
e
I
f
e e
a s s Information
as-needed
n o r m a t i o n on
h e cards
basis.
i n c l u d e s the
o n tthe
n am e
c a r d s includes
t h e name
o
t he p
t h e nnumber
a r t the
u m be r o
off the
part,
b e produced,
t o be
t io n s
a r t s to
d
i
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r
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off pparts
r
o
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rrelated
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h
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t
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a
r
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h e due
r e a t o n date
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a r d tthe
tem
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setupp times
o rk
N
o n st a n da r d w
work
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he p
W a s t e iin
r o c ess
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d
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em an d
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a y o u t rrestrictions
e s t r i c t io n s
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U
n r e l i a b l e ssuppliers
u p p l ie r s
Unreliable
E
bs e n t e e i s m
m p lo ye e a
Employee
absenteeism
se t u
F
i gu r e 1
12 p
r e se n t s
Figure
11.2
presents
k a n b a n system
A
fa c i l i t a t e s
s y s t e m facilitates
A kanban
ia t io n
variation
t he p
o f the
11 3
a r t s and
a n d other
o t h e r pertinent
of
Fi g u r e s 11.3
parts,
n fo r m a t i o n (
(Figures
p e r t i n e n t iinformation
,
i s t ooff jjustin-time
u st in t im e
u m m a r y llist
a ssummary
h e s e cconcepts
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o
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t h r o u gh o u t
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t h i s text.
tex t B
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able
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o
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y
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an y
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.IT P
Summary
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f o r nnew
t e m s and
e w iitems,
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kanban
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c h e d u l in g
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IG U R E 1
1 2
FiGURE
11.2
ocanneu by
Uy CamScanner
uamocanner
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be
1 4 ) Kanban
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an d 1
f inventory.
i n v e n t o r y To
and
t r a c k oof
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11.4).
e e p track
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e
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l
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h e number
T
itho u t a
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a k
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The
p r o d u c e d oorr cconveyed
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h e number
i t h tthe
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arts p
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must
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i t h oother
u st in t im e K
t h e r elements
equal to jjust-intime.
a n b a n works
w o r ks w
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s c h e d u l e s are
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T
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o n c e p t that
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J= A
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t h e item
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a r ccode.
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t e m has
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h
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bar
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ill k
n o w what
w ha t
will
know
has been sold during a certain period. This information triggers
a
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t h e ssuppliers
a pull
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p u l l signal
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iished
Fi g u r e l11.5).
s h e d ((Figure
1 5) T
he
The
fo r kanban,
k a n b a n shown
rules for
i n Figure
F i g u r e 11.6,
s h o w n in
11 6
r u les
i g h t f o r w a r d Following
F o l l o w i n g tthese
are straightforward.
h e s e rules
r u l e s reduces
h e wwastes
r e d u c e s tthe
a st e s
i
a s s o c a t e d with
w i t in o
associated
v e r p r o du c t io n u
overproduction,
n ev en n ess a
d
unevenness,
n
t
r
a n s p or
and transportaio n K
ttion.
a n b a n sserves
e r v es a
Kanban
e x c e l l e n t visual
ass aann excellent
v i s u a l control
c o n t r o l system.
sy st e m
,
a r e st r a
FIGU
RE 1
1 4
FIGURE
11.4
Ka n ba n C
ar d
Kanban
Card
push
information
(instructions)
Kanban I
r:!Production
/*
K b
M
Withdraw Kanban
an
_____
upstream
ps tre a m
process
pro c e s s
d
o w n s tre
downstream
ro c e s s
process
p
s to re
upstream
llocation
o c a t io n
a r ts
u ll p
pull
parts
P
it h K
Pr o d u c t i o n S
P u l l Production
a n ba n C
a r ds
System
Kanban
Cards
y s t e m wwith
FIGURE 11.5 AA Pull
FIGU R E 1 1 5
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned

d
'
downstream
:location
1
22
122
C
H A PT ER E
L EV E N
CHAPTER
ELEVEN
O O L S
IG M A T
IX S
L
EA N S
TOOLS
SIX
SIGMA
LEAN
U
s in g a
a n ba n S
Using
a K
Kanban
System
yst e m
at WORK
&
D
u r in g p
r e v io u s p
During
m pr o v e m e n t e
previous
f f o r t s JJF
F IInc.
process
nc R
edu c ed
efforts,
reduced
h e aamount
tthe
m ount o
n p r o c e s s iinventory
i
n v e n t o ry s
off iin~process
if
i
t
l
W
h
it t l e
t
n
c
a
n
a
significantly.
g
y What llittle
rremains
e m a i n s sstill
t ill m
u st b
a n a ge d A
must
bee mmanaged.
t
o o d iinventory
n v e n t o r y ssystem
s
m
e
e
n a b le s
A ggood
enables
y
u
s e r s tto
o e
d e n t i f y wwhat
a s i l y iidentify
users
ha t h
easily
as b
ee n m
h e n It
ls o
a de a
has
nd w
been
made
and
when.
It aalso
ttells
h e r e it
e l ls w
n d iin
where
n w
h a t oorder
it iiss aand
ho u ld b
t sshould
r d e r iit
what
used
bee used.
JJF's
F' s kkanban
a n b a n iinventory
n v e n t o r y ccontrol
o n t r o l ssystem
is c s tthe
he
s e s small
s m a ll d
y s t e m uuses
discs
i z e ooff d
ssize
ic e n s e s T
o g llicenses.
he y h
dog
ave m
a rke d a
i
f
They
t
h e ir
t
m a ll p
have
o
r
o
n
o
marked
a ssmall
portion of their
m
a n u f a c t u r i n g ffloor
lo o r w
manufacturing
it h b
r ig ht y
with
e l l o w ssquares
bright
h e size
a t c h i n g tthe
yellow
s iz e
qu a res m
matching
h e ccarts
o
a rts u
off tthe
s e d tto
o h
o l d iinventory
n v e n t o ry a
used
hold
w a it i n g p
roc ess ing E
ac h
awaiting
processing.
Each
ssquare
ad a
o r r e s p o n d i n g llabel
q u a re h
had
a ccorresponding
a be l p
it : A
a i n t e d iin
1 B
1 cC-l,
1
n it:
painted
A-1,
B-l,
A
2 B
2 eetc.
tc F
A2,
or e
ach o
h e s e ssquares,
82.
For
each
is c
u
off tthese
o r r e s po n d in g d
q a r e s aa ccorresponding
disc
llabeled
a b e le d w
it h tthe
h e ssquare
with
o c a t io n e
x is t s W
he n a n in v e n t o r c a rt
q u a r e llocation
exists.
When
an inventoryy cart
tto
o b
e p
a r ke d a
i s c iiss sselected
be
parked,
e l e c t e d ffrom
ro m a
t o r a g e rrack
hat
a ddisc
a sstorage
a c k tthat
r e s e m b le s a
ke y h
o ld e r T
h e nnumber
a key
u m be r o
h is d
i s c rrepresents
holder.
The
e pr e s e n t s t he
onn tthis
disc
nneeds
e e ds
the
\
\resembles
h e cart
c a r t iin
Af t e r p
t h e appro.
n the
a r k i n g tthe
h e cart.
c a r t After
o c a t io n o
parking
a r k i n g llocation
off tthe
parking
p
a pp
i
t
i
h
d
v
e
r
o
a
k
t
s
c
o
s
e
r
e
k
t
e
s
e
i
t
h
a
s o
to
e
r
t
o
disc
over
a
series
w
r
a
r
e
e
u
r
the
a
s
e
off ttubes,
priate square,
the worker takes
u be s
q
p
i f f e r e n t ttube.
u b e The
is rrepresented
T h e disc
E
e pre s e n t e d b
byy aa ddifferent
a c h ttype
r o d u c t is
d is c
Each
product
y p e ooff p
t u b e Because
B e c a u s e tthe
t h e aappropriate
h e difiis
h e ttop
o p ooff the
s iinserted
n s e r t e d iinto
n t o tthe
p p r o p r i a t e tube.
d
he d
n v e n t o r y tthe
is c b
iff e r e n t ttypes
F
t u b e s represent
r e pr e s e n t d
e r e n t tubes
disc
different
y p e s ooff iinventory,
e in g
ferent
being
t h e ccart.
he m
h e iinventory
o n the
a rt T
n v e n t o r y on
l a c e d iin
h e ttube
m a t c h e s tthe
n tthe
u b e matches
The
ore
placed
more
p
i
i
t
h
t
b
id
d
i
e
u
e
c
s
n
r
o
v
e
s
r
iin-process
t he m
o
ng a
n v e n t o r y the
n p r o c e s s iinventory,
in
the
tube,
providing
a
discs
p
more
is u a l rrepresentation
vvisual
e p r e s e n t a t io n o
off
i n v e n t o r y ffor
i n p r o c e s s inventory
or e
h e inprocess
a c h ttype
tthe
each
y pe
ha t a
f ir s t in
m a k e sure
s u r e tthat
a first-in,
l s o sserves
o make
h i s tube
t u b e aalso
e rv e s tto
ro du c t T
off pproduct.
This
W h e n iinventory
i s in
in p
l a c e When
n v e n t o r y iis
f i r s t o u t inventory
i n v e n t o r y ccontrol
o n t r o l ssystem
place.
y s t e m is
s
first-out
i s c from
f r o m the
t he b
h e ooperator
u l ls a
or p
r o c e s s i n g tthe
n
e e d e d ffor
o tto m
pulls
a ddisc
processing,
bottom
pe r a t o r p
needed
h ic h cart
h e operator
i n v e n t o ry
i s c ttells
h is d
c a rt o
o pe r a t o r w
h e ttube.
e l l s tthe
o
u be T
which
off inventory
disc
off tthe
This
o
o
n
e e d s tto
needs
b
ext
a ke n n
bee ttaken
next.
b/
1. Items should only be obtained from a previous step in
he p
tthe
ro c e s s w
h e n aa kkanban
a n b a n ccard
process
a r d iis
s p
re s e n te d
when
presented.
2
O n l y tthe
he q
u a n t i t y of
t e m s lilisted
h
2. Only
t
o f iitems
s te d o
n
quantity
a n ba n
on thee kkanban
s h o u ld b e t a k e n
should be taken.
3
he p
e o p l e iin
n tthe
r o c e s s should
te m s
s h o u ld only
o n l y ccreate
r e a t e iitems
3. PPeople
process
iing
h e iinformation
n g tto
h
k
o tthe
t
n f o r m a t io n o
b
d
n
e
a
n
n
a
c
a
r
on the kanban card.
c a rd
card
1 2; 3 14 5 6
a c co
accord-
pro
h e nnumber
7
u m be r
7. TThe
t e m s rrequested
th e k
e q u e s te d o
a n b a n cards
c a rds
off iitems
onn the
kanban
i n g l e piece
i
f
l
h o u ld trend
t r e n d ttoward
sshould
o w a r d ssingle
ow
p e c e flow.
F'GURE 11-6
F I GU R E 1 1 6
K
a n b a n Sy s t e m R u l e s
Kanban
System RUICS
\\
FIG
URE 1
1 7
FIGURE
11.7
b
e a lt
bee ddealt
the
off the
A
n da n
And
n
In d i c a t i o n
lndicaciion
P r o b le m
Problem
Im
4
h e r e iis
s
4. 1Iff tthere
n
h o u l d be
t e m s sshould
o k
a n b a n ccard,
be
n o iitems
a r d no
no
kanban
d u c e d oorr ttaken.
a ke n
produced
h e kkanban
5
h o u l d aalways
l w a y s aaccompany
a r d sshould
t h e iitem.
a n b a n ccard
te m
c c o m p a n y the
5. TThe
D
f
h
6
l
t
d
b
d
d
t
e
e
c
s
s
o
u
n
o
e
o
r
u
c
e
6. Defects should not be pproduced.
0 "4
R
e s po n s e
Heeponse
!ido k a S
,Tidoka
System
y st e m
ith B
h e aandon
h e area
e c a u s e tthe
a r ea
i n tthe
n d o n alerts
with.
a l e r t s everyone
e v e r y o n e in
Because
i s t e n c e ooff aa p
e gi n
r o b l e m , ttroubleshooting
r o u b l e s h o o t i n g can
can b
existence
problem,
begin
iimmediately.
he n
m m e d ia t e ly C
o r r e c t i v e action
a c t i o n ccan
t a ke n q
an b
Corrective
u i c k ly w
when
bee taken
quickly
ex
A
bu z zers
re e
x po se d
b
i g h t s buzzers,
n d o n s can
problems
can
exposed.
Andons
p r o b l e m s aare
bee llights,
,
(A U T O N O M A T I O N )
JJIDOKA
I D O K A (AUTONOMATION)
he
a p a n ese
s tthe
t d o k a iis
0
Iapanese
Iidoka
i d o k a is
i s oone
1v
o r d for
1+ l o n o n ? a t i o 1t J
n e
word
Iidoka
j o r aautonomation.
f
l
i
l
h
d
T
i
t
t
t
t
a
r
o
e
o
o
a
r
o
u
c
o
n
s
s
e
m
s
of
the
Toyota
production
main
pillars
system.
two
y
p
y
p
i d o k a ssystem
W
h e n aa jjidoka
a c hin e s a
r e se n t m
n d e
present,
machines
and
equipment
When
y s t e m iiss p
q u ip m e n t
h e n aa problem
t o p aautomatically
e s i g n e d tto
o sstop
u t o m a t ic a lly w
a
re d
when
are
designed
p r o b l e m iiss del
h
h
h
l
i
d
A
t
to p
t
a
t
s
s
o w e r tto
o sstop
t
r
a
o
r
n
n
e
a
o
e
n
o
o
e
e
ttected.
e
ec
on the line also has the ppower
Anyy operator
p
h e wworker
h e n aa defecde f
l e r t tthe
i d o k a ssystems
o r k e r tto
o w
r o d u c t io n J
when
production.
lidoka
p
ys t e m s aalert
h
f
l
i
i v e iitem
d
d
h
i
t
s
o
c
a
c
u
r
r ed
ttive
t e m iis
a
u
n
c
o
n
s p
r
o
u
c
e
o
r
a
m
a
c
n
e
m
occurred
produced or a machine malfunction has
h
i
d
l
F
b
i
t
1 7) T
h i s allows
he p
ea t w
e dealt
o be
r o b l e m tto
((Figure
a l l o w s tthe
imwith
11.7).
This
problem
gu r e 1
he p
as s in g o
e fe c t s
n d p
r e v e n t i n g tthe
r o d u c t io n a
mediately,
and
passing
off ddefects.
production
m
edi at el ppreventing
he
off tthe
m et
and 11-9)-
t w o m a in
P
r o bl e m s
Problems
he d
h e y ccause
m o e q
u ic kly
an b
e f e c t s they
a u e ccan
quickly
bee more
andd tthe
defects
an
llocalized,
o c a l i z e d , iisolated,
an d c
s o l a t e d , and
o r r e c ted
corrected.
Visual controls often accompany jidoka systems. When
a piece of equipment stops after having recognized that an

b n o r m a l ccondition
a
i g h t may
abnormal
o n d i t io n e
x ists a
n do n o
r o u b l e llight
m ay
exists,
ann aandon
orr ttrouble
,
n do n m
e a n s llantern
come on. AAndon
a n t e r n iin
n Japanese.
means
n do n s a
re
Ja p a n e s e A
Andons
are
co m e o n
llanterns
ha t g
a n t e r n s tthat
u id e p
e o p l e tto
o
guide
people
l l u m i n a t e d tthis
iilluminated.
h i s llight
i g h t aalerts
le r t s
h e r e tthere
h e r e iiss trouble.
t r o u b le W
n en
where
When
i
h
h
he
a
o
n
n
e
t
t
t
n
e
a
r
e
a
a
anyone
in the area that tthe
y
i
h
e
u
d
m
e
n
t
t
d
a
s
s
o
equipment
h
h
tthat
n
a t tthere
hat m
has stopped
e r e iis
s a
q p
s s u e tthat
u st
p p e aand
ann iissue
must
_ __ _
_
Ta r g e t [3 C, if:
Sh l Target
4 :a @
6- 2
62
h ift
sShift
21
2
10
0 shift
s h i ft
-
10 6 s h if t
10-6 Sh'ft
2
651
6
F
1 8
I GU RE 1
FIGURE
11.8
A
n do n B
o ard
Andon
Board
9l
53 31 5
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
h o d that
in f o r
t h a t iimmediately
m m e d i a t e l y transfers
alarms, or anyy method
t r a n s f e r s informah e aappropriate
t i o n tto
o tthe
F i g u r e s 11
tion
w it h o u t d
11.88
elay (
delay
p p r o p r i a t e people
(Figures
p e o p l e without
a n d 11 9)
a la r m s , o r a n
Ka n ba n
a n d Kanban
J u s t i n T i m e and
Just-in-Time
Ov
e r v ie w
()
An d o n Bo s c h D
is pl a y i n g St a t u
s
1>
an
d D EE %
u c t io n
Li n e
123'")
123
1-
Current Downtime
6HR
Acc. Downtime
H
Mins Elapsed
Units to Target
Target
ll 0
0
Achievement To Target
Total units
Day
Take Time
Units Behind Target
Day
Day
FIGURE 11.9 AAndon

n d o n Board
Bo a r d C
o m pu t er S
Computer
c r een
Screen
F IG U R E 1 1 9
UM MA RY
S
SUMMARY
M u r i rrefers
10 Muri
t o ooverburden.
v e r bu r den
e f e r s to
10.
i m p l i f i c a t i o n , ccleanliness,
l e a n lin es s
ssimplication,
f
h e production
f o r tthe
l l o t t e d for
1 1 Takt
t i m e aallotted
T a k t ttimes
i m e s are
t h e time
a r e the
p r o d u c t i o n oof
11.
e qu i r e s
I T rrequires
r ga n i z a t i o n v
}IIT
o
i s ib i l
organization,
visibill
i
i
i
t
n d a
d
iity,
o n sist e n c a
n
t y cconsistency,
o
t
b
r
e
r
and
agility
i
b
l
o be
e vViable.
a
e A
IT
g
y in order to
u ch }
Ass ssuch,
HT
,
tem
o n e ccomplete
o m p l e t e iitem.
one
to
i d o k a ssystems
12 J
the w
o r k e r to
a l e r t the
worker
12.
Iidoka
y s t e m s alert
is a philosophy, a method of managing that provides signi

e n e f+t s tto
o o
r g a n i z a t i o n s that
t ha t p
an t b
ccant
r a c t i c e iit.
L e a n Six
benets
organizations
t Lean
Si x
practice
i
i
i gm a oorganizations
r ga n z a t o n s s
S
e e k i n g tto
o llower
o w e r ccosts,
o s t s iincrease
seeking
n c r e a se q
u a l lw
Sigma
quality,
f t e n have
ha v e J
r o d u c t iv it y o
I
T
m pr o v e p
n d iimprove
a
a
s
a
s
u
and
productivity
often
o
IIT as a supporting
pp r t in g
i
h
f
I
hapter s d
i s c u s s the
e x t future
u t u r e cchapters
t h e tools
t o o l s aand
n d
philosophy.
phi l osoph Inn tthiss ttext,
discuss
h a t ssupport
f f e c t s aand
I T Just-in-time
ttechniques
u ppo r t J
e c h n i q u e s tthat
n d imJu s t i n t i 1n e aaffects
JIT.
b u s i n e s s iincluding
rov es a
spe c t s o
a le s m
n c l u d i n g ssales,
ar ke tin g
proves
alll l aaspects
off aa business
marketing,
p
is p
a c hin e
r o du c e d o
orr aa mmachine
is
produced
it e m
d e f e c t i v e item
w hen a
a defective
when
has
a l f u n c t i o n has
m
malfunction
o ccu r red
occurred.
H A P T E R PROBLEMS
C
P RO B L EM S
CHAPTER
a n u fa e t u r i n g
n d m
u s t o m e r sservice,
e r v ic e a
and
manufacturing.
engineering,
gi n e e r i n g ccustomer
en
W H a t aare
f tthe
he T
t h e ttwo
r e the
w o main
m a i n pillars
o yo t a p
r o du c t io n
. What
Toyota
production
p i l l a r s oof
sy s t e m ?
system?
T
AKE A
WA Y T
IP S
TAKE
AWAY
TIPS
h e goal
3
W Da t iiss tthe
3. What
go a l
he T
o yo t a
i l l a r s ooff tthe
a in p
h e ttwo
Toyota
w o m
pillars
main
one off tthe
d
ro
u c t i o n ssystem.
production
p
ystem
is
h e n iitt is
h a t iiss nneeded,
e e de d w
2
when
a kin g w
u s t i n t i m e rrefers
o m
e f e r s tto
what
making
2. JIust-in-time
eeded
n
e e de d a
t h e aamount
m o u n t n
n the
n d iin
needed.
needed,
and
1
l.
u s t i n t i m e iis
s
.Iust-in-time
o n e o
r o c e ssin ,
processing,
p
g
im e
a k t ttime.
andd ttakt
n e piec e a t a
o o
4
onepiece-at-ar e f e r s tto
o n t i n u o u s fl
4. CContinuous
r o c e s s i n g refers
ow p
processing
ow
in e s
d u c t i o n llines.
production
h u t down
Ji do k a rrefers
o sshut
b i l i t y tto
h e aability
t o tthe
e f e r s to
lidoka
6
o r JIT
}I T ssystems.
i g n a l ffor
a n b a n iis
yst e m s
6. KKanban
s aa k
o n t r o l ssignal
e y ccontrol
key
i
n d co n
7
f o r production
a n b a n sserves
7. KKanban
p r o d u c t o n aand coner v es a
n s t r u c t i o n s for
ass iinstructions
5
5-
do w n pr o
r o du c t io n
v er p
productiond vvisual
i s u a l ccontrols
over
o n t r o ls o
Veyance and
v e ya n c e a n
v e r pr o
n o
overproc c u r iin
an o
occur
u d a ttranslates
Muda
can
a st e c
8. M
r a n sla t e s a
a st e W
Waste
ass wwaste.
in v e n to r y
r o c e s s i n g inventory,
processing,
i t i n g conveyance,
c o n v e ya n c e
p
waiting,
m
o t io n a
motion,
n d ccorrection.
o r r e c ti o n
and
9- M u
c h e du l e
schedule.
r a rrefers
r o du c t io n s
Mura
e f e r s tto
n aa p
production
o u
n e v e n n e s s iin
unevenness
d
u c t io n
duction,
,
w a
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f o r aa
m i n u t e s for
r e c e iv e s
m i d sh i f t m
e a l and
mid-shift
a n d ttwo
5 m i n u t e breaks.
w o 1
meal
b r e a k s The
15-minute
T h e customer
c u st o m e r
l
d
l
k
i
w
o u
would
e c e iv e 4
0 0 0 tubes
likee ttoo rreceive
t u b e s oof
f ttoothpaste
4,000
o o t h p a s t e per
day
p e r day.
C a l c u l a t e tthe
h e takt
Calculate
t a k t time
t i m e for
fo r a
a d
a i r y that
that w
dairy
o r k s an
8 ho u r
a n 8-hour
works
,
h day.
d a y The
T h e sshift
shift each
h i f t rreceives
e c e i v e s 30
30 m
i n u t e s for
f o r aa mid
m
minutes
h i ft m
sshift
e a l and
a n d two
tw o 1
meal
5
i
m
b
n u t e breaks.
15-minute
r e a k s The
T h e ccustomer
u st o m e r
l i k e to
w
o u l d like
t o rreceive
would
e c e iv e 2
5 0 0 gallons
l
l
f
a
2,500
o
l
n
i
k
s
o
d
m
of
e r day.
milk pper
g
ay
an
t im e p
time
r o du c t io n
production.
w a st e a
h o u r shifts
8
s h i f t s per
8-hour
ay E
a c h shift
sh i ft
day.
Each
pe r d
fl o w
o n t i n u o u s ow
u l l ssystem,
the p
relies
on
pull
n the
r e l ie s o
y s t e m ccontinuous
H
ow d
o es
How
does
u s t i n t i m e system?
off aa jjust-intime
sy st e m ?
f f e c t justintime
waste affect
j u s t i n t i m e ssystems?
y st e m s ?
s5. C
h e ttakt
a l c u l a t e tthe
t i m e ffor
a k t time
Calculate
o r a
c o m p a n y that
that w
a company
o r k s two
tw o
works
3
u st i n t i m e
3. JIust-in-time
D e s c r i b e eeach
h e tthree
hr ee b
a c h of
o f tthe
Describe
a s i c components
c o m p o n e n t s required
r e qu ir e d
basic
b
i
i
t
a
t
t
s
n
u
m
e
s
byy a justin-time
j
system.
ys em
s h i ft e a c
C
a l c u l a t e the
t h e takt
t a k t ttime
Calculate
i m e ffor
o r a
a company
c o m p a n y that
that
h
h
8
i
f
o
t
u
r
s
8-hour shiftss pper
er d
E a c h sshift
a y Each
h i ft r e c e i v e s 3 0
day.
tw o
w
o r k s two
works
i n u t e s for
fo r
receives 30 mminutes
i d sh i ft m
aa mmid-shift
eal a
d
n
t
1
meal
5
w
and twoo 15-minute
m i n u t e breaks.
br ea ks T
h e cusc
The
ttomer
l i k e to
o m e r would
w o u l d like
t o rreceive
e c e iv e 2
e n e r a t o r s per
d
255 ggenerators
e
r
a
day.
p
y
C
i a g r a m that
r eate a
Create
that d
a ddiagram
i
b
e
s
h
cr
k a n b a n systems
e s how
describes
o w kanban
sy s t e m s
o rk
w
work.
' at d
9. W
he
o e s tthe
What
does
hat
10
What
10. W
d aautonomation
u t o n o m a t io n m
word
ean ?
mean?
w o r
d o n llights?
i g h t s ? How
H o w are
are andon
t h e y used?
a r e they
u se d?
ar e an
58
. . . the great loss which the whole country is suffering through inefficiency in almost all our daily
acts. . . to try to convince the reader that the remedy for this inefficiency lies in systematic
management. . .
Frederick Winslow Taylor

The Principles of Scientific Management
Productivlty: ProcessImprovement Opportunities
Value-Added
Process
Mapping
-
Just-rnlrme
an
Kanban
Supply
Chain
Management
Work
Optimization
Productive
Maintenance
Kaizen and
Error Proofing
the Art ofFrench Cooking Volumes I and II, Julia Child

made
French cooking accessible to cooks in the United

States. In
1961, after years of living abroad, Paul and Julia Child
moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Here

Julia set about
creating a kitchen designed to her requirements.
After years
'
x
\
5S
Lean practitioners often consider SS the foundation of
a
lean facility. 58 consists of activities that focus on creating
orderliness in a facility, thus supporting error proong,
setup
time reduction, single piece ow, line balancing,
visual management, and preventive maintenance. Many
people would
be surprised to learn that people have
been practicing the
concepts of 58 for years in a wide variety
of situations. Con
sider the renowned chef lulia Child.
By writing Mastering
124
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of cooking in awkward, inadequate, poorly organized,
dYS
functional kitchens, Julia carefully

designed and organized
her ninth kitchen. While she mapped

out the functional
requirements, Paul set about arranging
the kitchen5 elements. As they apply to cooking, SS concepts
can be seen in
her 14 X 20' kitchen (Figure 12.1). Her kitchen

walls were
covered with pegboard. On these boards,
Paul inscribed the
outlines of the utensils, tools, pots, and

pans that ought l0
be hung at each location. While she cooked,
Julia Child did
not have to waste time, motions, energy, or

thought becaufe
she knew where things were kept. Donated in 2001, 111
Childs cleverly organized kitchen is now on diSplaY at the

Smithsonians National Museum of American History m
Washington, DC.
55
125
and a computer program to take a phone message or a sur

geon needing particular scalpels for an operation, their tools
are right at hand, ready for use. Workers no longer experience muri or overburden.
SEIRI
Seiri refers to separating or sorting needed tools, parts,
and
instructions from unnecessary items. When asked to
practice
seiri, most people merely tidy up. In this tidy-up process, obvrous
trash is removed from the work area, tools and other items
are
stored, and things in general are placed in a neater order. This

type of clean-up process does not equal seiri. The objectlve of
seiri is to get rid of all unnecessary items. This means that
FIGURE 12.1
anything that will not be used frequently must be removed. If

the item will never be used and fullls no useful function
elsewhere, it should be disposed of properly. Items that are
needed, but only occasionally, should be stored appropriately.
Workplace layouts evolve over time, usually without very
Iulia Childs Kitchen
(Source: Julia Childs Kitchen at the Smithsonian

National
Museum of American History. Photographer Hugh

Talman.)
The motto A place for everything and everything
much planning or thought about how the work will be performed, what will be used during the process, and how work
in its
place neatly describes the SS concept. First described

by 58
author Hiroyuki Hirano, the ve 85 are words that
serve as a
reminder that process improvement lies in the basics. Each
word refers to a specic step in the organizational process.
Seiri
Seiton
Seiso
Seiketsu
Shitsuke
Separate or sort
Set in order, simplify the arrangement
Shine, sweep, cleanliness
Standardize
Sustain, self-discipline
Inefciencies in work methods include muda (waste),
mura (unevenness), and muri (overburden). Proper arrangement also includes having work surfaces and equipment
designed for ease of use. SS attacks waste at its source. Whether
the waste is from processing, motion, or waiting, when SS is
applied to a workstation, these wastes are eliminated. SS
attacks mura, too, by smoothing out the unevenness in a
process. When needed items can be found easily, work pace

becomes more balanced. When work processes are arranged
according to SS, workers can expect to have everything they

need to perform their work right at their ngertips. In a 58
environment, whether it is a receptionist needing pen, paper,
A Place for Everything and Everything in

its Place
In an April 1, 2005, article, Boeing: Airbus LOOK to Auto
COmDanies for Production lips," the Wall Street Journal '

flescribed many process improvement techniques including one
Involving 55.
.
.
d cAt an Airbus factory in Wales, where it burlds wmgs. pro U
tion teams used to walk far to the stockroom for bags 0f

boItSf U l
and rivets. and frequently left them scattered about8 waste
Dy CamScanner
bambcanner
Scanned by
will ow. Seiri can be applied to existing or newly planned

work areas to improve the overall layout and arrangement of
items. The team working on SS not only does a careful study
of what is necessary, but also can explore how to improve work
ow and communication. The tools and equipment present
should be placed to support key work processes and ow.
To dene an unnecessary item, consider the 24hour
rule. If an item is not used or touched during a 24-hour
period, it should be stored elsewhere. Remember, seiri is not
just making things neat; it is a concentrated effort to determine what is actually used and what is not. When performing seiri, allow the person who will perform the work
to
identify and decide which items will stay in the work
area
and which will not. Practicing seiri requires a
person to
make decisions about an items usefulness. Typically,
40 percent to 60 percent of the items found in a work
area end up
being removed. At the end of seiri, a clean, uncluttered
work
area will exist. Clutter, excess and unused equipment,
supplies, and papers will no longer be there.
Look around your room or office or look
at the lap drawer
of your desk, how many of those items
do you actually use
on a daily basis? Seiri encourages the
appraisal of each item
and determining its usefulness. When
practicing seiri, keep
nothing that is not immediately useful
LEAN SIX SIGMA TOOLS

at WORK
and unsafe practicebecause they lacked
nearby storage. Using
work-analysis methods developed by the auto
industry, project
teams studied which fasteners were needed where,
and when,
and then organized racks on the shop floor. Now carefully
labeled
bins contain tidy sets of supplies needed for specific
tasks. The
change has sped up work and saved over $100,000
in rivets
and bolts at the Welsh factory alone.
26
1
126
W E LV E
TWELVE
HA PT ER T
C
CHAPTER
E IT O N
S
SEITON
b o u
r e a t i n g ooptimal
p t i m a t boundr d e r , ccreating
n oorder,
hi n gs iin
e t t i n g tthings
o ssetting
e fe r s tto
S
e i t o n rrefers
Seiton
h e t h e r iItt
Whether
o r k tl r a W
11 a
t e m iin
a wwork
a c h iitem
or e
each
o c a t i o n s jfor
n d llocations
r i e s aand
a
area.
aries
e it o n
i t c h e n , sseiton
h i l d s kkitchen,
Childs
Ju l i a C
r a ys o
orr Iulia
n s t r u m e n t ttrays
iiss surgical
s u r g i c a l iinstrument
re
o rk a
h e wwork
are
e r f o r m tthe
o p
perform
e c e s s a r y tto
t e m s nnecessary
h e iitems
t h a t tthe
n s u r e s that
eensures
'
h e i r use.
u se
n ttheir
a se d o
on
based
r r a n ge m e n t b
r de r o
orr aarrangement
e n s i bl e o
order
l a c e d iin
n a
a ssensible
placed
p
'
i n e ga r
i l aand
n d vVinegar
h e o011
i t c h e n tthe
h i l d s kkitchen,
u lia C
n J
Childs
Iulia
F
n s t a n c e , iin
o r iinstance,
For
w
er e
h
t
s
ee
were
a k i n g ssheets
ix t e e n b
baking
to v e S
h e sstove.
Sixteen
l o s e tto
o tthe
e p t cclose
ere k
w
kept
were
The
i s h w a s h e r The
he d
o tthe
dishwasher.
e x t tto
o c a t e d nnext
r a c k llocated
n a
e r t i c a ll y iin
a rack
t o r e d vvertically
sstored
o
r e a sso
h e work
w o rk a
area
n tthe
t e m s iin
k e y iitems
h e key
r r a n g e tthe
o a
s tto
e i t o n iis
arrange
o al o
off sseiton
goal
g
d
d
r ew
h i l drew
' en P
au l C
Ch11d
se W
Paul
n d uuse.
When
o c at e a
o llocate
h e y aare
and
a s y tto
h a t tthey
re e
tthat
easy
in g
f
m
r
r
o
e
h
s
a
d
w
e
b
performing
n pegboard,
n d pans
p e g o a r , he was p
o
u t l in e s o
off pots
p a n s oon
outlines
p o t s aand
d
l
h
i
o
l
C
i
o r Julia
Ju a Child tto
a s y ffor
t e m s eeasy
o o k i n g iitems
e y ccooking
a kin g k
key
sseiton
eito n b
byy mmaking
llocate
se
n d u
o c a te a
use.
and
u st
eir i 0
e f o r e sseiri.
Itt jjust
e r fo r m e d b
before
h o u l d nnever
ev er b
S
bee pperformed
e i t o n sshould
Seiton
tem s N
Noo
u n n e c e s s a r y iitems.
r g a n i z e unnecessary
t o oorganize
e n s e to
d
a ke s
o t m
o es n
sense
make
not
does
iin
i
n
k
h
s
f
i
l
r
e
a
l
o
r
a
t
e
w
d
f
e
is
e
w
r
m
b
area
o
work
r
e
e p
a n be
performed well if the
w
o rk p
r o c e s s e s ccan
processes
work
d
i
t
d
n
e
h
t
a
f
a pe
a v e taped,
t e n have
painted,
t il iz in g 5
d
isa r r ay W
e n t e r s uutilizing
p
o r k ccenters
SSS ooften
Work
disarray.
o
h a t iiss needed
n (: e d e d tto
v e r y t h i n g tthat
o r e
l : a r l llabeled
o c a t i o n s ffor
a b e l e d llocations
everything
o r cclearly
,
or
y
t h e ooperator
f t e r eeach
2 2) A
s e , the
F i gu r e 1
a c h uuse,
the w
ork (
12.2).
After
pe r a t o r
e r f o r m the
(Figure
work
perform
p
d
l
k
d
t
o c a io n o
m
ar e
n
t s cconvenient
h e iitem
onn
t e m tto
o n v en ien t a
location
o iits
marked
and
rreturns
e t u r n s tthe
o ard
the shadow bboard.
co n o m y
he p
o t io n e
i
i
r i n c i pl e s o
S
t
economy
o
n
n
c o r p o r a t e s tthe
off mmotion
e
principles
incorporates
Seiton
6
8
19
24 aand
l
h
i
8
1
n d
b
l
l
i
G
i
r et
a n Gilbreth
n d L
((18681924
r an k a
eespoused
sp o u se d b
Lillian
and
byy FFrank
2 3
F
IG U R E 1
12.3
FIGURE
G i lb r e t h
i l l i a n Gilbreth
F r a n k aand
n d L
Lillian
Frank
O RB I S N Y )
So u r c e : C
CORBISNY.)
((Source:
t he s ha do w
18
7 8 19 7 2 ,
18781972,
2 3 ) sstudtu d
he G
F i g u r e 112.3)
i l b r e t h s ((Figure
) TThe
Gilbreths
respectively).
r e sp e c t iv e l y
i d e vvariety
f ppeople
n du s
a r iet y o
n a
e o p l e iin
w o rk a
c t i v i t i e s oof
off iindusa wwide
work
activities
d
i
f
d
i
i
t
t
u c t iv i t y
ro
a y s to
o increase
n c r e a se p
o nd
n
w
m w
a s to
a
ways
productivity
aim
was
h i s iiss
E
h e jjob
h i l e making
a s i e r tto
o p
e r fo r m
s s e n t i a l l y tthis
o b eeasier
w
m a k i n g tthe
perform.
Essentially,
while
he
iied
e d tthe
h e ir
ttries.
r i e s tTheir
F
h a t sseiton
to d
o
o r e
x a m ple
n c o u r a g e s practitioners
e it o n e
encourages
do.
For
example,
what
p r a c t i t i o n e r s to
il b r e t h b
is
F
e ga n h
r an k G
Gilbreth
began
his
Frank
k i n g llife
i f e aass aa b
r ic kl aye r H
working
bricklayer.
Hee
w o r
d i f f e r e n t methods
m e t ho ds
i d that
i f fe r e n t b
t r s e d different
r i c k l a y e r s used
that d
bricklayers
different
noticed
n o t ce
he
w a s paid
h e n llaying
ec a u se h
r ic k B
ayin g b
byy tthe
o t io n s w
hee was
Because
brick.
p a id b
when
andd mmotions
ilb r e t h
day M
i n aa day,
h e wwas
b l e to
t o llay
a y in
as a
r i c k s he
Mr.r G
n
u m ber o
Gilbreth
able
number
off bbricks
an
fr o m
d iinefcient
o t i o n s from
n e f f ic i e n t m
n n e c e s s a r y and
rremove
em ov e u
motions
unnecessary
d e s i g n e d aa vvariety
h
i s wwork.
m pr o v em en ts
ar iety o
u i c k l y designed
o rk H
off iimprovements,
his
Hee qquickly
o
ssought
o u g h t tto
an
iincluding
n c lu din g
l d tthat
h a t ccould
b e easily
d j u s t e d so
t h a t the
t he
o u l d be
e a s i ly a
s o that
a scaffold
adjusted
h
h
f
i
h
k
i
l
f
t e w
h e bricklayer
b r i c k l a ye r
e g t o
o r
n g platform
w o u l d enable
e n a b l e tthe
height
of the
working
p a t o r m would
i g h t height
tto
h e i g h t at
t h e rright
o stand
l l times.
h e design
d e s i g n of
st a n d a
t im e s T
at a
t he
o f the
att the
all
The
i n c l u d e d aa sshelf
h e l f ffor
sscaffold
c a ff o l d included
h e bricks
b r i c k s and
d
h
o r tthe
i
T
a n
1T
1o r t a r This
f
s feamortar.
i m e aand
tture
t fo r t b
u re s
a v e d ttime
n d e
i t wwas
e c a u s e it
l o n g e r necessary
saved
as n
effort
because
n e c e s sa r y
noo longer
ffor
b r i c k l a y e r to
t h e bricklayer
o r the
b e n d down
t o bend
d o w n and
a n d pick
b r i c k To
To
a c h brick.
p i c k uup
p eeach
ffurther
u r t h e r sspeed
d
h
t
e
b
e
i
r o c e s s bricks
b r o u g h t to
r c k s were
thee pprocess,
w e r e brought
br i
p
t o the
t h e brickllayer
lo w er p
a ye r b
a id w
T h e s e bricks
o r k e r s These
byy lower
b r i c k s were
paid
workers.
w e r e stacked
s t a c k e d with
w it h
he b
tthe
e s t side
side o
u t a
t h e eend
n d the
best
out
n d o
and
b r i c k always
a c h brick
he
i n tthe
off eeach
a l w a y s in
same position. This eliminated the wastes of reaching,
ssearching,
ea r c hin g a
n d p
r e p o s it io n in
and
h e sscaffolds
prepositioning.
c a f f o l d s ccareful
The
a r e fu l d
g T
e s i gn
design
a sc a&o
'
e
-
NS E R T S
=
h a t tthe
h e bricklayer
b r i c k l a y e r could
meantt tthat
i c k up
co u ld p
u p a
i t h one
pick
r ic k w
o n e
a bbrick
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h
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and
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o ther M
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er m s o
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m
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ay
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.
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ilb r e t h s D
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FIGURE 12.2 AA PPlace

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From
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5
S
55
B r ic k l a y i n g
("ricklaying
O O L S
IG M A T
IX S
TOOLS
L
EA N S
SIGMA
SIX
LEAN
o rk m
e t h o d s based
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G ilbreth's
n Gi
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ests
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ay a
ann
b r ic k s p
6 1 bricks
er h
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our w
average
861
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a
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n North
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o
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h
r
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w h ic h emp
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a r o l i n a McGee Brothers,
oys 6
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l
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58
o n c e pt
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e f f ic ie n c y a n d
p e e d efficiency,
m pr o v e tthe
tto
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o iimprove
and eeffectiveness
r ic k l a y i n
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g
M
H
m
e
s
h
Q
o
a
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a
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At
r e a d about
At MQ Homes, Max has read
a b o u t tthe
h e bricklaying
b r i c k l a y i n g ccontests.
o nt e sts
d
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ay
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d a p t e d aa vvariety
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tthey
when they
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t
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ix t u r e s to
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et u
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o reduce
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ix i n g d
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n o r t during
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oad m
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ate
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rrial
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S
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ffor
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eed o
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ffixtures,
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nd
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f
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y
in
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i n d eemphasize
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m
e s i g n places
key
m p h a s i z e convenience.
design
mind
c o n v e n ie n c e T
Their
pla ces k
ar ea
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12 4 ) k
motions
eep s b
F i g u r e 12.4),
body
within armss rreach
keeps
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(Figure
.a
i
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s e This
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akes p
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lming
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1
e s c r i b e d hand
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h e Gilbreths
F i g u r e 12.5),
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122 cchildren
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r
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e
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e
e s u lt o
O n e rresult
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ffolding
b r ic k l a y e r s One
o ld i n g h
f o r iindividual
n d i v id u a l bricklayers.
e i g h t s for
heights
ha t
c a f f o ld i n g tthat
d j u s t a b l e sscaffolding
t u d i e s iis
sstudies
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h
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t
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e
the
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e llaborers
r e p the jjob sites for
a bo r e r s w
For
who
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o
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t u d i e s iinvestigated
n v e s t i g a t e d tthe
other
pt im u m b
.
r ic k la y i n g
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f
t
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k
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d
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s
b
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r
d
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e
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a
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r
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number
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and
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as
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pe e d s
ook a
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att
a x ttook
a llook
h e eequipment,
B
Max
h a n g e s tto
h e cchanges
o tthe
e s id e s tthe
q u ip m e n t M
Besides
iv e p
e o p le ,
people,
rew s o
h e m iinto
h
n to c
is b
i v id e d tthem
off ffive
crews
r ic k l a y e r s H
his
bricklayers.
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re
rew s a
h e s e ccrews
are
ob T
a c h jjob.
hre e m
tthree
These
or e
aso n s a
a b o r e r s , ffor
n d ttwo
w o llaborers,
each
masons
and
he
h a t tthe
n d e r s t a n d tthat
llead
a s o n s uunderstand
ead m
h e llead
h e s e llead
ead b
ead m
aso n T
masons
mason.
These
byy tthe
he
o m p le t io n o
off tthe
clean" uupon
p o n ccompletion
n ly
o m p l e t e oonly
iis
c o n s id e r e d ccomplete
s considered
he
r o m tthe
he m
a t e r i a l s ffrom
h e n tthe
he b
l e a n e d uup
w
a s ccleaned
r ic k c
re w h
materials
when
p tthe
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s it e
jjob
o bs
o m p l e x jjobs,
h a n g e s eeven
B
ven o
hes e 5
S iinspired
a s e d on
o n tthese
n s p i r e d cchanges,
onn ccomplex
Based
58
it e m
bro o m
o b ssite
u st b
e f t broom
jjob
bee lleft
must
T h is m
o b This
h a t tthe
h e job
e a n s tthat
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M
er d
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If tthe
ax s c
day.
rew s c
v e r a ge o
per
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bricks
Max's
off 22,500
crews
average
can
wall is uncomplicated, they can lay on average four bricks per

h e nnational
b o v e tthe
in u t e T
0 p
a t io n a l
h is p
m
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s 3
e v e l iis
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This
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n c id e n t rrate
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75
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orr iinjuries
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a t io n a l a
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o s
below
To
spread
p r e a d iimprovements
average.
h a r e s improveM
Q H
n d sshares
ork p
ro c e sse s a
om es M
ax d
oc u m e nts w
MQ
Homes.
and
i mp r o
Max
documents
work
processes
m
nd
e nts a
ments
and
d e a s aamong
re w s M
a k e s ssure
u re
m o ng a
ax m
r o d u c t i v e iideas
productive
alll l ccrews.
Max
makes
p
i s c i p l i n e tto
he m
he d
t i l i z e tthe
m aso ns e
n f o r c e tthe
o u
o re
masons
enforce
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utilize
more
ha t h
tthat
i s lead
le a d
his
f f i c i e n t eeffective,
f f e c t iv e aand
n d ssafer
afe r m
e t ho d s
efficient,
methods.
n e c e s sa r
w it hi n a r m
1
27
127
i n a t i n g wwaste
a st e (
m u d a ) rrelated
e l a t e d tto
eliminating
o m
o t i o n s ssuch
u c h aas
(muda)
s searchs ea r
motions
Iing,
n g
rreaching,
eachin g h
o .d i n g ttransporting.
r a n spo r t in g E
l
i
i
i
t
holding,
m
n a
n g w
a sted
Eliminating
wasted
m
o tio n s m
ake s w
o rk p
e r f o r m a n c e ffaster
motions
makes
aster a
work
n d e
performance
T
he
a sie r
and
easier.
The
i l b r e t h s sstudied
h e aactivities
G
t u d i e d tthe
c t iv i t i e s o
Gilbreths
u r g e o n s iin
h e ooperating
n tthe
i
off ssurgeons
t
e
r
a
n
p
g
b
rroom
o o m
e ca u se w
im e m
a s t e d ttime,
because
o t io n s
wasted
motions,
e
n e r gy o
h o u gh t
energy,
orr tthought
i g n i f i c a n t cconsequences
a v e ssignicant
ccould
o u ld h
o n s e q u e n c e s ffor
have
he p
o r tthe
at ien t T
hey
patient.
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d
h a m p i o n e d aa ssystem
d
a n d cchampioned
ev elo pe
developed
f aarranging
and
r r a n g i n g tthe
h e ttools
y s t e m oof
o o ls
elim
m o re e
h e r b l igs
a l l e d ttherbhgs
o t io n s c
called
ba sic m
motions
basic
on
(Figure 12.6). The principles of motion economy focus
,
ttiOns
i o n s aass ccombinations
o m b in a t io n s o
off 1188
F
I G U R E 12
FIGURE
12.55
RE 1 2 4
eac
Reach
rm s R
it h in A
Arms'
v e r yt h i n g W
Within
12-4 EEverything
FGURE
36
FIGU
Scanned by
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CamScanner
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he G
T
i l b r e t h Family
Fa m i ly
The
Gilbreth
So u r c e : A
ide P
PW
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((Source:
AP
World
Wide
Photos.)
W E LV E
C
HA PT ER T
TWELVE
CHAPTER
12
8
128
l e a r ly w
n d i c a t e cclearly
Whether
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FIGURE 12.7
N
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F IG U R E 1 2 7
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GURE 12.8
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12 9
F
IG U R E 12.9
FIGURE
M e s sy W
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((Continued)
1
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W E LV E
C
H A PT ER T
TWELVE
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h e size
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a c h in e s c
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P79 M
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p r o d u c t iv i t y
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To
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h r o u g h o u t this
ex t
covered iinn cchapters
134
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Who?
What?
Where?
When?
Why?
How?
Who performs the process?

Who is affected by this process?
What is the purpose of this process?
What are the steps in this process?
What sequence should the steps take?
What does this process accomplish?
What is being done better?
What could be done differently?
What purpose does it serve?
Where does the activity take place?
Where does it need to take place?
When do the activities take place?
When should the activities take place?
When is the right time for the activities to take place?

Why does the company need this process?
Why is this process important?
Why must it be done?

How does this process relate to other company processes?
How is the work being done?
How could it be done differently?
How can it be changed to match or exceed the best?

How will results get measured?
How much?
How much does the old method cost?
How much will the new method cost?
FIGURE 13.1
Five W3 and Two Hs
People practicing kaizen seek to improve work procedures, often by simplifying the activity taking place. Kaizens
guiding words are combine, simplify, eliminate. Kaizen seeks
to standardize processes while eliminating waste. Waste can
be considered any activity that consumes resources that do
not add value to a product or service. Remember, value must
be dened from the perspective of the customer. Waste in a
process or system can be removed by combining steps or activities, simplifying steps or activities, and eliminating any
waste in a system or process. Kaizen activities may take two
forms: ow kaizen focusing on value stream improvement

and process kaizen focusing on the elimination of waste.
lowering costs while maintaining quality caused him to seek
out sources of waste in a process. His productivity improve-
ments that eliminated waste include introducing the moving
assembly line concept to his plants in 1913 (Figure 13.3). He
also simplied the design of automobiles, creating the Model

T in 1908. Process improvements enabled him to drop the
price of the car from $825 in 1908 to $360 ($7,020 in 2008
dollars) by 1916. By 1918, half the cars in the United States

were Model Ts. By 1927, the nal year the Model T was made,
15,007,034 cars had been manufactured. Another of his
Flow kaizen events study the value stream associated
with providing a product or a service. The kaizen team

studies the process by actually following the process from
start to nish. Sometimes the team takes part in the process
itself in order to better understand what the customer
needs, wants, and expects. Properly performed, the study of
a process will include determining the answers to key questions. These questions are easy to remember as the ve Ws
and two Hs (Figure 13.1). These questions help those
studying the process understand it more clearly. Understanding leads to being able to differentiate between value-
added and non-value-added activities. The predominant

tools and techniques the team members use are described
in Chapters 9 and 10.
Process kaizen focuses on the elimination of waste. This
is not a new idea. Henry Ford (Figure 13.2) wrote about the
problems associated with waste in his book Today and
Tomorrow, published in the 19205. Fords commitment to
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FIGURE 13.2 Henry Ford

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Kaizen and Error Proofing
135
improved productivity, which enables a company to capture
more of the market, which enables the company to stay in

business and provide more jobs. Sound familiar?
In lapan, the methods of Henry Ford and W. Edwards
Deming were carefully studied to determine how to increase
productivity, reduce costs, and improve quality. Waste,
according to Fujio Cho of Toyota, is anything other than the

Minimum amount of equipment, materials, parts, space, and
workers time, which are absolutely essential to add value to
the product. Taiichi Ohno, also of Toyota Motor Company,
categorized seven sources of waste:

Waste from overproduction
Waste from inventory

Waste in unnecessary transportation
Waste from producing defects

FIGURE 13.3
Henry Fords Assembly Line
Waste in processes
Waste in waiting time
Waste in motions
(Source: Ford Motor Company.)
productivity improvement efforts served the United States
Overproduction waste is a common problem at both
manufacturing and service industries. This waste is created

every time too many products are produced for the market.
Many reasons can be given for overproduction. Some indus-
well in World War II. He showed the US. government how to
improve the production of the B-24 Liberation Bomber.

Traditional aviation assembly techniques enabled the aviation
industry to produce one B24 a day under optimal conditions.
tries require economies of scale when creating batch sizes for
production. In Chapter 14, batch size reduction strategies

are discussed. Smaller batch sizes are the result of exible
At Fords Willow Run facility in Michigan, B-24s rolled off the
assembly line at the rate of one per hour! To achieve this

incredible rate, workers at the plant constantly shared and
implemented their process improvement ideas.
equipment and people. Flexible organizations are better
equipped to deal with uctuations of consumer demand.

Inventory waste carries with it a lot of costs. These costs
include the cost of storing and managing the inventory.
They also include the costs associated with having that in
ventory become obsolete or spoil. Excessive inventory hides
Henry Ford also recognized the importance of creating
and maintaining an excellent workforce. High quality and

productivity can be achieved only through an effective
and efcient workforce. To hire and keep the best workers,
Ford offered the highest wages available, beginning with the

shockingly high $5 a day, rst offered on January 5, 1914.
Daily wages at that time were $2 or less. This wage and the
highly motivated and skilled workforce it enabled him to
create meant that labor turnover costs in his plants were so
small he didnt even measure them. Ford pursued productivity improvements with zeal. He believed that productivity
underimprovement is key to economic prosperity. He also
stood that productivity gains may eliminate some jobs; hOWever, he reasoned that this job loss would be balanced by the
51mlgrowth of new jobs elsewhere. This type of thinking is

lar to Dr. Demings economic chain reaction (Figure 13.4).
Productivity improvements act as the catalyst necessary-to

start an economic chain reaction. Improvingproductrvrty
fewer
and quality leads to decreased Costs, fewer mistakes,
1n turn leads to
delays, and better use of resources, which
Igiialliiyed
Improved
Productivity
FIGURE 13.4
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problems, too. When a lot of inventory exists, quality prob
lems often go unrecognized. Its easy to replace a defective

item with one that is not. If a replacement is not readily
available, attention is called to the existence of a quality
problem. Manufacturing organizations have learned to
maintain a lean facility, referring to their ability to maintain
low levels of inventory. To prevent waste, inventory must be
managed. Obsolete materials should be disposed of. Items
that are not required in the short term should not be made
or purchased. Manufacturing should be exible and capable
of making small lot sizes (Chapter 14).
Transportation waste is a non-value-added activity. Any
time an item is handled or a customer is passed to another
server, time and effort is wasted with no value to the process.
How many times have you been passed from service repre
sentative to service representative hoping to nd someone
Fewer Mistakes
and Delays
Better Use of
Resources
Capture Larger -v Stay in Business More Jobs
Market
Dr. Demings Chain Reaction
13 6
Tii
"
T H IR T E E N
C H A P T E R THIRTEEN
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138
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
If a step in a process is ineffective or unnecessary, these non-
value-adcled activities should be removed from the process.
Often motion studies (Chapter 12) identify motions and

activities in a process that can be removed to streamline the
process and eliminate waste. Process cycle efciency can be
calculated using the following formula:
,
P rocess cycle efcrency =
Value-added time
o a ea ime
m
Wait time waste is another obvious waste. Consider how

you feel every time you are expected to wait to see a doctor.
Work-in-process inventory may have more patience than
the average human, but it is still wasteful if items sit around
waiting to be worked on. Machines should not be idle due to
waiting either. Having the right material at the right time in

the right location can prevent many wait time wastes.
Motion wastes refer to the human element in any

process. In Chapter 12, the motion and time study teachings
of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were introduced. Any time a
person makes a move that does not correspond to a valueadded activity, his or her motions are wasted. A good example
Kaizen Event
of this is a machine setup worker who must return to the tool

crib to obtain a device critical to the setup. A much better sys-
tem is to plan what will be needed and bring those items

to the machine in the rst place. Review Chapter 12 for a
more complete discussion of this waste. Remember to not

confuse motion with work. Work is a kind of motion that
adds value or is necessary to add value. Motion that accomplishes nothing and adds no value is only unnecessary
movement. Wasteful motions should be eliminated. They take
precious time and do not add value.
Others have added to this list of waste or rened it to fit
their particular products or service processes. Other sources
of waste include waste caused by work-in-process; waste
from equipment, expense, and planning; and waste in human intellect and resources. Simply put, if an activity or
item does not add value or ll a key nonvalue-added activ-
ity (such as accounting or payroll), then it is waste. It is easy
to say that things should be done right the rst time in order
to eliminate waste, but it is harder to do. Kaizen efforts seek

out sources of waste and strive to simplify processes to elim
inate the waste present.
0
JF Inc. is justifiably proud of its ability to ship just about
anything anywhere. Recently, though, a customer rejected a
shipment when it arrived at its docks with the ends of the box
destroyed (Figure 13.7). Further part damage had occurred when
the protective plastic netting had slipped out of position inside

the box. The customer rejected the parts due to nicks and
scratches. Unfortunately, this sort of box bursting has occurred
several times before. At JF, a lean Six Sigma kaizen team is
working on the problem using Dr. Deming's Plan-Do-Study-Act
cycle, as well as a variety of quality tools.
PLAN
The team defined the problem as follows: Shipments are being
rejected due to the boxes bursting during transit. The customers
FIGURE 13.7
Scanned
Broken Box of Parts
will not accept the shipment if the box is destroyed and the parts
have been harmed. The problem statement is as follows: Improve
customer shipment acceptance numbers by eliminating box
bursting during transit.

Following the development of a problem statement. the team
members established a baseline. They immediately sent a team to
the customer's plant to obtain detailed information including photographs of the burst boxes. One of the boxes without straps shows
evidence of strap marks. This means that the straps broke during
shipment. The photo also shows the wide white tape the truck
driver used to hold the box together when the straps came loose.
Back at JF, the rest of the team members watched the
operator pack boxes. With this information they mapped and
Kaizen and Error more;

.
had the key steps in the process (Fl

gures 13.8 and
9), These photographs and diagrams help ed
them understand
better.
'ttl pmess
The creation of a WHY.WHY diagram helped them_ determine
the root cause of the problem (Flgure 13.10). Analyzmg the
to see that
Photos taken of the packaging process enabled them
Protective Wrap All

Parts
Place Parts in
Appropriate Sized
Box
Stacked
Parts?
No
Place Cardboard
Between Layers of Parts
FIGURE 13.9
Staple Box Shut
Taped Box with Metal
Straps Missing
Strap Pallet with Two

Metal Straps Around
Box and Spine of Pallet
FIGURE 13.8
Packaging Process
Ma p
No filler
Why?
Why?
Why? Parts _____,
/
Why do
box ends
burst in
9
transit? Why.
sliding
Why 9.
Flough____>
Why?
Why?
Straps I
break
during
used
incorrectly
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Fast
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Filler
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Why?
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Why?
Poor
> work
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Why?
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_,. work
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l nexpenswe
instructions
Why?
P
oor
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training
accelerations/
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Strapped Why?
incorrectly
Straps _ , Fork
,. Strap
too slack
interference around
decelerations
spine
transit
Straps_> Fork
too tight
FIGURE 13.10
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
' am for Packa in g Difculties

8
WHYWHY Dragr
_> Strap
interference around
spine
(Continued)
140
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Interference
FIGURE 13.11
Incorrectly Strapped Box
the straps interfere with the forks of the fork truck during loading
on or off a semitruck. The forks can not only cut the straps when
picked up or moved by a fork truck, but also interfere during the
packaging and strapping of the box to the pallet. Figure 13.11
shows that when strapping a box to a pallet that is held at a proper

work height for the packer, the straps must be threaded down be
tween the forks and around the spine. The strap is then pulled
tight to secure the load. The problem occurs when the forks are
subsequently removed from under the pallet, leaving slack in the

straps. The slack straps provide no protection for the box during
shipment. Their investigation enabled them to determine that the

root cause of the burst boxes was the box strapping method.
DO
To prevent future box bursts, steps were taken to determine the

best way to prevent improper box strapping in the future. The
team developed a new method of strapping the box to the pallet.
By strapping the box to the pallet using the top planks on the
pallet, the interference from the forks will be eliminated. The

new process is shown in Figure 13.12.
Standard Box Packaging

Limitations of Cardboard Boxes
I Length limit: 47 in.
I Do Not use cardboard for any part weighing over 250 lbs
I Boxes less than 100 lbs do not get strapped to pallets unless specified by customer
Standard Box Sizes
No Metal Straps
2 Metal Straps
Wooden Box
8x5x5
12 x9 x3
15x10x10
20 x 12 x 4
24 x 6 x 6
36 x 6 x 6
48 x 6 x 6
24 x 20 x 10
36x20 x 10
48x20x10
Build it parts do not fit within the limitations

of
acardboard box
WxL
69 x 42 Large Box
59 x 42 Medium Box
55 x 42 Small Box
Many small boxes headed for same destination

may be stretch wrapped to a pallet.
Parts that do not fit box sizes must have

a box
made to fit.
Packaging Procedure
I Rust-paper, Naltex, or oil parts when required by packaging

specification.
I Use packing peanuts for small individual parts.
I Parts layered in a box must have cardboard between layers
with rust-paper when
FIGURE 13.12
Standard Box Packaging
Scanned by
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H IR T E E N
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CHAPTER
THIRTEEN
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During
a kkaizen
q u a l i t y sspecialist
p e c i a l i s t visited
13 15 )
Sy s t e m C
F i g u r e 13.15).
l a y o u t ((Figure
t s layout
r e a t i o n workstation
w o r k s t a t i o n to
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System
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He created a process flow map (Figure 13.16). He was able to
he
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workstations,
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I G U R E 13.15
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13 15
FIGURE
W o r k s t a t i o 11 L
ayo u t
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h a n d aatt tthe
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a n ks
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ig h t m
o
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nto p
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alll l ccomponents
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a r c o d e rreaders
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barcode
he
onn tthe
S
r e a t io n w
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o r ks t a t io n
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ys t e m C
workstation
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n sta ll g
ates
gates
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uel
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c o n v e yo r s
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and o
u t go in g p
art c
outgoing
o n v eyo rs
part
conveyors
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o f t w a r e tthat
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e a d s tthe
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an k a
nd
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rreleases
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uel p
um p a
nd g
a g e ffrom
pump
ro m m
and
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gage
material
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sstorage;
h i s ssystem
l s o sselects
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a p p r o p r i a t e cconveyor
y s t e m aalso
in e
o n v e y o r lline
lleaving
he w
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U
t i l iz e
Utilize
on a
com
This kaizen activity prevents future errors by more clearly

i m it i n g tthe
a
n d llimiting
h e cchoices
h o i c e s tthe
h e operand
op
iidentifying
d e n t if y i n g tthe
h e iincoming
n c o m in g p
a rts
parts
t o r ccan
a
an m
a ke
ator
make.
c o n t in u e ch
((Continued)
H IR T E E N
THIRTEEN
C
H A PT ER T
CHAPTER
44
1
144
Conrm tank ID
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Install pump into
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:n
it h
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ank w
with
a b e l ttank
Label
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for pump type
Pick up correct
pump
l
tank and pump
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supv.
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lntorm leak test of
malCllDpumP
.
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label op.
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3 16
F
IG U R E 1
FIGURE
13.16
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li n e
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19/
P
M ap
r o c e ss &
o w Map
Process
Flow
S
U M MA RY
SUMMARY
T
o yo t a M
o to r C
o m pa n y
Toyota
Motor
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a i z e n tto
o g
en er ate p
r o c e ss
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in
the provision ooff training,
t r a i n i n g tools,
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a n d resources
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14:
CHAPTER PROBLEMS
A W Y T I P S
u i di n g
a iz e n s g
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4 4 O
Figure
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re o
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4 4
14.4
IM E R
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S
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14.9
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IG U R E 1
14.11
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F I G U R E 14 1 0

r o c e s s in g
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152
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CHAPTER
FIFTEEN
PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE
If it is not broken, don 't fix it.
Productivity: Process.
Improvement Opportunities
alue Stream
Process
Mapping ',
Supply
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Just-in-Time
Kanban
Work
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Kaizen and
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F.M..r.mw~
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LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES
4. '1. "To introduce the concept of productive
maintenance
1'?
; 2..To introduce the four major productive maintenance
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the concept of overall equipment

3. To introduce
.W'irw '7n~
Quality/nonconformance issues
Raw materials shortages
runem
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Productive
Maintenance
effectiveness
4. To introduce the concept of preventive maintenance
StriTo introducethe concept of predictive maintenance

.f-l'o introduce the concept of autonomous
maintenance
PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE
Quality. costs, productivity. Equipment problems prevent an
effective organization from optimizing these. Where do production losses come from?
156
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Machines or equipment availability

Cycle time losses
Productive maintenance deals with two of these four by improving the availability of machines or equipment while reducing cycle time losses. Lean Six Sigma organizations
practice productive maintenance in order to reduce process
equipment variation, one ofthe five sources of variation discussed in Chapter 1.
Every time equipment breaks down, work has to be

stopped, production delayed, and completion times adjusted.
Productive maintenance programs optimize overall equipment
effectiveness by focusing on total life cycle equipment management. Optimization occurs when equipment is able to do
what it needs to do when it needs to do it. Productive maintenance programs ensure that equipment functions well and
runs reliably. A solid productive maintenance program will
lead to reduced inventories; shorter lead times and sctul
times; lower accident and injury rates; and fewer breakdowns, jams, standbys, speed losses, and startup losses. The
benets of productive maintenance programs support lean
Productive Maintenance
Six Sigma by
enhancing
customer satisfaction, reducing
costs
increasing Pmdualfitl: and improving quality. Reliable pro:
ductive
equlpment
is required for lean and Six Sigma.
Complalnts are often heard about the high costs of
maintenance. Productive maintenance programs actualI
help reduce maintenance costs. Maintenance costs are ofteii
over budget because of the emergency response approach to
maintaining
equipment.
This ignore it until it fails mode
of Operatlng 15 expensive. Organizations that engage in

re ghting instead of a prevention approach to
mainte
nance endure high costs because they do not recognize the
real costs 0f unavailable equipment. Malfunctions and

unavailable equipment means lost time, lost productivity,
poor quality, low morale, and decreased customer satisfaction. Productive maintenance programs build awareness of
maintenance needs, monitor expenditures closely, and
respond to difculties quickly. Productive maintenance
programs reduce costs by establishing policies and procedures that reduce equipment downtime and unplanned
157
Efciency means that the equipment

performed at the expected speed
Quality means that the product produced
meets customer requirements
Overall equipment effectiveness can run as low as 50 per

cent to 60 percent of the production time available. With
a strong productive maintenance program, it can climb to

80 percent or more. This value will never reach 100 percent
due to routine maintenance needs and setup time require

ments. High overall equipment effectiveness, supported by
an effective productive maintenance program, increases the
time available for valueadded activities. There are four
components to a productive maintenance program:
Elimination of equipment losses
Preventive maintenance
Predictive or planned maintenance

Autonomous maintenance
maintenance.
Productive maintenance, by preventing equipment problems, seeks to increase overall equipment effectiveness and
machine reliability. To calculate overall equipment effective-
ELIMINATION OF EQUIPMENT
LOSSES
Overall equipment effectiveness = Availability X efciency
Productive maintenance programs focus on eliminating

three key sources of equipment losses:
ness (OEE), use the following formula:
>< quality
Speed losses
where
Availability means that equipment works .

when it is needed
Equipment downtime
Quality defects due to variation in equipment
performance
Calculating Overall Equipment Effectiveness

0
The production of milk is a lot more complicated now than the

days when milk used to come straight from the cow (Figure 15.1).
Raw milk has a fat content of 4 percent or more. Today's market
or
requires lower fat alternatives such as 2 percent, 1 percent,
skim milk (< 0.1 percent fat). For whole milk, the fat content
has been reduced to 3.4 percent. Fat-soluble vitamins A and D
may also be added to any type of milk.
The production of milk involves many operations, including
clarification, separation (for the production of lower fat milks).
pasteurization, and homogenization. Equipment downtime can
dramatically affect the spoilage rates of this delicate product.
WP Dairy carefully monitors overall equipment effectiveness

because failure of any one operation in the process results in significant product spoilage. It keeps detailed records of equipment
availability, efficiency, and milk quality. Regular downtime is
scheduled for daily cleaning and minor maintenance. The OEE
calculation for its separation unit is:
Availability = 95%
Efficiency = 99%
Quality = 99.98%
Overall equipment effectiveness == Availability X efficiency
X quality
=
0.95 x 0.99 x 0.9998
effectiveness
equipment
Overall
= 0.94
WP Dairy's separation unit is up and running 94 percent of the
FIGURE 15.1
Cows
Arkady Mazor/Shutterstock.)
Source:
aw,
-vaaaav--,,,,,-,
time.
1
58
158
C
H A PT ER F
IF T E E N
CHAPTER
FIFTEEN
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TOOLS
WORK
RK
LEAN SIX SIGMA m
.Equipment
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e fo r e p
r o c e s s i n g milk
fte r
m i lk iis
t o r e d iin
Before
5 2 ) aafter
s sstored
processing,
n ttanks
a n k s (Figure
( F ig u r e 115.2)
be i n g p
f r o m ttanker
u m p e d from
being
a n k e r ttruck
i r e c t ly ffrom
fa rm s
h e farms.
pumped
r u c k ccoming
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directly
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or a
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ays a
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ttank,
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i l k iiss ttested
aw m
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he p
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milk
o r tthe
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presence
off ccertain
diseases
iincluding
n c l u d i n g ccoll
o l i plating
and a
1 5 3 ) Tests
Te s t s
e r o b ic b
a c t e r i a (Figure
p l a t i n g and
( F i g u r e 15.3).
aerobic
bacteria
l s o rrun
a
re a
d e t e r m i n e butter
t o determine
u n to
are
also
b u t t e r fat
fa t p
e r c e n t a ge s a
n d ttaste.
a s t e If
percentages
and
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ttank
a n k ffails
to m
a i l s to
a i n t a i n tthe
h e rrequired
few
maintain
e q u i r e d ttemperature
e m p e r a t u r e ffor
ven a
or e
even
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t h o u s a n d s ooff g
moments, thousands
i lk m
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h r o w n out.
of m
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gallons
milk
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A
f t e r passing
a
h e ttests.
After
he m
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i l k goes
p s s i n g tthe
o n tto
o ffurther
u r t he r p
r o c e s s in g
milk
processing
g o e s on
tto
d d fflavor.
l a v o r ffat,
o a
it a m i n s T
add
at a
n d vvitamins.
h e milk
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and
s p
a s t e u r iz e d e
x po s e d
The
pasteurized,
exposed
to high temperature to destroy certain microorganisms (Figure
1
5 4) L
a b ttests
15.4).
ests a
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h e c k aalkaline
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u n tto
l ka li n e p
o ccheck
h o s p h a t e s llevels,
are
e v e ls a
phosphates
ann
iindicator
n d ic a t o r o
off pasteurization.
p a s t e u r iz a t io n
Lo w f a t m
i l k iis
Low-fat
s made
m a de b
k i m m i n g tthe
milk
h e rraw
i lk S
k im m in g
aw m
byy sskimming
milk.
Skimming
ccan
an b
a r t i a l oorr whole.
w h o le P
bee ppartial
k i m m i n g rreduces
a r t i a l sskimming
h e rraw
e d u c e s tthe
a w milk
m i l k tto
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o
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onte nt W
desired
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k i m m i n g ccompletely
t he
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e m o v e s the
ffat
t h e n aadds
at a
n d then
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i n tthe
h e aappropriate
and
a c k in
m ou nt o
back
c r e a m to
o
p p r o p r ia t e aamount
off cream
h
i
h
t
a
c
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e
v
e
e
e
s i r e d ffat
achieve the desired
at c
o n te nt
content.
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i s nnext.
Homogenization
i l k ssettles
ext R
i m e aand
aw m
e t t le s o
he
v e r ttime
n d tthe
Raw
milk
over
ccream
r e a m rrises
i s e s to
h e ttop.
t o tthe
o p IIn
i
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i
o
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i l k iiss rrun
t
o
e
n
z
hro u g h
on m
a
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milk
g
i n y ttubes
ttiny
u b e s tto
h e ffat
o b
re a k u
l o b u l e s iin
at g
break
is t r i b u t e tthem
upp tthe
n o
r d e r tto
he m
o d
globules
order
distribute
throughout the milk. This process reduces the size of the fat
molecules and disperses them more evenly throughout the milk.
Creaming on the top of the milk does not occur with
homogenized milk. Homogenization results in longer lasting
milk. Equipment failure can again result in significant losses.
m o m e n ts
, .
F
o l lo w i n g h
o m o g e n i z a t i o n an
an e
Following
m u l s i f i c a t i o n ttest
homogenization,
e s t iis
s rrun
u n tto
emulsification
o
check the processed milk for fat and vitamin content. After it
h e ttests,
l e a v e s tthe
he h
a s s e s tthe
t leaves
e s t s iit
l o w s ((usually
o ld i n g ttanks
n d fflows
a n ks a
passes
p
u s u a l ly b
holding
and
byy
i r e c t l y into
i n t o tthe
he m
i l k jjugs.
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r a v it y ) d
h e jjugs
u g s Once
a p p e d tthe
gravity)
directly
milk
B
u gs a
re p
91t
are
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l a s t ic crates
t o r e d ffor
c rate s a
n d sstored
or a
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in a l
o f one
da y F
into
o n e day.
plastic
and
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ig h t aand
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n c o n s is t e n t T
ha s b
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e e n iinconsistent.
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he
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machine
exerted bbyy tthe
i
l
t
d
i lk T
n
sspilt
m
r o k e n jjugs
ugs a
n b
milk.
oo
and
e s u l t i n g iin
broken
Too
p
re d
a m a g e d rresulting
u gs a
are
damaged,
jjugs
dj u s t m e n ts
o r aadjustments
o w n t i m e ffor
he m
i lk sspoils.
downtime
lloose
Equipment
n d tthe
qu ipm e n t d
oose a
milk
p o i ls E
and
d
h
t
i
h
t i m e resultt
e
o
n
d
i
w
w
om b ne
r e su
with the downtime
l o w e r operating
o p e r a t i n g sspeeds
a
nd s
p e e d s ccombined
and
slower
ex e rt e d
h e sspoiled
i s s u e s ffor
o r tthe
u a l i t y issues
nd q
l e a n u p aand
i l k ccleanup
p o i le d
quality
iing
r o m sspilt
n g ffrom
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p i lt m
k
A
t
k
e
c
o
e
t
r
r
c t i v e aco sskyrocket.
P D
o s t s to
a i r y s ccosts
A corrective
i lk h
yro c
au sed W
m
a v e ccaused
WP
Dairys
have
milk
i
h
b
l
i
e
m
n
s
e
a
r
c
o
h
ro
s p
t t a c k e d tthis
oot
in search off aa rroot
problem
t i o n tteam
m m e d i a t e ly a
e a m iimmediately
attacked
tion
f
lt y p
a r t ccausing
h
t
a
u
a u s in g
O
e
n c e the faulty
n ttorque.
o r q u e Once
part
f o r the
t h e vvariation
a r i a t io n iin
ccause
a u s e for
nd
e n t i f i e d aand
a s id
a c hin e w
h e ccapping
a p p in g m
was
identified
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machine
r o b le m o
onn tthe
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the
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t h e s e ccosts
osts d
disappeared.
replaced,
p l a c e d these
re
p
-
:-
F
IG U R E 1
5 3
FlGURE
15.3
&
'
M i lk T
e st in g
Milk
Testing
So u r c e : u
s D
((Source:
epar tm e n t o
U.S.
Department
e a lt h a
n d H
u m an S
off H
Health
e r v ic e s )
and
Human
Services.)
i l k ffor
he m
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ttests
ests a
u n o
or q
u a l it y p
h e n tthe
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n d tthen
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ilk
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milk
quality
purposes
and
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i a trucks
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t r u c k s tto
o llocal
ocal g
r o c e r y stores.
can b
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grocery
Recently, the jug capping operation has been experiencing a
i f f i c u lt i e s T
h e aautomatic
u t o m a t ic m
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has
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nd o
h e ttorque
s o m e caps
c a ps o
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oo se T
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o rc e
some
The
&
f
i
l e a
1j
l
'
UJ
\
F
IGU R E 1
5 2
FIGURE
15.2
M
i lk S
t o r a ge T
a n ks
Milk
Storage
Tanks
r c e : Sonda
So n d a D
Qwrce:
T
h e Image
aw w
1m a Bc Works.)
W o r ks
Dawes,
The
Scanned by
by CamScanner
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F
IG U R E 1
4
FIGURE
1 55.4
Pa s t e u r i z a t i o n
Pastcurization
So u r c e : J
i n g H o l 111 s / P h o t o Researchers,
R e s e a r c h e r s IInc.)
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am es K
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ilk
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F IF T E E N
C H A P T E R FIFTEEN
CHAPTER
16 0
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F I G U RE 15.6
15 6
FIGURE
P R E V E N T IV E M
PREVENTIVE
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ass homeowners
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au t o
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n ttheir
b
ile
bile
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w it h
owners change
i l in
i n ttheir
t h e ooil
h e i r ccar,
a r o
r g a n i z a t i o n s Wlfh
organizations
o w n er s c
in
r e v e n t i v e maintenance
soundd ppreventive
m a i n t e n a n c e programs
ain ta
o m
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maintaln
p r o g r a m s sstrive
,
so u n
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eak o
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he b
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off iits
eCluiPment
benets
the
The
r a c t ic i n
practicing
r e v e n t iv e
preventive
p
g p
o s t s;
t e n a n c e iinclude
maintenance
e d u c e d cC05;
n c l u d e rreduced
m a in
Productive Maintenance
Ff Disaster Prevention
Productive maintenance could have prevented two disasters at
British Petroleum (BP) facilities. In 2005, in Texas City Texas a
refinery explosion and fire killed several employees. in 006 a

pipeline failure resulted in the leakage of more than 200 00f)
gallons of oil into an environmentally fragile area. Death 'lost

production, equipment and facility damage, wasted raw materi-
als, and environmental impactcould these have been

prevented by a sound productive maintenance program? Accord-
ing to a presentation made on May 16, 2007, in Washington.

DC, by the Chemical Safety Board (038) Chairperson Carolyn
Merritt, the answer is yes. Chairperson Merritt told the House of
Representatives subcommittee that virtually all of the seven
root causes identified for the Prudhoe Bay incidents have strong
lower inventories; shorter lead times; fewer breakdowns,
jams, standbys, speed losses, and startup losses; shorter

changeover times; improved productivity; increased exibility; and improved quality. Good preventive maintenance
plans also result in good budgets. Because there is a distinct

maintenance plan for each piece of equipment, there is also
a budget in place to cover the costs. Typically, preventive
maintenance programs can more easily forecast the costs associated with maintenance. Preventive maintenance pre
vents disasters, too. Or, as in the following example, lack of

maintenance can be deadly.
One of the key steps of a preventive maintenance pro-~
gram involves establishing maintenance intervals for all vital
equipment. This is done by:
I
l
l
I
l
I
Periodically inspecting all equipm.nt

Scheduling regular maintenan:e
Planning long-term maintenance
Ensuring spare parts availability
Lubricating equipment regularly
Documenting maintenance
Periodic inspection of equipment is useful to detect

conditions that might cause breakdowns. Follow-up action
can be taken to reverse such conditions. Depending on the
Complexity of the equipment, periodic inspections can be
done by the operator of the equipment (autonomous main

tenance) or by maintenance personnel.
Preventive maintenance requires that maintenance of
e(illipment be planned, scheduled, and then executed to performance standards. These performance standards should
include the interval between planned maintenance, how the
d0Wntime will be scheduled, and what type of work is to be
done. Will the equipment be maintained annually? Monthly?

On a total number of hours used basis? The plan will also incInde information about how the downtime will be sched-
UIed. Scheduled maintenance should start with high-priority

eillipment. The plan should be reviewed periodically.
Wellcared-for production equipment can have a long
SerVice life. Longterm maintenance planning is critical to
scanned by
Dy CamScanner
uamscanner
Scanned
161
LEAN SIX SlGMA TOOLS at WORK

echoes in Texas City." These included the significant role of
budget and production pressures in driving BP's decision

makingultimately harming safety." The Prudhoe Bay pipeline
suffered extensive corrosion due to lack of maintenance over several years. At the Texas City refinery, abnormal startups were not
investigated and became routine, while critical equipment was
allowed to decay. By the day of the accident, the distillation
equipment had six key alarms, instruments, and controls that

were malfunctioning." Clearly, no one took the initiative to maintain, repair, or replace equipment as needed. As operating conditions deteriorated in both situations, the end result, disaster, was
inevitable. A sound productive maintenance program could
have averted disaster.
ensuring availability of older machines. Schedulers will need

to determine how much time it will take to perform the repair or overhaul. Repair-related downtime is always more
signicant than the actual repair time. Repair-related down
time includes nding or waiting for a repair person, diag
nosing the problem, nding spare parts or tools, and testing
the equipment following repairs. Knowledge of time re
quirements comes from realistic understanding of the
equipment history including its mean time between failure,
the time it takes to overhaul, operator experience with the
equipment, and safety records.
Spare parts control is a critical part of productive
maintenance. Carefully made plans will ensure that all nec
essary parts and materials have been procured before tak-
ing the equipment offline. Good spare parts control means

that the necessary spare parts are available when needed.
Careful analysis should take place to determine the need,
priority, storage method, restocking method, and cost of
stock-out of key items. A preventive maintenance plan will
include procedures to ensure that appropriate parts/materials have been procured and labor scheduled. Careful study
should be made to determine which spare parts should be
stocked.
Lubrication control is a key part of a preventive maintenance program. Proper lubrication with appropriate oils, cutting uids, greases, and solid lubricants prevents wear.
Lubrication control ensures that no leakage occurs. Deterioration or contamination of lubricants is prevented by daily
inspection of uid levels, time elapsed, and rate of usage.
Productive maintenance programs maintain good
records. Maintenance records document what maintenance
has taken place, machine performance, inspections, and lubrications. Good records provide a history that helps with planning maintenance. These records are used to assess
equipment conditions, establish priorities, and deploy resources. lnformation can be focused on past history such as
previous repair work as well as daily or periodic inspection
records. This information can be used to help set mainte
nance priorities based on production importance, quality
level, maintenance history, and safety.
F IF T E E N
H A P T E R FIFTEEN
C
CHAPTER
2
16
162
ow
h y aand
n d h
how
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why
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and
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eco rds a
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eep
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ort h e ir
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an d s
standardizing
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ganizations
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ay
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These
e c o r d k e e p i n g procedures.
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ccurrent
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are
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tive maintenance programs may require that a mean time
20 ) b
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n a ly s i s (
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5
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6
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,
A IN T E N A N C E
P
R E D I C T IV E M
MAINTENANCE
PREDICTIVE
it h t h e t h o
E
n su r e
Ensure
dhe r e n c e
t i n u o u s aadherence
continuous
co n
S U M M A RY
SUMMARY
r u e productive
o m m it m e n t T
a k e s ccommitment.
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a i n t e n a n c e ttakes
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p r o d u c t iv e
maintenance
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a r e multiyear
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programs
maintenance
m a n a ge m e n t
o f management.
c o m m i t m e n t of
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ing
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T
The
a i n t e n a n c e program
o f a
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a productive
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ultimate goal
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at a
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t s ooptimum
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t h e equipment
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want
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The benets of practicing preventive and predictive
l
A IN T E N A N C E
UT O N O MO U S M
A
MAINTENANCE
AUTONOMOUS
One element of a productive maintenance program, au

d e a tthat
hat p
t h e iidea
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performance.
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A
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llar
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Au to n o m o u s m
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r ev e n t e
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equipment
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efforts pprevent
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r a n s fe r o
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ttenance
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ipm e n t A
u to n o m o u s
equipment.
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maintenance
m a in
d e s six
s ix
includes
te n a n c e in
c lu
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st e ps :
3
st a blish in g
3. EEstablishing
d a r ds
standards
o n t a m in a t io n
sources off ccontamination
so u r c es o
d ffollowing
o l lo w in
l e a n i n g aand
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4
u to n o m o u s
4. A
Autonomous
t e n a n c e sstandards
maintenance
t a n da r ds
m a in
ocanneu by
Uy CamScanner
uamocanner
Scanned
l o s s e s and
l o s s e s ; sshorter
t a r t u p losses;
h o r t e r changeover
t i m es;
an d
sstartup
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ain
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au to n o m o u s m
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TA K E A
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IP S
TAKE
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1 Productive
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her e
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eliminate
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h
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te
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ar e
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planned
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u t o n o m o u s maintenance
Autonomous
1
63
163
a in t e n a n c e
P r o d u c t iv e M
Maintenance
Productive
ff e c t i v e n e s s ((OEE)
equipment
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O EE)
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l it y
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key
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=A
v a i la bil i t
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p er f o
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ten an ce m
equipment
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n d u
s in g
using
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and
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ance
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ssignals
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6
r e dic t iv e
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te n a n ce p
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lo sse s : e u i m e n t
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ation
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7
u to n o m o u s
7. AAutonomous
pe r a to r s
e r fo r m e d b
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ular maintenance pperformed
W O R K
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- SIGMA
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u r n e d tto
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eade rs a
att JFF tturned
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i n c r e a s e oovermaintenance
o increase
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and m
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all equipment
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ast
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ro c e d u r e
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ased o
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7
a in t e n a n c e d
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15 7
FIGURE 15.7
r o c e du r e
M a in te n a n c e P
Procedure
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JF P
IF
Productive
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
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IF T E E N
H A PT ER F
FIFTEEN
C
CHAPTER
1
64
164
8
u to n o m o u s
8. AAutonomous
ffollows:
o ll o w s :
maintenance
m a in t en a n c e
ho u se ke e p in g
housekeeping
w o r kpla c e
a
att workplace
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e c e s s a r y iitems
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C H A P T E R 1
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S I X T E E N
SIXTEEN
S J P P L Y C H A IN M A N A G
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IX T E E N
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C
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167
Supply Chain Management

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168
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
elements and practices commonly found in lean Six Sigma

organizations:
Schedule leveling
Schedule xing
Pull systems
Short cycle times
Safety stock
Safety lead times
Small batch sizes
Flexible job sequencing

Workforce exibility through crosstraining
Capacity planning
Information Sharing
Information is a key component of a supply chain. Organiza
tions need to know what is needed, how much, and when.
Careful selection of the type of information system used to

manage the supply chain ensures the integrity of the link
between upstream and downstream suppliers and customers.
At effective organizations, this information is transferred
through electronic data interchange (EDI). These direct com-
puterto-computer interactions can be interorganizational or

external to individual customers or suppliers. Common information exchanged includes quotes, purchase orders, order
conrmations, pricing information, shipping notices, and
more. EDI improves productivity and quality. Less paperwork
is required, reducing the need for clerical work. The real-time
exchange of information helps run just-in-time systems while
reducing inventory and lead times. Managing the supply
chain is also easier because the information is available at the
touch of a button. Scanners, bar codes, and RFID (radio-
frequency identication) simplify data acquisition, inventory

control, and supply chain management. Technology allows
real-time data gathering for the identication and tracking of
products. Information about a products whereabouts,
contents, and physical status are quickly available. Software

applications such as enterprise resource planning (ERP)
systems also aid in managing the supply chain.
Information systems and networks provide increased
data accuracy and reduced data transfer time. Unfortu
nately, these systems are vulnerable to equipment failure,
power outages, and security threats. Effective organizations
are careful to maintain information reliability. They recognize that the ability to rapidly disseminate information and
capitalize on the knowledge it generates is a driving force in
organizational success. Effective organizations design and
manage their information management systems, make tech
nological improvements, and measure system performance
to ensure data accuracy, integrity, reliability, timeliness,
security, and condentiality.
E-Commerce
Ecommerce is the use of electronic technology to aid
business transactions. E-commerce allows organizations to
reach global markets with little effort. Their products and
ScannedTy
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the Web,
services can be accessed through
allOWing
E-commerce Often
consumers to make their choices.
provides the following benets:
Faster purchasing cycle times
Reduced inventory
Fewer order processing people

ordering
Faster product or service search and
Greater information availability

spending
Automated validation and preapproved
forms or invoices
Less printed material such as order
Increased exibility
Online communication
E-commerce affects the way lean Six Sigma organizations do
way people
business. The changes it requires changes the
work. It takes time and training to bring people up to Speed
on the new technology. All of this new technology requires
signicant investment, too. Manual processes need to be stud-
ied and improved; otherwise, the organization runs the risk of
computerizing an already poor manual process. Lean Six
Sigma organizations need to decide just how pervasive the
new technology will be. Many choose to integrate the entire

organization, from the shop oor to accounting, payroll, and
other systems. With all the systems linked within the plant
and often to outside customers and suppliers, system integrity
and security are an issue. Effective supply chains utilize tech-
nology to improve communication. This reduces the risk of

production shortages, lost materials, or stock-outs.
Logistics
Lu-igisn'cs is theprocess ofdetermining the best methods ofprocuring, maintaining, packaging, transporting, and storing materials
andpersomzel in order to satisfy customer demand. This physical
side of supply chain management is sometimes called

distribution. Logistics or distribution includes the material
handling, packaging, warehousing, staging, and transportation
of equipment, parts, subassemblies, tools, fuels, lubricants,
ofce supplies, information, and anything else needed to keep

the organization functioning. This means logistics manages
the ow of materials and information within a facility and
incoming and outgoing from that facility. When preparing a
logistical strategy, frequently asked questions include:
What is being shipped?
How will it be packaged?
What type of handling care will be needed?

When will it be needed?
When will it be shipped?
What is the best way to ship it? Rail? Road? Air? Water?
Pipeline? Satellite?
What are the optimal shipping practices?
What will it cost?
In effective organizations, this movement should be
smooth and expedient. In some organizations, time and

effort is lost because of poor internal logistics. These
Purchasing
Effective supply chains safeguard products while they are

in transit. Though it adds time and cost to the process,
Materials, parts, supplies, and services are all purchases
problems can also be evidenced between organizations.
security is vital as products cross multiple borders and

great distances.
169
necessary for operating a business. In most companies, these
costs comprise 40 percent to 60 percent of the nal cost of

the nished goods. Purchases are driven by several factors,
Logistics and a Tsunami
On December 26, 2004, an earthquake of magnitude 9.3

centered in the Indian Ocean near the northwest coast of the
Indonesian island of Sumatra triggered a tsunami that killed
nearly 230,000 people and destroyed homes throughout that
part of the world (Figure 16.4). Caused by a slip of the Indian
Plate under the Sumatra Plate, the earthquake deformed the
ocean floor, creating the tsunami (Figure 16.5). Forming a wave
thought to be 80 feet high, it is estimated that nearly 200 billion
gallons of water were dropped on the land in a single minute.
In comparison, seismic activity for the 1906 San Francisco

earthquake was 7.8 and that of Northridge, California, in 1994,
6.7. Hardest hit were Indonesia (167,739 dead or missing),

Sri Lanka (35,322), India (18,045), and Thailand (8,212). The
biggest challenge facing the humanitarian relief agencies

responding to the situation was logistics. How can water, food,
medicine, relief workers, and other critical supplies be brought
to an area where much of the infrastructure had been damaged
trucks, helicopters, planes, ships, landing craft, and ferryboats

were mobilized to help cope with the disaster. As people and
organizations from around the world contributed water, food.
consumer products, tents, medicine, equipment, time, and
money, this influx also needed to be managed. Logistics became
a strategic weapon in the fight against further death and destruction. Logistics firms and their employees handled tons of
supplies. Working 14 to 16-hour days, they coordinated the
handling, stocking, warehousing, distributing, and shipping of

lifesaving materials. Disaster response efforts lasted six months.
Quick response to the crisis was possible because the chief relief
organization, the United Nations World Food Programme, has

long partnered with logistics organizations such as TNT,
Logistics. The strategy to respond to such a natural disaster was

in place two years before disaster struck. One phone call
activated a well-coordinated logistical effort to aid people in
need.
or destroyed? Normal supply chains simply did not exist.

Facing this logistical nightmare, relief organizations relied on
those who are best in the business. Supply chain experts from
around the world gathered together to help. The involvement of a
Before earthquake
number of firms enabled relief workers to set up temporary

supply chains and use sea, air, and land assets of these organi-
zations to move needed supplies from mainland warehouses to
temporary warehouses built in the disaster areas. Within days,
Tsunami
{
Uplift
During earthquake
Subsidence
Indian
FIGURE 16.4
Earthquake Impact
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
FIGURE 16.5
Sumatra
Plate
Slipping Plates Cause Tsunami
Plate
5/

170
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
C H A P T E R S IX T E E N
17 0
and
be improved,
o pt i m i z e d a n d m a n a
supply chainsi n must
i m p r o v e d optimized,
managed.
ge d
s m u st be
Customer Value
Cu s to m
,
p pl y c h a
are crucial
relationships
i l when
h e n maria
Business-to-business
i
t
o n ships a r e c r u c a w
l
ma
a
e
r
s
s
e
i
n
n .
Bu s i n e ss t o bu s
had
has
to
adapt
d
Purchasing
d
h
t
o
a
a p t t otoW
ha s a
i
n
ing the supply l chain.
h
s
a
c
r
P
u
g
e
b
Web
i
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in g t he su pp y c ha
ff
improvement
o r t s , aand
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suppliers,
lean
d
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e
an
p
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er
production.
.
.
15 responsrble for n d in
department
The purchasing
n t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r finding
e
t
m
r
a
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e
g
p
u r c ha sin g
Quality or
performance
Price
H :x
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.
a n c. e
The p
how
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o w mmuch
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out whath aist iout
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p
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.
,
' "
goods
e r v i c e s bbut
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u t a lalso
chasing
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so
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,
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manage suppliers.
l i e r s The
p u r c h a s i n g c yc l e i sis
selectl e cand
u
t a n d m a n a ge s p p
c
as
se
a e n t s nnegotiate
e go t i a t e
16.7. Purchasing
h i n agents
in Figure
summarized
F i g u r e 16 7 P u r c a s g g
m a r iz e d in
su m
t h e oorganizations
the liaison between
b e t w e e n the
and act as
contracts
t a s t h e lia iso n
n tr acts an d ac
Under.
Un d
su p plie r s
departments and dthe
e x t e r n a l suppliers.
t h e external
internal
i n t e r n a l de p a r t m e n t s a n
them
k
to
make
enables
t
h
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o
m
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:
chain
effec.
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b
supply
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e
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the
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t a n di n t he e n t ir e s u pp y
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s
g
order
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h
that what they
o r r ec t
o r d e r iis
To ensure
tivet ipurchases.
u r e tha t w ha t t ey
u r c h a s e s To e n s
v e
Delivery
FIGURE 16.6
a ki n g t h
the
d e p a r t m e n t s mmaking
e
closely withi t hthe
i n t e r n a l departments
theyt hwork
t h einternal
e w o r k c l o s e ly w
These departments
o c u s oon
d e p a r t m e n t s ffocus
n
for goodsdor services.
requests
r se r v ic e s T h e se
r e u e s t s f o r go o s o
y
The Purchasing Triangle
f th
t i m e l i n e s s oof
t h e timeliness
the
of the item purchaseddandd the
e
the tquality
he qu a lit y o f t he it e m pu r c ha se a n
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i
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i
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h
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n
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required
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h
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i
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where the items
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o bt a n e
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m a y be
i
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by
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r
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o
w
The
optimizas
e
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r
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16 6 ) T h e o p t i m i z a
u r c h a s i n g t h e g o o d s o r s e r v i c e s ( F i gu r e
E
f
f
i
t
the
goods
and
services.
Efforts
d
r
o
buying
c
e
s
s t oto
v
associated
with
e
r
d
s
tion of allpthree
n
rarely occurs; effectiveffpurchasing
a
h
s
happens
o
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b u y i n g t e go
h
t i o n o f a l l t h r e e r a r e ly o c c u r s ; e e c t i v e p u r c h a s i n g a p p e n s
d
i
i
h
i
n g aa
rov
reduce
the material costs associated
providing
when these three are balanced in a way
i t e d with
w t
that creates
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p
r e du c e t he m at e r ia l c o st s a s so c a
h
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w h e n t h e s e t h r e e a r e b a la n c e d i n a w a y t a t c r e a e
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h
l
i
or
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often
weigh
heavily
on
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r
c
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product
the
purchasing
the customer. As business has become more global,l purchase
h
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department.
ing has had to evolve. Originally,
companies
focused
on
de p a r t m e n t
i n g h a s h a d t o e v o l v e O r igi n a l ly c o m p a n i e s f o c u s e d o n
f
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finding suppliers
of
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and
services.
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developed
t h e sourcing
to
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r g = T Iz a t i o n seek
ve
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include managing deliveries
materiai,
using logistics. Now they are
To m
a i n t a in
maintain
e q u i p m e n t and
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a n dservices.
d n a t e r i aequipment,
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i n c l u d e m a n a gi n g d e l iv e r i e s u s i n g l o gi s t i c s N o w t h e y a r e
an
buying a more
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chain,
And
i
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b u i n a m o r e c o m p l e t e p a c k a ge t h e s u p p l y c h a i n A n d
F I GU RE 1 6 6
T h e Pu
rc
h a s i n g T r i a n gl e
Internal
I n t edepartment
rn a l de pa rtm e n t 7
sendss erequisition
t io n
n d s r e q u i s ito
to
purchasing
f o r m a t e r ia l
s i n gmaterial
p u r c h a for
including
i n c l u description,
d i n g d e s c r ip t i o n
quality,
t it y a n d
a lit y q u a n and
q u quantity,
delivery.
d e liv e r y
P u r c h a s i n works
Purchasing
w it h
g w o r k swith
i n t e r n adepartment
l d e p a r t m e n to
internal
t to
s e le supplier,
select
c t s u p p li e r
c o n f i r m i n quality,
conrming
g q u a lit y
quantity.
d e l iv e r y
and
q u a n t it yand
delivery.
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O r d e r c o n f i r m a t io n
sent to billing.
b i ni n g Bil l
s e n t t o Bill
submitteds uand
b m ittpaid.
e d a n d p a id
P u r cworks
h a s in g w o r k s
Purchasing
w it h Re to
c e iv i n g t o
with Receiving
b r in g i n o r d e r s
bring in orders.
P u r c h a s i n places
Purchasing
g p la c e s
o r dwith
e r w itselected
h s e le c t e d
order
s u p p l ie r
supplier.
Pu r c h a s in g f o ll o w s u
Purchasing
follows up p
a n d m o n it o r s o r d e r s
and monitors
orders.
F I GUR E 16 7
T h e Pu r c h a s i n C c l e
FIGURE 16.7
The Purchasing
Cycleg y
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
;
'
supplier base. As
and
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they
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.u d ge
and
grade
granting
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suppliers
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it t a ke t o be c
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t h ebecome
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e
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p
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TSupplier
h e p a r t n epartnerships
r s h i p s go b e y o n d a
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focus
and
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o o pe r a t io n
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p
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r elate to im
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p i n m a in t a i n i n g t h e s u p p ly c h a i n t h r o u gh
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in maintaining
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p e r in t e r a c t i o n
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O p e r a t oinstructions
r i n st r u c t io n s
171
a :c u r a t e
accurate
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helps
interaction on set schedules

r e dComputerized
u c e pu r c ha sin
d e l i v e r y costs.
g, i n v e n t o r y a n d t r a n s p o r t a t io n c o s t s
and transportation costs.
inventory,
reduce
T h e spurchasing,
e sa m e su
pp lie r s a lso pr o v ide in fo r m a t io n a bo u t it e m
information aboutSt item
also
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im p
These
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other market data. Strateimprovements,
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g i c p a r t n e r s hnew
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to determine
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f T h e y a sboth
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k q u e sorganizations
o fpartner,
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t io n s s u c h a s
T h e fo l l o w i n g a r e k e
p l y c h a i n suppliers
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and trustworthy
the sup- c o n study
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such as
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tradeoff.
i
h
i
d
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following
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ply chain.s The
s
lo
c a t io n
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How will p ethe
suppliers location affect delivery
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lie r s w o r k c lo se l
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Typ e o f p rao supplier:
du c t (n eH
factors to con
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Qu a l i t y i new technology versus mature product)

Type of product
Quality Qu a l i t y a s s u F a n c e
lex ib i lit y
Quality Fassurance
Re l i a b i l i t y
Flexibility
the following:
How
c r it i c a l t o
q u a l it y i s
hat
w e are
b u y i n g?
HowW critical
we area buying?
h a t a r e wtoe quality
b u y i n g tish rwhat
o u gh t h i s
r t n e r sh i
p?
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a n we
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Sa v i n g s ? this partnership? Perfor
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buying
through
e l iv e r y?
mance?
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H o w m uDelivery?
h
i
b
i
c
s
e n g bo u ht ?
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h a t w i lis
l t being
h e t i m ebought?
in v e st m e n t b e ?
What
will
the
W h a t w i l l t htime
l a r i n v e s t m e nbe?
e d o linvestment
t be ?
Lo c a t io n
Reliability
What
W hwill
i t s w i ll investment
a t h the
e n e fdollar
w e r e c e i v e t hbe?
r o u gh t h i s
LocationPr i c e
Price
pa r t n
e r sh ip?
What benets will we receive through this partnership?
D e liv e r y
capa
b ili t v
ho
TAs
As
it h
an
y pa r t n
e r sh ip
ther e
be dr aw bac ks
can
uwith
r e l a partnership,
t i o n s h i p c a n b ethere
g h t h eany
m u t u can
a l l y bbe
i c i a l o ft e n
e n e fdrawbacks.
DeliveryL ecapability
a d t im e s
i n v e s tthe
Though
t s i n c o m p u t can
m e nrelationship
e r s y be
often
s t e mmutually
s o r d e d i cbenecial,
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ate
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en t
Fi n a n c i a l s t a b i l i t y
Lead times
investments
a r e n e c e s s in
a r ycomputer
a n d c o s t l y systems
dedicated
I f t h e s u por
equipment
p ly c h a i n i s c o m p l e x n o t
Financial
L e nstability
are necessary
gt h o f t i m e i n b u s i n e s s
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s o c i acostly.
t e d w i tIf
h the
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all
Length Rofe l atime
in
costs
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relationships
a r e s t r o n e r e a c h s i de s ho w in
a gr e a t e r c o m m it m e n t t o t h e
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other. There are economies of scale present with a single
,
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li
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difficulty.
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and
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ty
res
ll
s u p p ie r N a t u r a y
a v i n g o n y o n e o t e r o r ga n z a t o n t o
supplier.
Naturally, having
only one other organization to
c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h s i m p l i fi e s i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n ge a n d
communicate with simplies information exchange and
,
172
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
172
of
requires
.a .IOt
working with suppliers
negotiatin
m
CH
A PT ER SIXT EEN
makes it easier to keep
that information condential. There
are sound reasons for picking multiple suppliers, too. Hav-
0f akingfiomt decfsODS whe'

Negotiation is the process
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the basis of delivery and price. JFs inventory system, is a pull
The leaders at JF would like to achieve a two-week lead time
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complete
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At JF, the chief material needed is steel bars y
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communication is crucialgto ordering
variety
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s are less essen tial
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izmg JF computer
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Because JF does not make large purchases, it shops every
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because JF recognizes that some suppliers are better at producing certain steel than others and chooses accordingly. Once the
supplier meets quality assurance requirements, it is chosen on
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notifying receipt of the order is requested. Confirmation of the
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the plant can be tracked as the parts move from operation to
operation. Shipments are also tracked. Taken together, the new
order processing system supports the entire supply chain by
tracking and confirming the order process from customer quote

to final part delivery.
of the people involved. They also c an recognize where

the
two sides have matters of common
and
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both parties.
be i n g s u r e t ha t t h e s i n e d a r e e m e n t c o n v e s t h i
n ten t o f
g
There are falseg perceptions
about y thee negotiating
bo t h p a r t ie s
process. Good negotiators realize that negotiation is never a
win-lose confrontation. Each side must be able to feel good
about
the end results. ETooh big
an imbalance, and future
w i n l o s e c o n fr o n t a t i o n
ac
s i d e m u s t b e a b l e t o f e e l go o d
transactions
is
an
old adage that f u t u r egoes
may
suffer.
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a b o u t t h e e n d r e s u l t s To o b i
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around
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should be taken to strike
f f e r T hCare
e r e i s a n o l d a d a ge t h a t w h a t go e s
'a
mutually
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benecial
bargain
because
a r o u n d c o m e s a r o u n d C a r e s h o u l d b e each
t o s t r ik e a
t a k e n negotiation
rarely
transaction. Another false assumption
m u t u a lan
l y bisolated
is
e n e %c i a l b a r g a i n b e c a u s e e a c h n e g o t i a t i o n
about negotiating is that it is all about obtaining the lowest
possible
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a b o u t n e price.
g o t i a t i nAs
g is t h a t it is a ll a b o u t o bt a in in g t he lo w e st
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Negotiations
t L e a n Si x Si g m a T o o l s a t W o r
L E A N S IX S I G M A T O O L S
f o l lo w i n g
h a r a c t e r i s t ic s :
w i d e v a r ie t y o f c u s t o m e r s )
Reliability (on-time deliveries
regardless of weather or other
r e a r d le s
f
s o w e a t he r o r o t he r
g
problems)
p r o b Be m s )
Price (competitive)
P r i c e (c o m p e t it i v e )
(able to
DDelivery
shipments of JF size and
e l i v e r y c acapability
p a b i l i t y (a b l e t o m a nmanage
a g e s h i p m e n t s o f J F s iz
facility. Because
JF and dmost t off its
::
e c a u s e JF
it
rn o s
l
t u r i n g f a c i l it y
weight)
ig h t )
o
s
customers
c u s t o m operate
e r s o p e r aon
t e oan lUSt-intlmE
a j u s t n t ri l ebaSSi
b a s i s damaged
d m a g e d parts
pa r t s
.
e an
Lead times
(able to make regular
in reasonable
e s (a b l e t o m a k e r e u l a r d e l i vdeliveries
e r ie s i n r e a s o n a b le
g
Le a d t i m
times for
t i m e s f o r d i sdistances)
ta n c e s )
F Financial
i n a n c i a l s t astability
to a n d mand
b i l it y ( l a r(large
u g h t o h a v ehave
g e e n o enough
a i n tmaintain
a in
f e c t i v e s h shipping
e feffective
i p p i n g e q uequipment
i p m e n t a n d and
e m p employees)
lo y e e s )
inu sbusiness
L eLength
n g t h o f of
t i mtime
e in b
i n e s s ( n o t(not
n e w new
ort onew
t o b uto
s i nbusiness
ess o r n ew
o d u c t s o f of
t h ithis
s t y ptype)
Prproducts
e)
4 5
Damaged
of
Shipments
0 5
-\
o6
06 .530 Y90 9 50
00
e) g?
go
((60
Months
F I GU R E 16 8
D am
g e d Sh i p m
en ts
Damaged Shipments
9x
(3
Y)
0% 60
0 0
\e c}
o
9
(see
M o n t hs
FIGURE 16.8
w e
seriously
disrupt the supply
chain. Customers have been sympa
s e r i o u s ly d i s r u p t t h
e s u p p l y c h a i n C u s t o m e r s h a v e b e e n s y rr i p a
thetic,
JF
not
did
release d a r Ti a e d parts
to be
t he tknowing
i c k n o w i that
n g t h a t J F d id n o t r e l e a s edamaged
g
p a r t s t o be
shipped;
have
production
to
get
out
and
good
s hi pp ehowever,
d ; h o w e v ethey
r t h e y h a v e p r o d u c t io n t o g e t o u t a n d need
n e e d go o d
parts.pa rItt s isItJFs
to
provide
good
parts
ready
for
i s J Fresponsibility
i
i
b
i
l
it
s r e s po n s
se
y t o p r o v d e g o o d p a r t s r e a d y f o r uuse
whenw hneeded.
e n n e e d e If
d JF
1f Jcannot
F c a n n omanage
t m a n a g eitsi t spart
t h e s u p p ly cchain,
p a r tofo f the
supply h a i n
thent hthe
e n tcustomers
h e c u s t o m e will
f o rsomeone
k a r o u n dfor
l l l o o around
s o m e o n e who
w h o Will.
w il l
r s w ilook
Number=
t W O R K
F l e x ib i l it y (a b l e t o d e l iv e r t o a
R e l i a b i l it y (o n t i m e d e l i v e r i e s
e n e s s o f t he
shipper to their requests for meetings concerning damaged
prod
s h i p p e r t o t h e i r r e u e s t s f o r n : e e t /n s
q
c o n c e r n ir g d a m a gE d
g
pro d
uct. The company has been evasive and
with
insuru c t The c o m pa n
h
b
a
s
e e n e v ; j e I : n dhas
h a sriot'deail
y
r o t d e a i l w it h i n s u r
ance claims quickly. Damaged pads are a Signsiicant
on
a n c e c la i m s q u ic k l
y D a m a g e d p a r t s a r e a S rg f ; f ic a i l t burden
bu r de n o n
the JF manufacturing
:
Quality (low damage rate)

Quality assurance (ability to monitor and improve shipping
Q u a l it y a s s u r a n c e (a b il it y t o m o n it o r a n d i m r o v e s h i i n
p
pp g
process)
pro c e s s )
Flexibility
(able to deliver to a wide variety of customers)
,/
Because the leaders at JF already have a clear idea of what

theyB ewould
h e l e a d e r s a t J Fcurrent
c a u s e tlikemaintain
h a v e aand
a l r e a d y price
c l e adelivery
r i d e a o f times
w h a t while
h e y w o u ldshipment
T
l i ke
reducing
m a idamagethey
n t a i n c u r r e n t p r iknow
c e a n dwhat
d e l i v they
e ry t i m
h i le
e s w to
need
r e d u c i n g when
s h i p m they
e n t d meet
discuss
a m a g epotential
t h e y k n onew
w w h
a t t h e y n e eThey
d t o have
suppliers.
i s c u s s w htheir
dnarrowed
e n t h ecandidates
l n e w s u p psuppliers
n t i apreferring
l i e r s T h e y with
y m e e t p o t e by
h a v e the
n
a
r r o w e d t characteristics:
h e i r c a n d id a t e s by p r e f e r r i n g s u
following
p p l ie r s w it h t he
e e : v / i u ld b e t o r e d u c e t h is
are also
damage.
the
0f the
d a m aThey
s o c o n c e r r r e With
g e T h e y a r e a lCOC9"Ed
d w i : h t h eresponsiveness
r e s o o n s iv
m a n u fa c
n ex
' "
The leaders at JF decided to shop around

and compare their
T h e company
le a d e r s a t J
F d e others
shipping
c id e d t oins h
with
op a
ro u n d a n
the
market.
d c o mcurrent
Their
p a r e t h e ir
i n g c o m p ahas
s hipp
it h o t h e r s iwell
n y wperformed
shipping
company
n t h e on
m aprice
r ke t T
h e i r delivery.
c u r re n t
and
i n g cof
s hi ppone
o m pa n y h a s p e r f o r m e d
However,
the performance measures
w e l l o n p r ic e a n d d l i
e v e rprodthat JF tracks,
y
Ho w e v e rduring
o n e o f t he pe r f o r m a n c
uct damage
e m e a s u r e s t ha t J F t r a k
shipment, has been
c the
creeping up over
s p rpast
od
u c t d a m a g e d u r in
h ip m e n t h a s b e e n c r e
g s 16.8).
several months (Figure
e p in g u p o v e r t he
While recognizing
that
pa s t
their
heavy
s e v e r a l m o n t h s ( F ig u r e 16 8 ) W h i t
product
e r e c o g n iz in
is relatively easy to damage, the
a t t he ir h e a v y
gatt hJP
leaders
would
like
p r o d u c t i s r e l a t iv e ly e a- s y t o d a m a g e t h e l e a d e r s t J. F
to keep
a
number 0f
w o u ld l i k e
the
shipments damaged to one shipment _
damaged In any three-month
time period, the level of the preVI
da m
e d i n a n y t h r e e m o n t h t im e
p e r i o d t h e [e v e ] o f t h e p r e v i
ous yearsa gperformance.
Even better WGUld
be to reduce this
OUS y e a r s p e r f o r m a n c e Ev e n b t t
t he JF
173
0 V\px
9.0
to
174
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Several companies were selected for on-site visits. There,

leadership from JP studied the companies' activities and
processes in order to verify the following:
Quality assurance activities (how does the organization
capture the voice of the customer or JFs shipping needs?)
Quality planning process (a plan for future support of
customers, including improvements)
Process flow diagrams for key processes (how are shipments
handled?)
Key process capability (what is their performance level with
other similar shipments?)
Process performance measures (how do they measure their

performance?)
Continuous improvement based on performance
measures (what improvements are they planning in the
near future?)
Operator instructions (what are their drivers told to do, and
how are they trained?)
Visual factory (what does their equipment, trucks, look

like?)
Customer communication (how will information be shared?)
feature shows, supplier negotiations usually have three

aspects: quality, delivery, and price.
Purchasing plays a key role in organizational effectiveness.
It should not be taken lightly. Purchasing agents must do their
homework when selecting suppliers, outsourcing activities, or
developing partnerships. These relationships must be assessed
and audited for both new and existing suppliers. Site visits
ensure that suppliers are able to meet their commitments.
Measures of performance apply to external as well as internal
activities. Negotiations with chosen suppliers ensure value
creation by balancing delivery, price, and quality. Effective
organizations choose their suppliers carefully, knowing that
they are not all created equal.
SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT

CHALLENGES
Effective organizations treat their supply chains as processes
that must be managed and improved. Process improvement
techniques support a quality management focus that ensures
reliability and high quality delivered to the customer. Because

suppliers play a large role in providing a quality product or
service to the customer, effective organizations ensure that
suppliers share their philosophy. This means that the suppliers they chose conform to standards such as ISO 9000. Qual
ity assurance audits conrm or deny good suppliers. Effective
organizations appraise the performance of the supply chain.
Performance parameters are negotiated in advance and are
measured and tracked. Supply chains are continuously
improved and made lean.
When a supply chain lacks synchronization, problems
arise. The longer the supply chain, the greater the effects
of changes in demand. Disruptions to any one of the
organizations on the supply chain seriously affect its
performance capabilities. These problems can be reduced
Scanned
Workforce stability or employee turnover

On-time delivery performance
JF leaders made careful study of the results of their supplier
out. They
visits. In the final analysis, two companies stood
requirements.
their
discuss
to
invited each to visit their plant
question because
The negotiation moved quickly past the pricing
the critical performboth companies were very c0mpetitive. On
damage during
ance measureson-time delivery rate and
too: When
performance,
delivery
similar
had
shipmentboth
companies
two
the
negotiations focused on performance.
its Involvement
differed widely. One of the Companies negotiated
the
for
prepared
clearly
had
It
process.
in the packing
of Jfs
real
negotiation in advance. lts in-depth understanding
the situation
expectations became obvious. It clearly evaluated
desrred result:
JF's
on
focused
alternatives
several
and generated
and competitive
no damage during shipment, on-time delivery,
the
pricing. It understood what was essential, and this enabled
changes that
company to prepare a package detailing packaging
even
presented
it
package
The
could better protect the parts.
materials.
packaging
on
money
JF
ended up saving
kz/
by communication and information sharing throughout

the supply chain. Information availability also helps to
reduce lead times and supports smaller batch sizes.
SUMMARY
Supply chains play a strategic role in organizational success.
Effective supply chains can be judged by a variety of metrics,

including its ability to provide order fulllment, ontime
delivery, lead time, value added per employee, inventory
turns, stockouts, quality, response time, and cycle times.

A supply chain must be designed with quality, cost, exibility, speed, and customer service in mind. In this global economy, supply chains know no boundaries. To be effective,
supply chains must be designed with the organizations
strategy in mind. The supply chain should correspond to the
views on outsourcing and insourcing. Effecorganizations
tive organizations insource tasks and processes related to
their core competencies and outsource tasks that are not
critical. For instance, at IF, its core competencies revolve
around its ability to machine parts. It outsources payroll

operations because an organization whose primary function
is payroll generation and tracking will perform it more
efciently and cost effectively.
supply chains are really networks (Figure 16.3).
Effective
The
cannot be managed as separate activities but
functions
as one in a series of events. Decisions concerning the supply
chain must be carefully considered for their effects on other
aspects of the chain. For this reason, effective organizations
their supply chain partners carefully, knowing that efchose
fective supply chains are built on relationships. Business
partners in the supply chain maintain clear commUnicatio
channels and have a distinct interest in each others success-
Whether these organizations are worldwide or local, theY

display traits that Strengthen relationships even when
difculties occur. Suppliers have a reputation for providing

quality products or services on a timely basis. They are
reliable and consistent on an ongoing basis.
TAKE AWAY TIPS

1. Supply chains create value through two aspects: the
physrcal movement of materials and exchange of information about those materials.
2. A supply chain procures material, performs value-
added processing, and distributes products or services

to customers.
3. A supply chain supports organizational success by

ensuring reliability, adaptability, low costs, and appropriate asset utilization.
4. The elements of a supply chain are inventory manage-
ment, information sharing, e-commerce, logistics, and

purchasing.
5. Information management and maintaining data
integrity and security are crucial to the supply chain.
6. Ecommerce refers to the electronic integration of
information into the supply chain.
7. Distribution or logistics management refers to material
handling, warehousing, packaging, and transportation.

8. The role of purchasing is to procure materials needed
by an organization.
9. Negotiation is the process of making a joint decision
about quality, delivery, and pricing.
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
175
CHAPTER PROBLEMS
What is a supply chain?
. What are the benets of a well-managed supply chain?
3. What are the objectives of effective supply chain
management?
What organizations might be involved in a supply

chain?
What do organizations involved in a supply chain transfer
back and forth?
Why is information so critical to supply chain
management?
7. What role does information play in a supply chain?

8. What role does e-commerce play in supply chain management?
What are the challenges to creating an effective supply

chain?
10. Describe the role that purchasing plays in the supply
chain.
i, Describe the purchasing cycle.

12. What is meant by logistics?
13. Why does logistics play a key role in supply chain management?
From a rm you have visited or worked with, describe

the logistical activities there.
15. From a rm you have visited or worked with, describe
supply chain activities, including who is involved and

what they provide.

N=
CHAPTEQ
SEVENTEE. I
S T A T IS T IC S
STATISTICS
Bf t h i g
ig h t j
d
n
s w e re
On e h o u r
one r
o f u n sa fe
u st
9 9 9 pe rc e n t
d r i n ki n g
w a te r
pe r
of
t he t im
t he n
e,
we
'
d ha v e t o
a c c e pt
accept
then we d ha ve to
m o n th
time,
right just 99.9 perce nt of the
i
=
If things
Tw o u nwere
s a f e done
p l a n e l a n d i n g s p e r d a y a t 0 H a r e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i n Ch c a g o
=
1 6 0hour
0 0 pof
i e cunsafe
e s o f mdrinking
u smonth
Po s t a l Se r v i c e e v e r y ho u r
a i l l o s t bwater
y t h e per
I One
in Chicago
lnterna tional Airport
Hare
per day at 0
I= 2 0 0 0 0 i n c r
'
d r u g p r e s c r i p t i o n s p e r ye a r
o r e c t landings
Two unsafe plane
hour
the U. 8. Postal Service every
5 0 0 i n c pieces
mail
o r r e c t sof
i c a l lost
16,000
u rg
O p e rby
a t io n s e a c h w e e k
,
per year
2 2 000
0 0 0 incorrect
20,
c h e c k s d drug
t e d f r o m t he w r o n g ba n k a c c o u n t s pe r ho u r
e d u c prescriptions
each week
500
3 2 0incorrect
0 0 m i s s esurgical
d h e a r t boperations
e a t s pe r pe r s o n pe r y e a r
per hour
22,000 checks deducted from the wrong bank accounts
32,000 missed heartbeats per person per year
,
Or i g i n a l
s o u r c e u n }m o w n
Original source unknown
O u a ll l y : V a r i a t i o n
Re d u c t i o n O p p o r t u n lt l e s
Quality: Variation
Reduction Opportunities
Process
Capability
FM EA
$A
Va r i a b l e s
CVariables
o n tr o l C h a t
Control Charts
&A
-s
St a t i s t i c s the
t h ecollection,
c o 11e c t i o n t a b 1 l a t i o n a n a l y s i s interpretation,
Statistics,
tabulation, analysis, i n t e r pr e t a t i o n
m e t ho d
a n d
d a t a provides
n u m e r i c a tdata,
v i a bl e method
o fnumerical
and
presentation
p r e s e n t a t i o nof
p r o v i d e s aa viable
,
ea n
f s u p p o r t i n goro rclarifying
T he llean
l e a n Six
Si x Sigma
Si gm a project.
c l a r i M n gaalean
ofo supporting
p r o j e c t The
E A R N 1N G O P P O RT U N I T I E S
1
To
r e v ie w
b a s ic
s t a t i s t ic a
Si x Si g m amethodology
SIX
a n a l yz e d
m e t h o d o l o g yuses
c o l l e c t e d analyzed,
u s e scorrectly
c o r r e c t l y collected,
Sigma
and
nd
a n d i n t e r p r e t e dstatistical
i n f o r m a t i o n to
t o understand
s t a t i s t i c a linformation
u n d e r s t a n d aand
interpreted
predict
process
behavior. T h e ve
s t at i st i
f+v e aspects
o f statisticsa s p e c t s of
p r e d i c t p r o c e s s b e h a v i o r The
tabulation, analysis, interpretation, and
collection,
,
c o n c e pt s
u dy
presentationare equally important when analyzing the
present in a process. Once gathered and analyzed:

variation
statlstical data are the mathematical measures that can be
used
aid in decisions about making process changes or
to
pursuing a particular course of action.
r a n ge
a n d s t a n da r d
d e v ia t i o n f o r
g iv e n
set o f n u m
be r s
d e r s t a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t he n o r m a l c u r v e
i n q u a l it y a s s u r a n c e
a n d t h e c e n t r a l l i m it t he o r e m
To k n o w h o w t o f i n d t h e a r e a u n d e r a c u r v e u s i n g t h e
i
z t a b le s )
s t a n d a r d n o r m a l p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r ib u t o n (
To
17R
To
un
un
d e r s t a n d ho w t o in t e r pr e t t h e i n f o r m a t io n
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a c t io n
POPULATIONS VERSUS
P O P U L A T IO N S V E R S U S
SAMPLES
SA M P L ES
Statistics can be gathered by studying either the entire
n t ir e
t h e ae P0"
in g eith
ore r only
s t u ad y
associated
process
a t h e r e d bwith
n be g
c avalues
S
t a t i s t i c s of
y
P
collection
a
r o n lpossible
tlon
of the values. A population
d w isi t ha acollection
p r o c e s s oofall y
c o lle c t io n o f v a lu e s a ss o c ia t e
'
T ki g S pl
values,
associated wit
a n or
a items
am e
it a situation. A
elcmems
can
a nite
number 0 f things
.contain
opulation.
or it may
nearly innite. As
size
of
a
pop
be
ulation
the
increases,
population becomes unw

studying that
ieldy unless samcan be used. A sample is a subset
ling
of elements or m
915taken from a population. A
rements
doctors
An outlesample
t store has
ust receiveda shi5ment of 1, 000sofce
hi
t
j
r
s
s
ealed
10 insurance
wish to
claim forms per week
to clinak
in car
the
dboarfor
forms
dbocompleteness.
fj o
xes The s:ore haA
manufacturer
rdered 800whitof
e shi
rts and
tooth
aesct e
check the weight
of a dozen tubes per hour
m ay
to
200the
bluetubes
The sare
tore lled
manage
r wishes to checkthat there acterfsu
ually
that
COIIECtly.
A sample will represerri:
population as long the sample
'
the
ishrandom
are 20percent blue shirtsas
i
hi
H
t
d
!: d 8k percent w
t
t
a
s
r
and
e
s
e
o
esn
unbiased- In a random sample, each item in the population
has
wansame
t to opopportunity
beanselected.
dcount a:I of the shirts, so he has
en all of the bto
o: es
the
.
An
of biased sampling
could occur
decidedtexample
le the pIf,opwhen
of
ultsthe
o sampoor.
ulationanTab.e 17 1shows the reson
manufacturing
inspector
receives a
skid of
inspector always samples from the
10randthat
goods,
top
i
h
h
l
f
1
0
t
layer
om sampes o
s r s eac
and
takes a part
from each of the four corners of the
skid, the
,
sample is biased. The parts in the rest of the skid have

not
been considered. Furthermore, operators observing this

behavior may choose to place only the best-quality product
in
those corners. The inspector has biased the sample because

it is not random and does not represent all of the parts of
the skid. The inspector is receiving an incorrect impression
Sample
Sample
Number of
Number
Size
White Shirts
Statistics
# . c
in a random yet systematic fashion. Its collection should not
rely on convenience or deception.

Unbiased samples depend on other features besides
randomness. Conditions surrounding the population
Agreanot
ter nbeumaltered
ber of binlueany
foundsample
shiway
in sometosasample.
Should
rts isfrom
mples The
sampling method can also undermine the validity of a samthan in others
However, when the results are comp
iledvalidity
the blueof a
ple. A sound data
collection plan will ensure the
,
eleven
following
ise 19pthe
hirts combyprasking
ssample
t, veryclose
ercen
to thquestions:
e desiredvalue of
.
20 percent The manager of the outlet store is leasedto learn

p
How was the problem dened?
that th
have shown that there are approximatel
e samwas
What
ples studied?
y
How many
were sampled?
20 percen
t blue shitems
irts and80 percent white
How was the sample taken?
What was its source?
How often?
Who collected the data?
Have conditions changed?

How will the data be used?
What will the data be used to predict?
How will the data be displayed?
Number of
Percentage of
Blue Shirts
Blue Shirts
An outlet store has just received a shipment of 1,000 shirts sealed

in cardboard boxes. The store had ordered 800 white shirts and
10 that there actually7

200 blue. The store manager
2 wishes to check
are 20 percent blue shirts and 80 percent white shirts. He doesn't

want to open all of the boxes and count all of the shirts, so he has
decided to sample the population. Table 17.1 shows the results of
10
Sample
Number
Sample
Size
10
10
72
0
110
84
0
110
95
0
110
7
103
9
10
10
10
10
10
To10
tal
Total
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
10
10
100
_19
100
Number of
White7Shirts
8
30
20
10
Percentage of
Blue3Shirts
0
2o
2
3
2
1
108
20
78
32
9
818
_7
81
Number of
Blue Shirts
3
8
7
98
9
20
A greater number of blue shirts is found in some samples

than in others. However, when the results are compiled, the blue
shirts comprise 19 percent, very close to the desired value of
20 percent. The manager of the outlet store is pleased to learn
that the samples have shown that there are approximately
20 percent blue shirts and 80 percent white.
,atrAaiuslgizfasA
Sampling1of0 Shirtsiza. :;
10
4
SIXSIGMATOOLS at WOR K
10
10 random samples of 10 shirts each.
wgathered
0 RK
about the quality in the entire skid. Data should be
Taking a Sample
177
1
192
3
19
20
30
20
1
0
10
20
30
20
10
20
19
A)
19
1Q)
SEVENTEEN
S EV EN T EEN
C H A PT ER
17817 8 CHAPTER
C O L L E C T IO N
DATA
D A T ACOLLECTION
Also
A lso
d ti
of statistics exist: deductive and inductive.
TwoTwtypes
o t y p e s o f s t a t i s t i c s e x i s t : d e d u c t iv e a n d i n u c v e
a
describe
statistics
deductive
statistics,
d e s c r i be a
known
k n o wasn descriptive
a s d e s c r ip t i v e s t a t i s t i c s d e d u c t i v e s t a t i s t i c s
a
or complete group of data. When describing
population
ibin g a
Po p u l a t i o n o r c o m p l e t e g r o u p o f d a t a W h e n d e s c r must
using deductive statistics, the investigator
population
i ga t o r m u s t
p o p u l a t i o n u s i n g d e d u c t i v e s t a t i s t i c s t h e i n v e s tprovides
a
This
population.
the
within
entity
each
study
h
i
T
s p r o v id e s a
s t u dy e a c h e n t it y w i t h i n t he p o p u l a t io n
or
product,
of information about the population,
greatr edeal
p r o du c t o r
p u l a t i o nconsuming.
g a t d e a l o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e p o is
the information itime
gathering
process, but
u m in g
p r o c e s s b u t g a t h e r i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s t i m e c o n sin
the
Imaginei contactingi each hman, woman, and dchild
c h i ld i n t he
Im ag n e co n tact n g eac m a n w o m an an
United States, all 300 million of them, to conduct the
,
U n i t e d St a t e s ,
national census!
a ll
30 0
ill i o
f t he m
to
co n
du
t he
When the quantity of the information to be studied is
n a t i o n a l c e n su s !
w h
di e d i s
e s u
e n t e q u a n t i t y o f t h e i n fo r m a t i o n t o
statistics are used. Inductive statistics
too great, inductive
t is t ic s
deal with a limited amount of data or a representative sample
d e a l w i t h a l i m i t e d a m o u n t o f d a t a o r aanalyzed
sa m p l e
a t i v e interof the population. Once samples are r e p r e s e n tand
in t e r
a n d popo f t h e Po p u l a t i o n O n c e s a m pconcerning
y z e dlarger
predictions can be made l e s a r e a n a lthe
preted,
l
h
e a r census)
r e d i c t iQuality
n g t US.
o n s can b
e m a d e c o n(and
c e r n ithe
p r e t e dofpdata.
ge r p o p
assurance
ulation
h
l
i
s
u
d
f
d
l
i
t
c e n su s )
t
e
t
n
t
u
a
n
o
o
a
a
a
s
s
u
r
a
n
c
e
a
u
a
(
Q
gathered
Properly
statistics.
y
relies primarily on inductive
l
l
l
i
i
i
P
i
i
i
i
d
t wealth
o pinformation.
e r y ga t h e r e d
e s p r m sample
rof
st c s
a r y o n data
n
uprovides
c t v e st a a
andr eanalyzed,
fo r m a t i o n
d a n types
i d e s be
a nTwo
a l y z e dof
e a l t h o f i n Variables
s astatistical
m p l e d a t a data
a w collected.
p r o v can
bl e s
ll
d
Va r i a are
l
h
i
i
T
t
d
measured,
e
c
e
t
can
be
t
t
c
o
t
t
o
that
a
n
e
w
e
a a c
s a s ca
data, those quality
y p s o characteristics
d a t a differently
i t y c 1aattribute
r ed a r e
e m e a s ucharact h o s e q u a lfrom
c a n bquality
s t h a tthose
r a c t e r i s t i cdata,
treated
l i ryabsent,
d a t a present
beu t eeither
d i ff eare
l y f r o m a tto
t h o s e q u t +or
c 1a r a c
tr ib
t r e a t e dthat
r e n tobserved
teristics
variables
both
Although
h a nonconforming.
se n t
t a r e o bs e r v e t B t o b e e i t h e r p r e s e n t o r a band
t e r i s t i c s tor
conforming
data
h o u g h b o t hattribute
v a r i a bl e s a n d
attribute
A Lt numbers,
i n g ocan
r n obe
n c odescribed
n l o r m i n g by
c o n f o r mdata
to o
gr e a t
i n d u c t iv e st a t i s t i c s
I n du c t iv e
a r e u se d
s ta
data is collected in
areacountable,
t t r i b u t e d a not
t a c ameasurable.
e d by n u m b e r s a t t r i b u t e d a t a
n b e d e s c r i b Attribute
and labels such as

thea r form
s u r a b l e A t t r i b u t e d a t a i s c o l le c t e d i n
n o t m e apercentages,
a b l ecounts,
e c o u n tof
and yes/no.
good/bad,
t h e f o r pass/fail,
m
o f co u n ts
p e r c e n t a ge s a n d l a b e l s s u c h a s
,
an
d y e s/ n
n
are continuous, the measured value can take on any Value
data
d a t a a r e c o n t i n u o u s t l 1e m e a s u r e d v a l u e c a n t a ke o n a n y v a l
ue
values that the measurements
a range. The range of
within
f v a lu e s t ha t t he m e a su r em en t
w i t h i n a r a n ge T h e r a n ge o
s
be set by the expectations of the users or the
can take on will
i ll b e s e t b t h e e x e c t a t i o n s o f t h e u s e r s O
,
r t he
p situation. For example;
y
c a n t ake o n w
the
a
surrounding
circumstances
F
i
i
t
n
h
o
t
o
u
a
r
e
din g t e s
x a m le
c ir c u m st a n c e s su r r o u n
ofp a
wish to monitor the thickness a part.

manufacturer might
i h t w is h t o m o n it o r t h e t h ic kn e s s o f a
,
p a r t of
samples may have values
the courseg of the dday, tthe
l s m a y ha v e v a lu es o f
t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a y h e s a m p eand
inch.
0.398
m a n u fa c t u r e r m
During
D u r in g
0.401, 0.400, 0.401, 0.403,
0.399, 0.402,
98 i n c h
4 0 1 0 4 0 3 a n d 0 3In
0 4 00 0of
0 39 9 0 4 0 2 0 4 0 1 consist
other words,
distinct parts.
Discrete data
I
t i n c t p a r t s n o t husing
r ds
c o n s i s t o f d i swill
D i s c r e t e d a t adiscrete
be countable e r w o whole
data
when measured,
bl
i
b
t
l
l
a
e
s
u
n
i
u
c
o
n
l
e
d
t
w
w
a
a
1o l e
d
i
t
e
sc r e
g packw he n m e a su r e d
For example, the number of frozen vegetable
numbers.
v e g e t a bl e
b e rinventory
o f f r o z e n count10
h e n u m an
pa
packr e x a mshelf
n u m be r s F o
the p l e tduring
found on
ages
,
10 p a of
n t packages
n v e n t o rcom,
f d u r i n g aof
n ifrozen
t h e s h8e lpackages
y c o u 22
f o ufrozen
n d o n peas,
ages of
e n c o r n 2 2data.
e s o f f r o z countable
p a c k aBecause
f r o z e n psproutsis
e a s 8 p a c k a gdiscrete,
ge s o f
a g e s o fBrussels
frozen
d
bl
B
t
t
a
a
n
a
e
i
t
e
d
u
c
o
e
i
r
e
when
c
s
s
e
u t s only
sold to customers c a u sthe
be
f r o z e n B r upackages
s s e l s s p r o can
vegetable
l
t
m e r s w h e n t he
d
t
s
o
l
b
c
u
o
o
whole-numbered
s
e
n
only
k
n
o
s
c
a
e
l
b
a
c
a
unopened,
t
e
and y
v e ge a
are
g
p whole
packages
l y w h o l e n u m bwould
e r ed
n o p e n e d o nmeasurements
h
a n d u continuous
o l e exist;
k
e
w
r
a
e
s
a
will
a
c
measurements
g
p
ld
e m e n t s the
e a s u rbecause
w o u data
t i n u o u s m data,
i l l this
e x i s tcase.
; c o n Attribute
r e m e n t s w in
s u applicable
m e abe
not
a ge s
conforming
d a t not
a u s e t h e d a t a to
a be c
s e A t t r i b u t e or
t h i s c aconforming
b e a pas
c a b l e i neither
n o t seen
are
p l ibeing
f o r m i n gdata.
o r n o t c o n fo r m i n g t o
i n g primarily
e i t h e r c o n discrete
specications,
A r e s e e n a s b e are
with
begins
d
t athe gathering of data
i
d
l
a
i
analysis
t
i
e
c
r
e
s
i fi cstatistical
a t io n s a r e p r m a r y
s p e cA
raw
r i n g gathered
a t h edata
o f da t a
l y s i s b e g iSometimes
n s w it h t he g
aboutA as tprocess
a n aproduct.
a t i s t i c a l or
Ungrouped
data.
of
ungrouped
form
the
take
d
i
a
process
t
a
a
a
t
r
w
d
S
from
e
s
a
m
m
i
o
e
u c
abo u t a pr o c e ss o r pr o
g t he r e d
it appears
viewed,
when
because
recognized
easily
data
f r o m are
a p r o c e s s t a k e t h e f o r m o f u n g r o u p e d d a t a U}r g r o u p e d
on the
data,
Grouped
data are without any order.
that
d a t a the
a r e e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e ci b e c a u s e w h e n v i e w e d i t a ppe a r s
grouped together on the basis of when the valother
1e d a t are
a a r e w i t h o 14 t a n y o r d e r G r o u p e d d a t a o n t h e
t 1a t thand,
observed. Consider the following Lean vSix
or
taken
ues
were
o t h e r h a n d a r e g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r o n t h e ba s i s o f w h e n t i l e
Tools at Work feature.
Sigma
L e a n Si x
u e s w e r e t a k e t o r o bs e r v d C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n
,
Si g m
To o l s a t W o r k fe a t u
it
b i l e17.1).
(Figure
a u to m o
f la t
t e r e s e m b l e s a attention
t c hthe
r t a c l u to
i s s i ocustomer
n s O n e p abrought
t r a n s m the
p l a manufacturer's
Recently,
Fi
17
it
to
the 1 )
i
t
cut
out
r
e
d
n
u
t
(
o
being
m
f
k
it
h
e
are
s
a
keyways
a
s
o
u
r
e
w
l
the
t
w
all
of
e
d
g
not
p
o u n that
y
the r fact
y
p a
l y t h e c u s t o m e r b r o u g ht t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s a t t e n t i o n
t he f a c t t h a t n o t a l l o f t h e k e y w a y s a r e be i n g c u t o u t t o t h e
ec e nt
2.3;.. "3.4-. .-...' 5.,
G r o u p i n g Da t a
for
r i o u s p a r t sinto
t u r e s v a stamped
n u f a ckeyways
A c oplate
m p a nwith
y m afour
round
re
I: Aixi'isllihsiGMA TOOLS at WORK
A company manufactures various parts for automobile

transmissions. One part, a clutch plate, resembles a flat
Grouping Data
/
[b
go o d / b a d p a s s l fa il
data tend to be continuous in nature. When

Variables
V a r i a b l e s d a t a t e n d t o be c o n t i n u o u s i n n a t u r e Wh e
s irG M A T O O L S
correct depth. The manufacturer asked the operator to meas
ure each keyway in five parts every 15 minutes and record the
h e m a n17.2
k e d results.
t h e o p e rWhen
c o r r e c t d e p t h TTable
u f a c tshows
u r e r a sthe
measurements.
a t o r t o managers
me
f i v e interpret
h kanalyze
started
the
data
they
t
e y w a y i nand
r
u r e e a c to
1
5
i
were
unable
d
t hto
t
a
s
e
v
r
d
e
e
m
n
e
s
n
u
r
r
a
e
c
o
p
y
do
M eso.
a s u Why?
r e m e n t s Ta b l e 17 2
s t a rte d
do
so
to
ana
s ho w s
t he
res u
lt s W h e n
lyz e a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e d a t a t h e y w e r e
m a n a ge r s
u na
W hy ?
Specification
0.250 in.
S p e->
c ifi c a t io n
0 2 5 0 in
FIGURE 17.1
Clutch Plate
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
FIGURE 17.2
Clutch Plate with Mark
b le t o
0 24 7
.
17.2
0 268
Clutch Plate Ungrouped Data0
(in inches)
0.245
261
0 0.254
0.271
0.260
0.268
0.276
0.278
0.261
23 1
0 0.231
0.268
0.260
0.230
0.224
0.241
0.243
0.224
0.225
of this raw, ungrouped data reveals that

2 6there
0Anisinvestigation
0 276
which measurements belong with
no way to
determine
which keyway. Which keyway is too deep? Too shallow? It is not
possible to determine the answer.
To rectify this situation, during the stamping process, the
manufacturer placed a small mark below one of the keyways
(Figure 17.2). The mark labels that keyway as number 1.
Clockwise around the part, the other keyways are designated 2,
3. and 4. The mark does not affect the use of the part. The operator was asked to measure the keyway depths again, five. parts
0 278
0.247
179
0 271
2 54
0 TABLE
.
Statistics
0 24 5
0 268
.
0 260
.
0 230
.
0 224
.
every 15 minutes (Table 17.3).
0 243
keyway, it could then be
0.222
data according to
0 22
4By organizing the
25
0 2 num
determined that keyway number 2 is too deep, and keyway
0.232
0.242
0.254
0.244
0.242
0.277
0.248
0.222
0.236
0.242
0.260
0.262
266
0 0.242
0.249
0.223
0.264
0.250
0.240
226
0 0.218
0.251
0.222
0.216
0.255
0.261
263
0 0.266
0.247
0.244
0.266
0.250
0.249
242
0 0.218
0.235
0.226
0.269
0.258
0.232
0.260
0.251
0.250
0.245
0.248
0.250
0,239
0.252
0.248
0.251
24 1
0 0.252
.
0.258
252
0 0.266
.
0.226
0 0.263
2 58
.
24 2
0 0.241
2 64
0 0.246
ber 4 is too shallow.
0 222
0 232
0 24 2
0 2 54
0 244
0 24 2
0 277
0 248
0 222
0 236
0 26 2
0 260
.
0 223
0 24 9
0 2 50
0 24 0
0 2 18
0 251
0 222
0 2 16
0 2 55
0 26 1
Keyway l
0 266
Keyway 3
Keyway 4
0.261
0.250
0.240
0.259
0.249
0242
0.251
0,245
0.250
0.243
0.250
0.244
0.249
0.245
0.250
0,241
0.249
0.247
0.250
0.245
0.251
0.244
0.250
0.243
0.251
0.244
0.250
0.245
0.249
0.246
0.250
0.246
Keyway 2
0 24 7
Subgroup
0.250
0 2 6 6 Subgroup
0.251
Subgroup 3
0.250
Subgroup 4
0.249
0.250
23 5
0 0.262
Subgroup 6
0.251
0.260
Subgroup 7
0.251
Subgroup 8
0.250
0.250
Subgroup 10
0.249
0 2 18
.
0 269
.
Subgroup
0 2 6 0 Subgroup
.
0 2 4 1Subgroup 11
0.250
Subgroup 12
0.251
0 2 5 0 Subgroup 13
0.250
Subgroup 14
0.250
0 2 4 6 Subgroup 15
sUdl ll ICU Uy DUI I IOUdI ll IUI
0.250
0 0.258
2 50
0.257
258
0 0.258
0.259
!
0 0.257
0.256
245
G 0.260
0.258
0 0.257
:: 3 9
,
0.256
248
0 0.257
0 24 4
0 24 9
0 226
0 232
.
0 2 50
G 248
.
0 252
.
0 5 1
.
'-.. IOU"
UHHI- I C. DEVEIV I :Ell
ACCURA Cy PRE
CISION,
ACCURACY, PRECISION,
A NDMEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENTERROR
AND
With reproducibility
set u p, or
setup,
o r environmental
env iro n m en t al ccondition.
o n dit ion W
ith r epr odu cib
ilityand} .
the variation is due to the person. Gage repeatability
,
h
t
"
e
e v ar iat ion is d
t
'
u
e
er
studies
the; 1
s
seek
G
o
n
to
reduce
R8<R)
age re eat abili
p
reproducibility (Gage
p
t
I ROR
machine, and y and

variation
bility (Ginageinstrument,
R&R) st u dies seek t o red setup, as
repro duc ipresent
uce all
well as operator variability. If the process is stable,
thethat
iatisiopart
variability.
t i n in st r u m en t , m achine an d
n pr esen
left
isvar
setu
,
p, asThe
Figure 17.3a pictures the concept of accuracy.
l
i
i
b
f
i
I
h
t
w ell as o per at or vthe
t
ar
a
e
r
o
ce
i
with
Figure
17.3b,
s
y target.p s s stable ll all of
center
average to
The validity of a measurement not only comes from the

The v alidit o f a
selection
of aysample
mesize
asu reand
the
m enan
t n ounderstanding
t o n ly co m es frof
om t he
group
of
data
being
measured, but also depends on
selec t i o n o f a sa
m ple size an d
the measurements
themselves andanhow
u nd
they
were
er st an
din gtaken.
o f t he
Measurement
r
ou
error
f
occurs
the measurements are
g p o dat a bein g m eawhile
su r ed, bu t also d
being taken and recorded. Measurement
ds on
error eispen
considh
t
e
m
eas
u r dierence
em en t s t her
ered to be the
between
measured
and the
n selv esaan
d how t hvalue
e wer e t aken
true
value.
The
that occurs is one either yof accuracy
Measu r em en error
er r o r o ccu r s w hil
or of precision. tAccuracy
refers to how
e t hefar
theen
actual
mfrom
easu r em
t s ar e
or b
real
value
the
measurement
ein g
t aken an d r eco r d d is. Precision is the ability to
e Mea su r em en t
is con
er r or
repeat a series of measurements
sid
and get the same
value
each
d
e
r
e
t
b
o
e t he is
time. Precision
di sometimes
er en ce betwe
referred
as repeatability.
en a meto
asu r ed v a lue a nd the
Repeatability
means
being
able
to
achieve
the same result
t r ue va l The er
r o r t hat oto
time after ue
time. Challenges
cc urepeatability
r s is o n e ei theroccur
o f acceven
ur ac
marks
, a th
at
shows precision. Figure 17.3c
together,
the
ft is parclustered
Is lemarks
l
b
i
i
i
t var a ty
describes a situation in which both accuracy and precision
Work feature
Tools
igu r efollowing
17 3a picLean
t u res Six
theSigma
con cep
t o f aat
exist. FThe
ccur ac
y he
and Figures 17.4, 17.5, and 17.6 illustrate the concepts of
m ar ks av er age to the cen ter tar get Figu r e 17 3b w ith ll
a
precision.
,
accuracy and
of
lack of accuto
the
contribute
may
errors
Measurement
h
the m ar ks clust er ed to get er, show s precision Fi ure 173
.
g alwaysc the
racy and precision. Measurement errors are not
any sitmeasuring.
descrofibthe
w hich bo ththe
accu
es aindividual
sit uat ion inperforming
racy an d rIn
fault
p ecisio
including environ-
several sources of error exist,

y uation,
SigmEnvironmental
when
w in g Lean Sixerror.
ex ist The fo llo
a To ols at Wo r kproblems,
o r ousing
f pr ecthe
person,
feature
or
instrument,
or
machine,
isio nsame
Accu r a cy r efer s to h
ment, people, and machine
o
w
r
or setup, or environmental conditions. The
r omchallenge
the act u al such as with dust, dirt, temperature, and water, cause measJa real
f
an d Figu res 174, 175 an d 17 6 illust r ate the conce ts of
o r rea l v a lue
is achieving
reproducibility.
the measu remeReproducibility
to beerrors by disturbing either the productsp or the
n t is Pr ecision isrefers
urement
h
t
b
l
i
e a ity to
ing able to recreate the same results even when using
dier
dpr ecision
accu r acy antools.
measuring
r epea t a ser ies o
measuinstrument,
r em en ts andoretmachine,
entpeople,
but the same
or
setup,
Signicant gures and associated rounding errors affect
g the same va lue ea ch
Measu rem
lack of are
or tenvironmental
r ibu te to the gures
er rors m ay con tSignicant
The
variation
associated
with
i m e Pr ec isio n conditions.
ac the
a tmeasurement.
ofen
the
viability
is so m et im es r efer r ed t
o as r ep
repeatability is attributable to the instrument,
eat abilit y
machine,
r acy an d pr ecisio n Measu rem en t er r or s ar e n ot alw a s the
Repea ta bi li t m ea n s b i
y
e ng a ble to achieve t he
y
same r esu lt
fau lt o f the in div idual per fo r m ingthe m easu r ing In any s
t i m e aft er t i m e Ch ll
a en ges t o r e eat abilit
p
y o ccu r ev en uat ion sev er al so ur ces o f er r or ex ist in clu din en
,
g vi r
w hen u si n t he sam
e per so n o r in st r u m en t
g
o r m achin e
,
m en t people an d m achin e er r or Env ir onm en t al pr oblems
o r set u o r en v ir on
m en t al co n dit io n s The r eal h ll
p,
c a en ge
such as w ith dust dir t t em per atur e an dw ater cause me
is achiev in r e r o du cibilit R
g p
d
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b
r
i
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i
i
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u r em ent er rors by dist u r bin g eit her the pr oducts or the
ing a ble to r ecr ea te the sa m e r l
esu ts even w hen u si n d
"
Accurate
Accurate and
g iePrecise
m easur in gt ools
precise
en t People bu t t he sa m e i n st r
(a) u m en t OT m achine or set u p (b)
(C) iat ed ro u n din er r or s aect
Sign ifican t %gu r es an d assoc
g
o r env ir o n m en ta l con di t ions The v i i
ar at on asso ciated w ith
t he v iability o f a m easu rem en t Sign ipca n t gu r es ar e the
FIGURE 17.3 Accuracy and Precision
r epeat abilit is att r ibu t able t o t he in t
s r u m en t m ac hin e
y
.
10 T
Keyway 1
(I)
CD
0
C
93
"
Keyway 2
0.240
Accurate
FIGURE 17.4
0.245
'
0.250
Precise
Target
"
0.255
0.260
Accurate and
precise
Data for Keyways l and 2 Comparing Accuracy and Precision
(b)
(q
(
Scanned
181
Statistics
St a t i s t i c s
10
Keyway 3
10
01
18 1
Ke p
va y
Keyway 4
Occur ences
Ke y w a y 4
nh
A
0 2 40
Target
0 2 50
0 24 5
0260
0.255
0.250
0.245
0.240
0
'
0 255
0 260
g
Accuracy and Precision
Data for Keyways 3 and 4 Comparing
Ta r
FIGURE 17.5
D a t a fo r K e y w a y s 3
FI GURE 17 5
an
et
d 4 Co m p a r i n g A c c u r a c y
an
d Pr e c i s i o n
Keyway 1 - - - Keyway 3
10
KeF-
yw a y 1
Ke y w a y 3
U)
(D
O
C
a.)
Keywayzi
E 5_
.13:
:53
0.250
0.245
0.240
0 24 0
Target
0 25 0
0 2 45
0 2 55
0 2 60
Ta r g e t
FIGURE 17.6 Data for Keyways 1 and 3 Are Both Accurate and Precise Whereas Data for
2 and 4 Are Not
Keyways
FIGURE 17 6 D a t a f o r K e w a s 1 a n d 3 A r e B o t h A c c u r a t e a n d Pr e c i se w De r e a D t f
y
K e y w a ys 2
an
Ac c u r a c y
and
L E A N S IX S I G M A T O O L S
Pr e c i s i o n
Accuracy and precision describe the location and the spread of

the data. Look at Figures 17.4, 17.5, and 17.6 showing the
e s pr e a d o f
t he lo ccompared,
a t i o n a n d t hthe
n de s c r i b eWhen
r e c is io
c u rac y a n d p
example.
data fromActhe
clutch plate
h
i n g t he
6
7
1
s
ow
d
17 5precision
an
t heind athe
t a Lkeyways
u r e s 17 4 and
o o k a t Figaccuracy
becomes
difference
m pa r e d t he
t c h p la t e 1e xand
t a f r odata
a m p l e exhibit
c l ukeyways
m t hefor
accuracy
apparent.d aThe
3 Whe n c ogreater
,
n d p r e c is i o n b e c o m e s
f f e r ekeyways
a c y a the
a c c u r how
e kand
e yw a4.
n c e i n t h2
y s Note
than thatd ifor
data for keyways 1
r ac c u r a c y
3 e x hi bit g re a t eof
1
d
f
h
k
a
n
s
T
d
t
t
a
o
e
w
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r
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p pa r e n
and 3
0.250
\inch.
are concentrated around the target specification

e d a t a f o r ke yw a ys
4 are
No tgreater
e ho w t hthan
t f o r k e for
s 2 and2
a n t havalues
yw a ykeyway
Thet hdata
the desired
and
a re c o n c e n t r a t e d a ro u n d
i n c h Th e d a t a
v a lu e s
or
Accuracy and Precision

/l0v
a a
d 4 A r e No t
t h e t a r g e t s p e c i f i c a t io n o f 0 2 5 0
f o r k e y w a y 2 a r e g r e a t e r t ha n t he d e s i r e d
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
t WO RK
target specification and those for keyway 4 are smaller. Notice,

too, the difference in precision. Data for keyways 1 and 3 are
t a r ge t s pe c if ic a t i o n a n d t ho s e f o r ke yw a y 4 a r e s m a l le r No t ic e
precise, tightly grouped around the target. Data values for keyt o o t he dand
c e i n p r e c i s i o n Da t a f o r kewwys 1 a n d 3 a r e
ways 2 i ff e r e4n are
not only far away from the target, but also
t ig ht ly g ro u pe d a ro u n d t he t a r Be t Da t a v a l u e s f o r
pr e c is espread
k more
more
out, less precise. These figures show that
2 a n d 4 a r e n o t o n ly f a r a w a y f r o m t h e t a r g e t b u t a ls o
is present for keyways 2 and 4. Changes to this stampvariation
w a ys
le s s pr e c is e T he s e f ig u r e s s ho w t ha t m o re
ing process must
be twofold, improving both the accuracy
v a r ia t io n i s pr e s e n t f o r k e yw a y s 2 a n d 4 Cha n Be s t o t hi s
st a
and the precision.
m o r e s pr e a d o u t
i n g pro c e s s
a n d t he
m u st
pre c i s io n
be t w o f o ld i m p r o v i n g bo t h t he
a c c u ra c y
b/
182
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
18 2
R S EV E N T EE N
numerals or digitsA inP Ta Enumber,
excluding any leading zeros
used to
place
the
Zeros
following a digit{01
decimal point.
n u r n e r a ls o r d i i rs i n a
n u m be r e x c l u d i n
le a d i n g z e r o s
g
g a n y truly
example,
been
9.700are
signicant
if they have
u sed t o
l
l
a
t
d
i
e
1e
l
e
c
m
a Po i n t Z e r o s f o l l o w i n
fo r
i git
p
g a dshould
measured.
When
you
working
a
statistical
problem,
ex a m
le 9 7 00
i
C H
i fi c a n t i f t h e
ha v e
be e n
y
y
use only
the number of k i g that the measuring
are
devices
m e a s u r e d W h e n w odigits
r
n g a s t a t is t i c a l
l
b
o
u
sho u ld
o
e
m
r
y
p
able utos e provide.
decimal
If
a
micrometer
reads
to
three
o n ly t he n u m be r o f di it s t h
a t t h e m e a s u r i n g d e v ic e s a r e
g
places,
mathematical calculations shouldhbe worked
l e t o all
a b then
l
d i
p r o v ide I f a m ic r
are
tru
ds
to nopmore
todays computl a c e s than
t h e n athree
ll m a tdecimal
h e m a t i c aplaces.
l c a l c u lWith
a t i o n s s h o u ld b e w o r ke d
ers and
calculators,
temptation
to i use
all the numt o n o m o r e t h a nthere
t h r e eisd a
la c es W
e c im a l
mp
c
t h t o d a :s
o m eter
rea
to
ec m a
r ee
bers that
e r s a nappear
measuring devicen
d c a l c u on
l a t o the
h e r e i s a Since
r s t screen.
t e m p t the
a t i o n t o u s e a ll t h e
may bnot
have
decimal
h
e r s t a t a originally
toc ethat
e s c r e e n Si n
de v ic e
p p e a r o n t hmeasured
t h e mmany
ea su r in
,
g
places,
num
m athe
o t h a v e oshould
l y mrounded
r i g i n a l be
y n number
e a s u r e d to
t o the
t h a original
t m a n y de c im a l
l
ber of
a
h
signicant
c
e
t
s
gures.
e
b
n
Calculations
are
performed
u
m
p
e r s h o u l d b e r o u n d e d t o t h e o r i i n a l and
n
g
e r o f s i to
then brounded
i c a nnumber
t fi g u r e s of
C signicant
g n i fthe
f o r m e d ainn d
a l c u l a t i o n s gures
a r e p e r present
t h e n rwith
o u n de
d t osmallest
the value
gures.
t h e n u m number
the
b e r o f s i g nof
i fi signicant
r e se n t in
c a n t fi g u r e s p
e v a lu e w it h
h
t
Whent h rounding,
l
l
e s mtoa the
round
highest
number
f i gthe
e s t next
n u m b
u r es
e r o f si gni
fi cant if
n
w
e
i n g r o u If
u n d
gure is an 5r o or
h e n e x is
t o tgure
n dthe
h e sbelow,
greater.
t h4i gor
t n u m b round
e r if t he
u r e i s a 5the
o r following
t h e fi gu r e i s 4 o r be l o w r o u n d
down.f i gConsider
g r e a t e r I f examples:
d o w n C o n s i d e r t h e fo ll o w i n e x a m l e s :
g
p
,
DATA ANALYSIS: GRAPHICAL

has
the .data
R A P H I Cthat
I S : G of
been
A L
N A LY Sanalysis
ADthorough
A T A A statistical
graphical, analytical,
three aspects:
and
athered involves
h d
a t ha s b
a n a l y s i s o f tgraphical
i c a l of
t
i
s
t
a
different e a t a t hmethods
e eCXist,
A t h o r o u g h As t variety
n
ignterpretive.
e c t s : g r a p h i c a lhistogram,
and the a n a l y t i c a l a n d
d i n v o lv e s t h r e e a s p
ga t h e r e the frequency diagram
t
including
f
f
e
n
i
r
d
e
g r a p h i c a l m e t ho ds e x i st
ie t y o f
r e t iv e A v a r
,
in ter p
d i a gr a m
c
in c lu d in g t he fr e q u e n y
Frequency Diagrams
(3.8 has fewest signicant gures)

2 3 59 + 3 8
6 2
h a s f e w e s t s i g n i fi c a n t fi g u r e s )
( 3 8has
=
3,456 + 12.3
281 (12.3
three signicant gures)
3 4 5 6 + 12 3
2 8 1 ( 12 3 h a s t h r e e s i g n i f i c a n t fi g u r e s )
=
3.2 x 102 + 6,930 7.3 x 103 (3.2 x 102
=
10 2 + 6 , 9 3 0
3 2 x
u w 5 t r 1c
7 3 x
ha s
10
16 4
4 25 79268
426
hen
u a
gu
ce
en cy
d i a gr a m
the
f o ll o w i n g
st e ps a r e n e c e ssa r
y:
interest.
c o r d t he m e a su r e m
the
l l e c t t h e d a t a R eof
C o characteristics
e n t s o r c o u n ts o f
f i ntimes
t e r e s t each measurement
t e r i s t i c s o of
r a c number
t h e c h athe
Count
or Count
axis
i n g frequency
b yand
t h e c o u n t s oor
i a g rxa m
r number
on
e dthe
me
C o n svalues
tr u ct th
p l a cthe
ured
n u m
be r
f t im
e s e a c h m e a s u r e m e n t Or c o u n t
o ccu rs
the diagram by placing the counts or meas3. Construct
h e xthe
e n c ymust
s aaxis.
n d t hThe
e f r ex
o r n u contain
a x iy
m be r
e d v a l u e s o n ton
q uaxis
ofu r occurrences
h e l ohave
a l u e f does
r o m t not
w e s t any
t o t hcors u r e m e n t vvalue
m ae aparticular
s s i b l e if
e
e a c h p o even
highest,
l
l
i
f
i
t
r v aA
u bar
e d o is
e s drawn
n o t h a v eon
h
the
diar
c
u
a
h
i
a
a
a
n
t
n
s
e
v
e
e
c
p
measurements.
y
g
responding
ba r is d
t s Avalues
r a w the
t he
e n the
n o nnumber
s u r e mof
n g m e aeach
n d idepict
d of
r e s p o to
and
gram
ded
c u L
T h e from
x a x i sthe
m ulowest
s t c o n t to
s o n t h e y a x i svalue
a i n the
c c u r r e n c emeasurement
o f o possible
each
Human errors associated with measurement errors can

H u m a n e r r o r s a s s o c ia t e d w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r s c a n
intentional. Unintentional errors
be either unintentional or
be e it h e r u n in t e n t io n a l o r in t e n t io n a l U n in t e n t i o n a l e r r o r s
result from poor training, inadequate procedures, or incom
r e s u l t fr o m p o o r t r a i n i n g i n a d e u a t e
o r
i n c
q
p r o c e d u r e straining,
planning,
ambiguous instructions. Good
plete or
r a in i n g
p l e t e o r a m b i g u o u s i n s t r u c t i o n s G o o d p ] a n n i n tIntencan minimize these types of errors.
and supervision
a n d s u p e r v is io n c a n m i n im iz e t h e s e t y p e s o f e r r o r s
Int
usually related to poor attiare rare and are
tionalt i oerrors
l
n a e r r o r s a r e r a r e a n d a r e u s u a l ly r e la t e d t o p o o r
at
will require improving employee relations and
tudes;t u they
d e s ; t h e y w i l l r e q u i r e i m p r o v i n g e m p l o y (: e r e l a t i o n s a n d
to solve.
guidance
individual
id a n
i d iv i d l
t
o lv e
,
Br r 1c a
occurs.
Co u n t t h e
fi g u r e s )
ro u n
6,983 + 16.4 = 425.79268 = 426 when rounded

6, 983
/ "
measurements or counts of
1. Collect the data. Record the
qu
t w o s i g n i fi c a n t
r u r ' "
x 10 2
( 3 2 gures)
has two signicant
=
d t h e h i s t o gr a m
m s the number of times each of the

Di a g r ashows
diagram
r e qu e n c y
AFfrequency
were collected. This
values occurred when the data /
measured
o t he
A Tr e q u e n c y d i a g r a m s n
occur nthe
values
most
which
glance
a
at
shows
d
h
t
u
a
w
e
r
t
e
c
e
a
h
o
d
n
e
e
t
d
w
c
e
diagram
e
r
T hi s
u
r
o cc
m ea s u r ed v a l u es
of the data. To create a freas well as the spread
h i c h v a l u e s o c c u r t h e m o st
frequently
dia gr a m s h o w s a t a gla n c e w
are necessary:
the followingdsteps
o f t h e d a t a To c r e a t e a
quency
f
t i) a s w e ll a s t h e sp r e a
f r e u e ndiagram,
23.59 + 3.8 = 6.2
an
d t h e n u m be r o f
v a l udata
e s a ncollected.
ea c h o f th
to d
e p i c t occurred
ine the
g r a m the
value
times
t i m e s t h e v a l u e o c c u r r e d i n t h e d a t a c o ll e c t e d
4. Interpret the frequency diagram. Study the diagrams
St u d y t h e shape,
d i a gr a msize,
4 I n t e r p r e t t h e f r e q u e n cabout
a m diagrams
s
you create and think y d i a g rthe
c r e a t e a n t i t h i n k a b o u t t h e d ia gr a m s sha p e siz e
y o u location
in terms of the desired target specication.
and
'
d lo c a t io
d i a g r a +n
o s
in ter m
<a ! e r i n t h e
s n
f t h e d e s i r e d t a r g e t s p e c i fi c a t i o n
about interpreting frequency
We' will learn more

M e w i l . . f : a r 1 ! 1 1o r e a b o u t
in the chapter.
diagrams later
an
i n t e r p r e t i n g fr e qu e n c y
c ha pte r
1:.
at WORK
@Nii.lXSlllhAElOOLS
/ ]i# :y
Diagram
Constructing
m m
a i3 Frequency
que
'
.
..el3..-.
-l-. '.
,7 1;. ~11 "IV-.51.? Raf,
fig
customer issues, the engineers involved int the

To respond
To r e s pto
o n d t o c u s t o m e r is s u e s t h e e n g i n e e r s i n v u lv e 9 : n t h e
the thickness of the part. To
clutchc lplate
l e m studying
:a t e p r o bare
a r e s t u d y i n g t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e p a r i To
u t c h pproblem
of incoming material thickness.
gain ag aclearer
i n a c l eunderstanding
a r e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i n c o m i n g m a t e r ia l t h i c k n e s s
they plan
c y d ia g r a m
t e a f r e q u e ndiagram.
t h e y to
n t o c r eaa frequency
p l acreate
o 0 l s
t w o
Step
1. Collect the data. The first step is performed by the operSt e p 1 Co //e c t t h e d a t a
Th e f i r s t s t e p i s p e r f o r m e d b y t h e
op
ator,
whoh randomly selects five parts each
hour, measures the
t
a o r w o r a n d o m ly s e l e c t s f i v e
p a r t s e a c h ho u r m e a s u r e s t he
thickness
of feachh part, and records the values (Table 17.4).
t h ic k n e
ss o
eac
pa r t
a n d r e c o r d s t he v a lu e s
(Ta b l e 17 4 )
'
snagged
A
dAverages
S
t Th i k
h P l Thickness:
C l t Plate
E 1 7 4Clutch
T A B L17.4
TABLE
3 I
g M
u c
a e
n ess:
um s
v e ra
"
es
>
1
0 0625
0.0625
0 06 26
0.0626
0.0624
0 0624
Su bg2
ro u p 2
Subgroup
0 06 24
0.0624
0 0 6 23
0.0623
0 0624
0.0624
S u bg 3
ro u p 3
Subgroup
0 0 6 22
0.0622
0 0 62 5
0.0625
0 0623
0.0623
S u b g4
ro u p
Subgroup
0 0 624
0.0624
0 06 23
0.0623
0 0620
0.0620
S u b g r5o u p
Subgroup
0 062 1
0.0621
0 062 1
0.0621
0 0622
0.0622
S u bg 6
ro u p
Subgroup
S u b g r1o u p
Subgroup
0 0 6 28
0.0628
0 0626
0.0626
0 06 2 5
0.0625
S u bg r o u p 7
Subgroup
7
0 06 24
0.0624
0 0627
0.0627
0 0625
0.0625
Subgroup 8
0 0 6 24
0.0624
0 0625
0.0625
0 06 25
0.0625
0 0627
0.0627
0 0628
0.0628
0 0626
0.0626
S u bg r o u p 8
Su bg r o u p
Subgroup
9
UUCII II ICU
U,
\JCII I IUUGI II IGI
0.0625
0 0625
0.0626
0 06 26
0.0625
0 06 25
0 0 6 23
0.0523
0 0625
0.0625
0 0 6 26
0.0626
0 0 624
0.0624
0
0 62 6
0.0626
0 0 62 5
0.0625
0.0627
0 0627
0.0625
0 062 5
0.0626
0 0626
0.0624
0 0 6 24
0 0 6 24
0.0624
0 0 6 27
0.0627
0 06 26
0.0626
0 06 26
0.0626
0 0627
0.0627
xl
0.3127
00.3122
3 12 2
00.3121
3 12 1
00.3114
3 1 14
00.3113
3 1 13
00.3132
3 13 2
00.3126
3 12 6
00.3126
3 12 6
00.3133
3 13 3
0 3 12 7
0.0625
0 0.0624
0624
0 62 4
0 0.0624
0623
0 0.0623
0.0623
0 0623
0 6 26
0 0.0626
0 625
0 0.0625
0625
0 0.0625
0627
0 0.0627
0 0625
'
Statistics
133
(continued)
1%; .,b8'TPP-'11
Subgroup 12
00525
'
0.0630
SUbZFOUP 13
: Subgroup 14
g Subgroup 15
; Subgroup 16
0.0627
0.0627
Subgroun 20
0.0626
E'Subgroup 21
Subgroup 22
0.0627
0.0625
i Subgroup 23
Subgroup 24
Subgroup 25
0.0628
Subgroup 26
i Subgroup 27
Subgroup 28
i Subgroup 29
0.0628
0.0628
ESUbETOUD 19
0.0626
0.0624
:; Subgroun 18
0.0626
0.0626
0.0626
0.0627
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.0631
0.0627
0.0630
0.0630
0.0628
0.0630
0.0628
0.0632
0.0632
0.0628
0.0630
0.0632
Subgroup 30
0.0628
0.0627
0.0626
0.0625
Subgmup 17
0.0624
0.0631
0.0626
0.0626
0.0626
0.3127
0.0625
0.0628
0.0627
0.0627
0.0626
0.0625
0.3137
0.0626
0.0627
0.0627
0.0626
0.3130
0.0625
0.0626
0.0626
0.0625
0.3132
0.0628
0.0627
0.3131
0.0626 .
0.06261
;
0.0624
0.0628
0.3134
0.0625
0.0627
0.0630
0.3139
0.0625
0.0627
0.0627
0.3133
0.0627
' ,1
i
0.0626
0.3126
0.0628
0.0625
0.0625
0.0628
0.0628
0.0627
0.0630
0.0627
0.0625
0.0625
0.0630
0.3129
0.0627
0.0626
0.3133
0.0627
0.0627
0.3131
0.0626 ,
0.0627
0.0627
0.3138
0.3141
0.0628
0.0628.
0.3143
0.3142
0.0629
0.0628
0.0628
0.0628
0.0631
0.0620
0.0627
0.0627
0.0628
0.0628
0.0627
0.0631
0.0632
0.3144
0.0630
0.0631
0.0628
0.0629
0.3153
0.3152
0.3149
0.0631
0.0630
0.0631
0.0630
0.0628
30
0.0623
0.0624
8o
3
//
////
7174,94 76664 //
0.0631
7966 //
0.0632
////
0.0630 79W 79W /
FIGURE 17.7
Clutch Plate Thickness Tally Sheet
Scanned
'
o 16
g 14
28_
0.0629
_
18 -
0-0627
0.0628 79% W 7669 7966 M
20 -
12_
IO_
WWW-W
'
22
0.0625 WWWWW/
o.0626 wwwwww
__
24
//
.j
Step 4. Interpret the frequency diagram. This frequency distribution is nearly symmetrical, but there is only one occurrence of
the value 0.0629. The engineers should definitely investigate
why this IS 50'
26
0.0630
9.3981
28
0.0622
0.0628
0.0631
Step 3. Construct the diagram. The count of the number of

times each measurement occurred is placed on the yaxis. The
values, between 0.0620 and 0.0632, are each marked on the x
axis. The completed frequency diagram is shown in Figure 17.8.
0.0621
0.0627 f
0.0626
Step 2. Count the number of times each measurement

occurs. A check sheet, or tally sheet, is used to make this
step easier (Figure 17.7).
0.0620
0.0625.
0.0627
6_
4_
2'
- . - .
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
FIGURE 17.8
Clutch Plate Thickness Frequency
Distribution (Coded 0.06)
" CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

Co n s t r u c t i
ng a
. .
Hi s t o gr a m
range of values. This grouping of data results in fewer Cells l."
on the graph than with a frequency d1agram1The x axis scalel 4;..

will indicate the cell mldpomts rather than?
Th e e n g i n e e r s w o r k i n w it h t he t hidiagrams
The Ce ll on
Histograms and frequency
c k n e s s o f tare
he cvery
l u t c h similar.
g
Int earv histogram
a l s Od d n u m be r e d c e ll i n t e r v a ls a r e o f t e n c ho s e n f o r
pl a t e
ha v e d e c i d e d t o c
individual values. The following Lean Six Sigma Tools at
on
t
Histograms
r e a e a h is t o between
most notable difference
i n ttwo
he i r aisn athat
lys is o f t he
gr a m t o a idthe
ahis
r
o
c
e
Th
ss
e y adata
ptogram
r e f o lare
l o w igrouped
the
n g t he s e s tinto
e ps : cells. Each cell contains a
St e p 1 Co //e c t th e da t a a n d c o n t r
s u c t a t a /ly s h e e t
The e n g i
n e e r s w i l l u s e t he d a t a r e v i o
u s ly c o ll e c t e d (Ta ble 17 3 ) a s w e l l
p
a s t he t a lly s he e t c r e a t e d d u r i
n g t he c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t he
f r e q u e n c y d i a g r a m (Fi u r e 17 7 )
g
K I7
Constructing a Histogram
s t e pThe
2 cengineers
a /c u /a t e tworking
h e r a n gewitht hthe
e r an
thickness
ofethe
by t heplate
n t e dclutch
ge r e p r es
l e t t ehave
i s c a l c u l atot ecreate
r R decided
a
histogram
to
aid
in
their
analysis
d by s u b t r a c t i n g t h e l o w e s t o bs e r v e d v a l u eof the
process.
They
are
these steps:
f r o m t h e h igh e s t o bs efollowing
r v e d v a / u e I n t hi s c a s e 0 06 20 is t he
l o w e s t v a l u e a n d 0 0 63 2 is t he hi he s t
:
Step 1. Collect the data and construct
g
a tally sheet. The engi
,
neers will use the data

(Table 17.3) as well
Ra n gpreviously
R
e
Xcollected
x,
h
as the tally sheet created during the construction of the
diagram (Figure 17.7).
w h efrequency
re
=
r a n ge
Step 2. Calculate
the range. The range, represented by the
=
Xh R,his
ig hcalculated
e s t n u m be r
letter
by subtracting the lowest observed value
Xl thelohighest
w e st n u m
be r
from
observed
value. In this case, 0.0620 is the
-
lowest
and
R value
0 063
2 0.0632
0 0 6 20is the0 highest:
0 0 12
=
Range=R=XhXi
St e p 3 Cr e a t e t h e c e ll s
I n a h i s t o gr a m d a t a a r e c o m b i n e d i n t o
where
c e l ls Ce lls =
c o m po s e d o f t hr e e c o m po n e n t s : c e l l i n t e r v a l s
R a r erange
c e l l m id po i =
t
n
s
a n d c e ll bo u n d a r i e s (Fig u r e 1 7 9 ) Ce ll m i d o i n t s
Xh hlEhBSt
number
p
id e n t i fy XI
th e=c elowestnumber
n t e r s o f c e /ls A c e ll i n t e r v a l is t he d i s t a n c e
0.0632 t s The c=e l l0.0012
be t w e e n Rt h=
e c e ll m id p o in0.0620
bo u n da ry d e f i n e s t he l im it s
o f t h e c e il
Step 3. Create the cells. In a histogram, data are combined into
,
cells. Cells are composed 0f three components: cell intervals,_
cell midpoints, and cell boundaries (Figure 17.9). Cellmra'pamts

identify the centers of cells. A cell interval is the distance
between the cell midpoints. The cell boundary defines the limits
of the cell.
Ce ll in t e r v a l
e a s e o f c a l c u l a t io n
le i f t h e d a t a
exa m
w e re m e as u re d to
0 9 If t he ga t he r e d d a t a w e re m e a s u r e d t o t hr e e de c i m a l
p l a c e s t he n t he c e l l i n t e rv a ls t o c ho o s e f r o m w o u l d be 0 003
0 0 0 5 , 0 00 7 a n d 0 00 9 (The v a l u e s o f 1 0 1 a n d 0 00 1 a re
or
n o t c ho s e n
fo r
SIX SIGMA TOOLS at WORK

LEAN
a h is t o gr a m be c a u s e t h e y r e s u lt i n t he c r e a t i o n o f
,
f r e q u e n c y d ia gr a m ) Fo r t his e x a m p le be c a u s e t he da t a w e r e
m e as u r e d t o f o u r d e c i m a l p la c e s t he c e l l i n t e rv a l c o u ld be
cell intervals are often chosen for
0 0003 0 000ls5 0Odd-numbered
00 0 7 o r 0 0 0 0 9
gzlblldtfeglculation. For example, if the data were measured to
Ce ll i n t e r v a l c ho ic e then
l
he
a lacell
r ge p
a r t i n t hcould
e s iz e be
o f t0,320.5,
0.7,
intervals
one decimal place, p a ys the
his t or
To de t e data
lls t hdecrmal
o gr0.9.
t he measured
a m cIfr ethe
a t e dgathered
r m i n ewere
n u m be r o f to
fol l
c e three
e
to choose from would be 0.003,
i n g places,
f o r m u lathen
is u sthe
e d : cell intervals
(The
values of 1, 0.1, and 0.001 are
0.005, 0.007, and 0.009.
they result In the creation of
because
a
histogram
for
not chosen
h
+
a frequency diagram.) For this example, because the data were
measured to four decimal places, the cell interval could be
0.0005, 00007. or 0-0009- .
w he0.0003,.
re
_
of the
Cell Interval chOIce plays large part ' th e
a
h
n u m be r o f c e ll s
ce 5, th e fo II owcreated. To determine the number of 523
histogram
t e used:
c e l l i nIs
rv a l
ing I formula
r a n ge
S i n c e bo t h I t he
h=5+1
c e ll
u n kwhere
n ow n c re ato r s o f
in te rv a l
and
h t he
h is t o g r a m s m u s t
num
be r o f
ho o s e
v a lu e s
c e lls , a r e
fo r
o ne of
t he m a n dh t =
he nnumberof
t he o t h e r Fo r Ou r e x a m p le i f w e c ho o se
s o lv e f o r cells
,
i 2 cell interval
a c e \ \ \ n t e w a \ o 0 0 0 03
R = range
Since both i, the cell interval, and h, the number of cells, are
h
+ 1
X=:
unknown, creators of histograms must choose values for one of
them and then solve for the other. For our example, if we choose
h
5
a cell interval of 0.0003,
The h is t o gr a m
Fo r
Fo r
p
Work feature details the construction of a histogram.
o n e d e c i m a l p la c e t he n t he c e ll i n t e rv a ls c o u ld be 0 3 0 5 0 7
a c e ll
i n 5 c e lls
c o n t a0.0012
h =
+ 1
v a l u e o f 0 0.0003
00 0 5 :
c re at ed w
in t e rv a l
ill
h = 5
0 0 0 12
n
+ 1
The histogram created willocontain
5 cells.
m
=
Cell Interval
For a cell interval value of 0.0005:

h
Fo r
a c e ll i n t e r v a l v a l u e oh f
0.0012
=
+ 1
0 00.0005
00 7 :
h = 3
0 0 0 12
+ 1
For a cell interval value of 0.0007:
n
3_ 0.0012
+ 1
As t he c e l l i n t e r v a l e t s la r e r t h0.0007
g
g = e n u m b e r o f c e l ls n e c e s s a r y t o
ho ld a ll t he d a t a a n d m a ke ah h i 3
s t o g r a m d e c r e a s e s W he n
d ec
i n gAst hthe
e n ucell
m beinterval
r o f c e l lsgets
number
t o ularger,
to
s e it isthe
so m
e t i m e s of
he cells
l p f u l tnecessary
o f o llo w
t h ihold
s r u leall
t hu data
o f the
m b : and make a histogram decreases. When deciding the number of cells to use, it is sometimes helpful to follow
this
Fo r rule
f e w eof
ha n 100 p ie c e s o f d a t a u s e 4 t 9
r t thumb:
o
c e l ls
Fo rFor
10fewer
0 t o 5than
0 0 p ie100
c e s pieces
o f d a t a ofu sdata,
e 8 t ouse
17 4c etol ls9 cells.
'
to" 500
pieces
. . "For" 100
. "
, u s e 15 t oof2data,
0 c e l lsuse 8 to 17 cells.
For 500 or more, use 15 to 20 cells.
..
b o u n d a ry
Cg"
C e ll m id po in t
\
'
Ce ll b o u n d a r y
C9
boundary
boundary
Cell midpoint
FIGURE 17 9
H i s t o gr a m C e l l D e s c r i t i o n
p
FIGURE 17.9
Histogram Cell Description
Scanned
A n o t he r he l pf u l r u le o f t h u m b e x is t s f
o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n u m be r
for determining t e d number
o f Another
c e l ls i n ahelpful
h is t o g r rule
Us ethumb
a m of
t he s qexists
as
u a r e r o o t o f n (r e pr e s e nthe
cells in a histogram.
the
square
root
of
n
(represented
V of
n ) w he r e n is t he n u m beUse
r o f d a t a po i n t s a s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n as
V5). where n is the number of data
points, as an approximatIon
o f t he n u m be r o f c e lls n e e d e d
,
of the number of cells needed.
Statistics
'
185
185
St a t i st ic s
For this example, we will use a cell interval of 0.0003. This

will create a histogram that provides enough spread to analyze
theFodata.
r t h is exa m ple w e w il l us e a c e ll i n t e rv a l o f 0 0003 This
06185
0
his t o gra m t ha t prov ides e n o u gh s pre a d to ana lyz e

Cell Midpoints When constructing
a histogram, it is important to
t hremember
e da t a
two things: (1) Histograms must contain all of the
data; (2) one particular value cannot fit into two different cells.
w il l c r ea t e a
0.06215
0.0620
0.06245
0.0623
FIGURE 17.10
0.0626
0.06275
0.0629
06305
0
0.0632
06335
0
Cell Boundaries and Midpoints
Cell midpoints are selected to ensure that these problems are

nt s Whe n c o n st r uc t i n g a his t o gra m it is i m po r t a n t t o
ll Midpo iTo
Ceavoided.
,
determine the midpoint
values that anchor the histogram, use either one of the following two techniques.
ic u la r v a lu eis ctoa nchoose
ff e re nmeasin t olowest
on e par t technique
t c e lls
(2) simplest
t w o divalue
n o t fit the
da t a ;The
ured. In this example, the lowest measured value is 0.0620.
e s e le c t e d t o e n s u re t ha t t he s e pro ble m s a re
ll m idmidpoint
CeOther
po i n t s a rvalues
are determined by adding the cell interval
d
t
the m
id pthen
e r m i ne first
h
0.0003
r t he
ed To toe 0.0620
o id
o i n t adding
a t each
v a l ue s tithto
a vof
a n c hosuccessive
and
new
midpoint.
begin
the
other
f o llo w in gwe
one
o f that
h
i
t w find
e 0.0620.
t
es
ec
n
u
t o gr a m , u se e it hIfe rwe
o
q
midpoints at 0.0623, 0.0626, 0.0629, and 0.0632. If the

lest t e cinhthe
n iq ue is t o c hoos e t he low e s t v a l u e m e a s
The s im
number
of pvalues
cell is high and the distance between
lo w e s tthe
note large.
20
is e x a m pleis, th
the
0 06repreIn t hboundaries
d cell
m emidpoint
as u re d vaisluthe
e ismost
u re
in the cell.
sentative value
Ot he r m idpo i n t v a lu es a r e de t e r m in e d by a dd in g t he c e ll in t e rv a l
0
t o 0 062
0 0003
Boundaries
The
o f Cell
fcell
ir st size,
he nbya ddi
uc c es s iv e
a n d tset
g it t o ea c hofsthe
the nboundaries
cell,
is determined
by
the
celli n midpoints
and
the
cell
interval.
Locat
b
0
t
th
f
062
i
I
e
r
0
f
i
d
t
th
w
e
a
o
n
e
w
e
id
e
o
n
g
n ew m p
,
ing the cell boundaries, or the limits of the cell, allows the user
0 0626 cell.
0 0 629
a n d 0 0632 1f t he
a t 0 0623
d pplace
o i n t s values
m ito
in a particular
To determine
the lower cell
boundary,
divide
the
cell
interval
by
2
t w ee n
d t hsubtract
e bevalue
e d is t a n cthat
n u m be r o f v a l ues i n the c e ll is high a nand
,
from the cell midpoint. To calculate the lower cell
boundary for
t he m id po i n t is t he m ost re pr ea
t la r ge the
da r ies isofn o0.0620,
l l bo ua nmidpoint
c e with
t hecell
cell interval is divided by 2:
c e ll
s e n t at iv e v a l u e i n t he0.0003
+ 2 = 0.00015
,
Then, subtract 0.00015 from the cell midpoint,

ll
Ce l l Boun da r ies The c e ll s iz e , s e t by t he bo u n da r ies o f the c e
0.0620 0.00015 = 0.06185,the first lower e rv a l Lo c a t

is de t e r m in e d by t he c e ll m idpo i n t s a n d t he c e ll i n tboundary
t he u s e r
w s0.0620,
f t hae midpoint
Tot h
determine
c e ll a lloof
cell
r t hboundary
e l i m it s ofor
r ies o
n daupper
e c e ll bo uthe
in g
add the cell interval to the llower llcellToboundary:
de t e r m i n e t he lo w e r c e l l
to pla c e v a lu e s in a pa r tic u a r c e
0.06185
n d s u bt r a c t tha t v a l u e
rv a l by 2= a0.06215
e c e ll i n+t e 0.0003
bo u n da ry div ide th
w e r c e ll bo u n da r y f o r a
la t eist hthe
e loupper
a lc ucell
o cone
l l m id
boundary
he c e cell
cell boundary of
po i n t Tof
f r oThe
m t lower
ide d bcell
another. Continue
l inew
s d ivlower
adding
l
i
t
a
the
v
r
y 2:
l
cell
interval
n
e
h
to
each
t
c
e
20
e
6
0
0
f
i
t
o
c e l l w ith a m idpo n
,
boundary calculated until all the lower cell boundaries have been
determined.
0 000 3
0 000 15
Note that the cell boundaries are a half decimal value greater
in accuracy than the measured values. This is to help ensure that
t he c e l l m idpo i n t ,
f r o mone
0 0 00 1in5 only
c t placed
bt r abe
Thvalues
cell of a histogram. In our exen , s ucan
ample, the first cell will have boundaries of 0.06185 and
e r bo u n da ry
t he f ir st loofw 0.06215
6 18 5boundaries
0 0have
5 = will
0 00 1cell
0.06215.
second
and
0 0 62 0The 0
0.06245. Where would a data value of 0.0621 be placed? Obvi0 0 6 20 ,
d po i n t o fvalues
a m imidpoint
r y f o rtheir
ously in the first cell. r c e llintervals,
bo u n da with
To de t e r m i n e t he u ppeCell
starting at 0.0620. are shown in Figure
17.10.
r c e ll boI Jdary:
,
add
Post
Step 5.FIG
7 10
E 1values.
URthe
togram is to post the values from the check sheet to the
histogram. The x axis is marked with the cell midpoints and, if
space permits, the cell boundaries. The cell boundaries are used
to guide the creator when posting the values to the histogram.

io n o f a h
e c re a
t e p i n th
f ina l svalues
Thofe those
at particular
within
v a l u es
he frequency
Po s t tthe
Stethe
On
p 5yaxis,
t o t he
e et cells
shown. All the data must
he c he c kins hthe
cell
f r obe
m tincluded
t o gis
r a m is t o pos t t he va l u e s
(Figure 17.11).
c e l l m idpo i n t s a n d , if
hist o gr am The x a x is is m a r ke d w ith the
As we can
r e use d
Step 6. Interpret the histogram.
dar ie s a17.11,
ll boin
u n Figure
c e see
it s t he c e l l bo u n da r ie s The are
c e pe r mgrouped
s padata
somewhat tsymmetaround 0.0626 and
the
are
v a l u e s t o the his o gr a m
t hestudy
i n gwill
w he n po stwe
e c rea t o r sections,
histogram shapes,
e t hfollowing
rical.
t o guInidthe
a r tic u la r
in a pspecifical u e s w ith
to vaadesired
target
f
th
when
compared
ose
sizes,t h
and locations
o
c
n
f
ue
e
r
e
th
y
i
s
x
q
On e y a
such as means, modes, and
tion. We will also utilize measures
t m us t be i nc lu de d i n t he c e lls
c e l l is s ho w n All the da a
,
medians to create a clear picture of where the data are grouped

11)
of the data). Standard deviations and
(the
u re 17tendency
(Figcentral
ranges will be used to measure how the data are dispersed 7 11
i n Figu re 1
,
an see used
As w e cwill
to gr am values
t he htsstatistical
around
to fully
be
er pr e t These
St e p 6theIn tmean.
m
m
s
y
t
h
a
describe the data comprising
a histogram.d a r e so m e w
e d a r o u n d 0 0626 a n
t he da t a
gro u p
ha es
t io n s w e w il l st u dy hist o gr a m s p
r ic a l In t he f o llo w i n g s e c
t s p ecif i
h n c o m pa r e d t o a de s ir e d t a r ge
s ize s a n d loc a t io n s w e
m o de s a n d
a s u re s s u c h as m ea n s
n We w i ll a ls o u t i liz e m e
t io80ed
ic t u r e of w he re t he dat a a re gr o u p
l
m e dia n s t o c rea t e a c e a r p
70
St a n da r d dev ia tio ns a n d
t
(t he c e n t r a l t e n de n c y o f t he da a )
re dis pe r se d
8:60
a s u re ho w t he da t a a
ra n ges w ill be u se d t o m e
2
se d t o f u l ly
The s e s t a t ist ic a l v a l u es w ill be u
a r o u n d the m ea n
350o
hist o gr a m
odesc r ibe t he da t a c o m pr is i n g a
1.340,
$30-
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u.
101
80
:l:"H
70
Scale and label the horizontal axis
numbers.
ne N lo w e r c e l l
i t e rv a l t n e a c
Co n t in u e a dd i n g t he c e ll n
i ha v e be e n
ll t he lo w e c e ll bo u n da r es
bo u n da ry c a lc u la t e d u n t il a
a n o t he r
h lf de c i m a l
v a l ue
gr ea t e r
re a a
d a r ie s aare
bo u nspread
Shape,
the characteristics used
at t he c e l land
No t e thlocation,
t he l p e n s ure t ha t
u es This is o
to describe a tdistribution
u re d v a l17.12).
(Figure
s
a
e
h
m
t
e
n
h
a
c
in
ac c u r a
y
be plac e d i n
ll f a
o n ly o n e c e o
his t o gr a m In
Shape: Symmetry, Skewness, Kurtosis Shape

va lu e s c a n
o u r ex
Sym
a nd
2 15 the
metry, skewness, and kurtosis shape brefer
f 0 06that
to ithe
e s oform
l l w i ll hav e o u n da r
e s e c o n d c echaracteristics
values
0 06 2of15theThmeasurable
d? Ob
take2on
1 bewhen
pla c eplotted
v a l u e o f 0 06
t
a
d
a
a
d
l
u
ar0graphed.
o
w
Tracing
a smooth curve over the tops
ere
of the lrec0624 5 Wh
s
h t he ir m id po i n t v a ue
i n t e r v a ls wa ithistogram
tangulari areas
l
l
C
used
e
when
l
l
graphing
e
t
c
claries
i
the
f
s
r
o u s ly n t he
Fi u r e 17 10
620 a r e s ho w n i n g
s t ar t i n g a t 0 0
,
Scanned by
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J I.
h . 1t hp
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OQMWCOWQID
In
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gmummkwggg
ODOO-OQqcg
: 5 3. Label the
according to the0cell
midpoints
0 03 = 0 0in6 2step
5 + 0 0determined
06 18
vertical axis to reflect the amount of data collected. in counting
a re
t he c e ll i n t e rv a l t o t he to w e
Step 4. Label the axes.
creation
Mi dpoofi n at shisfinal
dar iinesthe
an d
o u nstep
CThe
ell B
60
FIGURE 17.11
50
Clutch Plate Thickness Histogram

b/
40
/ of a histogram for the viewer (Figure 17.13). Identishape

able characteristics include symmetry, or, in the case of lack
20
of symmetry, skewness of the data; kurtosis, or peakedness of
the data; and modes, the number ofpeaks in the data.
10
When a distribution is symmetrical, the two halves are

mirror images of each other. The two halves correspond in
size, shape, and arrangement (Figure 17.13). When a distri-
bution is not symmetrical, it is considered to be skewed
186
SEVENTEEN
CHAPTER
FIGURE 17 12 Sha e Locat ion an d S d
p,
,
pr ea
!18
Positive Skew : Skew ed to right
Spread
Location
Shape
rr&
FIGURE 17.12
Shape, Location, and Spread
Positive Skew: Skewed to right
/\
rJ
// \\
k...
Negative Skew : Skew ed to left
FIGURE 17 13 S m m et r ical Hist o r am

y
g
I
Negative Skew: Skewed to left

w ith
l"
Sm o o t h Cu r ve Ov er lay
FIGURE 17.13
Symmetrical Histogram with
14) Wit h a skew ed dist r i bu t i on the m a or i t o

(Figu r e 17
j y fof
(Figure
,
17.14).
With a skewed distribution,
the majority
the data are grouped either to the left or the right ofa center
value, and on the opposite side a few values trail away from the
va lu e, an d on the o osit e side a ew v a hBes t ra it aw a : rom t h
J to the right,) the
pp
e
center. When a distribution
is skewed
f major
side
the
distr ibu tiononisthe
city
en tofthe
er Whdata
en a arefound
he r i ght, the with
skeleft
t o tofthegure,
w ed
aj
m
tail of the distribution going to the right. The opposite is true
it y oadistribution
t he da t a a r e fthat
i tie oleft.
t he lefto
ou n d
t sthe
the Jigu r e, w ith t he
for
is on
skewed
ofe othe os
distribution.
ibu tion go ithe
t a it oKurtosis
it e is h u e
n g tpeakedness
o t he r ight Th
f t he distrdescribes
p
p
A distribution with a high peak is referred to as leptokurtic; a
fo r a dicurve
is skew ed to t(Figure
st r ibu tisiocalled
n t hat platykurtic
he lep 17.15). Typically,
atter
the kurtosis
histogram
discussed by comparing it with
Ku r t o sisofdaesc
r ibes t he is
peakedn ess o f t he dist r ibu t io n
another distribution. As we will see later in the chapter,
distr ibu tand
ion wkurtosis
i th a higcan
h Peabekcalculated
i s r efer red tonumerically.
i c; a
as l ept o k1Br tOccaskewness
will display
sionally
patterns.i Ifll the
r v e is ca lled la t ku r t i c (Fiunusual
u re 17 15
a tter cudistributions
) yp ca y
p y
g
distribution displays more than one peak, it is T
considered
t he ku r t o sis o fDistributions
discutwo
a hist o gr am iswith
by compeaks
i
it wcalled
ssed
it h
a
r
distinct
multimodal.
p n gare
(Figure
bimodal
ist r ibu t17.16).
io n As w e w ill see lat er in t he chapt er
an o t her d
,
be calc u lat ed n u m er ically
display u n u su al patt er n s I Ft he
displays m or e than one Pea k it is co n sider ed
Analyzing the Histogram
b
lt i m o da Figure
l Dist r ibu tions w ith tw o dist inct pea ks are called
m uAnalyzing
,
17.11 based on the three characteristics of

shape,
location,
and
reveals that the clutch plate thickness
bim oda l Figu r e 17 1spread
6
data are fairly consistent. The shape of the distribution is somewhat
symmetrical, though skewed very slightly to the right. The data are
centering on 0.0626 inch. Because we have no other
unrmodal,
of the same type of product, we cannot make any
drstributlons
comparrsons or comments on the kurtosis of the data. Location, or
Obdl II ICU by
Lly CamScanner
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Scanned
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FIGURE 17_14 Skewness

1: \GURE 17 14 Skew n ess
/LePtOKUFC
\
FIGURE 17.15
A
Platykurtic
Leptokurtic and Platykurtic
Oc
si o n a lly di st r i bu t io n s w ill
dist r ibu t ion
Tail
/
Smooth Curve Overlay
skew n ess an d ku r t o sis can
1.

Leptokurtic
Platykurtic
where the data are located or gathered, is around 0.0626. If the
engineers
have
then the
FIGURE
17 specifications
15 Le to kuofr t0.0625
ic an d P+lat0.0003,
center of the distributionpis higher
yku r t icvalue. Given
than the desired
the specifications, the spread of the data is broader than the
desired 0.0622 to 0.0628 at 0.0620 to 0.0632. Further mathematical analysis with techniques covered later in this chapter will
give us an even clearer picture of the data.
187
18 7
St a t i s t i c s
Statistics
l 1Bimodal
/ I Bi
m o
'.
w he r e
where
da l
,u.p = meanvalueoftheseriesof
m easu r e m en ts
m e a n v a l u e o f t h e s e r i e s o f measurements
=
measurements
successive
of
values
f
i
.
Xn
.
.
u
r em en ts
l
m
e
a
s
u
c
c
e
s
s
v
e
X1,X X2,
X
o
s
v a u es
, x
r
z
=
readings
of
number
11 n
n u m b e r o f r e a d i n gs
be used to calculate the average
The
T hsame
f o r m u l acan
c a n b e u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e a v e r a ge
e s a m eformula
the average of a sample,
calculate
To
associated
d w i t ha asample.
a s s o c i a t e with
s a m p l e T o c a l c u l a t e t h e a v e r a ge o f a s a m p l e
-
. .
'
'
EU: i: 't
G U RE
FIGUREFI17.16
Bi m
1 7Bimodal
16
Distribution
o da l D i s t r i bu t io n
T A A N A LY S IANALYTICAL
D AANALYSIS:
S : A N A LY T I C A L
DATA
formula:
useu sthe
e t hfollowing
e f o ll o w i n g f o r m u l a :
Exi
++ Xsn = i=1
Though shape was easily seen from a picture, the location
X51
X s 2+ X53 +
X l++ X52
6 n
X:
n
mathematically.
identied
more
clearly
d
d
b
be
l
can
an
spr e a
can
e m o r e c e a r l y i d e n t i fi e d m a t h e m a t i c a l l
x
n
and spread
y
n
the
i o n i s d e s c rby
d b y m e a s uof
i b e measures
L o cisa t described
r e scentral
Location
o f c e n ttendency:
r a l te n den cy: the
where
w he r e
i a n Sp r is
m e a n mand
o d emedian.
a n d m e dSpread
d i s d e fi nby
mean, mode,
e a dened
b y m e a s u r of
e d measures
es o f
deviation.
standard
and
d
h
i
i
range
d
the
t
value ofthe samplel measurements
s pe r s o n :
e r a n ge a n
s t a n da r d dev i a t io n
dispersion:
)"Z = average
e m ea su r em e n ts
a v er a e v a lu e o f t he sa m
Tr
J
p
g
= values of sample
measurements
X52, . . . , X5
X51,
X l X s2
Xs
v a lu e s o f sa m ple m e a su r e m e n t s
ofreadings
n .= number
f
b
di
\ Location:
Tendency
of Central
i
M
L
f C
Measures
l T d
y
t at o n:
{1c
easures o
e ntra
en
enc
Nu m
er o
r ea
that
A v e medians,
\ a n s modes
t s the
ca g e s m e dand
a n d moare
t h e s t a t \ s t \ values
a r e statistical
Averages,
c a\ v al u e s t h a t
gs
reveal the place

The median is the value that divides an ordered
d e ficenter
i o n B e c athey
n e t h e cof
r o f a d i s t r i b u tBecause
e n at edistribution.
dene the
u s e t h e y r e v e a l t he p l a c e Median
M e dia n
T h e m e d i a n is t he v a l u e t ha t d iv i de s a n o r d e r e d
values are commonly
seriesi ofnumbers so that there is an equal number afvalues
d a t atot e be
data
w he
r e t h etend
t o b e ga t h ethese
n d gathered,
r e d t he se v a l u e s a r e co m m o n l
where the
y
s e r e s o n u m b e r s s o t h a t t h e r e i s a n e q u a Bn u m b e r o v a l usees
side of the center, or median, value. An ordered
te d t h e m e aofcen
on either
measures
ca B
s u r e s otral
t r a l tm de n cy
called the
c e ntendency.
o n e i t h e r s i d e o t h e c e n t e r o r m e t l i a n v a Bu e A n o r d e r e d
ries of data has been arranged according to their magnir ie s o f da t a h a s be e n a r r a n e d a c c o r d in
t he ir
a g
ismthe
g
by
in order, gthet o median
is determined
ofr imeasurements
tude. Once the values are placed
T h e ofa
e a n mean
m e a series
n o f a se
Mean MThe
e s o f rt 1t ?t s u r e n ze 1T t s i s t l e t e r i n i n e t l b
y
t u d e O n c e t h e v a l u e s a r e p l a c e d i n o r d e r t h e m of
d
i
i
htoe
e
n
t
a
s
values
by
dividing this t sum
dd idata
value of the number that has an equal number
values
d a f a v together
n g t he
adding athe
a l u e s t o g eand
t h e r then
a l : 1 r 7 p r l d i v i d i t t
g l1 i s Su h l by
v a l u e o f t h e n u m b e r t h a t h a s a n e u a l n u m b e r o f v a l u even
to
e
s
q a median for an
is calculated
In the case of nding
e t o t a l n uofdata
l u e s W this
d a t a v aWhen
h e n value
m b e r o values.
the totalt hnumber
t h i s v a l u e i s c a l c u l a t e d its left and right.
i t s l e f t a n d r i g h t I n t h e c a s e o f fi n d i n a m e dthe
f o r a n e vset
en
of i a n ordered
g
as the mean and is signied
number of values, the two center values
fo r a p o p u l it
i t i s r e f eto
o nreferred
a t iis
for a population,
r r e d t o a s t h e : n e a n a n d i s s i n i fi e d
g
n u m b e r o f v a l u e s t h e t w o c e n t e r v a l u e s o f t h is
d
d
by
e
o
r
e
r
e
s
divided
et
result
the
the
a sample, it is called
of numbers are added together and
b y p this
W n evalue
l u e i s c a l c u l for
v acalculated
n t h i s is
by a. When
a t e 90 tB} r a s a m p l e i t Js c a ll e d t h e
o f n u m b e r s a r e a d d e d t o e t h e r a n d t h e r e s u l t i s dmedians.
i
i
d
d
b
v
e
and averages can
y
bar).
2. Figure 17.17 shows thegcalculation of several
v e r a is
i fi eXd (X
a n d i s s i g nby
by x
average aand
( x bMeans
a ) M c in s a n d av er a es ca n
g e signied
g
2 F i g u r e 17 17 s h o w s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o fthan
d
s e v e the
i
r a l mmedian,
e
a
n
s
often
calmore
To
is
used
accurate.
mean
is
the
values
Typically,
s e d t o whether
h e r a g rof
be used btoe ujudge
o u p o : v a i u e s i s a c c u r a t e Tu c a l
j u d ge w hae tgroup
T i c a l l y t h e m e a n i s u s e d m o routliers
t h a n the
t h e mean.
m e d ia n
formula:
following
the median is less affected by e o f t e n than
the
but yp
use
aapopulation,
c u lmean
a t e t h e of
m e
n o f a
l
i
culate the
o u a t o n u s e t h e i n ll o w i n
fo r m u l a :
,
p p
bu t t he
II
p.
x , + x :
_x,+x2+x3+--X4 +
p
+Xn+ x
Ext X
i=1
.
.
m e d ia n
i s le ss
f fe c t e d b y
o u tlie r s t ha n t he m e a n
Mode The mode is the most frequently occurring number

M o d e T h e m o d e i s t h e set
s t rnumbers,
mode
e qu e n t ly o a
cc u
r r i n g may
n u m bor
of values. In a m o of
er
in a group
i l 1 t4 g r o u p o v a l u e s I n a s e t o f n u m b
e r s a m o de m a
y or
11
n
De t e r m i n i n gMean
t he M e a n
Determiningthe
rb
L E A N s lx
(l0!
the thicknesses of the

v e r aeach
r ethe
a c h subgroups
o f t h e s u b g rfor
o u p s f o r t h e t h ic k n e s s e s o f
g e s f oof
Averages Afor
l
t
h
c
u ccan
t e calculated.
c a n be c a l c u l a t e d
p l abe
clutch plate
values:
1 Cathe
l c u lsum
a t e t hof
e seach
h ssubgroup
u m o fset
e a cof
e t o f s u bg r o u p v a l u e s :
1. Calculate
bgr o u p
SubgroupSu 1:
t he
1:
0.0625 + 0.0627
+6 0.0624
25 + 0 0
2 6 + 0 0+
6 24 + 0 0 62 5 + 0 0 62 7
2 1 0+0 60.0626
2X1 = 0.0625
= 0.3127 0 3 12 7
by dividing the sum by the
2. Calculate the subgroup average
= 5):
num
b e r o f s ain
the
l e s subgroup
i n t h e s u b g(n
m p
5 ):
r o u p (n
samples
number of
bgr o u p
SubgroupSu1:
1:
+ 0.0627
0+0 0.0626
625 . 0 +
0 60.0624
2 6 + 0 0+6 20.0625
4
0 06 25 + 0 0 627
_ = 0.0625
5i
X
5
5
0
= 0.3127
5
= 0.0625
38
5
0 06 25
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
S IG M A T O O L S
t WO R K
From earlier in the chapter, Table 17.4 gives a list of the

F r o maverages
example. Once the
e a r l i e r i ncalculated
t h e c h a p t efor
sums and
r Tthis
a b l e 1 7 4 g iv e s a l i s t o f t h
e
a grand avers
m
d
u
s
n
a
have
been
a
v
e
r
e s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h i s calculated,
averages for eacha gsubgroup
e x a m p l e On c e t he
age ior all of the subgroups can be found by dividing the sum of
f t h e sby
of items taken in all of
g e f o r a l l osums
u b the
the asubgroup
n b e f o u n d b d i v id i n
Br o utotal
p s c a number
y
g t h e Su m o f
h e s u b g r o u p(150).
is designated as X
sum s A
b y grand
t h e t o taverage
the t subgroups
a l n u m be r o f i t e m s t a k e n i n
a ll o f
t h e s u bg
r o u ps ( 15 0 ) A r a n d
bar):
(X double
a v e r a ge i s d e s i n a t e d a s x
g
0.3127 + 0.3122 + 0.3121+ 0.3114 +

150
(x d o u b l e b a r ) :
R =
_
9.3990
0
150
150
= 0.0627
+ 0.3149
15 0
0 0627
is not taken. Taking an
Notice that an average of the averages
are
work only when the sample Sizes

e t haverages
a t a n a v e will
r a Be o f t h e a v e r a g e s i s n o t t a k e n Ta k i n
averageN oatt icthe
an
of the subgroups to perform g
each
of
a v e r a g eUse
the
ot th
e a sums
v e r a g e s w i l l w o r k o n l w h e n t h e sa m
constant.
y
p le s iz e s a r e
o n s t a n t Us e t h e s u m s o f e a c h o f t h
the ccalculation.
e s u b Br o u p s t o p e r f o r m b
t he
c a l c u l a t io n
I tt
CHAP
Me ' "
' "I tzH " 5tVl2N
188
the Median
Determining
h k
Fr o m t h e
p la t e
b
s he e t
ec
( Fig u r e 17 7 ) t h e
.
t he
c lu tc
an
23 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 25 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 5 26 25
n o r e re
s e t o n u m e rs
23 25 26 27 28 29 25 22
24 24 25 26 25
O 1r d1e r2e d2 s4e t5 o6f n7u m b e r s

3
Calculating Medians
) A
se t o
hi
t he
di s c u s s i o n
ter,
r a n ge
t he
i s t lt e d 1e r e n ce
a s e r i es o
v a lu e i n
R = xh X1
he r e
whereR
C a lc u l a t i n g M e d ia n s
17 l
tr al v alu e,
Median=(2+4)+2=3
re
a cen
h e r e t h e da t a
t h e y a r e o fte n
e
f v a u e s o r sa p
be t w e e n t h e l a rge s t
in this chapter, the range is the difference
histogram earlier
A r a n ge v a l u e d e s c r i b e s ho w
s n za i es t v a l u e i n t h a t sa m e s e r i e s
and the
between the largest value in a series of valuesi or sample
n a p o p u la t io n o r
a d A ll o f t h e o t h e r v a l u e svalue
f a r t h e d a t a s pinr ethat
describes how
same series. A range
smallest value
d
l
t
v
s
a lu e s:
w
e
h
i
o
t
h
a
n
s
h
e
t
e
ll
b
etw een
m p l e w il l f a
g
or
values in a population
All of the other
data spread.
farsa the
values:
and lowest
sample will fall between the highest
X
X
Unordered 1set
2 2of4 numbers
5 6 7
( Figu
s c ap
e a r lie r in t
discussion of the
As was pointed out in the
l
m le a n d t h
h i s t o gr a m
Range
U n o1 r2d e4r e1d 5s e2t 6o f7n u m b e r s
m ay n o t o cc u r
o n e i t h e r s ide o
de sc r ibe
of a distribution.
complete
more
A s w picture
a s po in t e d o u t in t he
Ra n g
e
Be c a u s e t h e s e t w
p
p
create a
with the mean, mode, and median, these values
25
e d iof
a n numbers
Ordered Mset
FIGURE 17.17
dispe r s e d
r d e r e d s e t o f n u m be r s
22 23 24 24O25
25 25 25 26 26 27 28 29
FIG U RE 1 7 1 7
t o t he m e a n
of dispersion. Used in conjunction

to asl e tmeasures
referred
i c t u r e o f a dis t r i bu t i o n
e
m o r e co m
Unordered set of numbers
Ordered
2 +numbers
4) + 2
M e d ia n set(of
value, they are often

side of a central
dispersed on either
are
t he se v a l u es c r ea te a
m o de a n d m e dia n
w it h t he m e a n
2 2 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2 6 2 6 27 2 8 29
2 4 1= 525
2 6
Median
he n
id po i n t s
describe where the data

to the mean. Because fthese
d i s p etwo
r si o n U sed i n c o n ju n c t io n
and
r e fe r r e d t o a s m e a s u r e s o
are
a c c o u nt w
2
0.0626. Each measurement must be taken into account when
midpoints
cell
the
solely
use
not
Do
median.
a
calculating
of a frequency diagram or a histogram.
From the check sheet (Figure 17.7) the median of the clutch
plate thickness data can be found. When the data are placed in
an ordered series, the center or median number is found to be
0 0 6 2 6 Ea c h m e a s u r e m e n t m u s t b e t a k e n i n t o
l e ly t h e c e ll
c a lc u l a t i n g a m e d ia n Do n o t u s e s o
m
i
o f a f r e q u e n c y d ia g r a m o r a h s t o gr a
t h i c k n e s s d a t a c a n b e f o u n d W he n t h e d a t a a r e p l a c e d i n
t h e c e n t e r o r m e d i a n n u m b e r i s f o u n d t o be
t w o R
m e d ia n o f
a n o r d e r e d s e r ie s
s l x S IG M A T O O L S
"
ge
r an
RX h= range
h i gh e s t v a l u e i n t h e s e r i e s
highest
X},X 2
h e sseries
i n tthe
i o v e s t value
e r ie s
v a l u e in
r
=
lowest value in the series
X1
-
he r s
n u m
ay a lso
also
nnumbers
r
me
a su
mayhnot
de s ] : A
u m b e r s o may
e t oof
a sset
m o r e m o17.18).
w o o r (Figure
a v e toccur
or
measureof
numbers
lfa
set
modes.
or
more
two
havem e n t s h a s o n e m o d e i t i s s a i d t o b e u n i m o d a ] I : j t h a s t w o
has one mode, it is said to be unimodal. If it has two i
ments
n u m b e r s a p p e a r i n g w i t h t h e s a m l : f r e q u e n c y i t i s c i r ll e d b
appearing with the same frequency, it is called binumbers
m o da l D i s t r i b u t i o n s w it h m a r e t h a n t w o m L d es a r e
Distributions with more than two modes are remodal.
f e r r e d t o a s m u l t i m o d a l I n a : r e q u e n c y d i s t r ib u t i o n ( .) r a
In a frequency distribution or a
ferred to as multimodal.
h i s t o g r a m t h e c e l l w i t h t h e h i g h e s t f r c q u e n c y i s t h e m Td e
highest frequency is the mode.
the
histogram, the cell with
'
2 3 2 5 26 2 7 2 8 2 9 2 5 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 5
23 25 26 27 28 29 25 22 24 24 25 26 25
Un o rde re d
2 2 23 2 4 2 4 2 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2 6 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9
O rde re d
M d
1 11 1223344 55 66 66 77
O r d e r e dset
n u m be r s
Ordered
s e tof
o f numbers
Bimodal
B i m o d a l= land
1 a n d 66
=
a distribution is
and median determinesi whether
mode,
w he t h e r a d i s t r ibu t io n is
m o d e a n d m e d ia n dA t e r m n e s
100101103104106107
100 10 1 1 0 3 10 4 106 1 0 7
and, ifit is, in which direction.

skewed
i h d i r e c t io n
s ke w e d a n d i i t i s i n w h c
,
No
N omode
m o de
Spread:
f Di s pe r s i o n
d : M e a s u r eofs oDispersion
S r e aMeasures
674
658 659 659 659 670 670 670 671 672 672 672 674
658 659 659 659 6 7 0 670 6 7 0 6 7 1 6 7 2 6 7 2 6 7 2 674 6 7 4
Multimodal: 659, 670. 672
are two measurements

The range and standardd deviation
d de v ia t io n a r e t w o m e a s u r e m e n t s
n d st a n a r
ge ainvestigator
to determine the spread of the
that enable the
he s p r e a d o f t he
t h a t e n a b l e t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o d e t e r m i n e t to
each other
data, that is, where the values fall in relation
d a t a t h a t i s w h e r e t h e v a l u s fa l l i n r e l a t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r
T he
M u lt i m o d a l : 6 59 6 7 0 6 72
ran
FIGURE 17.18
FI GU RE 17 18
Calculating Modes
Ca lc u la t i n g M o de s
LEAN SIX SIGMA TOOLS at wot?K

K
Determining the Mode
25
U n o r d e r e dset
s e tof
o f numbers
n u m be r s
Unordered
1 13344 1 155 22 66 66 77
be rs
o e =
Mode
25
set of n u m
Ordered set of numbers
dian, and mode can be compared with

f cen t ral
M e a s u r eof
s o central
t a a located.
r e lo c a t e d
e d a are
re th
n e w h ethe
Measures
data
minem iwhere
T
h eshow
d
h
i
t
a
a They
o t data.
e
h e c e n position
n the
t e r p o s i t i oof
i b e tcenter
y s ho w
c y d e sc r the
t e n d e ndescribe
tendency
e W he n
e r v a l u When
i l d around
a c e n t value.
u p a r o u na dcenter
t o b u up
n dbuild
a t a t eto
t h e dtend
o w data
howhthe
d m e dia n
h e m e amode,
e a nmedian
n m o dand
a l t mean,
i s s v m m e t r i cthe
o nsymmetrical,
a distribution
a d i s t r i b u t iis
values
il l be
l
the
e s w be
a oskewed
t d d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e v a u will
r a s ke w distribution,
al F
values
a r e e q uFor
v a lare
u e s equal.
Comparing
n ( a v e r a ge )
e m e a (average),
) C o m p a r i nthe
different
r e 1;: 19
g t hmean
n t ( Fi u17.19).
d i f f e r e(Figure
,
be r s
22 23 24 24 25 25 25 25 26 26 27 28 29
e M e a n , M e dia n , a n d
T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p A m o n g t hMean,
Median, and
Among the
The Relationship
m e
a l t e n de n c y t he m e a n
A s m e a s u r e s o f c e n t rtendency,
M o d As
e
the mean, me
measures of central
Mode
h o t h etor tdeter
o tle te r
t h e a cother
d i a n a n d m a d e c a n b e c o m p a r e d w ieach
,
set of num
Unordered set of numbers
s l x S IG M A T O O L S
De t e r m i n i n 8 t h e M o d e
t w o R
The mode can be found for the clutch plate thickness data. The check sheet (Figure 17.7) clearly shows that 0.0626 is the most
frequently
number. It rs tallied 30 times.
T h e m occurring
o d e c a n be f o u n d f o r t h e c l u t c h p l a t e t h ic k n e s s d a t a T h e
f r e q u e n t ly o c c u r r i n B
n um
be r I t
is
t a l l i e d 30 t i m e s
h e c k s h e e t ( F i g u r e 1 7 7 ) c l e a r ly s h o w s t h a t 0 0 6 2 6 i s t h e
m ost
St a t i s t i c s
Statistics
skewedf
Negatively
Sk
d l t
S y m m e t r ic a l
Symmetrical
Median
Mode
FIGURE 17.19
Positively skewed
d r ig h t )
(S k e w eright)
(Skewed
W
I
I
Average Mode
I
Average
ew e
M e d ia n
I
I
Mode Average
M e d ia n
M e d ia n
Median
Median
Mo de
18 9
189
o m pa r
Comparison
of Mean, Mode, and Median
is o n
FI GU R E 17 19
f M e a n M o de
,
d M e di a n
an
Seeing the Relationship

0'
Kn o w in g t he
a v e r a ge
m e d ia n
a n d m o de o f
t he
c lu t c
h p la t e d a t a
d is t r i
Knowing the raverage,

median, and mode of the clutch plate data
o v id e s i n f o r m a t io n a b o u t t h e s m m e t r o f t h e d a t a Tf t h e
p
the symmetry of the data. If the distriprovides information

b u t i o n is sabout
y m m e t r ic a l t h e a v e r a g e m o d e a n d m e d ia n v a l u e s
'
A s s e e n i n t h e f r e q u e n c y d ia g r a m ( Fig u r e 1 7 2 0 ) t h e
m o de
diagram (Figure 17.20), the mode

in thee afrequency
As mseen
k o f t h e d is t r i b u t io n T h e a v e r a g e s lig h t ly t o t h e
a r ks t he
the
il marks
l
r ig h t
p
peak
of the distribution. The average, slightly to the
o f t h e m o d e a n d m e d i a n p u l l s t h e d is t r i b u t i o n t o t h e r i g h t
median, pulls the distribution to the right.

right of
average, mode, and median values will
bution is symmetrical,
T hthe
i s s lmode
ig h t p oand
s it i v e s k e w i s d u e t o t h e h i g h v a l u e s f o r c l u t c h
b e e q u a l A the
s k e w e d d i s t r i b u t io n w i l l h a v e d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s F r o m
is due to the high values for clutch
skew
This
slight
positive
From
values.
will
have
different
distribution
be equal. A skewed
p la t e t h ic k n e s s t h a t o c c u r i n la t e r s a m p l e s
p r e v ii o u s e x a m p l e s t h e v a l u e s f o r t h e c l u t c h p la t e a r e a s f o l l o w s :
plate thickness that occur in later samples.
previous examples, the values for the clutch plate are as follows:
A v e r a ge
0 0 6 2 7 in c h
Average = 0.0627 inch

0 0626
M e d ia n
Median = 0.0626inch
Mo de
in c h
0 0 6 2 6 in c h
Mode = 0.0626 inch
30
soI
28
26
oc ur ences
of
Number
27
28
26
2422
20
1a
16 E
14
12
1o z
8s
42-
-_
24
22
16
14
:: :
:H
2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 26 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3
:
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28I 29 30 31 32 33
Mode
::
Average
Median,
a r is o n o
f M e a n M o de
p of Mean, Mode, and

FIGURE 17.20 Comparison
M e d i a n f o r t h e C l u t c h Pl a t e
Median for the Clutch Plate
F I G U RE 17 2 0
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
Co m
an
190
19 0
C H A PT ER S EV EN T
CHAPTER
SEVENTEEN
rb
C l
EEN
S IG M A T O O L S
s irx
a c u a n g Ra n g e Va l u e s
Calculating
Range Values
T h e f la t
ro u n d
l ti
p l a t e d a t a c o m p r i s e s s u bg r o u p s
of sa m
p le
f iv e
s iz e
The flat round

subgroups
bl e 1 7data
(Ta plate
4 ) Focomprises
le a r a n g e vof
r eac h sa m p
la t e d
c a l c ufive
a l usample
e c a n b esize
(Table 17.4).FoFor
each
r e xa
m p l e :sample, a range value can be calculated.
For example:
Subgroup 1
0 0625
0 0626
0 06 24
0 0625
T he
r an
e d i s t r i bu t io n
Standardt hDeviation
The range shows where each end of
the distribution is
gr o u
i t h i n t h e d i s t r i b u t io
located,
n
but it doesnt
pe d w
0 0625
o t h e r r a n g e s a r e c a lc u l a t e d
i n t he
sa m e m a n n e r
The s e
present in the process over time.
ge s h o w s w he r e e a c h e n d o r
i s l o c a t e d b u t i t d o e s n t t e ll h o w t h e d a t a a r e
n
0 0626
i a t io n
d y t h e v a r These
t o s t u manner.
c h athe
i n t h e n e x t in
caICUlated
p t e rsame
l u e s a r e are
u se d
n g e v a ranges
Ther aother
variation
the
study
i mnext
to
e
t
chapter
e
r
v
o
s
s
the
e
h
c
in
i
o
t
t
r
e
n
used
n
r
e
s
e
are
p
values
range
p
2
0 0627
0.0625
0.0625
0.0627
Ra n g e 0.0626
Xh
Xl 0.0624
0 0627
0 0624
0 0003
Range = Xh XI = 0.0627 0.0624 = 0.0003
St a n d a r d D e v i a t i o
0 0624
0 0623
0.0625
0.06243 0.0626
0.0624X 0.0623
0 0003
0 062
0 0626
Xh
a n ge
r
=
0.0003
0.0623
0.0626
X.
Range = Xh
2
Subgroup
R
T he
Su bgr o u p 1
0 0 6 24
S u bg r o u p 2
I n F i g u r e 17 2 1 t h c t h r e e
how the data are
tell
d d t o ge t h e r
t he v a r i a n c e s
fo
r eac
step a n
d t he n
t a ke t h e
a r e r o o t the variances for each step and then take the

adds q utogether
he n t h e
squareWroot.
m eas u r e m e n t s a r e ta ke n
fr o
ite m
s s a m ple d
iitems
s m o d i %e d
sampled
s
s a m e a v e r a ge a n d r a n g e b u t a ll t h r e e
When the measurements are taken from
grouped within the ndistribution.
In Figure 17.2], the three
i o n ha s
i t e m i n t h e p o p u l a t is
er
t o r e i l e c t t h c f a c t t h a t n o t e vthe
a r e d i f f e r e n t T h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n 5 / o w s r r t l i s p r s i n
modied
l
from the entire population, y previous formula
distributions have the same average and range, but all three
t h e d a t a w h l 1i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n I t d e s c r i b e s h o w t h c
i nd i v
population
the
has
to reect the fact that not every item in
are different. The standard deviation shows the dispersion of
u a l v a l u e s f a ll i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r m e a n s t h e a v e r a g e d i s t a n c e
the data within
the distribution. It describes how the individ
fr o m e a c h da t a p o i n t t o t he m e a n I t de s c r i be s t he e x p e c t e d
ual values afall
in relation to their means, the average distance
m o u n t o v a r i a t i o n p r e s e n t i n a n o r m a ll y d i s r r i b u t e d s e t o f
from each data point to the mean. It describes the expected
amount of variation
present
in a normally distributed set of
. . . .. . . . .
r o v i d e s m o r e r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t io n a b o u t
d is t r ib u t io
ha v e t he
fm
t he e n t ir e
po
p u l a t io n
t he
pr ev io u s
fo
r m u la
|j/
it uses all of the measdata. The tstandard

h e d i s e r sdeviation,
i o n o f t h e dbecause
a t a T h e r a n e c o n s ide r s o n I t he l w o
p
urements etaken,
provides more reliable information about
x t r e m e v a l u e s i n i t s c a l c u l a t i o n g i v i n g n o i n fo m l a t i o n
the dispersion of the data. The range considers only the two
extreme values in its calculation, giving no information cong
cerning where the values may be grouped. Because it only
considers the highest and lowest values, the range has the disadvantage of becoming a less accurate description of the data
l e sreadings
a n ge i s
e v e r b eincreases.
c a u s e t h e r The
v a l sample
u e s H o wvalues
as the number
s i z e s o fof
s t h a n 10 or
sample
small
or
i t i s t hpopulations
e m o s t fr e qu e n tly u se d m ea su r e o l
o c a l cwith
u l a t e small
e a s y tused
range is best
,
h e s t a n dHowever,
d i s pthan
n
a r d d e v i a t ibecause
o n o f t h the
e p o range
e r s i o n 10T values.
sizes of less
p u l i l i o is
of
in [ io n
used
r e d e measure
o t m e a n s qu a
s t h e r ofrequently
n a most
iso wthe
s o m e t i m e sitk n
easy to calculate,
15
b e e n population
t a k e n f r o m eisa c h
w De nstandard
of
v e the
t h e m e a s deviation
u r em en ts ha
dispersion. The
the sta n da r d
i n root
n
o t a l p osquare
t h e t mean
t e mthe
e v e r y ias
an d
known
p u l a t i o deviation.
sometimes
ev
i n g f o reach
t h (: u sbeen
e h ll o wfrom
m u la :
i s c measurements
e o f t htaken
t i o nthe
a l c u l a t e d t h r o u g h have
When
and every item in the total population, the standard devia-
tion is calculated through the use of the following formula:
where
a
,u
Xi
n
=
=
=
=
he r e
r
/1
st a n
f t he p o p u l a t i o n
se r ie s o f m e asu r e m
da r d de v ia t io n
m e a n v alu e
o f t he
en
ts
l u e s o f e a c h r e a di n g
x of the
v a population
X2
x . deviation
Xj
standard
of
a d i n gsof measurements
o f r eseries
value
e r the
n u m b
n
mean
. . . , Xn = values ofeach reading
X1, X2,
A s m a ll e r s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i s d e s i r a bl e b e c a u se i t
number of readings
tha t is t he
c a t e s r e a t e r s i m i l a r i t be t w e e n d a t a v a l u e s
=
..
i n
da t a
h e r e i s l e sbecause
in t he
s v a r i a t i oitn indir e p r e c i s e ldeviation
a r e m o standard
y g r o u p e dis t desirable
A smaller
l
d
d
ia t io n
a r dthe
e vdata
a s m a l s t a n is,
u c t s valuesthat
s s I n t h e c abetween
se o f p r o d
data
p r o c e similarity
cates greater
l
l
k
i
C
i
h
in
h
i
i
d
d
t
n
r
e
a
r
a
e
r
e
a
n
p r
t
t
t
t
t
a
e
n
a
a
o
u
c
s
e
c
r
variation
e
s
is
less
there
grouped,
y
g the
p
are more precisely
i
i
d
h
l
h
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FIGU RE 1 7 2 1
A v e r a ge s
an
D i ff e r e n t D i s t r i b u t i o n
d R a n ge s
s w
i t h Sa m
2.
FIGURE 17.21 Different Distributions with Same

Averages and Ranges
1
Statistics
b
Determining
the Standard ThDeviation
w
e
h
of a Sample
e
e
s
= of -subgroups comprising the clutch

In the case
n
d
groups. aFor subgroup
1:
s
a
t
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r
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2 number
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5
. '
5 = standard devrat10n ofthe sample
the other creates an incomplete picture of the

one without
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c
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e
t
X = average value of the series of measurements
r
t
d
are critical when
dency and measures of dispersion
a
2
example shows,
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As
the
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5
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6
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f
s
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in the same
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4 manner.
m s can be calculated
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s
it isd possible to calculate the sample standard
p
s
o
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0
0.0625)2
0.0625)2
0.0625)2on + 2(0.0625
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191
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sixI'SlGMA TOOLS at WORK
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36 days. the amount of
laid by three 6different crews. Over the past
t
a track of the rate of water pipe being
were
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Two engineers
u
i
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2
n
they
studied the data originally,
were
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m
in
Figure
17.22
diagrams
shown
X
frequency
a
and
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FIGURE 17.22
Frequency Diagrams of the
Amount of Pipe Laid per Day in Feet
s
u
9
1
(Continued)
192
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
n x
Mean] = 20
Mean\ = 20
Medianl = 20
t
Mediang = 20
t
h
n g h
w
=
n Median3
u n W = 20
e Mean3 o a 20
s c e
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f
e o e
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r
d g e r s
n
Model = 20
Modez = 20
Mode3 T=O20
h n
e F
From these
h r s n appear thec same. It was not until the range
t
and standard deviation for each of the three
= - - = = - numbers, the distributions
e
m
s e
e mk e
o
pipe-laying crews' work were calculated
n a
a o
c
a
w
w
a
the differences
f
t
sbecame apparent:
e sthatM
y m
s
v
s
s
f
a
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e
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t
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c
c
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n = 4
g h
e
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r
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o
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w
e
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r
s a n
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+ 7(19eh h 20)2
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g 6
e
36g
6 th
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36
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ua =
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2
g on + 4(18
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r
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n d+ 5(19 20)-- + 6(20 20)2 +
n
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m
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e
o
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c
o y
s
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v
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5(21 20)2 + 04(22a 6 e20)2
20)2
20)2 + 1(25
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Range;
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&
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e 2.4
2.42,
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e wdeviation3
o
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e
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a= 1.65,
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7 p
o
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6 u
20)2 + 4(18
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c
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+ 3(23 20)2
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e
n pi n20)2
e
a u
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n d
a
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u o
n
o a
r
r
s
s
o e
f
v
o a
M M M
e
a
t
n er
mn
n n n
+
h s
r
Once calculated, the ranges and standard
f
t
d
s w
d
deviations revealed
h
that
3
z
hsignificant differences
exist 2in the
performance
e o
of91 thedathreeef crews.
e
1
h o s
a
a
x p a e
n
e
The first crew was much more consistent
4
u
t
d
e
win the amount
9
pipea they laid per day. As
c
kof m
the
figures
- and
calculations
show,
there
is
n
more
s
+
d
d
d
b
e
e
=
g
h
n t
n
dayto-day variation present in the bamount
t
2
a
v
of
pipe
the
W
r
uthird
crew
n
lays.
d
h
d
d
e
2
o
e
2
2
e t
h
3
t
6
c
e h 2 a e a
e
a
7
t
e
d
p
p
e e
o
n
3
3
a
n
e
v
2
3 0
e e
a
n
- -
g
d
a n
h
a
wt
o o
h t
a e
y y s
e h h p
O
K r o calculations
u n
When we combine thea analytical
a o c k
a
graphical
a e
r
e n with the
c
e t
t
u
y
e
a
information from the previous
n
u
c
o
u r
Lean
Six
Sigma
Tools
at
h
Work feaa d
h
w
t
o e
p
h
o a
e s
y Seeing the Whole -Picture

ll
s
s
b
e
5/
M M M
c w
a a
ms
e n
a
0 0
o
t
e
d
d
n
a
n
d
a
n
1
- - -
6
frequency diagram
2
3
2 2 2
a n
gives
critical 5information
3 4us the
t
that there
is
p c
2
2
a
0 0 0
u
ewith a thickness
e
only
1
one
plate
1
o
of
e
e
0.0629
0
0
n
inches.
n e h c d a
The
range
e t
e
of
o
o
o
e
n
e
t
tures, we see a more complete
t
7 picture of the
n n
t
s d
8
a
u
our data is fairly
u
u
A ne d clutch plate
e data
h
broad;2 the
t
d
frequency
2
2 diagram
a e c
o
s
shows
an t overall
M M M
y c o
n
s =
t
2 eThe rgrands average,
n
n
e
we are studying (Figure
e
a d
h s17.11).
)7
0.0627
y
t
spread
v
of
the
distribution
0
h
d0.0012+ inches.
t
n g
o o o
of
d
p
d
y
s
3 f
+
In
u
s
general,
through
i
a
r
a
e a
t
a
f
e
inches, median (0.0626),
d d d
e
e
e
e
a
t
confirm
that
s and mode h(0.0626)
h
the
n
a d
their calculations
e and diagrams,
2 2
6 engineers
7have
the
d
e e e
e a
d
d
g t u v r
A
learned
n
t
e a
t
a
histogram is skewed slightly
a
0
c
t
a
2
to
the
right.
Because
t
s e
t
g
the e g
t
T w at
m we know
that they are making
the
e
+ plates
2
too
thick.
h mo d
a
They
2 have
o
also
t
o
o
e
n
grand average of the data,
h e
u the distribution
2
h
we
also
t
know
1
that
- 1
n K
h g e n
a n s isy w z
learned that the
h cmachining
2
1
1
process
2
is not
e h v
producing
platesa
c
k s
e r of 0.0625
t
e e
centered on the desired
evalue
e
+
target
u
b
n
m
inches.
2
2
2
m
r
The h
b
of consistent thickness.
k
s
e o
4
7
0
h a
a
d
2
t
f
d
n a n
0 0 0
e tr
a f
2
\not
n b o a
5
e
a
2
g
4
t
e c
g
g t
i
e
q
p
r
a
4
h a
e
r
s
s
o h
h
uof Dispersion
Other Measures
=
a h a mk
h
e
s
Skewness
r
t
n e n e
w
v e
d ez a n
a
n
e
d u a
t
d
h
n e d o
v
h e
t
h
k u
o e n s
f
p g
r
a a
f
r
s
s
When
h a distribution lacks symmetry,o it
s is
s cond p
0 q
e
z
e
m0
o
e
r
s r
s
sidered skewed. A picturee of uthed distribution
0 u
is not esnecessary
s
o
o
o
e
a
H
s
s
h 1
o
r
e
n 0
s
to determine skewness.
k
e 2
Skewness
can m
beh measured
by calcu
c
%
r
X
c
lating the following

d
value:
s
e
e
s
s
x
)
_ i=1
n a3
h
e
where
a3
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X
n
5
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a
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=
=
=
=
=
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Once determined,
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gure
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n
r
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2 2
d h of
skewness value
zero
2 the distribution
e
0 means that
is
dsymmet2
c
+
2
e
rical. A valuea greater
p
2
than
zero means that2the data are
v skewed
e
t
c
a
to the right; the
tail of+the distribution
2
u
goes to the right.
If the
to the left, with a tail of the distribution going to the

left (Fig
r
ilxi if/nco
o
f
0
6
a
value is negative
(less5 than
zero), then the
r
- 2
o a
n n
s c
s e
o
0
distribution
nis
)
skewed
2
ure 17.23). The higher
3
e
0 -the value, the stronger the skewness-
0
Kurtosis
L
h o
t
w
Kurtosis,
the peakedness
of the data, iso another
e
t
s that can
value
h t be calculated:
+
e h
r
r
e e
R
K
ifdxi iii/n
2
2
me
a
c
a4
S4
e
t
h
r
e
e
l/\ A
Sk e w e d t o r ig h t
Statistics-
Skewed to right
"
Pla ty k u r t ic
Le pt o k u r t ic
193
Platykurtic
Leptokurtic
Ku r t o si s
FIGURE 17.24 Kurtosis
FIGURE 17 24
e a ke d
t ha n t ha t o n t h e r i
ht I t s k u r t o s i s
v a lu e w o u
ld
g
p
more peaked than that on the right. Its kurtosis value would
b e l a r ge r
be larger.
m ore
Sk e w e d t o le f t
Skewed to left
/1
EO R E M
IT T H THEOREM
CE
N T R A L L IMLIMIT
CENTRAL
s of sam
use
l i m i t limit
T h e c eThe
t h
l a t i o n o f i t e mofs items.
n t r a lcentral
theo
s t a ketaken
n f r o mfrom
a po p
a upopulation
p i e ples
d
d
l
data
and
he s amthe
f r o m t from
ata an
dr aw
l u si o n s t o be to
bl es c o n cconclusions
bendrawn
r e mrem
e n a enables
p e sample
that a
he o r e mtheorem
e : ; 1 1 1 =
l l i m i t tlimit
I I
at a
l ie d t o a to
l a t i o n T he cThe
s t a t es t hstates
a p papplied
e n t r acentral
p o ap upopulation.
as the
distributed;
to
be
normally
tends
u p o f saofsample
rn p/e a v e r aaverages
gr o group
ges t en ds t o be n o r m a ll y di st r i bu t e d; a s t he
sample size 11 increases, this tendency toward normality improves.
FIGURE
sa m ple s iz e n i ncrease t h i s t e n de n c y t o w a rd n o r m a l i ty i m p r o v es
Sk e w n e s s
FI GU RE17.23
17 2 3 Skewness
n = 30
In
words, sampling distributions with sample size
30
I n o t hother
e F w o r ds sa m p l i n g di s t r i bu t i o n s w i t h sa m p l e s i z e n
distriwill approximate a normal curve faster than a sampling
di s t
w i ll a pp r o x i m a t e a n o r m a l c u r v e f a s t e r t h a n a s a m p l i n g
=
where
bution with a sample size n 5. The population from which the
w he r e
b u t to n w i t h a s a m p l e s i z e n 5 T h e p o p u l a t i o n f r o m w h i c h t h e
samples are taken does not need to be normally distributed for
a4 = kurtosis
sa m pl e s a r e t a k e n d o e s n o t n e e d t o be n o r m a l l y d i s t r i bu t e d f o r
the sample averages to tend to be normally distributed (Figku r t o s is
Xia 4= individual
data values under study
t h e s a m p l e a v e r a ge s t o t e n d t o be n o r m a ll y d i s t r i bu t e d ( F
ure 17.25). In the eld of quality, the central limit theorem supi
i
i
X=
d
d
l
d
l
d
n
v
a t a v a u e s u n e r st u dy
ua
i i average
of
individual
values
fi e ld
l li m population.
17 25the
i t t h e o r e m The
t h e of
u r eports
o f qu alit y
e c e n t r athe
) I n use
s mean
sampling
tot hanalyze
a v e r a ge
o f i n d iv i du a l v a l u e s
size
11 x= sample
h
f
l
i
l
h
l
h
i
o
T
t
t
t
r
t
t
s
e
u
s
e
o
sa
m
n
a n a approximate
a n popuofethe
p of the sample averages
p g o will
yz e e po p u atheo nmeane m
iz e
s a m p l e s deviation
5 n= standard
ofsample
he s a m The
l
i
l
i
f
h
h
t
o f tlation.
e
av
e
r
a
variation
associated
o
t
t
es
with
the
sample
averages
r
x
m
a
w
a
e
e
m
e
a
n
o
e
p
pp
g
p o will be
s
s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f s a m p ]e
with
be
compared
important
Once calculated, the kurtosis value must
l a t iless
he v a that
i a t e d w i t h t h e It
l e a v e r a ge s wtoi llremember
be
o n Tthan
r i a t i o of
n athe
s s o c population.
m p
sa is
that
another
tend
toward
normality,
as the
k uwith
O n c e cdistribution
it h
b eorder
d wintera l c u l a t e d t h eor
l e s sthat
h athe
r t o s i sa v standard
a l u e m u s t in
l
c o m pto
t h a nit t is
a r ebe
t o f sample
i
i
i
I
t h e p o p averages
t
t
u a on
s m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m be r
side
is
following
Lean
Six
Sigma
Tools
preted.
In
Figure
17.24,
the
distribution
on
the
left
at
Work
feature
shows.
a n o t h e r di s t r i b u t i o n o r w i t h a s t a n d a r d i n r l e r t o b e 1n t e +
t h a t i t i s t h e sa m pl e a v e r a ges t h a t t e n d t o w a r d n o r m a l i t a s t h e
y
d based
of
u sethe
o n t h e on
M uMuch
o l i s ba seis
s s c o n t r control
c h o f s tof
st ic al pr o c e
a t istatistical
process
p r e t e d I n Fi gu r e 17 24 t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
,
o n t hc
l e ft
Triangular distribution of X8
Tr ia n g u la r d is t r ib u t io n
of
Xs
Uniform distribution of X3
FIGURE 17.25
s i de
is
f o ll o w i n g Le a n Six Si gm
To o l s a t W o r k fe a t u r e s ho w
rail
Approximately normal distribution of X3
A pp r o x im a t e ly n o r m a l d is t r ib u t io n o f Xs
Approximately normal distribution of X5
Nonnormal Distributions and Their Plots of Averages
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
194
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
at W0 RK
LEAN Six 8 lGMA TOOLS
Using the Central Limit Theorem

/b
Chuck and Bob are trying to settle an argument. Chuck says
that averages from a deck of cards will form a normal curve
when plotted. Bob says they won't. They decide to try the following exercise involving averages. They are going to follow
these rules:
1. They Will randomly select five cards from a well-shuffled
deck and write down the values (Figure 17.26). (An ace is
worth 1 point, a jam 11' a queen 12' and a king 13')

2. They will record the numerical values on a graph (Figure
1726)
3' They Will calculate the average for the five cards.
4. They will graph the results of step 3 on a graph separate

from that used in step 2 (Figure 17.27).
5_ They will then replace the five cards in the deck.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
11
1
9
11
7
11
1
13
2
4
2
6
2
2
6
3
8
5
2
5
9
1
4
3
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
JHi'
W
W
W
W
W
.LH'T
W
W
W
LHl'
W
W
13
7
5
5
12
9
4
3
4
5
5
9
3
6
8
4
1
7
5
7
1
13
5
7
7
10
12
12
7
13
5
13
2
1
12
7
8
6
9
8
12
8
6
4
12
3
9
13
9
6
W
W
W
.LHT
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
LHl
FIGURE 17.26
Scanned
12
9
1
9
7
1
12
6
10
1
7
2
11
11
9
1
6
8
10
7
6
3
5
8
6
W
W
H/il
W
W
LHl
W
W
J/Hl'
W
W
.1e
LHT
7
3
11
12
4
13
13
12
13
9
11
12
11
13
1
6
10
8
1
8
12
6
7
10
1
10.6
6.4
7.6
8.8
8.6
7.8
8.6
7.2
6.0
6.2
6.4
7.4
6.6
8.2
6.4
5.2
6.6
6.8
4.4
7.8
6.2
6.4
6.8
7.4
4.2
6. They W' 5te the deck.
t'me s
'I. They will repeat this process 5 0
the results of steps 1 and 2, Because the

Figure 17.26 displays
selection of cards from the deck was
deck was well shuffled and the
of being SEIectedl/SZ.
random, each card had the same chance
the frequency diagram in
in
values
of
distribution
The fairly uniform
of card was selected
.
shows that each type
The distribution would be

Figure. 17 26
atel the same number of times.
had been drawn.

25220:; uriiform if a greater number of cards
4. Notice that as the
the
results
of
step
Figure 1727 graphs
more
results look
number of averages recorded increases, the
limit
and more like a normal curve. As predicted by the central
final
the
diatheorem. the distribution of the sample averages In
has
occurred
This
normal.
is
approximately
17.27
gram in Figure
even though the original distribution was not normal.
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
8
9
12
12
1
12
3
9
6
2
6
9
2
10
13
2
10
13
9
6
1
9
8
12
2
10
13
4
4
12
3
5
1
8
12
4
13
1
11
2
1O
4
13
10
7
4
11
13
11
12
1
2
12
7
3
10
1O
2
6
5
8
3
'13
5
8
5
12
7
7
8
12
8
1O
11
5
9
2
3
6
12
11
2
3
13
10
9
10
7
12
2
4
7
1
11
7
11
1
13
2
11
10
2
13
9
11
6
7
11
9
4
12
1
5
13
11
11
11
10
11
4
13
11
4
3
9
W I |
| | l I
l
|
| | l
W
l
W
l I
W
W
LHT
l
l
l | I
W
| |
Numerical Values of Cards and Frequency Distribution
7.6
5.6
8.8
7.6
7.8
8.4
5.4
5.2
8.4
6.6
7.8
7.2
5.6
10.2
7.2
6.4
8.8
8.8
9.6
6.4
8.2
8.0
9.6
7.8
7.8
Statistics
\
After 10
/// ///
,9
7.9 "-19 419 \)'i9

.99 o9 .0 <9
.0
// / WW/
a 60 6-19
999
6
6
,\
////
195
averages
are
recorded
76%/
////
@070
90%
After 25
averages
are
recorded
/
\
0.9
//// //// /
After 50
averages
1966 71/76 7699/

\
1999 7666 7669- 7669 // //
FIGURE 17.27
Distribution of Sample Averages
NORMAL FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
The normal frequency distribution, the familiar bellshaped
curve (Figure 17.28), is commonly called a normal curve.
A normal frequency distribution is described by the normal
density function:
1
=
.3(x-11V/202 00 < x < 00
f(x)
The normal frequency distribution has six distinct features:

A normal curve is symmetrical about u, the central value.
The mean, mode, and median are all equal.
The curve is unimodal and bell-shaped.

PP?! Data values concentrate around the mean value of the
distribution and decrease in frequency as the values get

further away from the mean.
5. The area under the normal curve equals 1. One

hundred percent of the data are found under the normal
curve, 50 percent on the left-hand side, 50 percent on
the right.
6. The normal distribution can be described in terms of its
mean and standard deviation by observing that 99.7
percent of the measured values fall within 21:3 standard
deviations of the mean (p. :h 30'), that 95.5 percent of

the data fall within i2 standard deviations of the mean
(u :t 20'), and that 68.3 percent of the data fall within
i1 standard deviation ([4. :l: 10'). Figure 17.29 demon
strates the percentage of measurements falling within

each standard deviation.
These six features combine to create a peak in the center of

the distribution, with the number of values decreasing as the
measurements get farther away from the mean. As the data
Mode
Median,
Mean,
FIGURE 17.28
The Normal Curve
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
fall away toward the horizontal axis. the curve attens. The
tails of the normal distribution approach the horizontal axis

and extend indenitely, never reaching or crossing it.
Although not all symmetrical distributions are normal
distributions, these six features are general indicators ofa
normal distribution. (There is a chi square test for normal-
ity. Refer to a statistics text for a complete description of the

chi square test.)
196
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
T hi s f o
if
sisigee
Pe r c e n t a ge
\']_
f M e a su r e m
en ts
Fa ll i n g
gt
e ar ea u n
po
p u l a t i o n s t a n da r d
d ev
i at i
(T
di
1 t o fi n d t h e
v al
x
ue
u s e d w i t h t h e t a bl e i n A p p e n
Appendix 1 to nd the value
Z is used withh the table in
e
c
t
t
r
h
e
n
s
a
n
h
i
a
r
e
s
e
r
e
c
p a percentage
o f t he a r e a u n de r t e c u r v e w
p
ge
of the area under the curve, which represents
du c ed If
or
r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t o r m e a s u r e m e n t s p r o produced.
If
of the product or measurements
or pproportion
h
f
h
i
t
e
c
e n ter o f
h
o
i
t
i
to t e r g
z h a s a p o s i t i v e v a l u e t h e n t its is
of
center
the
of
right
to the
Z has a positive value, then
h e the
z vZ
I f tIf
a l uvalue
e is
i s isl a rlarger
n x i.
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a nand
is
ge r t h athan
i
distribution d X Xi
the
d
X
f
h
i sXi is
t
e
a
n
r
t ethe
c e n center
t s i dside
e o of
t hthe
e l e fleft
n e g a t i v e t h e n i titi siso n
and
on
i
negative, then
h a n xX.
s m a ll e r t than
smaller
,
f in t e r e st
o r
va ue o
z is
il i
l P b
o rm u a
_
s t a n da r d n o r m a l v a l u e
p. =
standard normal value
=
0-; = population standard deviation
i n di v i du a l x
( r ji
Th
r e a u n de r t he n o r m a l c u r v e c a n be de t e r m i n e d i f t h e
the normal curve can be determined if the
The areae aunder
m e a n a n d t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a r e k n o w n T h emean,
or
mean and the standard deviation are known. The m e a n or
t h e cof
h e a v e r a glocates
a s samples,
e o f s a m p lthe
the
o fthe
e l o c a t ethe
e s taverage,
s t he
c e n t e r of
center
in thei ncase
l
i
d
ib
i
d
fi
he
h
d
d
d
T
i
i
t
n
o
t
r
m
a
t
s
r
u
t
t
n
e v a o n denes
e n e s the
e s a n a r deviation
standard
normal distribution. oThe
d o fdata
h e c e n t of
f t hdistribution.
t h e dabout
r e athe
a t a a b othe
u t tcenter
e r othe
e d i s t r ib u t i o n
spreads pof
and
h
T
l
h
d
f
i
i
i
i
d
in
features
t
t he
e r e a o n s discussed
o the
a n d6 6of
n ea t u r e5
s 5
The relationships
p s sc u s se
ca l
t o calcun o r frequency
m a l f r e q u e ndistribution
t p o s s i bl eto
c y d i s t r i b u t i omake
n m a kit
e ipossible
normal
two
any
between
fall
that
values
of
l
h
f
l
h
f
l
l
b
percentage
late the
a t e t e p e r c e n t a ge o
v a u es t at
a
e t w een a n y tw o
are under the normal
data
readings.
I f percent
10 0 p e r c eof
r e a d i If
n g s100
o f th
n t the
e da t a a r e u n de r t he n o r m a l
or below a
curve,c u rthen
h e a m o u nof
r p m d u c above
t oproduct
t a bo v e o r be l o w a
t hthe
ve
e n tamount
may be
values
These
determined.
be
value can
particular
p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e c a n be d e t e r m i n e d T h e s e v a l u e s m a y b e
as the upper and lower specication limdimensions
d i m e n s isuch
l
o n s s u c h a s t h e u p p e r a n d l o w e r s p e c i fi c a t i o n
of interest.
any value
canc abe
they
or
designer
the
its seti t by
h
b
l
j
i
h
d
b
t
t
t
n
c
r
e
sl
o
r
n
e
a
n
v
u
e
o
r
t
a
e
e
s
n
e
e
s se
y
y
y
g
under the normal curve
area
the
nding
for
The formula
fi d i
d
h
l
l f
h
h f
T
population means and pop-
Xvalue of interest
Xi =pindividual
o p u l a t io n m e a n
p
=
population mean
p.
orm
ro a b ty
Standard Normal aProbability
Di s t r i bu t i o n : z Ta b l e s
2 Tables
Distribution:
is as follows:
i s a s f o l lo w
po
he r e
Xi
FIGURE
17.29
of Measurements Falling
W i t h i n Ea c hPercentage
St a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n
Within Each Standard Deviation
St a n da r d N
/1
where
K\I
99.17%
FIGU R E 1 7 2 9
Xj
=
m ean s a n
:3099 Y%
__l/
d a r d d e v i a t i o n s : with
(T
:16
68.53%
st a n
p o p u la t io n
This formula also works

lation standard deviations:
}a t i o n
r m u l a a l so w o r k s w i t h
er t
e no rm a
cu rve
s:
d e r t hthe
c i a t e d w i t hwith
v e a s s oassociated
T
e n o normal
r m a l c u rcurve
e a u nunder
n d th
e a rarea
o fi
the
nd
To
ll o w i n g p r oprocedure:
c e du r e :
e f o following
u use
s e t hthe
aa particular
p a r t i c u l a r XXi,
j
'
f y t h a tthat
Use
e r iverify
t he the
fo r m a t i o n o non
h e i ninformation
1.
v e s t o vto
1 U
n onormal
r m a l c u rcurves
s e tthe
distributed.
measurements
r m a ll y d i s t r i b u t e d
e n onormally
m
e a s u r e m e n t s a rare
the mean, standard deviation, and value of interest

2.
Use
2 U
s e t h e m e a n s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a n d v a l u e o f i n t e r e st
the formula to calculate Z.
iin
n t h e fo r m u l a t o c a l c u l a t e z
,
1.
Find the Z value in the table in Appendix
3.
3 F i n d t h e z v a <u e i n t h e t a bl e i n A
e n dix 1
pp
Use the table to convert the Z values to the area of

4.
4 U s e t h e t a bl e t o c o n v e r t t h e z v a l u e s t o t h e a r e a o f
interest.
in te r est
5. Convert the area of interest value from the table to a
5
a r e a o f i n t e r e st v a lu e f r o m t he
percentage by multiplying by 100.
Co n v e r t t he
p e r c e n t a ge by
m u
t a bl e t o a
l t i p l y i n g by 100
The table in Appendix 1 is a left-reading table, mean! h e t a b l e i n A pp e n dthe

l e f t r e athe
i s a under
d i n gcurve
t a bl e from
menegait will provide i x 1area
ing that
,
l
00 < X < 00
e(Klz/Zl2
=
:
:
(x) f
( x A ) : 1t r
=
00 < x < 00
e
(x )0V27r
2 l
where
w
i n g t hinfinity
d e rinterest
;i t i t w i l l p r o v i d e t h e value
fr o m
t h e c u r v e(Figure
e
17.30).
up to the a r e a u nof
n
tive
:Il e jn >
t h e vto
f i n t e r e s t (F i g
i n i l y u will
a l ube
e omanipulated
30 ) area
tou rnd
e 17 the
p t o have
values
These
l u e s wthe
T h e s e v athan
i l l hvalue
b e interest
a v e t o of
m a n i p u lor
d t o f i n d two
t h e a values.
a t ebetween
r ea
greater
shading
and
h
h
l
t
in
question
t
i
i
situation
t
r
e
a
e
r
v
e
a of
L1e the
o
n t e r e st o r be t w e e n t w o v a lu es
aa npicture
Drawing
g
:
calculations.
D r a warea
i n g aofp iinterest
h e s i t uhelps
c t u r e o f toften
the
i o n aZn d
a t i o n iclarify
n q u e s t the
sh a din g
he r e
t he
11' 3 3.14159
area o
f in t e r e st
o ft e n
h e l p s c l a r i fy t h e z
c a lc u l a t io n s
3 14 159
6 3 ?r2.71828
=
e
This formula can be simplied through the use of the stan1).
distribution
u s e o f t he s t a
n
h i s f o r mprobability
u l a c a n be s i m
gh t h e (Appendix
p l i fi e d t h r o u table
dard Tnormal
2 7 1828
dis t r ibu t io n
darci uses
a l pfollowing
r o b a b i l i t y formula:
n o r m the
This table
T h i s t a ble
u se s
t he fo l l o w i n
t a bl e
(A pp e n d i x 1)
g fo r m u l a :
1
_ 22/2
8
2) = V2?
f (z )
=
'
where
w
x-I x
he r e
Z =
= standard normal value
sY
B
I
da rinterest
z
=
d n o r m a l v a lu e
s t a n of
individual X value
X;
X = average
_
i n di v i d u a l x v a l u e o f i n t e r e s t
Xi
deviation
5 = standard
=
iR
av er age
Scanned
00
Xi
)_(
__-
Z Table
Curve
Xi
FIGURE 17.30 Normal
x for Left-Reading
Probability Distribution
Using Standard Normal
l P b b i I it D i t i b t i
/IQ
U s i n g St a
da rd No
rm a
ro
s r
LEAN SIX SIGMA TTOOLS

o O L S
L E A N S IX S IG M A
on
0 R K
att wWORK
The engineers working with the clutch plate thickness data have
ha v e
s s d a t aThey
t h i c k n e curve.
e normal
e c l u t c h p l a ta
t h t happroximate
thatk itheir
n g w idata
e n g in e e r s w o r
T h edetermined
T
h
e
rv e
a l c u from
r mparts
x i m a t e a n oof
theysama p p r opercentage
like to determine
t h e i r d a t a what
e r m in e d t ha t
d e t would
s
e
f
s f r o m t hinch.
a r t 0.0629
o
t
e
a
below
0.0624
inch
e
n
h
t
c
are
and
above
e
r
p
a
w
g
i
taken
e
ples
n
m
p
t
r
e
de
w o u ld l i k e t o
h
i
9
c
2
n
h a n d a bo v e 0 0 6
r e b e lo w 0 0 6 2 4 i n c
p i e s t a ke n a
data in Table 17.3, they
calculated an average of
1. From the
e o f the
v e r a gused
l a t e d a n aThey
l c u0.00023.
a
standard
3 t h e y c aof
and
l
b
T
0.0627
e 1 7 deviation
i
a
n
d
t
a
a
h
t
e
m
F
o
r
1
d t he
e
u
s
T
h
e
3
2
0
0
0
0
f
y
i
t on o
of parts under 0.0624
e v i apercentage
s t a n d a r d dthe
2 7 a n dtoa determine
0 026 tables
624
0
0
d
e
r
n
t
u
f
s
a
r
o
t
e
In
Figure
17.31
the
area
of
interest
is shaded.
p
t o d e t e r m in e t he pe r c e n a g
b l e s thick.
z t ainch
i n c h t h ic k
I n F i g u r e 1 7 3 1 t h-e
0.0624
2 =
a re a o
f i n t e r e s t is
0.0627 =
1.30
627
0 0
0 0 6 2 40.00023
ha d e d
J U
23
0 000
From Appendix 1: Area = 0.0968
or 9.68 percent of the parts are thinner than 0.0624 inch.

2. When determining the percentage of the parts that are
0.0629 inch thick or thicker, it is important to note that the
table in Appendix 1 is a left-reading table. Because the ent he
a u s e thicker
e c parts
i n g t a b l e Bof
gineers want to determine
l f t the
r e a dpercentage
t a b le i n A p pe n d ix 1 is a e
h
i c k will
t
er
17.32),
t
f
area
shaded
in
Figure
s
r
they
a
(the
o
t
e
0.0629
a
n
than
e
c
r
p
h
e
t
e p
g
de te r m in e
Bi n e e r s w a n t t o
h
w ill
t
2
e
area
up
to
0.0629
from
1.00.
3
7
)
the
1
i
to
subtract
F
have
y
r
e
i
u
d
n
d
h
e
a
g
0 0 6 2 9 (t h e a r e a s
t ha n
0.0629 0.0627 = 0.87

z_
0 06 27
0 0 6 2 90.00023
7
0627
o
=
II
x
Ar
u n
d e r t he
l c u r v e) : 0.8079 = 0.1921
1.00
no rm a
pa r t s 0 0 6 2 3 in c h a n t n
f in t e r e s t f o r 0 0 6 2 6 in c h
a n
d t h in
ner
t h in n e
0.0623 0.0627 =
1 _7
0.00023
or
r:
1.74
Areal = 0.0409
Are a
0 0409
or 4.09 percent of the parts are 0.0623 inches or thinner.

or
4 0 9 pe rc e n t
f t he pa r ts
are
0 0 6 2 3 in c he s
or t
h in
ner
Then solve for parts 0.0626 inches or thinner:
T he
19 2
0 7 9 are0 thicker
0 8 parts
1 0 0 of the
than 0.0629 inch.
or 19.21 percent
2 9 iparts
nc h
h
of5 the
k
t
want
to
find
the
percentage
also
an 0 0
e
r
i
engineers
h
c
3.o r The
t
19 2 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r t s a r e
area
of
interthick:
The
and t0.0626
inch
between 0.0623
h
a
t a e o f t e p rt s
T h e e n g i n e e r s a ls o w a n t o f i n d t h e p e r c e n g
est is shaded in Figure 17.33. In this problem the engineers
of interest. one for those parts
must calculate two areas
17 3 3 I n t h i s p r o b l e m t h e e n g i n e e r s
e s t is s h a d e d i n F ig u r e
and the other for those
0.0623 inches thick ors thinner
a r t s parts
o f in t e r e s t o n e l o r t ho s e p
m u s t c a lc u l a t e t w o a r e a
for
of
interest
area
or
thinner.
The
0.0626 inch thick
h
s e those
t
o
f
h
o
r
t
e
r
pa rt s
h
t
e o
0 0 6 2 3 i n c h e s t h ic k o r t h i n n e r a n d
from
will
be
subtracted
thinner
parts 0.0623 inch and
h
t
othe
se
f
r
t
o
t
s
e
r
f
i
n
e
o
a
0 0 6 2 6 i n c h t h ic k o r t h i n n e r T h e a r e
and
thinner.
inch
area of interest for 0.0626
h
t
e
f
m
o
r
d
t
e
b
t
c
r
a
l
u
l
b
i
e
s
d hi n er w
a re a o
u r
0 00 0 23
n s o lv e
U n der t he
f o r pa rt s 0 0 6 2 3 in c h
s o lv e
in c h
6 2 9thicker
0 0are
they want the percentage
However,
r t h a nthat
t h i nof
n eparts
8 0 7 9 pe r c e n t o f t he pa r ts a r e
f ro m
ea
First solve for parts 0.0623 inch or thinner:
F ir s t
er
than 0.0629 inch. To find this areaf they
t h a t Subtract
a r e t h i c kthe
a r t smust
Ho w e v e r t he y w a n t t he pe rc e n t a ge o p
area from 1.0 (remember: 100 percent of the parts fall
under the
normal curve):
t fa ll
1 0 (r e m e m b e r 1 0 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r s
a rea
Xi = 0.0629
Area Under the CCurve,
0 0629
v e X
FIGURE 17.32
or 80.79 percent of the parts are thinner than 0.0629 inch.

o r
0.0629
=
H
xi
l ><
F IG U R E 1 7 3 2
0 8
0 000 23
Area = 0.8079
f o r pa rt s 0 0 6 2 6 in c h e s
t h in
0.0626 0.0627 7
0'44
0 0627
22 7 0 0 6 20.00023
6
0 44
Z2
o r
ne r
0 000 23
Areag = 0.3300
0 3300
A re a z
or 33 percent of the parts are 0.0626 inches or thinner. SubS

e s o r t h in n e r
n c h area
0 0 6 2 6 ithe
s a r edetermine
f t h areas
e p a r twill
c e n t otwo
in between:
r 3 3 p e rthese
otracting
ill det e r m in e t he
a re a
a re
0.3300 0.0409 = 0.2891
t r a c t in g t he s e t w o
as w
0 3300
0 0409
in be tw e e
0 289 1
or 28.91 percent of the parts fall between 0.0623 and

0 0623 and
o0.0626
r 2 8 9 1 inches.
pe r c e n t o f t h e p a r ts f a ll be t w e e n
0 0 6 2 6 in c he s
OO*->
x:
0.0624 0627
= 0
i
.
xi
II
FIGURE 17.31
F 1 GT 1 R 1 7 1
0623
0
0.0626
X1
II
X2n 2n
l x
Area Under the Curve Between
x
FIGURE 17.33
Area Under the Curve, Xi = 0.0624
0.0623
A
3
1 7 30.0626
F IG U R and
0 0624
d 0 06 26
re a
t In d e
t he
0627
0
Cu
Scanned
r v e
0 06 23
r ea
a n
U n de r the Cu
r v e
Be tw
een
h/
.

EV E N T E EN
H A PT ER S
SEVENTEEN
C
CHAPTER
98
1
198
E
s t im a t e
Estimate
05
/ 2 = 00.05
a/2
0 45
IInterval
n te rv a l
X
x,<
1
X2
->X2
2:0
0
-1545
1 64 5
C
o n fi d e n c e
Condence
34
IG U R E 17
F
17.34
FIGURE
05
/ 2 = 00-05
01/2
[4-
1-
ia gr a m
IInterval
n te r v al D
Diagram
1 64 5
+
+1.645
90%
90/o
l1
u r v e
o r m al C
Curve
Normal
FIGURE 17.35 N
f
i
de n c e
o n
Pe r c e n t C
9 0 Percent
Condence
h o w i n g 90
S
Showing
F IGU RE 17 3 5
Lev el
Level
V
alu es
Values
h o u l d be
b e rrounded
t o two
tw o d
o u n d e d to
o r
e c i m a l places
off zZ sshould
decimal
p l a c e s ffor
h e table.
ls o b
t a b l e IInterpolation
n tthe
n t e Fp o l a t i o n b
an a
e t w e e n vvalues
a l u e s ccan
use iin
between
also
bee
u se
e r fo r m e d
performed.
p
tw o
o r m i n u s two
w i t h i n plus
5 5 percent
i gm a 9
i n u s oone
n e ssigma,
p l u s or
95.5
p e r c e n t within
or minus
minus
h
i
i
t
r
e
e
s
l
m
n
u
s
a
i
m
r
h
i
s
o
u
t
n
Sigma.
t
three
w
minus
e
n
d
7
c
9
9
or
e
r
g
i
n
ssigma,
p
99.7 ppercent within plus
g m a aand
l
i
T
h
is
h
t
i
t
s
o
a
l
w
i
t
e
i
t
n
sp
2 7 percent
in the two tails. This
h e rremaining
T
e m a in in g 0
0.27
p e r c e n t iss split
The
h
i
2
ta il
eac
l p h a ((1)
w it h a
i s rreferred
tail.
as a
o as
01/2
l inn each
e f e r r e d tto
alpha
( a ) with
r o b a b i l i t y is
probability
p
i
0
f
d
i
9
f
e
r
c
e
s
c
en t
f
h
d
e
n
l
i
n
c
o
h
b
z
o
t
e
r
e
e
i
U
t
percent,
e
t
e
s
is
90
e
a
of
condence
s
n
p
if
the
degree
Z
tables,
Usingg the
g
o r m
C
O N F I D E N C E IINTERVALS
N T ERVA LS
CONFIDENCE
P
e o ple
People
t u dy p
w h o sstudy
r o c e sse s a
n u
n de r st a n din g
r e iinterested
n t e r e s t e d iin
who
processes
are
understanding
f
f t e n uunfeasil
i
i
j
i
B
b
e
r
o
t
t
r
m
a
n
c
e
c
a
n fe a s i
s o
e c a u s e it is
process pperformance capability.
often
p
pa
y Because
b
l
t
h
iitem
e a su r e e
tem p
ac
r o du ced b
r o c e ss o
a c t iv i t y
blee too mmeasure
each
orr activity
produced
byy aa pprocess
h e s e ssamr o v ide d b
F
e r v ice s
a m ples a
r e ttaken.
a ke n
r o m tthese
am
provided
byy aa sservice,
samples
are
From
p
e n ssamples
v e r a ge s a
r e ccalculated.
a lc u la ted W
a m p l e s iin
n aa ssubgroup
u b gr o u p
ples,
are
When
p i e s aaverages
r o c ess
h e sstandard
ta n dar d d
hese
n d tthe
e v i a t i o n ccalculated,
a l c u l a t e d tthese
are averaged
deviation
g e d aand
a r e av e r a
h e ccentral
o in t e
stim a te s A
es u lt o
en tr al
values are called ppoint
estimates.
Ass aa rresult
off tthe
l
h
a
o n g a
ey a
r e rrandom
a n do m
a
n d u
n bia s e d
ass long
ass tthey
are
and
unbiased
h e s e ssubgroup
ssamples,
a m p l e s tthese
u b g r o u p ssample
a m p le a
v e r a g e s ccan
an s
er v e a
st i
averages
serve
ass eestihe p
m
D
a to r s o
o p u la t i o n m
ea n
he
e t e r m i n i n g whether
mators
off tthe
w h e t h e r tthe
population
mean.
Determining
ssample
a m ple a
v e r a g e iis
s a
f
o o d approximation
app r o x im a tio n o
h
l
i
t
average
t
e
a ggood
o
u
a
o
n
of the population
p p
d
d
h
m
d
f
e
a
n
e
e
n
t
h
s
o
n
e
l
s
r
e
a
t
d
h
o
mean depends
a m p e data,
t e sstanta n
a t a the
on the spread
of thee ssample
p
p
dar
ci d
he d
i s t r i b u t i o n oof
ev ia tio n o
f the
t h e ssubgroup.
dard
deviation
he
off tthe
u bgr o u p T
distribution
The
v a lu es a r e c alled
llimit
he o r e m
i m i t ttheorem,
da r d d
e v ia t io n
t a n d a r d error
o
SE ) iindicates
standard
er ro r (
deviation,
he
orr sstandard
n d i c a t e s tthe
(SE),
st a n
h a t wwill
i l l eexist
r r o r tthat
h e n tthe
h e ssubgroup
x ist w
amountt ooff eerror
u b gr o u p a
when
v e r a ge
average
am o u n
iiss
h e ppopulation
s t i m a t e tthe
o p u la t io n m
B
usedd ttoo eestimate
ea n
e c a u s e ssamples
a m p le s
mean.
Because
u se
h e ppopulation,
o p u l a t i o n iitt iis
representt tthe
s p
o s s i b l e tto
o w
he t he r
o n de r w
possible
wonder
whether
h
tthe
e ssample
v e r a g e iis
a m p l e aaverage
s a
o o d e
st im a te o
h e population
a ggood
o
estimate
u
off tthe
p p la t i o n
r ep r ese n
ther w
o r ds h
o w m
mean. IInn oother
u c h ccondence
o n %d e n c e sshould
h o u l d be
words,
how
much
be
m ea n
T h e con17 3 5 The
i n Figure
F i g u r e 17.35.
l d aappear
c on
then the
would
p p e a r aass in
h
i
i
l
d
t
h
d
h
i n t e r v a determines
e s
n e s the
d
l e v e l aattached
z e or
tto
t e interval
eter m
o r
ttac e
o the
e n c e level
size
dence
then the
a lu e s o
h a t tthe
spreadd ooff vvalues,
n t e r v a l tthat
h e ppopulation
orr iinterval,
o p u l a t i o n parameter
pa r a m e te r
%
i t h aa sspecied
t s iin
fi
i
n w
d
b
e
c
e
b
l
i
ts
i
r
with
F
o
a
t y For
o r e
probability.
x a m p l e tthe
h e pperson
p
p
example,
e r so n
sp r e a
w o u
h e iinterval.
i d t h of
r eater
s i z e s provide
a r g e ssample
a m p l e sizes
n ter v al L
o f tthe
Large
greater
width
p r o v ide g
f i d e n c e aand
h e r e f o r e aa nnarrower
h a n small
n t e r v a l tthan
n d ttherefore,
a r r o w e r iinterval,
sm a ll
condence,
co n
he d
ize s T
e gr e e o
o n %d e n c e iis
s e
x p r e s s e d as
as a
p
sample
The
degree
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expressed
a perp l e ssizes.
i
h e degrees
T
d e g r e e s of
ccentage.
e n t a ge
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c h o s e n are
c o n f d e n c e chosen
are
Typically,
y p i c a l l y tthe
9
10 ) 95
95 p
e r c e n t (a
0 0 5 ) and
e r c e n t (a
9 9 per900 ppercent
a n d 99
( e1 = 00.10),
p
percent
(a = 0.05),
= 0.01).
0 0 1)
ccent
en t (
a
(a
C
o n j i d e n c e iinterval
t 1 t e r v a t ttesting
is a
e s t i n g is
t e c h n i q u e that
Confidence
a technique
t h a t enables
e n a bl e s
d
h o . v well
u
e l e t m i n e how
t h e ssubgroup
uss ttoo determine
w e t l the
1t bg r o u p average
a v e r a g e approximates
a pp r o x i m a t es
sa m
he p
tthe
o p t t la t i o n m
T h i s sstraightforward
t r a i g h t f o r w a r d calculation
e ; z t This
population
mean.
c a lc u l a t i o n m
a ke s
makes
i
iitt possible
b
l
s
k
t
o
s
e
o
1n
t
t
a
e
s
a
e
h
t
m
e
n
to
make
h
s
u c
is a
p
statements ssuch
a
t e r e is
s : there
a 9
as:
955 percent
pe r ce n t
r o b a b i l i t ): that
h e ssample
t h a t tthe
probability
a m p l e average
is a
a v e r a g e is
p
a good
e st im a t o r o
g o o d estimator
off
h e population
tthe
ean
i s aa 90
0
t h e r e is
p o p u la t io n m
mean
9 0 percent
or1: there
e
r
b
i
t
b
l
c
e
n
i
r o
ty
a
probability
p
p
t h a t the
the p
o p u l a t i o n mean
that
population
m e a n iis
b e t w e e n X1
s between
X an d X " T
d
and X2.
et
Too deter2
i n e xX1 and
an d X
mine
t h e eend
n d points
f o r tthe
X2,2 the
h e ccondence
o n f i d e n c e interval,
in te r v al
p o i n t s for
,
l
h e fformula:
o r m u la :
use tthe
u se
Z
( / 2)( )
Z(cm/2K0)
x i
/
X
-
VB
he r e
x = ssample
a m p le a
v e r a ge
average
=
ttaking
the m
a k i n g the
e a su r e m en t s m
measurements
ay
may
b
bee 9900 percent
o n f i d e n t tthat
ha t
p e r c e n t ccondent
f a l l wwithin
i l l fall
w
i t h i n aa g
i
will
i
v
e
n
n ter v al w
it h
given interval
with
t he p
o p u la t i o n m
ea n
the
population
mean
eend
n d p
o i n t s aatt x
a
n
points
X1, andd XX2.2 S50o aatt aa 9900 percent
o n fi d e n c e llevel,
p e r c e n t ccondence
ev el
r e ttaken
a ke n a
samples
0 0 iintervals
n d 1
n t e r v a l s ccreated,
p l e s aare
and
100
F e a t e d the
t h e vvalue
a lu e
,
sa m
l d aappear
h e 1100
would
n 9
0 0 intervals.
in te r v a ls C
900 ooff tthe
p p e a r iin
o n fi d e n c e iinterCondence
n ter
vval
a l ccalculations
a lc u l a t i o n s a
re p
b
i
l
o
b
s
s
are
e c a u s e tthe
h e ccentral
possiblee because
e n t r a l limit
l i m i t theot he o
rrem
h o w s tthat
e m sshows
h a t aaverages
v e r a g e s tend
t e n d tto
o b
o r m a ll
bee nnormally
ist r ib u t e d
distributed.
y d
be g
are expected
o be
r o u pe d 6
p e c t e d tto
grouped,
8 3 percent
68.3
w i t h i n plus
p e r c e n t within
p lu s
a re ex
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
b e r ooff ssamples
number
a m ple s
l
o
i
u
population
t an da r d d
p
p a t o n sstandard
e v ia t io n
deviation
ll sstandard
t a n d a r d deviation
d e v i a t i o n (also
l
( a s o "0(n_1))
1 ))
(
r o ba b ilit
probability
t h a t tthe
p
h e population
y that
l
o
i
u
t
a
o
n
p p
i s not
m
e a n is
mean
n o t
i
ll
(T
a
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V
a lu e s
Values
fgure
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n t e r v a l ccalculations
Condence
p
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n
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o a
n e
a rrange
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an
estiFi g u r e 1
m
a t e d vvalue
alu e (
7 34 ) A
A ccondence
mated
(Figure
o n f i d e n c e iinterval
17.34).
n t e r v a l iis
he
s tthe
iif
f 10
1000
n u m
t h e interval
n the
i n t e r v a l (alpha
in
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r isk )
(. / 2 )
Z(tr/2)
= pprobability
r o ba bi li t
he p
population
y tthe
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i s in
i n tthe
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in te r v al
=
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he 2
z ttable
a b l e in
in A
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Appendix
a r ea
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w ith a
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an
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i t s right
o its
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r i gh t
S
t a t is t ic s
Statistics
C
o n f i d e n c e IInterval
n t e rv a l C
s in g
a l c u l a t io n U
Confidence
Calculation
Using
M
a n u f a c t u r in g
Manufacturing
d ic a l d
lo s e
e v i c e s rrequires
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t h e aability
e q u i r e s the
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medical
devices
meet
m e
tolerances. For a partiCularly critical machine setup. the manufactturing

n g i n e e r cconducted
o n d u c t e d ttwo
u r in g e
w o rrunoffs
engineer
u n o f f s ffor
o ld i n g
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or a
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h
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h
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which
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he p
m
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o p u l a t io n m
it h aa p
ea n w
measured,
8 0 0 mm
o p u l a t io n
population
as 0
m m w
mean
was
with
population
0.800
" :h
he re
where
r is k )
Interval (alpha 50
i n t e r v a l (a l p h a
t a b le
t ( / 2 ) = value
f r o m the
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v a l u e from
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1
9 6 (0 0 0 7 )
1..96(0007)
d
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W
m
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t h e measure
m e a s u r e of
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he
The
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ase d o
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e This
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ffreedom
t d s t r i b u t i o n
Va l u e s ffor
t h e tdistribution
h e ssystem,
o r the
r e e d o m iin
n tthe
1. Values
y s t e m nn 1
d ec
F ig u r e 17.37
1 7 3 7 as
w h e n decidin A
3 U
a
as a
u id e when
s e Figure
a gguide
appear
Appendix
Use
p p e a r in
p p e n d i x 3.
0.822
x
x = 0
822
z 5500
00 7
a = 00.007
i n g tto
it h e r m
o uuse
se e
e t ho d
ing
either
method.
05
aa = 0
0.05
95
0 5 = 00.95
1 00.05
z2W2)
(. 2 )
da ta
m o u nt o
1 ) the
2 ddegrees
t h e aamount
f r e e d o m ((n
n 1),
off data
e g r e e s of
o f freedom
u se
0
002
8 2 2 0:l: 0
0.822
0.002
i n the
in t e rv a l
i s in
t h e interval
e a n is
1
t he p
o p u la t io n m
mean
r o b a b i l i t y the
population
1 aa = pprobability
he p
o r tthe
h e ssecond
o p u l a t io n m
u n off
e c o n d rrunoff.
values ffor
e a n ffor
o r tthe
population
mean
he
i n tthe
o t in
s n
m e a n iIS
t he p
not
t h a t the
population
a = probability
p r o b a b i l it y that
va lu e s
Vn
V5
= s a m p le a v e r a g e
sample average
o f s a m p le s
n u m b e r 0f
n = number
saWP'es
s5 = s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n (a l s o "
Cn 1 ) )
standard deV'at'O" (3'50 " (ff-1))
ik e tto
o u ld llike
he
it h 9
o k
n ow w
o n f i d e n c e tthe
e r c e n t cconfidence,
engineer
know,
g i n e e r wwould
with
955 ppercent
(r
tt(a/2)(S)
(. / 2 ) (s )
en
0
8 2 2 /i
0822
xX
The
off 00.010
822 m
m aand
nd a
deviation
h e manumemp
sta n d a rd d
a standard
m a nu f ac t
0 10 T
e v i a t io n o
mm
of 00.822
iinterval
n t e rv a l
t w 0 R K
d a rd d
e v i a t i o n (0',
r
00 7 F
o
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n ly
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u n o ff o
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e c o n d rrunoff,
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5
e r e ssampled
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a r ts w
h e ir m
he s e
n d ttheir
a ke n T
50
were
e a s u r e m e n t s ttaken.
and
These
measurements
rrandomly
e l e c t e d ssamples
a n d o m l y sselected
a m p le s o
a rt s h
e n gth
v e r a g e llength
ave a
off pparts
have
ann aaverage
iing
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L EA
N
19 9
199
0
'82 0
0820
= vvalue
it h aan
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n
n A
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1 wwith
Appendix
p p e n d ix 1
f
it
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0 2 5 tto
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g
*
___________________
h e eengineer
0 8 20 0
8 24) T
n g in e e r c
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h e iinterval
an b
e
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s ((0.820,
The
can
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0.824).
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9
5 p
etw ee n
s b
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o p u la t io n m
e r c e n t cconfident
o n f i d e n t tthat
population
mean
between
95
percent
F ig u r e 1
7 36)
vvalues
a l u e s ((Figure
17.36).
T
h e aabove
he z
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s i n g tthe
a b l e iis
s cconsidered
o n s id e r e d a
o r m u la
e aso n
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2 ttable,
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i z e s tthere
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0 F
b l e aapproximation
m a l l e r ssample
s
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a
if nn 22 330.
For
able
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tthese
w o
0
822
0'822
In t e r v a l
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_'
0 82 4
032
F
IG U R E 1
7 36
FIGURE
17.36
L
Si g m a
e a n Si
Lean
Sixx Sigma
T
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In ter v a l
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o n f i d e n c e Interval
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h e t h e r tthe
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nott aann eeasy
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i s t r i b u t i o n is
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n d e r tthese
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orm al U
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Under
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Diagram
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Use
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2
it h
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a b le s w
with
llsn
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s n >> 3
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Use
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Is the value of a known?
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ll
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Use
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VF
o f ffreedom.
re e d o m
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e g r e e s of
and
a n
7 37
F
IG U R E 1
17.37
FIGURE
he Z
z
B
e t w e e n tthe
Between
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
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C
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a l c u la t i o n s : C
Condence
Calculations:
Choosing
d tt D
and
Distribution
a n
1a)
EV E N T E E N
SEVENTEEN
H A PT ER s
C
CHAPTER
/ IQ
00
2
200
s in g
Using
a l c u la t io n U
n t e rv a l C
Calculation
C
Confidence
the t Distribution at JF
e te r m in e
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have
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h e t h e r aadditional
w
whether
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e
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engineer
r in d i n g
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u tt in g w
work
e t ccutting
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o n f ide n c e
0 p
it h 9
e r c e n t cconfidence
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e t e r m in e w
o d
90
with
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determine
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tthat
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ffor
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T O O L S
I G M A TOOLS
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SIGMA
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these
d d i t io n
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n o is e
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noo aadditional
e c i b e l llevels,
decibel
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d
a m p e n i n g is
.
dampening
.
r e c o r de d
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a t i o s recorded
m a c h i n e the
r i n d i n B machine.
grinding
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n
v
h
o
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e
F
t
r
o
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For the
l
i
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t
-= 0
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7
e
s
n
r
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X
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g
resulting
n
0.57.
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a
7
x3
0.75, and 3
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0 5 5 Xz = 0
w e re X
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xx
0 11
nd s
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6 2 aand
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-
to be experienced by workers throughout the plant. The values
50
a lu e o
l lo w a b le d
ose A
a i ly d
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off 50
A vvalue
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daily
allowable
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\/
were
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45
4 5 X2 = 0
4 7 aand
4 4 rresulting
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n a
e s u lt i n g iin
nd X
ann Xx = 00.45
0.47,
X33 = 00.44.
be lo w
he w
0 15 T
et n
s ccalculated
a l c u l a t e d below.
a t e r jjet
o i s e vvalue
a l u e iis
aand
n d ss = 0
0.015.
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X
X11
0
5
0 ' 445
i
2 9 2 0 (0 1 1 )
2.920(0.11)
62
0
:t:
0.62
r e pr e s e n t
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e pr es e n ts 8
u r in g a
855 ddB.
e rc e n t d
ann 88-hour
during
percent
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h e rratios
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e c o r de d
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h e wwater
e t ccutting
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For
W O RK
att WORK
he re
where
0 62
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n
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2
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2.920(0.15)
vs
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10
ti = 00.10
0 90
l a(r = 0.90
he r e
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a
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d
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=
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=
=
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45
0.45
2 9 20
t ( ? -5" 2920
1(H/2)
3
3
d
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0
0 15
0.015
0
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be 90
90 percent
c a n be
n g i n e e r can
T h e ssafety
0 8 1 ) The
a f e ty e
T
pe r c e n t
h e iinterval
(0 4 3 0.81).
engineer
n t e r v a l iis
s (0.43,
The
0
90
0.90
t h e s e ttwo
w o vvalues.
a lu e s N
be t w e e n these
s between
m e a n iis
o te
Note
po p u la t io n mean
confident that the population
i s aa m
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tthat
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u e tto
much
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2.920
3
3 11 = 22
in c lu d e s
b r o a d iinterval
h i s broad
in t e rv a l T
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t h e oother
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l
l
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i
i
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b
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permissible decibel levels,
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n d therefore.
o i s e dampening
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4 7 5) T
0 p
0 425 0
h e hhygienist
n t e r v a l iis
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an b
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vvalues
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\confident
S
U M MA RY
SUMMARY
h e llocation
D T
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! : +: J e : 1 c v refers
6.
The
orr ccentral
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ship between
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m e d ia n
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i a gr a m s
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diagrams
h i s t o g r a m s graphically
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he
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s t a t is t i c s
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7
7.
he
T
The
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t he
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range andd standard
k e w n e s s describes
8 S
d e s c f i l e s the
8.
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W n e n aa
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1
0 A
10.
o r m a l curve
A nnormal
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bee identified
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iv e
SP i
: ix p e r s io n
dispersion
r a i r ge a n
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T he
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a ccentral
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A K E A
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TAKE
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mean, mmode,
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tthe
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away
o w a r d the
t h e horizonh or i z
T
a l aaxis.
x is T
tal
h e aarea
The
r e a under
u n d e r tthe
h e nnormal
o r m al c
10 0
l
1; 100
u rv e e
curve
s
u
a
equals
1;
q
er ce n t o
percent
h (: d
p
off tthe
a t a iis
s ffound
data
o u n d under
u n d e r tthe
h e normal
n o r m a l curve.
cu rve
an
0
ccu r acy
1. AAccuracy
d p
r e c i sio n a
re o
and
precision
a r a m o u n t importance
are
im po r t a n c e
off pparamount
an
iin
n q
u a lit y a
ssu r a n c e
quality
assurance.
2
is t o gr a m s
2. HHistograms
aand
n d ffrequency
requ en cy d
i a g r a m s aare
im ila r U
diagrams
r e ssimilar.
n li k e
Unlike
i
r equ en c y d
a ffrequency
a
r
h
i s t o g r a m wwill
diagram,
ill g
g a m aa histogram
r o u p tthe
he d
group
a ta
data
iinto
n to
ccells.
e lls
3
i s t o gr a m s
3. HHistograms
o n st r u cte d u
are cconstructed
s i n g ccell
e l l iintervals,
using
n t e r v a l s ccell
e ll
i d p o i n t s aand
m
midpoints,
n d ccell
e ll b
d
o
u
i
n ar es
boundaries.
4
h e aanalysis
4. TThe
n a l ys is o
i s t o g r a m s aand
off hhistograms
n d ffrequency
r equ e n c
i a g r a m s is
is
diagrams
y d
b
a se d o
h
n
based
a p e llocation,
on sshape,
o c a t io n a
n d sspread.
d
and
r
e
a
p
5 S
h a p e rrefers
Shape
e f e r s tto
o ssymmetry,
k e w n e s s and
y m m e t r y sskewness,
an d k
u r ta s is
kurtosis.
are
.vv..vl
vv....vv-.....-.
1 1 IIn
n a
ll.
n o r m a l d ist r ib
a normal
u tio n 9
9 7 p
99.7
er c en t o
percent
the m
e a su r ed
off the
measured
distribution
v a l u e s ffall
values
a ll w
i t h i n 1i3
Within
3 standard
st a n d a r d d
e v i a t i o n s of
ean
f
h
deviations
tthe
e m
o
mean
/ 3 ( r ); 9 5 5
(p i
(f
37); 95-5 Percent
p e r c e n t ooff the
the d
f a l l wwithin
it hin 1
a t a fall
data
i22
da r d d
standard
e v ia t io n s o f t h
deviations
of thee mmean
e a n (u
68 3
/ 20);
2 ( r ) ; and
a n d 68.3
(p j:
er ce n t o f th
p
Percent
of thee ddata
a t a ffall
a l l within
w i t h i n :tl
/ 1 standard
de v ia t io n
s t a n d a r d deviation
/ 10').
I(r )
(A :l:
(,U.
st a n
1
2 T
he
12.
The
area under
d e r aa nnor
o r m
al c
u r v e can
mal
u s in g
curve
can b
c a l c u l a t e d using
bee calculated
ar ea u n
he Z
tthe
z ttable
a ble a
n d iits
and
t s associated
a s s o c i a t e d fo r
formula.
m u la
201
Statistics
FORMULAS
Statistics
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
R = Xh X1
FOR=MUL
X1 +A
XS
2 + X3 +
pori
/1 or x
. . + Xn
2 (x. _
Xr + X232
+X +
ll_
3
11
1. Describe the concepts of a sample and a population.
NS one that is precise,

STIis O
C. HAPTE
QUEthat
accurate,
situation
Describe a R
= ZXi
and one that is both. A picture may help you with your
description.
Skewed to the right? Normal?
left?
ise
s accurate, one that is prec
that i228,
2 Descr ibe a227,
situation227,
228, 229, 222, 223, 224,, 226,
226,
+x
225, 226,
227,229, 230
ih
228,225,221,
227,
e that is both Apicture mayhelpyou w t your
Andon
. NB Plastics uses injection molds to produce plastic

descr ip
tionrange in size from a marble to a book. Parts
that
parts
53
_
Efxi
X)4/n
a4 = .
4
s
1
1
f(x) =
e-%i;2
0V27r
s-
where
3 1 4159
W ~
:
e ~ 2''71828
1 e";
=
a f(Z)
V 2w3
3
.
-00 < X < 00
5
_
223, 224, 22
229, 222
28, mm)
26, 227, 228, 2(in
for6,each
227, 2information
225, 226, This
is ,recorded
erances.
of the ve pieces and evaluated. Create a frequency dia-
aa4 -
0100
9/20/92
0300
9/20/92
0500
9/20/92
w ere
9/20/92
9/21/92
9/21/92
9/21/92
9/22/92
fi(xi
IL
cr
0700
1100
1300
314159
IT = 1500
0900
271828
229, 230 trimming off the same

22two
1, 227operators
8, 225the
227, 22Are
,
,
gram.
4 NB Plastics uses injection m olds to pr oduce plastic

Part Name: Mount
le to a book Par ts
a mad:r b0.005
e in size fr om
that ranDimension:
ar tsCritical
0.654
f( )Time
Date
amount of material? How do you know?
_
xi X
Xi
Z =
are pulled off the press by one operator and passed on to

Is
llow ingdoratacleaned
f thbee fonished
tion oto
r ibuteam
member
another
Make a fre
quen cydofistthe
up. This often involves trimming loose material, drilling
to the
l?Skehas
wedcompleted
daparts
dal?aMbatch
ultimoof
this diand
ution bimo
str ibpainting.
After
holes,
process, a sample of ve
its cycle through the nishingl?
ight?Norma
e rrandom
kisewchosen
lparts
edto that
eft?S
and certain dimensions are
measured to ensure that each part is within certain tol-
fjjxi )3ln
Z '
data. Is
the following
. Make a frequency distribution
lation to the
le of
anda popuSkewed
ts of a samMultimodal?
1 Descdistribution
r ibe the concebimodal?
p
p
this
n
33 = m
f
a = R=2X(Xi X)2
hn l
5 =
201
g
Tolerance: i0.001b
he press yoneCaliper
operator andpassedon to
are pulledoff tof
Method Checking:
an other member of the team to be finishedor cleaned
x)4/n
e Press
#1
#1
#1
#1
#1
#1
#1
#1
00 <Oper
x < 00
Samp l
Jack
0.6550
Jack
0.6540
lack
0.6540
Mary
Mary
Mary
Mary
0.6595
0.6580
0.6580
0.6575
lack
0.6540
Samp 2
Samp 3
Samp 4
Samp 5
holes andpainting ADer a batchof par ts has completed

0.6545
0.6540
0.6540
0.6545
0.6545
0.6545
e of fiv e
i0.6540
ts cycle throughthe fin ishingpr ocess, a sampl0.6545
,
0.6535
0.6540
0.6540
0.6540
ions are
d
i
i
d
d
n
h
0.6540
me
s
i
t
n
t ran om an 0.6540
cer a
ar ts s c osen a0.6540
p0.6540
0.6580
0.6580
0.6595
0.6595
0.6580
0.6585
0.6590
tain t
t is w ithin cer0.6575
re that eachpar
measure
0.6580 dto ensu
0.6585
0.6590
0.6580
er
ances
0.6570
for each
This informa
tion (in m0.6585
m )is reco rded0.6580
0.6580
of the five pieces an devaluated Create a frequency d

.
.
.
. gl
.
4 . D escri'b e
With
af z =
e the data in Question
Create histogram
the distribution 5 shape, spread, and location.
. Make a histogram ofxthe following sample data:
Xi
227, 228, 223, 229, 222, 223, 224,
227,226,
.
()
225, 226, z
226, 227, 228,225,s 221, 227, 229. 230, 225, 226) 227
=
229, 228, 224, 223, 222, 225, 226, 227, 224, 223. 222,
228, 229, 225, 226

L = of CDs has a design specication for
. A manufacturer
r
of 120 d: 0.3 mm. Create a his
the width of the (CD
togram using the following data. Describe the distributions shape, spread, and location.
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e two operators tr imming off the same

gram Are th
Measurement
Tally
amount of mater ial?How do you kn ow?
119.4
iii:
Part Name: M
ount
119'7
1193
ion : 0654 /
Cr itical Dimens
119.9
o\er ance: /
0120.0
001
///
0%
W //
14mm
0W
005I//
.
M II
Methodof C133.;
hecking: Caliper 7Z1
h
C
2 0 2
202
E E N
E N T
S E V
E R
P T
SEVENTEEN
CHAPTER
i g
f ll
h
b y
W h
i
a t
t e n
e n c
a t a
e a n
o w
r e s s
e x
o n
c e n
is
n a t
fo l l o
in
io
r e s s
e x
e a n
a n
a n
34
e r s :
o w
a n
3 6
3 5
s a m
a n
4 5
c a
c u
16
12 2
13 6
12 9
12
\
1
r o
c o u
n s
r s e
a n
e r m
o n
a n
o n
r a n
e s c r
a r
e v
r o
o n
e s
e s s
o u
e r m
e s e
e r c e n
e s
u e s
l.
e s
ic
io
a r
f p
m
e s
for the histogram problem.
13. For the CD data of Question 7, determine the mean, mode,
median, standard deviation, and range. Use these values

to describe the distribution. Compare this mathematical
description with the description you created in Question 7.

14. If the average wait time is 12 minutes with a standard
deviation of 3 minutes, determine the percentage of patrons who wait less than 15 minutes for their main
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12. For the data from Question 4, determine the mean,

mode, median, standard deviation, and range. Use these
values to describe the distribution. Compare this mathematical description with the description you created
course to be brought to their tables.
c a t
T h
it h
e r c e n
fo
e n
a c c o
io
a n
a r
a n
t o
s t a n
a n
b l
p t
a n
t a
a c c e
e a n
a r
h i
e v
o r m
a t
o n
ly
a c
o n
e r c e n
if th
ir
s p
a n
t r
o r m
c t
a r t
s t a n
a r
c u
a t
e v
a r
r a n
o n
a t a
c a t
o n
a t
c a
a n
c u
o w
o w
a m
o u n
e r
t e r m
o n
c e
r o
e s
r o m
N B
e w
a n
fa
c t u
a c
t o
c e
g h
a s
a c e
r e
o w
t o
s p
f i
a r e
a n
o v e
o w
a n
e r e
e r
c o
a c
r u
t i o n
r m
a c
a s
e e n
e t e r s
r u
n o
t e s t
h
k d f
F
h
3 2 the
d
amount
p
calculate
p l of
distribution and
a normal
sume
h
i h
0 0 0 15
d
d d
i t i
f
g
below thek lower specica0 0 0 0 8produced
T h
i h 9 0
product
g i that falls l d l i k
fid
h
i
l
l
f
l t i
th
p
p
tionvalue
: of 19.7 lb.
e
e r e
e
e r
e c
a v
e r a
e n
"
"
r u
a m
a s
e e r s
(:
t e
a r t s
r v
s t a n
o u
r o
"
a r
e s
e v
o w
o n
o n
e c e s
s a m
i
f
h 7, determine
l
d 1 0 what pert
t
from Question
data
18. 2 0ForA thed CD
h
R
k
ll h
d
f h
li
a u t o
v e
a n
a c
r e r
a s
s e
t e
e c
c a r
s e a
below
the
aregabove
n i s m of
A the pCDs
l
0 produced
8 h
centage
f 4 4 and
7 9 5
d
s t u
o c
s a n T
c e
r o
r e a t e r
e c
a n
9 17
e c
e s
a r
e a n
a c c e
a r e
v a
e m
e s
e r
e n
o n
e a n
s e
c r e a
a r e
a n
n e
r a n
o m
o n
e r m
a n
(:s c r
o n
i fi
e c
i g
h
h
h i
h
ll N
b
b
il
is 1.3,i as-f F
deviation
the standard
dogi foodb is p20.6f lb and
d
T h
d i
h
p
e s e
c r e a t e
e s s
o r
t h
m
s
m
branda cof
l
h i
i
i
weightl d of a particular
of pthe
17. If the meanh value
e a n
s e
u p p e r
f 0 8 7 0
l
9 7 lb
i
for machining only if their
aref acceptable
Specimens
i
d
i
7
f
h
C D d
F
Q
ofh spedpercentage
What
65.
than
hardnessg is fgreater
d b l
d
b
d
h
h
C D
p
19
e s s
s u
f 12 0
ifi
bei acceptable?
mens will
a r e
e n
r o
18
s u m
u e s
e v
o n
e s
t
t
t
t
l d
deviation
3.f
standard
and
70
mean
with
h
l
distribution
eci
b l
h
f ll
d
d
d
p
p
12 2
a r
a n
a v e r a
o n
r r e n
e r m
a r
r a m
o n
a n
e s c r
e s c r
e v
a n
r o
e s c r
e s c r
14
o r
c a
u e s
e m
o
c u
a n
io
ito ai normal
i
d d
1 3
hvaries daccording
d
lb
2 0 6supplier
d iyour
d
g f by
shipped
h
l
l
d
i
ib
i
1 19
1.116
1.122
d t
f
t h
d1.125
i
4
t i
t
t h
Q
d
d i
d
d d
d
i t i
t
U
g
1.123
1.122
1.123
l
d
ib
t
d i t ib
t h
C
t i
t h i
p
l d
i p t i1.125 i t h t h
t i
1.133
d 1.118
ip t i
y
f
h i
t h
p mb l e m
1.117 t g
1.121
1.123
F
f Q
C D d t
th
7 d t
t i
i
th
1.124
1.122
d i
d
d 1.136
d
t
i t i
d
U
t h
g
d
ib
t
d i t ib t i
t h
C
t h i
t h
p1.122
1.119
1.127
ip ti
d
ith th
d
ip t i
t d i
Q
y
1.119
I f 1.129
i 1.125
t h
i
t t i
12
i
it h
t
t
g
d
i t i
f 3
i
d
t
i
t
t h
t
p
g
1.121
1.124
h
it l
t
t h
15
i
f
t
i
Th
1.128t b b
1.122 t h i t b l
gh t t
13
e c
c e n
1 12 8
a v e
o v e
c a t
1 12 2
1 12 5
t o
i fi
r o c e s s
a r
12 5
mode, and median:

1
Sp
the
mean,
calculate
sample 1data,
Using the following
1 19
2 7
1
2 2
12 4
e c
a r t
mm. h
0.93
f
t
t p
ucth above
6 5 w n
e
i
d
g
g
b l ?
il l b
p
ofl an alloy
ofi hspecimens
16. 1 7The1 f hRockwell lhardness
i
b
f
d
f h
f
p
g
44, 43, 34,

numbers: 34, 35,
2 3 34, 32, 34,
1 136,
1 1 45,
2 2 46, 45, 43,
1 12 3
1 13 3
1 12 5
1 1 18
34.
30, 48, 38, 38, 40,
1 1 17
1 12 1
1 12 3
1
p
e r
lo
o n
s t r
e a n
e s s
1 1
ll.
34
3 2
34
34
and median of the following

Find the mean,1 mode,
6
m
10.
4 3
4 4
a n
3
specication of 0.870 mm. The avof 0.925b and0 a9 lower
i
f
ll y
d
k
ll h
T h
R
p
0.917
with af standard
currently
of the process is
erage
d i g
i
l
h ip p d b y y
p p li
d d
d
i
d
i
7 0
percentage
of
i h Determine
3
the
prodi 0.005.
ib
d i
of
deviation
i
u c
o w
4 3
4 5
e r a
e v
expression: measures of
34
3 8 the
4 0 following
4 8 3 8 by
. What 3is0 meant
l
l t
d
l
i
f
l
l
h
th
U i g
1 1
p
g
dispersion?
d i
d
d
n u
4 6
h ic k
f 0 9 25
t y
i
t
f t h
d
d
p
g
an pupper specication
a part ist to have
of
thickness
15. The
i
t h
t
f
f 0 0 0 5 D
i t i
r
d
g
r e s
e a s u
: m
o n
e r s
e a n t
T h
15
g
the central
they following expression:
by
. What disi meant
i
?
p
i
f
h
f ll
d i
d
d
dof hthe data?
F i
10
tendency
9
r a
a r
a s
e s s
a n
a v e r a
da r c i d
i
i
0 2
A
mm.
120i f i0 40.3
of
specications
l
l
h
i
h
l f
h
e v
e v e
o n
te r
r e c
9 5
s e a
me c
e r
a n
p
p
e r c e n
a t
t
n
c o n
m
s t
fid
e n c e
e a n
19. NB Manufacturing has ordered the construction of a

new machine to replace an older machine in a machining cell. Now that the machine has been built, a runoff
is to be performed. The diameters on the test pieces
were checked for runout. From the 32 parts sampled,

the average was 0.0015 with a standard deviation of
0.0008. The engineers would like to know, with 90 percent condence, the interval values for the population
mean.
20. An automotive manufacturer has selected 10 car seats to
study the Rockwell hardness of the seat recliner mecha-
nism. A sample of 8 has an average of 44.795 and a standard deviation of 0.402. At a 95 percent condence
level, what is the interval for the population mean?
r CHAPTER
c . A P T E RT
TEIGHTEEN
E IG H T E E N
VARIABLE
V A R IA B LCONTROL
E C O N T R O LCHARTS
C H A RT S
When suppliers experienced difficulties inserting diodes, resistors, and capacitors in the circuit
Whe n s u p li e r s e x p e r i e n c e d d iff ic u lt i i
e s n s e r t i n g d io d e s r e s i s t o r s a n d c a p a c it o r s i n t h e c i r c u it
boards withoutpshattering
them, the Six Sigma
team used control charts to study variation in the
bo a r d s w it ho u t s ha t t e r in t he m t he Si S i
i th
x
g
a t e a m u s e d c o n t r o l c h a r t s t o s t u d y v a r ia t io nsize
suppliers
manufacturing process.
g
Control chartsm pointed
to the problem: the original hole n e
s u p p l i e r s m a n u f a c t u r in
e s s Co n t r o l c h a r t s p o in t e d t o t h e p r o b le m : t h e o r ig i n a l h o le s iz e
specification for the circuit board
g p r o cwas
too small.
s p e c if i c a t i o n f o r t he c i r c u it b
o a r d w from
a s t o oSix
s mSigma
a ll
Paraphrased
Report in Business Magazine, October 1997
,
'
Pa r a phr a s e d f r o m Six Sig m a Re po r t i n Bu s i n e s s M a ga z i n e , Oc t o be r 19 97
Quality: Variation
Reduction Opportunities
Q u a lit y : V a r i a t i o n
R e d u c t i o n O pp o r t u n i t i e s
St a t is t ic s
\
Reliability
Process
Capability
"
"
"" y
F M EA
Design of
_.
Experiments
Variables
Control Charts
D e s ig n o f
Va r ia b le s
C t , n t r o i Ch a r t s
X ?
VARIABLE CONTROL CHARTS
Dr. Walter Shewhart

'
1.To understand the concept of variation

L EA R N I N G OP P ORT assignable
U N I T I ES
the difference between
1
V
4.
..
; 2. To understand
; 7 causes and chance causes
1 To
u n de r s t a n d
t he
c o n c e pt o f v a r i a t i o n
3. To learn how to construct control charts for

' :1 variables.
2 To either
d i ff e r e nor
t a and
t w e e5n charts
u n d e r sX
n d t hR
e charts
a s s i g n a bl e
c e Xb eand
c a u se s a n d c
ha n c e
-1. c..
ho w t o
fo r
'. 5. To understand the importance of the R and 5 charts m

. . when 4interpreting
To r e c o g n i zvariable
i s u n de r c o n t r o l a n d
e w he n a control
p r o c e s s charts
h e n it i s n o t
To know whow
to revise a control chartIn which
Kahunm..-sums... --43.44;
..
. ,
k n o w l e d g e (Figure
Dr. Shewhart
o f t h e s i 18.1)
t u a t i o developed
n H o w e v e r statistical
l i f e r a r e l y methods
p r o v i de s
in the
f e c t k nof
l e d ge a ncharts
o wcontrol
d w h o that
h a s t ican
p e rform
m e tbe
o wused
a i t f o to
r i timprove
an w a ?
the Wquality
ofs t othe
o r k n eed
b e dprocesses
o n e a n d d e that
c i s i o n provide
s n e e d t o goods
b e m a d eand
so
servrces.
in the 1920s rand
iWhile
n t h e f oworking
r n i o f c o nat
l c h aLaboratories
t r oBell
r t s t ha t c a n be u s e d t o i m
p ov e
19305,
Dr.
ofd
the
rst
to
encourage
the
use
t h e q u aShewhart
l i t y o f t hwas
e
r o c e sse s t ha t
r o v i de
o o ds
s c
ha r t s
n... south
-u_'.w. w. _
Uy \Jal I IUUGI II ICI
an
statistics
to identify, monitor, and eventually remove the
se r v ic e s
sources of
in repetitive processes. His work
W hvariation
i l e w o r k i nfound
g a t Be l l L a b o r a t o r i e s i n t h e 19 20 s a n d
combined
two aspects of quality: the subjective aspect, what
19 3
0s D r She w h a r t w a s t h e f i r s t t o e n c o u r a e t h e u s e o f
g physical
the customer wants; and the objective side, the
i
,
st a t st ic s
t o i de n t i f y,
so u r c e s o
co m
Ubal II ICU
iM.Mm_.
'aSSignable
5 To ucauses
n d e r s t ahave
i m p oidentified
n d t h ebeen
he R a n d
r t a n c e o f t and
corrected
w he n i n t e r p r e t i n g v a r i a b l e c o n t r o l c h a r t s
c a u se s
c o n s t r u c t c o n t r o l c ha r t s
that Dwe
could
r W
She wgreat
a l t e r make
ha r t decisions if we had perfect
knowledge of the situation. However, life rarely provides
L i k eknowledge
m o s t o f u s and
Dr W
perfect
Sh etime
a l t e rhas
who
w h a r to
t ( 189
196 it
wait1 for
7 )anyway?
bel iev e d
t h aneeds
t w e cto
l d done
Work
o ube
m a k e and
t d e c i s i o nneed
made,
s i f wto
ha d
e be
g r e adecisions
ct
p e r f eso
,
vacu m
4. To recognize when a process is under control and

le a r n
. when 3it_'TIso not
ARI A B L E CO N T RO L C H A RT S
w
Like most of us, Dr. Walter
Shewhart (18911967) believed
v a r ia t io n
bin e d t w o
m o n ito r , an
fo u n d i n
a s pe c t s
e v e n t u a l ly r e m o v e t he
r e p e t it iv e
o f q u a l i t y : t he
p r o c e ss e s H is
s u hj e c t i v e a s p e c t
w o rk
203
h t
204
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
during the inspection
making an error
y c h a n g i nChanging
c t i o n a c t i v i t activity,
g
du r i n t h e i n s p e
C H A P T E R E IG H T E E N
204
g or failing to properly
a n e r r o r settings,
h e p a r tthe Part
the gmachine
r o p e r l y a l i g n t align
r f a i li n g t o p
o
s
affecting
i e se t t in g
,
m akin
factors
Environmental
before machining.
l f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g v a r i a t i o Variation
n
En v i r o n m e n t a
t he m a c h n
and ihumidity..For
a
radiation,
d i t y F o r i n s t a n c instance,
include heat, glight,
e a
a n d hu m
r a dia t io n
b e fo r e m a c h i n i n
/9T
,
,
l i gh t
if a
variation
uncontrolled
i n commuter
c l u d e h e a t , would
exPerience
i
i
t
o n i f a m a jo r
a
r
d
a
v
ll
e
o
t
r
n
e u n co
c
i
n
e
r
e
x
u ld e p
made majOr
or z ablizzard
c o m m u t er w o
trafc
r d m a d e t r a v e l i n traveling
trafc accident stopped
r a b l i za
o
f
fi
c
g
a
t
r
d
e
to
prevents the
t r a ffi c a c c i d e n t s p p Uncontrolled
i
n p r e v e n t s t h e p r o c e ss Process
nearly impossible.
o
t
i
a
r
d
a
v
l
l
variation
e
i bl e U n c o n t r o
n e a r ly im po s s
performing to the best of its ability.
,
from
the
who puth forth
t h e fu n da m e n t a l
It was Dr. Shewhart
t w ho p u t fo r t
fundarngn'tal
I t w a s D r Sh e w h a r process
is under control, exhibiting
principle that once a
can be
variation, future s s p e r f o rperformance
m a n c e c a n be
only controlled
d v a r i a t i o n f u t u r e p r o c eprocess
l y c o n t r o ll e
baSlS of past
f performance_
within limits, hon bthe
predicted,
a sis o f p a st p e r o r m an ce
d w it h in lim it s o n t e
,
o n
e di c t e ,
p rHe
wrote:
H
A phenomenon will be said to be controlled when, through

the use of past experience, we can predict, at least within
limits, how the phenomenon may be expected to vary in
the future. Here it is understood that prediction within lim
its means that we can state, at least approximately, the
probability that the observed phenomenon will fall within
thei v given
limits.*
*
e n l im i t s
t he
FIGURE 18.1
Dr. Walter Shewhart

D
W l
( So u r c e : A l c a t e l
Lu
cen
t U SA I n c
properties of the goods or services, including the value

i l din t he v a lu e
i
d
f h
t
e Ft i e s o
g
p r o pfor
go o s o r s e r v c e s n c u
received
the pricee paid.
He recognized that when
transr e c e iv e d fo r t h e p r i c e p a i d H e r e c o gn i z e d t h a t w h e n t r a n s
lating customer requirements to actual products and
la t in g c u st o m e r r e qu ir e m e n t s t o a c t u a l p r o du c t s a n d
services,
statistical measures of fkey
characteristics r e
k e y c h a r a c t e ]. Is t i c s a are
se r v ic e s
st a t ist ic a 0 m e a s u r e s o
important to ensure quality.
i m o r t a n t t o e n s u r e q u a li t y
Dr. pShewhart
identied two sources o f variation
in a
D r Sh e w h a r t i d e n t i f i e d t w o s o u r c e s of
v a r ia t io n in a
process. Controlled
variation,
also
termed
chance
or
compr o c e s s C o n t r o l l e d v a r i a t i o n a l s o t er m e d c h a n c e o r c o m
,
mon causes, is variation

present in a process due to the very
m o n c a u s e s is v a r ia t io n p r e s e n t i n a p r o c e s s d u e t o t he v e r y
,
naturen aof
the process. Chance, or common c a u s e s are
t u r e o t h e p r o c e ss C h a n c e o r c o m m o n causes,
a r e ssmall
m a ll
,
random
changes in the process
that cannot b e avoided.
They
he
r a n do m c h a n e s i n t h e
r o c e s s t h a t c a n n o t be
a v o i de d T
,
Though
he was a physicist,
h e w hShewhart
a r t s t u d i e dstudied
D r SDr.
u gh h e w a s a p hy s i c i s t
process control through
i n g t e c h n i techniques.
f c hof
a r t charting
h t h e the
u s e ouse
qu es
pr o cess c o n t r o l th r o u g
Based
on
his
understanding
of
variation
and
f
the
l
ha t
h
b
i
d
tbelief
that
i
t
e
e
e
i
n
f
t
o
n
a
i
a
d
v
r
a
Ba se d o n h is u n de r s t a n n g o
assignable
causes
of
variation
could
d
e
be
found
i
d
and
f
elimian
l
o u n
a s s i gn a b l e c a u s e s o f v a r i a t i o n c o u l d b e
nated, Dr. Shewhart developed the formulas
f
b l e o table
d t aand
of
n a t e d D ] : Sh e w h a r t d e v e l o p e d t h e f o r m u l a s a n
constants
used
to
create
the
most
widely
l
used
i
i
d
statistical
l
t
t
t
c
d
i
c
a
cona
s
h
s
u
s
e
e
t
d
t
t
s
w
m
o
t
e
a
e
t
o
c
r
e
t
s
u
s
e
n
a
n
co s
y
charts in l i t ! ; t h e the
R chR
x a nXd and
c h a r t s charts
a r t charts.
s T h e s e These
t r trol
o l c h a r t s i n q u aquality:
(Figure
18.2)
rst
appeared
in
a
May
i n t e r n internal
2 4 1924,
a l B e ll
Bell
( F i gu r e 18 2 ) fi r s t a p p e l r e d i n a M a y 16 1916,
T ho
ha r t
Sh
ew
FIGU RE 18
a ter
r
(Source:
AlcatelLucent
USA Inc.)
consistently
affect the process
and its performance
day
ft e r
c o n s i s t e n t l a ff e c t t h e
r o c e ss a n d it s
e r fo r m a n c e d
a
aafter
y
p
p
y
every
This type of variation c a n be
d a y , e vday.
b e removed
e r y d a y T h i s t y p e o f v a r i a t i o ncan
r e m o v e d ffrom
ro m
day,
the process
b y c h a n g i n the
Sigma
L e a n Six
t h e p r o conly
e s s o by
n l y changing
i gm a
Si x S
g t h eprocess.
p r o c e s s Lean
organizations
realize
that
removing
o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e a l i z e t h a t r e m o v i n gchance
c h a n c e causes
c a u s e s ffrom
r. O m a a
systems y s tusually
l l y i n v o l v emanagement
i n t e r v e n t i o n FFor
em
u s u a involves
s m a n a g e m e n t intervention.
o r
example,
a
person
who
l
i
has
d
driven
h
h
n
d
e
e x a m consider
i
the
e
r
a
e
c
o
s
r
s
w
h
same
o
n
o
a
s
r
t
v
e
n
route
e
s
am e r o u te
p
p
to work
t o wdozens
d d e t e r m i n e dthat
o r k d o z of
e n stimes
o f t i m and
e s a n determined
i t takes
t h a t it
bo u t
t a k e s aabout
20 minutes to get from home to work, regardless of minor
changes
ore r trafc
s in w ea t h
c h a nin
o r t r a f ficonditions.
c c o n d i t i o n s If
I fthis
i s the
t h i s is
t h e ccase,
ase
g eweather
then the
h e p e r s ocan
t h e nonly
t h e oway
n l y wthe
a y tperson
n c a improve
n i m p r o v eon
t h i s time
o n this
t i m e iis
s t to
o
b y fi n d i nagnew
change
t h e p r o cby
c h the
a n geprocess
e s s nding
a n e wroute.
ro u te
U n c o n t r o ll evariation,
d v a r i a t i o n also
Uncontrolled
k n o w n as
a l s o known
a s special
s pe c i a l
oor
r
bl e c a 1Bscomes
a s s i g n acauses,
assignable
e s c o mfrom
e s o m
s o u r c e external
s e x t e r n a 1to
sources
t o the
t he p
T
o
c
e
ss
process.
T h i s of
t y pvariation
i s n normally
e o f v a r i a t iis
This type
o nnot
o t n o r m a ll part
o fthe
t h e process.
s
y p a r tof
p r o c e s s AAss i g ncauses
a b l e c a uare
s e s variations
signable
a r e v a r ia t io n
n t hprocess
e p r o c e s sthat
t h a t can
be id
c a n be
ins ithe
en t i
identif l e d isolated
a n d i s o l a tas
e d the
as th
ed and
e s p e c i fi cause
c c a u s eof
o f aa change
c h a n ge iin
specic
he
n tthe
b
h
e aof
v i o r o f t he
i s t ypof
behavior
s s T htype
f v a r i a t i o n arises
e o variation
the process.
i
p r o c eThis
b
a r s e s because
e c a u se
o f s pe c ia l c i r c u m s t a n c e s S
of special
f v a r i a t i o n can
o u r c eof
s ovariation
circumstances. Sources
b e found
c a n be
fo u n d i in
n
t h e p r o c e s s i t s e lf t h e m a t e r i l
the process
s u se d t he o e r a t o r s a c t i o n s
itself, the materials aused,
r
p
the operators
actions, oor
t h e e n v i r o n m e n t Ex
the environment.
a m p l e s o f fa c t o r s t ha t
Examples
c a n c o n t r ibu t e
of factors that can
contribute
to
ro ce
,
E cEconomic
o n o m i c C o rControl
rt r o 0 0 !
D Dr.
b u n foundation
d a t i o n p r i n c principles
r ShShewhart
e w h a r t p r epresented
i p l e s o n w h ion
s e n t e d t / 1e :the
ch
,
modern
d e r n q u quality
d
t r o l i s b ais
a l i t y c o n control
s ebased.
ss v a r ia t i o n i n c lu de t
p variation
to process
l w e a r m a c hi n e v ib r a t io n
include toolo owear,
machine vibration,
a n d w o r k h o ld i n
d
i
e
v
c
and work-holding
e
h
C
s
a n ge s i n m a t e r i a l t h i k
g
devices.
c n e ss
Changes
in material thickness,
c o m po s it io n o r h
a r d n e ss a r e so u r c e s
f
o
i
v
or
a
i
r
t
a
hardness
O
o
n
are sources of variation. Operator
per a to r
composition,
tio n s af : c t i n v a r i i
a t o n in c lu de o v e r a d
actionsa c affecting
g
variation
t he m a c h i n e
j u s t i n gthe
include overadjusting
machine,
,
which
m o
T oTod e develop
v e l o p t h e the
h e w Shewhart
ts D r S
h a r t f i r s t srst
c h a rcharts,
Dr.
u t about
e t a bo
set
d edetermining
t e r m i n i n g t h ethe
r e l arelationship
t i o n s hi p b e t w between
i
i
e e n t h e s tthe
d
d
d
n
t
o
an
ar
e v a deviation
standard
t hthe
and
o fof
e m emean
an an d
t h e the
d
standard
t
d
d
s an
ar
e v i adeviation
t i o n o f t h eofi n the
d i v i dindividual
u al
observations.
b
i
o s e r v a t o n s H e He
d e mdemonstrated
o n s t r a t e d t h e rthe
e l a t irelationship
o n s h i p by u s in
by
g using
n numbered,
u m be r e d
t a l l i n e d d i s k disk-shaped
m emetal-lined,
la b0W1
s h a p e d t a g s tags.
b
F r o m From
w
o
a
b oborrowed
r r o w e d f r o from
m h i s his
w i f ewifes
s kitc h
h
en
kitchen,
e d he
r e w drew
t h e s e these
t a gs a t tags at
r arandom
n do m
t o to
fi r m t h e the
c o nconrm
d a r d d e v i adeviation
s t a n standard
t i o n o f s u bof
up
g r osubgroup
s asample
m p l e m emeans
a n s is t h
d a r d d e v i adeviation
ise the
s t a nstandard
t i o n o f i n dof
s
i v iindividual
d u a l s a m pl esamples
d idivided
v i d e d b yby
t h ethe
s q usquare
a r e r o o troot
o f t hof
b
e sthe
u gsubgroup
r o u p siz e
size.
,
'
s.
h er e
5x:
at
n d a r d d e v deviation
5x =s t astandard
i a t i o n o f t hof
e mthe
e a nmean
a r d e r r o r ) error)
(s t a n d(standard
ll
s
s t astandard
n da r d de v ia t io n o f i d i
i d u a l o b s e r observations
deviationnof vindividual
v a t io n s
n 5m ll
n u number
m be r o f o b se r v a t i o n s i
of observations
n e a in
c h each
s u b gr subgroup
o u p m ean
mean
'
text,
of1i a Quality
l i t y o Mof
t
a n uManufactured
Q
a c t u r e d PTo du cProduct,
l e p h o n e L a bLaboratories
i n h i in
3 1 t1931
L a t e r Later
T eTelephone
ex t ,
his
s 19
rt
o ]. A 0o r / e s 1: e p report.
s.
n t r o l c ha r t s a s d
Thec o control
e s i designed
charts, as
a r t ha v e
r Sh
ew h
g n e d b y D by
Dr.
Shewhart,
have
T he
r p o s e s : t o d e %n e t
threep upurposes:
d a r d s fo r t h e r o c e s s t o a i d i n
s a n standards
to dene
forp the process, to aid in
r o bl e m so lv i n
p problem-solving
f
f
e
o
t
r
s t o a t t a i n t h e s t a n da r d s a n d t o
g
efforts
to attain the standards, and to
t hr e e
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
'
w a l t e r Sh e w h a r t Ec o n o m i c C
Walter Shewhart, Economic
o n t r o l o f Qu a l i t o M a m
Control of Quality
w r t u r e d P r o d u c t Prdud'
y f
ofManufactured
N e w Yu r k : V a n N o s t r a n d R i h
e n o ld 19 3 1
New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1931,
p 6 p. 6.
Variable Control Charts
DEPT.
Cutting
GROUP
PART NO.
Grand Mean = 3.7488 LCbar = 3.7426

Mean Range = 0.0128 UCLrange = 0.0255
3.7549
PART NAME Hub

1
MACHINE
Length
VARIABLE
UCbar = 3.7549
3.7525
E
0
205
<
m
x
3.7500
3.7475
3.7451
3.7426
0.0255
___________
1-
0.0191
o 0128
a:
0.0064
n:
0
0.00
FIGURE 18.2 Typical X and R (Iliart

judge whether the standards have been met. Although
Dr. Shewhart concentrated his efforts on manufacturing
processes, his ideas and charts are applicable to any process
found in nonmanufacturing environments.
Statistical process control charts are more than a tool.
They provide a framework for monitoring the behavior of a
process and provide a feedback loop that enables organizations to achieve dramatic process improvements. Since their
introduction in 193]. Dr. Shewharts control charts have
served to advance process improvement efforts in nearly
every type of industry despite differing opinions about their
appropriateness. applicability. limits derivations, sampling

frequency, and use. It is a tribute to the ruggedness of
an analysis of the average, range. and standard deviation. A

control chart enhances the analysis of the process by showing
how that process is performing over time. Using statistical
control charting creates a feedback loop enabling lean Six
Sigma organizations to improve their processes, products, and
services.
Control charts serve two basic functions:
I. As decision-making tools. They provide an economic
basis for making a decision as to whether to investigate
for potential problems, to adjust the process. or to leave

the process alone.
a. Control charts provide information for timely
The only shortcoming in a histogram analysis is its failure
decisions concerning recently produced items. If an

outofcontrol condition is shown by the control
chart. then a decision can be made about sorting or
the result closely resembles a normal curve (Figure 18.33).
b. Control chart information is used to determine the

process capability. or the level of quality the process is
Shewharts invention that they remain the preeminent

statistical process control tool.
to show process performance over time. Look at the data in

Table [8.1. When these averages are graphed in a histogram.
Graphing the averages by subgroup number, according to
reworking the most recent production.
when they were produced. gives a different impression of the

data (Figure 18.3b). From the chart, it appears that the thick-
capable of producing. Samples of completed product

can be statistically compared with the process specications. This comparison provides information
This was not evident during the creation of the histogram or
tions set by the product designer.
ness of the clutch plate is increasing as production continues.
vvul II IV
V]
vul I Ivvul II Ivu
concerning the process's ability to meet the specica-
206
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Clutch Plate Thickness: Sums and Averages
TABLE 18.1
Subgroup 1
0.0625
Subgroup 3
0.0622
Subgroup 2
Subgroup 4
0.0626
0.0624
0.0624
0.0623
0.0624
0.0624
0.0623
0.0620
0.0625
0.0623
0.0625
0.0627
0.0626
0.0625
0.0623
0.0624
0.0625
0.0626
2X:
0.3127
0.0625
0.3122
00624
0.3121
0.0624
0.0623
0.3114
Subgroup 5
0.0621
0.0621
0.0622
0.0625
0.0624
0.3113
Subgroup 6
0.0628
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.0627
0.3132
00623
0.0626
Subgroup 7
0.0624
0.0627
0.0625
0.0624
0.0626
0.3126
0.0625
Subgroup 8
0.0624
0.0625
0.0625
0.0626
0.0626
0.3126
0.0625
Subgroup 9
0.0627
0.0628
0.0626
0.0625
0.0627
0.3133
0.0627
Subgroup 10
0.0625
0.0626
0.0628
0.0626
0.0627
0.3132
0.0626
0.3127
0.0625
0.3134
0.0627
Subgroup 11
0.0625
0.0624
0.0626
0.0626
0.0626
Subgroup 12
0.0630
0.0628
0.0627
0.0625
0.0627
Subgroup 13
0.0627
0.0626
0.0628
0.0627
0.0626
0.3137
0.0627
Subgroup 14
0.0626
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.0627
0.3130
0.0626
Subgroup 15
0.0628
0.0627
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.3132
0.0626
Subgroup 16
0.0625
0.0626
0.0625
0.0628
0.0627
0.3131
0.0626
Subgroup 17
0.0624
0.0626
0.0624
0.0625
0.0627
0.3126
0.0625
Subgroup 18
0.0628
0.0627
0.0628
0.0626
0.0630
0.3139
0.0627
Subgroup 19
0.0627
0.0626
0.0628
0.0625
0.0627
0.3133
0.0627
Subgroup 20
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.0625
0.0627
0.3129
0.0626
Subgroup 21
0.0627
0.0626
0.0628
0.0625
0.0627
0.3133
0.0627
Subgroup 22
0.0625
0.0626
0.0628
0.0625
0.0627
0.3131
0.0626
Subgroup 23
0.0628
0.0626
0.0627
0.0630
0.0627
0.3138
0.0628
Subgroup 24
0.0625
0.0631
0.0630
0.0628
0.0627
0.3141
0.0628
Subgroup 25
0.0627
0.0630
0.0631
0.0628
0.0627
0.3143
Subgroup 26
0.0629
0.0630
0.0628
0.0620
0.0628
0.0627
Subgroup 27
0.3142
0.0628
0.0630
0.0628
0.0631
0 0628
0.0527
Subgroup 28
0.3144
0.0632
0.0629
0.0632
0.0628
0.0631
0.0630
Subgroup 29
0.3153
0.0630
0.0628
0.0631
0.0631
0.0632
Subgroup 30
0.06331
0.3152
0.0632
0.0631
0.0630
0.0630
0.0628
0.0628
0.3149
0.0630
9.3981
2. As problem-solving tools. They point out where

improvement is needed.
a. Control chart information can be used to help
locate and investigate the causes of the unacceptable
or marginal quality. By observing the patterns on
the chart the investigator can determine what
adjustments need to be made.
b. During daily production runs, the operator

can
monitor machine production and determine when

to make the necessary adjustments to the process or
when to leave the process alone to ensure

quality
production.
00630'5;
2:1...
0'0625
0.0630
0.0620-
o I 0620
w
5
(a)
FIGURE 18.3
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
0.0525
I
10
I
15
(b)
2'0
2'5
Chart with Histogram
30
Va r i a b l e C o n t r o l C h a r t s
207
U n d e r s t a n d iVariation
n g Va r i a t i o n
Understanding
rb
207
t WO R K
h
i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o i m p r o v e p r o d u c t io n a t t e
i
n
t
i
o
a
a
r
v
l
s
it
h
e
s
t
w
r
s
a
d
e
ro u c
nd p
i o n a be
p to improve production
necessary
r e v i o u s o p e r a t will
pintervention
A n i n d uengineering
s t r i a l e n g i n e e r i n g d e p a r t m e n t is s e e k i n g t o d e c r e a s e
An industrial
department is seeking to decrease
t h e a m o u n t o f t i m e it t a k
t
i n t e r v e n t io n
o p e r f o r m a p r i n t e r a s s e m b ly
the amount of time it takes toe sperform
a printer t h e o e r a t o r s
o p e r a t i o n A n a n a l y s i s o f t h e m e t h o d s u s e d b y assembly
p
operation.
An analysis of the methods used
by the Operators
performing the assembly has revealed
that one of the operators
completes the assembly in 75 percent
of the time it takes
another
at the
previous operation and produce parts with less variation.
operator performing the same

assembly operation.
Further investigation determines

that the two operators use
parts produced on different machines.
The histograms in
Figure 18.4 are based on measurements
of the parts from the
two different processes. In Figure 18.4b
the spread of the
process is considerably smaller.
enabling the faster operator
to
assemble
the parts r m u s t more
t r y a pquickly
d is c a r d t h e pa r t
a r t i n t h and
e a s s with
e m b l yless
s l o w e r o p e r a t omuch
effort. The
slower operator
t h ethe
n d at r y
part
t f i t atry
r p a assembly,
a n o in
r t Re p e a t i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n
i f it d o e s nmust
discard the part
if it doesnt
d o another
s m a dRepeating
n o t f i t h apart.
e t h e o p e r a t o r m u c h le s s e f f I
t h e and
w h e n fit,
p a r t stry
the operation
when the
parts
f s p e e d is a c t u a l ly c a u s e d
not
o r shas
a p pmade
a r e n t lthe
ac k o
e r a tfit
s op
t T h ido
c ie n
operator
much less effi
cient. This
e f a u lt o f t h e o p e r a t o r H a d
n d is n o t t h
e p r o c e s s a apparent
b y t hoperators
lack
of speed is actually caused
by the process and is not the fault of the operator.
Had
d g m e n t s a bo u t t h e o p e r a t o r s
managers
d e i n c o r r e c t j uvariation
m ainvestigated
h a v enot
in the process, they might
Tw
ac hin e s
FIGURE 18.4
Instead, they realize that management
(a)
H i s t o gr a m
FIGURE 18 4
r e a l iz e t h a t m a n a g e m e n t
have made
s t e a d t h e y about
a n c e I njudgments
"
r f ' incorrect
the operator's
\performance.
l8 )
Two Machines
s o
f Pa r t M e a s u r e m
en ts
b/
Variation
her e
it em
n o tw o
t he s a m e ,
l
s o T s r v i c e s a r e Ex a c t y
Variation, where no two items or services are exactly the same,
n o tic e
a st u t e c o n s t
e n t o r a v eitr may
exists in all processes.
m
Although
take a veryr precise
g ]r
ti
ib i t v a r i a o n
at
measuring
instrument
r i a t i o n a n ) or a very astute consumer to notice
e va
u lt s i n be t t e r
e
s
r
s
s
e
;
i
u
ts ca
an r
o n nature
v a r i a t iin
the variation, any process
will exhibit variation.
.
Understanding
d e c i s i o n s variation and its causes results in better
decisions.
Several types of variation are tracked with statistical
methods. These include:
l
:
t o n w i t hin a s i n g e
1.
v an at lu !:
l
gwithin
t
Within-piece
r f a c e F o or
.
s u riation.
the variation
i t e m o r va
a single
o <o r v a r i e s f r o m
h
c
t
e
d
i c se e
i
e
n
m
a
b
e
x
item or
e
surface.
i
For
exanmle,
a
a
single
fa b r c m y
square yard of
e r see if the color
fabric omay
i o n t o a n o t hto
c a t examined
varies from
n e l obe
ex a m
le
a si n
be
c t ly p r o d u c t i o n c a n
c o r r e critical
bly
a d e i nhave
line, management
h s b e e n m can
part dimensions
gr o u p o f p a r t s a
ts
r
a
d
e
c
u
o
if i e d t o p r
h e r w i s e m o d the
checked
and s t e d o r o tthroughout
process. If pa part or
s t o p p e d a d j u charted
group of parts has been made incorrectly, production can be
d t
a r a c t e r is t i c s o f a p r o u c
stopped,
e a s u r a bl e c h
e motherwise
Va r i adjusted,
modied
a bl e s a r e t hor
to produce parts
i
'
h
w
e
i
t
h
h
e
d
t
e
l
e
gh t
i
g
v a r iable s n c u
correctly.
l
o r s e r v i c e Ex a m p e s o
bl e
i
a
d
r
v
a
l
e
om m on y us
O n e measurable
o f t h e m o s t ccharacteristics
Variables a r t the
o r l e n gt h o f a pare
of a product
c
o c e ss c o n t r o l is t he
orc hservice.
Examplesi s t a t i s t i c a l p r include
the height, weight,
a r t c o m b i n a t i o n s nof variables
h
t
s are
r
R
a
d
c
x
l
n
i
a
a
T
c
orb length
a r t s most
c hthe
part.
n d Rof
y p commonly used variable
e x aOne
o f at h
i n a t i o n of
h to
R
a r t s a r e u s e d t o ge t e r
d
chart
c hprocess
x
combinations
n
2
a
8
1
in
statistical
Fi
e
r
u
i
control is the comsh o w n n
g
f s
,
one location to another.

l t he sa m e
a p pr o x im a t e y
a t variation
c e dthe
2. Piece-to-piece
that occurs
e c e s p r o d u or
a m o n g p ivariation,
l
n %1l i n g g a l o n
r o du c t i o n r u
i n ata papproximately
among pieces
the same
Fo r produced
ex a m p le
d
h m i lk j u gs i s c h e c k e
n e a c h o f t e run lling
time. For
ae production
w h
gallon i l l
w i t h m i l k in
j u gs example,
w
u
t
r o m ju g o j g
l e v e l fjugs
fi ll milk
t h ethe
jugs with
t i o n of
milk, whens t aeach
is checked
a f t e r t h e fi l li n g
after the
t
lling
the
ll
level
from
jug
to jug will
station,
b e s l i gh t l y d i ff e r e n
be slightly different.
le
shown in Figure 18.2. X and R charts are used together to

i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r w il l
determine
u n c tsubgroup
the distribution
n j the
h r t s i n c oof
averages of samu sin g th e se t w o c a
pleb emeasurements
taken
tl
h
c o m e a p p a r e n t s o r y from a process. The importance of
using these two charts in conjunction with each other will
become apparent shortly.
a n d R Cha r t s
f r
ay
s o f t h e din
3. Time-to-time
t i m evariation
theo productp
variation, or
n t the
d
c e d a t d i f fe r e
u
o
r
p
m pe d a t t h e
s b e e n s t a example,
a t h adayfor
t t hthe
produced
at different times
f a p a r of
t he c o m a r is o n o
ex am
m p
h e p a r t s t aat
w i t h tstamped
the
r u n been
the comparison
of a part that
i o n has
be g i n n i n g o f a p r o d u c t
beginning ofd ao production
the part stamped at
n
n r u with
f a p r o d u c t i o run
t he e n
the end of a production run.
e
at
d to
t i
h
Y Tand
Rh a Charts
e
U U 1
Control
Charts for Variables
1U U 1 w
11'
"
tu
n a bl e t h o s e s
dy i n g a p
t o a n a ly z e t h e
n t r o l c ha r t s e
sa m
ControlC ocharts
ple s
art
analyze
the
enable those
studying a process
t r o l toc h
To c r e a t e a c o n
r e se n t
i
i
on
t
a
v
r
a
h
p
variation present. To create a control
r o c e ss T e
samples,
in g t he p
k e n d u r chart,
,
s, a r e t a
s u se
i t io n o
m o n t o r t h e v a r tB
t he
st Bbgr o \ Bp
The X chart tish eused

SC [ V i
to monitor the
l O Dvariation
of the subgroup
r t h a n in d iv i d u a
A v e r a ge s r a
t e a c h a n ge
averages that arebcalculated
w il l i n d i c a sampled
l
s
e
from
u
the
v
a
individual
e
data.
a
r
e
v
g
e c a u se a
c o n t r o l c ha r t s
i n d iv i du a l
l
l
i
n w
h
Averages rather than
a
t
r
t
f
e
individual
h
s
a
observations
are
used on
i t io n m u c
i n t he a m o u n t o f v a r a
t he
t o e v a l u aat echange
control
charts because
u s e dindicate
average
values
h
a r t a r ewill
i
c
h
s
t
n
i
o
t
s
l
i
Co n t r o l m
1\ l U -
r o c e ss
u b g r o u p a v e r a ge s o
bination
o f t h e s Typical
the
o ncharts.
ib u t iR
i s t rand
e dX
e th
X and R charts are
De t e r m i nof
da t a
under
control. i . t h e p r o d u c t r e a c h e s t h e e n d o f t h e a s s
c o m pl e t e o r u n t
t i c a l p a r t dim e n s io n s
c r ientire
n h a v ean
m e n t c a until
a g ewaiting
l i n e m a nof
production run is
b l y Instead
t t h e pr o c ess If a p a r t o r
h r o u g h o ureaches
complete
e d t product
c h a r t the
n d until
the end of the assemc h e c k e d aor
o r 1 L: : v a n a i
e sq u a r e ya r
production to fall between these :l:3cr limits 99.7 percent

u ctio n r u n u
a n e n t i r edoes
of theI n time,
n t i l process
p r o dnot
f w a i t i n g u the
change and is
s t e a d oproviding
W i t hi n p i e c e
the
f
n t er e d t h e
i
p r o c e ss a v e r a ge s c e
l li m i t
L
C
a n d lo w e r c o n t r o
U
i
)
t
l
i
l
(
m
t
o
r
n
o
T h e u pp e r c
d
of t he
a
h e s pr e
process
average
e sc r i b e ttendency
cr , d
central
of the data.
s e ct o n A 3the
( L C L ) c a l c 11 a t e disb acentered,
f
n ex pec t u t u r e
a
d
c
e
w
The
s
upper
r
control
h
o
w
r
e
limit
t
I
(UCL)
and
o
n
lower
,
2
8 )
control limit
p r o c e s s ( Fi gu r e 1
(LCL),
calculated based t h e s e / 3c r l i m i t s 99 7 p e r c e n t
d
c t i o n t o f a l l b e t w e e non i303 describe the spread of the
u
o
r
p
o t c h a n ge a n d i s
s d o e s n we
process
h e other
(Figure 18.2).
i d i n g tIn
can expect future
p r o c e swords,
o r t he t i m e p r o v
Va r i a t i o n
(b)
Histograms of Part Measurements from
n t r a + t e n de n c y
Va r i a t i o n ,
fr o m
p
alu e s
n ge d i n t o s u g r
a r r ainto
arranged
o n t r o l in vthe
process.
subgroups, are taken
duringl othe
o n t h e cThe
amount of variation
tted
much
o t h e r than will individual
t o a n faster
b r o u v a lu e s a r e p
o n e su h r o u p
o u
f
g
p
e s o f t he s u g
r ag
v a r ia t i o n r o m
a v eof
averages
the
subgroup values
on hthe
w h e r e t h e values. Control limits on this chart are used to evaluate the
are tplotted
w s control
i
h
s r ha r l s o
o
)
(
lin e
T h e c e n t e r(Q)
h a r t centerline
chart. cThe
of this chart shows where the
variation from one subgroup to another.
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
208
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
OOLS aat
t wWORK
IX SIGMA TTOOLS
LEAN SSIX
SIGMA
Definingthe Problem
LEAN
Defining the Problem
/
b
assurance, and
trial engineering, quality
showing the
cause-and-effect diagram
frilagiiintiiiralhgelgrtaied a
18.5),
(Figure
the
d
for
uality assurance, anwhich
ineering,difficulties
l
enassembly
q
i
t
a
d
r
i
us
g
n
shaft
ngineerincauses
the
epotential
that
g,
meeting revealed
Discussions during the
cause
ingthe
m shof
owassemb|y
t diagra
ffecmajor
could
d ethe
se anbe
roller
d a cau
creainteplace
nance
aintethe
mholds
problems.
'
'
delays in the
An assembly area has been experiencing serious
Belt,
construction of computer printers. As a Six Sigma Black
Anyou
blybeen
has btoeedetermine
these
assem
areaasked
in the
ingcause
n experienc
the
elaysdelays
seriouofs d
have
and fix the problems as soon as possible. You convened a
conmeeting
structioninvolving
Black Belt,
of comp
ix Sigmaproblems.
uter p
rinterstoAthe
assembly
saS
closest
those
Representatives from production, supervision, manufacturing,
meeting involvingthose closest to the assembly problems
h assembly difficulties (Figure 18 5)

potential causes for t e
d th t the shaft which
Discussions duringthe meeting reveale a
or cause of assembly
Holds the roller in place could be the maj
Representatives from production
problems
you have been asked to determine the cause of these delays

and fix the problems as soon as possible You convened a
Weak plastic
su ervision, manufacturing,
Axle rodp
,
dimensions
Oversize
Finish
las/
tic
WeNot
ak pfollowing
Procedure
AxDexterity
le rod
\
Boredom
Maintenance
Tool wear
y reaches
oo mlan
Machines
Finish
!\
"
"
tion of an X chart.
'"
" " '"
Bent rods
The following steps and examples explain the construc-
1. Dene the Problem
Tim...
me
Printer Assembly: Causeand-Effect Diagram
FIGURE 18.5
Difficult
assembly
Operator error
dimensions
Ove,
Parts not
available
\
Bent rods
Too many reaches
Bearing dimensions
Unqualified workers
Training
Time
In any situation it is necessary
l9
n0
. ... ble
Difficult variation, or variation

withinpiece variation, piece-to-piece
over time. Product or service characteristics such as length,
height, viscosity, color, temperature, and velocity are typi-
cally used in manufacturing settings. Delivery times, check
out times, and service times are examples of characteristics

to determine the goal of monitoring a particular quality
t
Intenan e
O
or
error
r
e
a
of
characteristics.
Control
charts
chosen
in a serviceMaindustry.
or
group
can
characteristic
p
be placed on a process Ifto
I" help "determine where the true
3. Choose a Rational Subgroup Size to Be Sampled
source of the problem is located.
B:
2. Select the Quality Characteristic to Be Measured

" " ng The
Variable control charts are based on measurements.
Subgroups, and the samples composing them, must be
homogeneous. A homogeneous subgroup will have been proToolsame

wear conditions, by the same machine, the
duced under the
Boredosame
m
characteristics selected for measurement should be ones that
operator, the same mold, and so on. Homogeneous lots
rocedure
p
T
i
i
n
n
a
r
Characteristic choice
affect product or service
can also be designated by equal time intervals. Samples
g performance.
Dexterity
depends on whether the process
is being monitored for
should be taken in an unbiased, random fashion. The)
M
Identifying the Quality Characteristic
As the lean Six Sigma project meeting described in the earlier

Lean Six Sigma Tools at Work feature continues, further
investithat the length of the shaft is hindering assembly
gationreveals FIGU
nter ssem : au se an
RE18 5 to rmeasure
operations. The characteristic
has been identified as
.
Pi
Scanned
bly C
variation in the length of the shafts. To begin to

piece-to-piece
the Situation, measurements of the lengths of the shafts
study
t be
am
a i:sampled.
ecWill
d Eff Di g
Va r i a bl e Co n t r o l Ch a r t s
should be representative of the entire population. The letter

s ho u l d be r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f t he e n t i r e o u l a t i o n T h e l e t t e r
n is used
p p
to designate the number of samples
taken within a
subgroup. When constructing X and R charts, keep the
he n constant
r o u p W size
s u bgsample
c o n st r u c t i n
subgroup
R c h a r t s taken.
a n dsubgroup
ke e p t he
g xeach
for
s u bgr o u p saconcerning
m p l e s i z e c o n sthe
Decisions
t a n t fspecic
bgr o u of
o r e a c h su size
ken subp t a the
groupn,D eor
i o n s number
c i sthe
c o n c e r n i of
n g samplesrequire
t h e s p e c i fi c s i z e o f judgment.
t he s u b
Sampling
t h e n ufrequently
enough
m b e r o f sa m
to
detect
l
i
gr o u should
p n o roccur
e
s
r
e
u
r
e
u
p
j dchanges
q
gm e n t
I When the subgroup size exceeds 10, the standard devia1
W he n t he
change.
process ft e n identify
factors d t o
i n Examine
t h e p r o c e sthe
s A s k ho w oand
i s t he sy sthe
t e m e x p e c t e causing change
in
the
process.
To
be
effective,
sampling
must
c h a n ge Ex a m i n e t h e p r o c e s s a n d i d e n t i f t h e f a c t o r
s cau s
y
occur as often as the systems
most
frequently
i n g c ha n ge i n t h e p r o c e s s To be e f fe c t i v e sa m l changing
u st
p i n g m have
factor. Once
the number and frequency of sampling
o c c u r a s o ft e n a s t h e s s t e m s m o s t fr e u e n t l
c h a n gi n g
y be changed unless
q
ythe
been selected, they should not
system
fa c t o r O n c e t h e n u m be r a n d fr e u e n c o f s a m l i n hav e
q
itself has changed.
y
p g
bee n se l e c t e dsampling
t he y s ho u frequency
l d n o t be c hmust
a n ge dbalance
u n l e ss t hthe
e sy svalue
t em
Realistically,
f
l
i
h
h
d
t
se
aobtained
s c a n ge with the costs of taking the samples.
of the data
l i st i c a lly more
Sampling Rise ausually
i n g fr e q u e nwhen
sa m p l frequent
t ba l a n c echarts
c y m u scontrol
t he v a l uare
e
rst used
process.
i t h t h e cAs
o f t hto
e dmonitor
a t a o b t a i nthe
ed w
l
h
o s t process
t
s o f t a k i nimprovements
e
s
e
a
m
g
p s
are made
stabilizes, w h e frequency
of saml i n gthe
i s u sprocess
Sa m pand
u a ll y m o r e f r e q u e n t the
n c o n t r o l c ha r t s a r e
pling and
size can be decreased.
fi rst subgroup
u se d t o m o n i t o r t h e p r o c e s s a s p r o c e ss i m r o v em e n t s
p
When gathering
sample data, it is important to have the
a r e m a d e a n d t h e p r o c e ss s t a b i l i z e s t h e f r e q u e n c y o f s a m
following information in order to properly analyze the data:
,
'
pli n g a n d s u bgr o u p si z e
be de c r e a se d
can
the
1. Who will
W n ebe
da t a i t i s i m p o r t a n t
n gcollecting
a t he r i n g s a m
pl edata?
,
to
ha v e t he
i n g i n fof
fo ll o waspect
2. What
t o be
o r mthe
a t i oprocess
n i n o r dis
e r to
p e r l y a n a l yz e t he da t a :
p r o measured?
in the process will the sample be

3. Where or at what point
1 Who w i ll b e c o l l e c t i n g t h e da t a ?
taken?
2 Wh a t a spe c t o f t he p r o c e ss i s t o be m e a su r e d?
When
or how frequently will the process be sampled?
h e pr o ctaken?
he r e particular
3 isWthis
o i n t i n t being
ess w il l t h e s a m pl e be
o r a t w h a t psample
Why
t a ke n ?
the data be collected?
How will
N95"? How many samples will be taken (subgroup size)?
Some other guidelines to be followed include:
io n ccreate
i t a l s o i n than
ha r t smaller
s i n s pdo
e c t not
c r e a sefour
o st s
t i v e csizes
a
I Subgroup
,
bgr o u p s i z e s
1 D e s t r u c t idistribution
representative
m subgroup
a ke l a r ge su averages.
v e t e s t i n g m a yof
normal
for
subgroups of
are
nearly
averages
Subgroup
u n fe a s i bl e Fo r e x a m pl e i t w o u l d n o t m a ke s e n se f o r a
four or more even when sampled from a nonnormal
population.
Be t w e e n t h e i n div i du a l s
l c h a r t the
a n statistical
4 amount
Co l l e c t oft hdata
t a To c rto
e a taccurately
e a c o n t r oreect
e D asufcient
control of the process must be gathered. A minimum of 20
a m o u n t o f da t a su ff ic i e n t t o a c c u r a t e l y r e fl e c t t h e s t a t i s t i c a l
,
time a
subgroups of sample
size n = 4 is suggested.
fEach
20
i
p r o c e s s m u s t be ga t he r e d A m i n m u m o calculated
is
average
subgroup of sample size n4isi taken, an
s s u ge s t e d Ea c h t i m e a
s u b gr o u p s o f s a m p l e s i z e n
individual values are
for the subgroup. To do this, gthe
c o n t r o l o f t he
n o t c r ea t e a
Subgroup
f su bgr o u Size
Selecting di
s t r i bu t i o n oSample
p av e r a ge s
r e pr e se n t a t i v e
su bgr o u p s o f
w he n sa m pl e d fr o m a n o n n o r m a l
fo u r o r mfrom
e v e nmachine
o r e the
making the shafts is consistent
The production
the process is currently exhibiting
at 150 p
per
n
u l a t i o Because
o phour.
problems, your team has decided to take a sample of five
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
is
c a l c u la t e d
a m p l e s i z e n i s t a k e n a n a v e r a ge
p o f ssummed,
recorded,
and then divided by the number of same
fo ples
r t h e su b gr o u p To do t h i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l v a l u plotted
in
subgroup. This average, K, is then e s a r on the
s u b gr o u
the
control chart.
div i de d by t h e
r ec o r de d , su m m e d , a n d t he n
num
be r o f
h
p i e s i n t he s u bgr o u p T h i s av e r a ge Xj i s t he n pl o t t e d o n t e
the
X
the Trial Centerline for
l c h ar t
c o5.
n t r oDetermine
,
Chart
The centerline of the control chart is the process average. It

would
the mean, u, if the average of the population
5 D e t e r be
m i n e t h e T+i a l Ce n t e r l i n e f o r t h e I Ch a r t
measurements for the entire process were known. Because the
t he c en t er l i n e o f t he c o n t r o l c h a r t i s t he p r o c e ss a v e r a ge i t
value of the population mean p. cannot be determined unless
w o u ld be t h e m e a n p i f t h e a v e r a ge o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
all of the parts being produced are measure_d, in its place the
r e k n o w n Be c a u se t h e
p r o c ess w e averages,
32 (X double bar,
grand average of the subgroup
v a l u e o f t he p o p u l a t i o n m e an I 1 c an n o t be d e t e r m i n e d u n l e ss
coxgred previously in Chapter 17), is used. The grand average,
i n i t s p l a caverages
e t he
r ed
e a su
a ll
a r t s be i n g pby
rod
u c e d a r e m all
and
oro fX,t hise pcalculated
summing
the
subgroup
d
bl
b
x
r
d
f
h
b
a
o
u
e
is
a
e
r
a
e
s
t
This
value
v
v
number
of
subgroups.
(
Fa
n
a
er
a
e
o
e
s
u
r
o
u
by the g p
g
gthen dividing
g
chart:
d T h e gr a n d av e r a ge
ly i n Ch a pt eof
i o u scenterline
7) i sYu se
c oplotted
v e r e d pras
ev the
r 1the
,
M easu r em e n t s fo r t he e n t i r e
or
t hen
i s c a l c u l a t e d by su m
div i di n g by t he
pl o t t e d a s t he
p a v er a ge s a n d
f
b
o su Xi
gr o u p s T h i s v a l u e i s
m i n g a ll t hm
e su bgr o u
_
num
be r
x=c h ai=1
r t:
m
c en t e r l i n e o f t hi
e
where
Xi
i = average of the
subgroup averages
x
Xi = average of the ith subgroup
m = number of subgroups
-
he r e
6. Determine
the Trial Control
Limits for the i
av e r a e o f t he s u b r o u
av e r a e s
=
Chart Control limits are established at 3:3 standard

deviations from the centerline for the process using the
m
n u m be r o f su b gr o u p s
formulas:
following
-
UCL} = ><|| +l L30';

6 D e t e r m i n e t h e ' i a l Co n ||
im it s fo r t he .
tr o
= X 30;
LCLX
Ch a r t Co n t r o l li m i t s a r e e s t a bl i s he d a t / 3 s t a n da r d
D
where
e v ia t io n s f r o m t he
c e n t e r l in e
fo r t h e p r o c e ss
fo llo w i n g fo=r m u l a s :
u s i n g t he
UCL upper control limit of the X chart

control
limit
the X chart
LCL = lowerUC
L
x + 3of
cr
-
i
a"; = population standard deviation of the subgroup
LCL
averages
p r o du c t s
bSu bgr o u p a v e r a ge s a r e n e a r ly n o r m a l fo r
p l e d t h a n do e s t h e R c ha r t
sa m
4. Collect the Data To create a control chart, an
Su bgr o u p s i z e s s m a ll e r t ha n fo u r do
ci #t +. }
d d
t s ho u l d be
t i o n (s ) c ha r t r a t h e r t h a n t he r a n ge (Rthe
gives a better
used. For large subgroup sizes, ) c has r chart
b
i
h
h
i
t
v
e
s
t t e differences
t
a
r
a
e
s
r
e
c
z
e
s
d Fo r l a r ge s u bgrof
o u the
s
u serepresentation
g or true
p true dispersion
ffe r e n cthe
r u e di does
e s R chart.
r s i o n o r t than
t h e t r u e di s p esampled
r e pbetween
r e se n t a t i o the
n o f individuals
I The larger the subgroup size, the more sensitive the chart
7 Hto
jl
process
average.
sa m pl e s w i ll
e t ak
e n (s u t g
: o u p s i z cThis
o w small
m a n y variations
inbthe
becomes
will provide a better picture of the process because it allows
So m e o t he r gto
u i de l i n e s t o be fo ll o w e d i n c l u de :
detect changes in the process quickly.
the investigator
I Although a larger subgroup size makes for a more sensi
also increases inspection costs.
tive chart,
be c o mit e s t o sm a ll v a r a t i o n s i n t hc pr o c ess a v r a ge T h i s
I Destructive testing may make large subgroup sizes
unfeasible. For example, it would not make sense for a
reworks manufacturer to test each and every one of its
1
.
A l t ho u gh a l a r ge r s u bgr o u p s i z e m a ke s fo r a m o r e se n s i
products.
d 10 h
t e s an ar
s z e ex c e e s
d ev
gr o u prather
tion (s)s uchart,
(R) chart,
should be
than the range
in theSaprocess.
m pl i n g s hAsk
expected to
fr e q u e nist l ythe
o u ld ohow
c c u r often
en o usystem
gh t o de t ec t c ha n ge s
209
20 9
3crj
he r e
SIX SIGMA TOOLS at WORK

U CL =LEAN
u p p e r c o n t r o l l i m i t o f t he x c ha r t
LCL = l o w e r c o n t r o l l i m i t o f t he x c h a r t
i o nminutes
d de vthe
bgr ovalues
i a t iproduction.
st a n da rfrom
o pu l a t10
o n o f t he suThe
up
( T measurements
pevery
18.6.
Figure
in
shown
run are
for the day's production
r
s
av e a ge
(Continued)
DEPT.
D
EPT
RRoller
o ll e r
GROUP
G
RO U P
11
PART
NO.
P
A RT N
o
Sh a f t Shaft
VARIABLE
A BL E
VA RI
l e n gt hlength
2
0707:40
: 40
0 707/02/10
/ 0 2 / 10
3
0
0 7 : 507:50
2 / 10
0 7 / 007/02/10
0 8 : 00 08:00
07 / 0207/02/10
/ 10
12.03
12.02
12 02
11.96
12.01
12 0 1
1 1 9 7 11.97
11
Subgroup
S
u bgr o u p
CH I N E
M A MACHINE
1
07:30
0 7 : 30
07/02/10
0 7 / 0 2 / 10
1
2
2
3
3
11 95
12 03
12 00
12 03
4
4
x
XRange
12.00
12 00
R a n ge
11.99
11 99
0.04
4
1 1 98
0 08
Subgroup
00
0 07
12.00
12 0 0
12.00
12 0 0
0.07
12 0 1
11.98
98
II
11.98
11.99
0.08
g
LU
12.00
12 0 0
11.97
11 97
11 9 6
11 9 8
Time
T
im e
Date
Date
12.03
12 0 3
12 0 3
12 00 12.00
11.99
11 99
11 99 11.99
0 0 6 0-06
0 807/02/95
: 20
0 8 : 30
0 8:40
08 : 5 0
D ate
0 7 / 0 2/ 9 5
0 7 / 02 / 9 5
0 7 / 0 2 / 95
07/ 0 2 / 9 5
11.98
1 112.00
98
1212.01
00
1211.99
01
99
1 111.99
12.01
01
12 12.03
03
12 12.00
12 11.98
00
98
1 1 12.00
12 00
12.01
12.02
12 0 2
11.96
11 96
12.00
12 0 0
11.98
11 98
11.99
07/02/95
11.98
2
23
34
45
5x
12.00
0.03
9
11 9
RSubgroup
a n ge
ll
Time
Su b g r o u p
Date
T im
D1 a t e
12
12 00
12 0 1
0.08
15
11.99
1 1 9 9 11.93
1 . 9 3 11.94
1 1 94 11.95
1 1 9 5 11.96
6
1 : 9 11.95
0 7 / 02/ 9 5
11 95
11 95
11 97
0.04
04
0 17
10:00
1607/02/95
10 : 00
0 7 / 12.02
0 2/ 9 5
0 7 / 0 2 / 95
1 1 98
11 99
I I 96
21
1
2
D a te
3
4
25
3x
10 : 50
Date
07/02/95
12.00
/ 0 2/ 9 5
0 711.98
11.99
12 00
11.99
11 98
12.02
I I 99
12.00
19
0.06
19
10:30
07/02/95
12 00
1 1 98
11 99
11 9 5
11 9 3
0 07
20
10 : 4 0
09:50
07/02/95
12.00
11.98
11.99
11.95
11.93
11.97
0.07
20
10:40
07/02/95
10 : 10
11.98
2
12 011.97
1 1 98
11.98
7
1 1 911.99
11 98
11.99
0 7/ 0 2/ 9 5
0 7 / 0 2 /11.97
95
07 / 0 2 / 95
11 9 7
1 1 99
12.00
12.01
12 00
12.02
12 0 1
12.01
12 0 2
11.99
12 0 1
12.01
11 99
0-03
07/02/95
0 06
15
l L1: 3 0
\R = 0.05 : 12.02 - 11.97

3
1200. +1211.95
0 0+
2 11.96
12 0 +
11 9 7+ 11.97
5
11:29
12 0 0 + m a p + l f m + =
11 9 8
10.50
Su bg r o u p
10:20
14
10 : 20
-5
21
Time
07/02/95
.8
199
18
0.05
0 0 18
5
10:10
17
Subgroup
13
0 7/ 0 2/ 9 5
12 00
12.03
12.00
12 03
12.01
12 0 0
11.99
12 0 1
11 99 12.00
0.06
12 0 1
12 0 2
12 0 0
12 0 1
11.99
12.01
12.02
12.00
12.01
12.01
0.03
0.04
Range
1 1 99
12 0 2
x FIGURE
11 9 7
12 05
12.00
11.97
12.05
12.00
12.01
11.93
1 1 9 311.95
1 1 9 511.98
1 1 9 811.94
1 1 9 411.96
1 1 9 611.95
Range
12 00
12.02
11.98
11.97
1 1 98
11.96
1 1 97
11.95
11 96
12.00
11 9 5
11.97
0160 5
12 02
0 08
14
07/02/95
07 / 0 2 19 5
09 : 50
Tim
13
0.06
09 : 0 0
10
09:00
0 7/ 0 2 / 9 5
11 9 4
3
4
2
5
3
4X
1 1 99
10
1102
0-03
0 7 / 02 / 9 5
0.05
12.00
0 03
12.02
09:40
0 9 : 4 0 07/02/95
12 0 0
T1i m
12 00
12 0 2
12.03
09:30
0
09 : 3 07/02/95
11 9 7
D2a t e
07/02/95
12 0 2
09:20
20
0 9 :07/02/95
g
Time
SDate
u b gr o u p
08:50
0 06
0 04
12
Subgroup
Ra n e
12 0 1 0.04
12 02
12.00
12.01
12.02
09:10
11
07/02/95
0 9 : 10
11.92
11.95
11 9 2
11.92
11 95
11.94
1 1 92
11.96
1 1 94
11.94
11 96
Range
12.04
12 04
12.00
12 0 0
12.02
12 0 2
12.01
12 0 1
0 05
0 7/ 0 2 / 9 5
2
3
2
4
3g
4x
12.00
0.05
12 0 0
0 03
08:40
07/02/95
12 00
11 9 8
xRange
08:30
12 00
12 0 1
6 08:20
5
08:10
0 7/ 02 / 10
07/02/10
5
08 : 10
11 98 11.98
STime
u bgr o u p
TDate
im e
NAM
E
NAME
PA RT
PART
18.6
Ra n ge
2 00
Values 1for
a Days Production
04
210
FI G U RE 18 6
Va lu
es
fo r
D ay
'
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
Pr o d u c t i o
b)
Last
:
u
a
c
Variable
Charts
g Control
Collecting Data
e
mTOOLS
s
it? WORK
LEAN SIX SIGMA
p
a o
C
o
A sample of size n = 5 is taken at 10-minute intervals from the

process making shafts. As shown in Figure 18.6, a total of 21
subgroups of sample size n =- 5 have been taken.
Each 1time 1
1
0
a subgroup sample is taken, the individual values
1
are recorded
1
2
1
9
8
DEPT.
0
0
11.96
11.94
0
5
9
9
b g
e u
e r
u
a
0
-
L
r
a
n
g
e
L
x
b
e
n
c
h
(l
mm
o
o
r
d
1
9
6
3) UCLr
l/
:"f nilN ,
9171
0%
am
V.
U V P
C A A
L R R
T
b A
a B N
X and R Control Charts for Roller Shaft Length - E

1
The population standard deviation 0' is needed to

calculate the upper and lower control limits. Because control
charts are based on sample data, Dr. Shewhart developed a
good approximation of 30;. using the product of an A_2
factor multiplied by E, the average of the ranges. The 132R
combination uses the sample data for its calculation. R is
calculated by summing the values of the individual subgroup ranges and dividing by the number of subgroups m:
R1
E = =m
where
l? = average of the ranges

R; = individual range values for the sample
m = number of subgroups
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
o [
f
F
B s g
a
u
c u
o r
m re
n e
p
t
om
= o
e
NAME h Shaft
e 5 w n
n
Length(inch)
VARIABLE
=
a
h
n
a n
=
12.02
1
UCbar
d
0
v
FIGURE 18.7
k
e
n
0.11
RCHART
a
n e
g a
n
e PART
0
2
PA @
E H98
2 the control
s
t
R chart [Figure 18.7. (1)].
n
e
u UCLx
________________
v
r
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a g
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E
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summed, andp then
[Figure e18.6,
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a (1)], P
c
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h
a
the
subgroup
for
of samples n
taken to get the average
t
e p
a
on
This subgroup average
[Figure n18.6,
e
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n
d (2)]. T
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A217
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u
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a
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b
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L S
a e
M
See Appendixe2 for
the
A2
factors.
v
e
h
e
A
o
Upon replacement,
n a
the formulas
for
the
upper
C and
a
f
o
lower controlgt limits
become: g
t
T
r
r
t
h
(
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UCLg = fs +s Az
LCLx = 'Xhe ub Az
t
O
O
n
t
r
n
c
g
L
C
n r
h
After calculating
o
the control limits,
we place
S the hcenterp
a and
(UCL
line X and the upper and lower
o p control limits
r
a
t
t
t lower comrol
LCL, respectively) on the chart.teThe upper and
s
d The grand average, or X, is
limits are shown by dashed lines.
W
o
limits on the 'X chart will
shown by a solid line. The control
n
O
be symmetrical about the central line.
R
for 2the R
Limits
Control
the
Trial
Determine
K
7.
)
Chart
1
When an X chart is used to evaluate the variation
1
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
212
Calculating the 7 Chart Centerline
/b and Control Limits
Construction of an X chart begins with the calculation of the centerline X. Using the 21 subgroups of sample size n = 5 provided
in Figure 18.6. we calculate X by summing all the subgroup av
erages based on the individual samples taken and then dividing

by the number of subgroups, m:
7.:
11.99 +12.00 +11.99 +

21
+ 12.00
251.77 11.99
21
This value is plotted as the centeriine of the X chart
[Figure 18.7, (2)].

R is calculated by summing the values of the individual
subgroup ranges (Figure 18.6) and dividing by the number of
m:
LEAN srx SIGMA TOOLS at WORK

R=
0.08 + 0.07 + 0.04 +
21
+ 0.04
= L23 = 0.05
size of five is selected from the
The A2 factor for a sample
and lower central
values for the upper

table in Appendix 2. The
as follows:
limits of the X chart are calculated
UCL; = i + AZR
= 11.99 + O.577(0.05) = 12.02
LCL; = 7r - AZR
= 11.99 - O.577(0.05) = 11.96
limits (UCL and

Once calculated, the upper and lower control
[Figure 18.7, (3)].
LCL, respectively) are placed on the chart
b/
Ksubgroups,
in quality from subgroup to subgroup, the range chart is a

method of determining the amount of variation among the
individual samples. The importance of the range chart is
often overlooked. Without the range chart, or the standard
deviation chart to be discussed later, it would not be possi-
similar to each other. '11, the centerline of the R chart, is

calculated as:
'Mll5_. Ri
11:;
ble to fully understand process capability. Where the X
In
chart shows the average of the individual subgroups, giving

the viewer an understanding of where the process is centered, the range chart shows the spread or dispersion of the
individual samples within the subgroup. If the product dis
To create the upper and lower control limits for the E chart,
the average of the subgroup ranges () multiplied by the D3
being produced are not similar to each other. The optimal
LCLR = D3
and D4 factors is used:
UCLR = DR
plays a wide spread or a large range, then the individuals
situation from a quality perspective is when the parts
are grouped closely around the process average. This situa

tion will yield a small value for both the range and the standard deviation, meaning that the measurements are very
Calculating the R Chart Centerline
0 and Control Limits
Constructing an R chart is similar to creating an 7 chart. To begin
the process, individual range values are calculated for each of the
subgroups by subtracting the highest value in the subgroup from
the lowest value [Figure 18.6, (3)]. Once calculated, these individ-
ual range values (Ri) are plotted on the R chart [Figure 18.7, (6)].
To determine the centerline of the R chart, individual range
(Ri) values are summed and divided by the total number of sub-
groups to give R [Figure 18.7, (4)].
= 0.08 + 0.07 + 0.04 +

21
1.06
K
_1
= 0.05
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UdlllDUdllllCl
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+ 0.04
Along with the value of A2, the values of D3 and D4 are
found in the table in Appendix 2. These values are selected

on the basis of the subgroup sample size n.
LEArsix SIGMA TOOLS at WORK

With n = 5, the values of D3 and D4 are found in the table in
Appendix 2. The control limits for the R chart are calculated as
follows:
UCLR =
=
LCLR =
=
D4R
2.114(005) = 0.11
oa
0(0.05) = o
The control limits are placed on the R chart [Figure 18.7. (5)].
The control limits, when displayed on the R chart,
should theoretically be symmetrical about the centerline

(). However, because range values cannot be negative, a
value of zero is given for the lower control limit with sample
sizes of six or less. This results in an R chart that is asymmetrical. As with the X chart, control limits for the R chart are
shown with a dashed line. The centerline is shown with a
solid line.
CONTROL CHART
INTERPRETATION
8. Examine the Process: Control Chart Interpretation
Correct interpretation of control charts is essential to manag
ing a process. Understanding the sources and potential causes
of variation is critical to good management decisions.
Managers must be able to determine whether the variation
present in a process is indicating a trend that must be dealt
with or is merely random variation natural to the process.
Misinterpretation can lead to a variety of losses, including the
following:
I Blaming people for problems that they cannot control

I Spending time and money looking for problems that do
not exist
I Spending time and money on process adjustments or

new equipment that are not necessary
I Taking action where no action is warranted
I Asking for worker-related improvements where process
or equipment improvements need to be made rst
Once the performance of a process is predictable. there
is a sound basis for making plans and decisions concerning
the process, the system, and its output. Costs to manufacture
the product or provide the service become predictable.
A process is considered to be in a state ofprocess control, or
under control, when the performance of the process falls within
the statistically calculated control limits and exhibits only chance,
or common, causes. When a process is under control, it is con-
sidered stable and the amount of future variation is predictable. A stable process does not necessarily meet the
specications set by the designer or exhibit minimal variation;
a stable process merely has a predictable amount of variation.
Lean Six Sigma practitioners appreciate the benets of
a stable process with predictable variation. When the process
an assignable cause as a chance cause could result in a

disruption to a system or a process that is operating
correctly except for the assignable cause. To treat chance
causes as assignable causes is an ineffective use of resources
because the variation is inherent in the process.
When a system is subject to only chance causes of variation, 99.7 percent of the parts produced will fall within
i30. This means that if 1,000 subgroups are sampled, 997
of the subgroups will have values within the upper and
lower control limits. Based on the normal curve, a control
chart can be divided into three zones (Figure 18.8). Zone A
is i1 standard deviation from the centerline and should
contain approximately 68.3 percent of the calculated sam

ple averages or ranges. Zone B is i2 standard deviations
from the centerline and should contain 27.2 percent
(95.5 percent 68.3 percent) of the points. Zone C is i3
standard deviations from the centerline and should

contain only approximately 4.2 percent of the points
(99.7 percent 95.5 percent). With these zones as a guide,
a control chart exhibits a state of control when:
l. Two-thirds of the points are near the center value
2. A few of the points are on or near the center value
3. The points appear to oat back and forth across the
centerline
4. The points are balanced (in roughly equal numbers) on
both sides of the centerline
5. There are no points beyond the control limits

6. There are no patterns or trends on the chart
While analyzing Y and R charts, take a moment to study
the scale of the range chart. The spread of the upper and
lower control limits will reveal whether a signicant amount
of variation is present in the process. This clue to the amount
of variation present may be overlooked if the R chart is

checked only for patterns or outof-control points.
Identifying Patterns.
A process that is not under
control or is unstable displays patterns of variation.
Patterns signal the need to investigate the process and
determine whether an assignable cause can be found for
UCL
performance is predictable, there is a rational basis for plan-
ning. It is fairly straightforward to determine costs associ-
ated with a stable process. Quality levels from time period to

time period are predictable. When changes, additions, or
improvements are made to a stable process, the effects of the
change can be determined quickly and reliably.
When an assignable cause is present, the process is considered unstable, out of control, or beyond the expected
normal variation. In an unstable process the variation is unpredictable, meaning that the magnitude of the variation
could change from one time period to another. Lean Six
Sigma practitioners need to determine whether the variation
that exists in a process is common or assignable. To treat
Scanned by
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CamScanner
Scanned
213
|
X
LCL
FIGURE 18.8
Zones on a Control Chart
214
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
nc e Fo rms
InsuraForms
PART
NAME
NAME Insurance
T
R
A
P
DEPT
Time
VARIABLE
Tim=e10.50
Grand Mean = 10.05 LCbar = 9.61 VARIABLE UCbar
L
ba r - 10 50
C
U
1
6
Grand Mean - 10 05 LCLxbar 9
10.50
0 77 UCLrange = 1 63
Mean Range 10.32
DEPT.
BiHingBilling
10.14
9.97
BAR
9.79
10 5X0
K 9.61
CHART
UCLx
1.630
1.223
CHART
R
0.772
0.407
0.00
9 79
.
FIGURE 18.9
Control Chart with Grand Mean = 10.05
LCLx
9 61
.
the variation. Figures 18.9 through 18.15 display a variety

of outofcontrol conditions and give some reasons why
those conditions may exist.
Trends or Steady Changes in Level. A trend is a steady,
progressive change in the location where the data are
centered on the chart. Figure 18.9 displays a downward
1 630
.
trend on the R chart. Note that the points were found in the
upper half of the control chart at the beginning of the
process and on the lower half of the chart at the end. The key
to identifying a trend or steady change in level is to recognize that the points are slowly and steadily working their
way from one level of the chart to another.
A trend may appear on the Y chart because of tool or
die wear, a gradual deterioration of the equipment,

a
buildup of chips, a slowly loosening work-holding device, a
0 407
breakdown
of the chemicals used in the process, or some
oc
other gradual change. R chart trends could be due

to
.
changes in worker skills, shifting work-holding

devices, or
wear out. Improvements would lead to less
variation; in
creases in variation would reect a decrease
in skill or a
change in the quality of the incoming
material.
0 00
.
An oscillating trend would also

need to be investi
gated (Figure 18.10). In this type of trend

the points
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
oscillate up and down for approximately 14 points or

more. This could be due to a lack of homogeneity, perhaps
a mixing of the output from two machines making
the
same product.
Change, lump, or Shift in Level.
UCLr
Figure 18.11 displays
what is meant by a change, jump, or shift in level.

Note that
the process begins at one level (Figure 18.11a)
and jumPS
quickly to another level (Figure 18.11b) as
the process continues to operate. This change, jump, or shift
in level is fairly
abrupt, unlike a trend described above. A change,

jump: or
shift can occur either on the X or R chart
or on both charts.
Causes for sudden shifts in level tend to reect

some new
and fairly signicant difference in the process. When
investigating a sudden shift or jump in level, look for signicant
changes that can be pinpointed to a specic moment
in
time. For the X chart, causes include new machines, dies, of

tooling; the minor failure of a machine part; new or ineXPe
rienced workers; new batches of raw material;
new produC
tion methods; or changes to the process settings. For the R

chart, potential sources ofjumps or shifts in level causmg
a change in the process variability or spread include a new
or inexperienced operator, a sudden increase in the Play
DEPT-
Oscillating
PART NAME Va rOsctrend

ia ble Con t r o l Char t s

DEPT
.
5
I
215
VARIABLE
Length
UCbar = 0.7511
0.7511
Osc ill_______________________
a t in g
Osc tr e n d
PART NAME UCLx
0.7505
Len gt h
VARIABLE
UCLba r 62 0 7511
0.7500
Gra n d Mealn = 0 7497 LCLx ba r 0 7483

g o 7494
y
a
Mean Ra xn ge =0.7489
0 0025 UCLra n ge 0 0050
L 0.7483 _______________________ LCLx
.
0 7511
0.0050
_______________________
UCLr
AAFJVl
q;
3
a:
UCLx
0.0037
0.0025
0.0013 1
0.00
0 494
FIGURE 18.10
An Oscillating Trend
74
xassociated with89
gears
or work-holding devices, or greater

variation in incoming material.
.
0 7483
Runs. A process can be considered out of control when

there are unnatural runs present in the process. Imagine toss.
ing a coin. If two heads occur in a row, the onlooker would
probably agree that this occurred by chance. Even though the

probability of the coin landing with heads showing is 50-50,
no one expects coin tosses to alternate between heads and
tails. If, however, an onlooker saw someone toss six heads in
a row, that onlooker would probably be suspicious that this
set of events is not due to chance. The same principle applies
to control charts. Although the points on a control chart do
not necessarily alternate above and below the centerline in a
chart that is under control, the points are normally balanced
above and below the centerline. A cluster of seven points in a
row above or below the centerline would be improbable and
would likely have an assignable cause. The same could be said
1 10 out of 11 points or 12 out of 14
for situations where
0 0050
.
0 00 3
.
points are located on one side or the other of the centerline
(Figure 18.12). A run may also be considered a trend if it

displays increasing or decreasing values.
Runs on the Y chart can be caused by temperature
0 00
.
changes; tool or die wear; gradual deterioration of the
process; or deterioration of the chemicals, oils, or cooling
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
uids used in the process. Runs on the R chart (Figure 18.13)

signal a change in the process variation. Causes for these R
chart runs could be a change in operator skill, either
x an
improvement or a decrement, or a gradual improvement in
the homogeneity of the process because of changes in the
incoming material or changes to the process itself.
LCL
Recurring Cycles. Recurring cycles are caused by systematic changes related to the process. When investigating what
r
appears to be cycles (Figure 18.14) on the chart, it is important to look for causes that will change, vary, or cycle over
time. For the X chart, potential causes are tool or machine
wear conditions, an accumulation and then removal of chips
or other waste material around the tooling, maintenance
schedules, periodic rotation of operators, worker fatigue,
periodic replacement of cooling uid or cutting oil, or
UCL
changes in the process environment such as temperature or
humidity. Cycles on an R chart are not as common; an

R chart displays the variation or spread of the process, which
usually does not cycle. Potential causes are related to
lubrication cycles and operator fatigue.
Cycles can be difcult to locate because the entire cycle
may not be present on a single chart. The frequency of
inspection could potentially cause a cycle to be overlooked.
For example, if the cycle occurs every 15 minutes and
216
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Loan A pp lications
D E PT.

6.18
E
3E
o
2%
x
I-
VARIABLE
Loans _
Trme(mrn)
UCbar = 6.18
lJCDLx
6.12
6i36
()b
(a)
6130
5.94
5.88
LCLX
0,54
UCLr
0.41
0:
o 27
c:
0.14
PART NAME
7r
"
A A
v y
vxv.
0.00
FIGURE 18.11
Change in Level
UCL UCL
LCL
(a) Seven points above or
below centerline
UCL
LCL
(c) Clusters of points in
a particular section
FIGURE 18.12
Runs
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(b) Six points in a row,
increasing or decreasing
DEPT.
Cooking
Grand Mean = 499
LCbar = 438
Mean Range = 12.6

560
ax
u:
I-
r:
0:
UCLrange = 25.2
Fries
Oil Temperature
UCbar = 560
_______________________ UCLx
536
'\ A fl A
511
0
PART NAME
VARIABLE
217
487
463
Y-V
if
y'y'
438
_______________________ LCLx
25.2
UCLr
18.9
12.6
6.3
LA
\l
- AN
q;
UV
0.0
FIGURE 18.13
Run of Points Above the Centerline of the R Chart
samples are taken only every 30 minutes, then it is possible
the process are permanent. When the new operating con-
Two Populations.
been seen, the chart may be revised. The revisions provide
for the cycle to be overlooked.
When a control chart is under control,
approximately 68 percent of the sample averages will fall

within :tlo' ofthe centerline. When a large number of the
sample averages appear near or outside the control limits,
two populations of samples might exist. Two populations
refers to the existence of two (or more) sources of data.

On an X chart, the different sources of production
might be due to the output of two or more machines being
combined before sampling takes place. It might also occur

because the work of two different operators is combined or
two different sources of raw materials are brought together
in the process. A two-population situation means that the

items being sampled are not homogeneous (Figure 18.15).
Maintaining the homogeneity of the items being sampled is
critical for creating and using control charts.

This type of pattern on an R chart signals that different
workers are using the same chart or that the variation is due
to the fact that raw materials are coming from different

suppliers.
9. Revise the Charts There are two circumstances

under which the control chart is revised and new limits
calculated. Existing calculations can be revised if a chart
exhibits good control and any changes made to improve
SCHHHGO
Dy CamScanner
bambcanner
Scanned by
ditions become routine and no out-ofcontrol signals have

a better estimate of the population standard deviation,
representing the spread of all of the individual parts in the

process. With this value, a better understanding of the
entire process can be gained.
Control limits are also revised if patterns exist, provided
that the patterns have been identied and eliminated.

Once
the causes have been determined, investigated, and corrected

in such a way that they will not affect the process in the
future, the control chart can be revised. The new limits
will
reect the changes and improvements made to the process.
In both cases the new limits are used to judge the process
behavior in the future.
The following four steps are taken to revise the charts.
A. Interpret the Original Charts. The R chart reects
the
stability of the process and should be analyzed rst. A lack
of
control on the R chart shows that the process is not producing parts that are very similar to each other. The process is
not precise. If the R chart exhibits process control, study the
X chart. Determine whether cycles, trends, runs, two populations, mistakes, or other examples of lack of control exist.
If both the X and R charts are exhibiting good control, proceed to step D. If the charts display out-of-control conditions, then continue to step B.
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
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e
i
o
c
a
mo e p
mo e r h s a
s
g
s
n e
h y f
d s
s
o d c t u
s
i
i
n
t
f
v
a a n
t
u
t
n
o
a h n
e b h o
h e t
e v r
i
i
d al n e d b - e y st
t
t
n e e t
e d n o
0.000
t
= 0004
Pan 2a
5
2
0.251
ems
0.004
Cycle in hPart Thickness
AHA
t
o T v s v b c
n h n h e p a e a
r
e
o r n
i
e
s
i
o
s b s
a n e c b
c
c
w T h p ot s
n e
s
{
n
h a r
good
a
h ethe case of charts that are
c mIn
points.
r
a v c a
r
e
r
d
n c
m
e
r
u zeroo and
o n
a
control, the points removed a willomequal
b e s c r
statistical
x n
n s
e
e
o
the calculations will continue from there.
Two methods can be used to discard the data. When it
h d
exhibiting
f
c a
il
=0
UCLr
0 2
0 4
0 7
4
_
_
V P
AA
R R
AT
B N
n a
r
h b
l
T
mX e
b e s h R
d d d
T
e hR c chart
n . is not
c h e the Cause.
If either thee Xtr or
B.ee Isolate
a c
g 0 me
f
h u
t
- - =
n
s e the
d
cause
n a
n good
o o the
h H h R of
statistical control, nd
:
exhibiting
p e
r
d m
A d i
r
r
o
d n d
may be
s
shown on the control
v b
Problems
v
i
problem.
mt f rt chart
mt da w
u is
a t a e fr e
s
l
t
h
s
been
have
t
u
f
problems
a
those
e
c the causes of
p
c
if
d
:
T e y only
:
removed
h
e
l
x u e
a ma
a
d
a
c r pthem.
i
h d c
t
r have been taken to eliminate
b
e
r
m
o
e
r
steps
s
and
isolated
e
m
e
d e d
t
a
i
o
d
v
f
t
s
l
b o
e r e
t
o h a i a h s o c
e a c
e t n c
l
o
m
d o d
to
v
r
necessary
e nsteps
u
Action.
r
x Take the
a t h
R
C. Take
e t
f
n u Corrective
l
s
s
o
r
e
o
t
.
n
p t d h on
exhibited
a
e e
e n o r
the problems
u d uassociated
with
f
.
sthe
e
causes
h
t
correct
h
o
e
i
r
v
b s b
r f c l
n ebeen
.
w
e w f e
a i removed
i
have
g
r
variation
of
h
y
causes
g
g c the
s
l
o dOnce
s
the chart.
n e o
a t
l
i
r
athe
t
m
a r
tremoved
- may be
h at b is from
p i r
points
n
o
o
these
process,
r
the
e
from
o mrt h
v
t
r
e
e
m
g s
e
u
u
e
d
a
h
o i
d e ar v t s
l
{ m revised.
chart
e pthe calculations
pand
control
b t x
e h
m
c t e
o
u
n
e d
d a
I
e s c
o h
x
R
r
e
i
c T
e
s
n u
t
r
a s v
s
c
e s
t
r
f against
- determine
h h limits
s
the
h r new
To
e n then Chart.
u e
h e r x t D. Revise
a
e
r
f
t
o
e r
h o
necessary
itoism
a l e o g b awill be judged in the t future,
c
m R mK
e g
h l t R s
fprocess
e fwhich
n ec the
r
a
o
g
m
o
s
e
r
e which have
d
d
l
c
of
t
causes
f
d
the
e
d
v
points,
d t i xany undesirable
i
o s
to remove
R c n e t nt 1r o
n
x
o
h
h
t
crite
u
The
e
charts.
d e r s n
corrected, from the
beenfu determined
a b
h e a
p and
a n
o t tr
e f cause
s mr the
bes
a a n
l
nding
on
n
t
based
are
t
r R
points
c o
c
t removing
h
ria for
n d
u
d i o
c a l
o be found
a
v
can
v
j
d i
c
out-ofcontrol condition. If noR pcause
i
hindre the
a u mh h s c
a ethe
mc i
n l s
h
from
removed
be
cannot
a r
then the points
c
and pcorrected,
a
p o a
g u e b r t
e t o t
h other
r
n
w
r
can
r
patterns
t
d s h t
of points, runs, trends, and
a
i
chart.ro Groups
o tr e
h
t
r
a
h
a
d e individual
s e o
t
t
d ve o u in the same manner as removing
be removed
l
s
n r
a e v c n
u
s
s
s
L
r
Afw
W \i
7M
W VVUW
if
GU L
C LC
________________________________
:2
h o E
0 2
0 4
2 9
a b
_ _ __i_ _ LCLX
E W33:: mix/Xi 7V? \ A 7."
a n
'IGUREv 18.14
a
n e
g a
e n
=
- UCLX
r
0 0
'
o<
a
P
n
n
T
Thickness
d
0
KO 252
= RM
2 2 0-251
UCLXba'
a
UCbar = 0.247
x
MG D
PART NAME
PART NAME
Press
DEPT.
is necessary to remove a subgroup from the calculations, it
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
L
UE A
M
it can
can be removed from only the out-ofcontrol chart or C
E
L
be removed from both charts. In the rst case, whenan R
b
value must be. removed from the X control chart, its correa
sponding R value is not removed from the R chart, andr vice
versa. In this text, the points are removed from both charts.
This second approach has been chosen because the= values
0
on both charts are interrelated. The R chart values 0describe
2
0 4from
the spread of the data on the X chart. Removing data
0 7
one chart or the other negates this relationship.
4
The formulas for revising both the X and R charts areAasA

V P
follows:
new:
RR
AT
zitid
B N
UE A
C M
L
m_md
ERR
RnewzJ
m-md
b
a
where
id = discarded subgroup averages

L
subgroups
md = number ofUdiscarded
C
C
Rd = discarded Lsubgroup
L ranges
x
C
L
x
T P
h a
0 c tr
2 k 2
5 n
e
1
s f0
The newly calculated values of i and ii are useds
lirmts
establish updated values for the centerline and control
r
on the chart. These new limits reect that improveme_nts

production
have been made to the process and future
219
Fi
PART NAME
=0
= 74
Mean
UCLbar - 0 7511
0.0019
0.0040
= 0 75
Grand M
89
ean Range
0 LCLUCLrange
x bar = 0
Mean Rangr0.7511
0040
e = 0 0019 UCLrange = 0
UCLx
DEPT
Two Two
ulatio ns
poppopulations
DEPT.
Fries r es
PART NAME
UCbar = 0.7511
0.7506
AA
0.7502
CHART
i 0.7498
0 7BAR51
1
0.7493
X
UCLx
K0.7489
o ooto
CHART
R
FIGURE 18.15
Two Populations
0 7489
should be capable of meeting these new limits. The formu
.
las for the revised limits are:

inew
: X0
70 = Ro/dz
Rnew
: R0
UCLX = Y0 + A00
0 00LCLX
4 = in
.
Arr
UCLR = D200
LCLR = D100
0 003
table in
where d2, A,. DI, and D2 are factors from the
Appendix 2.
0 002
Examining the Control Charts

.
0 001
shaft example, an
Returning to the computer printer roller
by investigating the
begins
examination of the )7 and R charts
.
in the process.
R chart, which displays the variation present
that the
Evidence of excessive variation would indicate
R chart
The
product.
.
producing consistent
Process is not
0 000
are evenly
(Figure 18.16) exhibits good control. The points
there are no
Spaced on both sides of the centerline and
no unusual .
are
There
limits.
control
points beyond the
it
observations,
these
Given
data.
the
in
patterns or trends
similar
of
can be said that the process is producing parts
dimensions.
Scanned
Achieve the Purpose
LCLx
Users of control charts are
endeavoring to decrease the variation inherent in a process

over time. Once established, control charts enable the user
to understand where the process is currently centered and
what the distribution of that process is. To know this infor
mation and not utilize it to improve the process defeats the
purpose of creating control charts.
UCLr
As the process improves, the average should come closer

to the center of the specications. The spread of the data, as
shown by the range or the standard deviation, should de
crease, and the parts produced or services provided should
become more similar to each other.
Next the X chart is examined. An inspection of the X chart
reveals an unusual pattern occurring at points 12. 13. and 14.

These measurements are all below the lower control limit, When
compared with other samples throughout the day's production.
the parts produced during the time when samples 12, 13, and
14 were taken were much shorter than parts produced during
reveals
other times in the production run. A glance at the R chart
samthe
in
taken
that the range of the individual measurements
samples
during
ples is small, meaning that the parts produced
into the
12, 13. and 14 are all similar in size. An investigation
place.
take
to
needs
parts
cause of the production of undersized
(Continued)
220
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
DEPT.
Roller

Shaft
PART NAME
Length (inch)
VARIABLE
=
12.02
UCbar
12.02
12.00
11.98
CHART A
11.96
BAR
X 11.94
k
r0.11
0.08
< 0.05
CHART
R 0.03
\000
FIGURE 18.16
X and R Control Charts for Roller Shaft Length
A Further Examination of the Control Charts

[0'
An investigation into the differences in shaft lengths has been
conducted. The 7 and R charts aid the investigators by allowing
them to isolate when the differences were first noticed. Because
the R chart (Figure 18.16) exhibits good control, the investigators

are able to concentrate their attention on possible causes for a
consistent change in shaft length for those three subgroups. Their
Revising the Control Limits
b/
LEANSIXfSlGMATOOLSat WORK
investigation reveals that the machine settings had been bumped
during the loading of the machine. For the time being, operators
are being asked to check the control panel settings after loading
the machine. To take care of the problem for the long term, manufacturing engineers are looking into possible design changes
to protect the controls against accidental manipulation.
19
/b
Because a cause for the undersized parts has been determined for
the values for 12, 13, and 14, they can be removed from the
calculations for the X and R chart. The points removed from calcu-
Iations remain on the chart; but they are crossed out. The new or
revised limits will be used to monitor future production. The new
limits will extend from the old limits, as shown in Figure 18.17.
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
Revising the calculations is performed as follows:
m ..
EX Xd
Xnew = X0 = L
m md
@2M
21 3
ll
N OO
vanauu: wnrron unans
221
ERRd
DEPT
(To
l=1
Enew = R0 =
Roller
_
1.06 0.04 0.05 0.06
21 3
= 0.05
Calculating the 00 for the process,

LCLnx=b5.ar 11 96
d Mean 11 99 when
Gran
Mean Range 0 05 UCLrange 0 10
=
DEPT.
PART NAME
Shaft
VARIABLE
Length
UCbar
12=0312.02
(21:)
<
I11953
11.969
_____
M\1200
g5
11 938
m
.
12
1197
.
- ---- -~
0.075
0050
AX XA
VVJ
0.026
UCLx
11.97
0.100
UCLx
X ________________ LCLX
)gf'
K11.938
_______ 12.03
11.985
1% 5
11 98
11.953
.
12.017
UCLrange = 0.10
12.002 W
<
0.02
Roller
Mean Range = 0.05
0.05
F26
12 017r
(1.2
Sha=ft12.03
AM+E1.342(002)
RT= N
PA
UCL;
12.00
LCL; = 12.00 1.342(002) = 11.97
Length
E = 0.10
= 4.918(0.02)
VAR
UCLRIABL
LCLR = 0(0.02) = 0
UCLbar = 12 02
m md
R0
LCLx
UCLr
T2;
0.000
FIGURE 18.17
Extension of Limits on a Chart
SUMMARY
TAKE AWAY TIPS
Control charts are easy to construct and use in

studying a
process, whether that process is in a manufacturing or service

environment. Control charts indicate areas for improvement.
Once the root cause has been identied, changes can be
pro-
1. Control charts enhance the analysis

of a process by
showing
posed and tested, and improvements can

be monitored
through the use of control charts. Through the use

of control
cc
charts, similar gains can be realized in the manufacturing
sector. Users of control charts report savings
in scrap, including
0 026
111/
material and labor; lower rework

costs; reduced inspection;
0 000
higher product quality; more consistent

part characteristics;
greater operator condence; lower
troubleshooting costs;
.
reduced completion times; faster

deliveries; and others.
Scanned
how that process performs over time.

Control
charts allow for early detection of
process changes.
Control charts serve two basic functions:
They provide
an economic basis for making a decision
as to whether
to investigate for potential problems, adjust
the process,
or leave the process alone; and they assist
in the identication of problems in the process.
3. Variation, differences between items,

exists in all
processes. Variation can be withinpiece, piece-to-piece,

and time-to-time.
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
222
4 T he x c har t i s u se d t o m o n i t o r t he
v ar i a t io n
i n t he
av e r aXgechart
v a l u es
the
o f th
toe monitor
is used
m ea s u r em
. The
en tvariation
s o f gr o uinpsthe
of
average values of the measurements of groups of

samples. Averages rather than individual observations
a r e u s e d o n co n t r o l c ha r t s bec a u se a v er a e v a l u es w i ll
used on control charts because average
are
g values will
i n dic a t e aa change
h
indicate
in
the
amount
of
variation
c a n ge i n t he a m o u n t o f v a r i a t i o n much
m u ch
faster
than
individual
values
will.
fa st e r t ha n i n div i du al v a lu es w ill
F O RM U L A S
FORMULAS
C HA RT S
RA N G E CHARTS
A N D RANGE
AV ERA GE AND
AVERAGE
Xx chart:
c har t :
m
. The X chart, showing the central tendency of the data,

5 isThalways
e x c hused
a r t sh
i n g t he c en twith
den c a orange
f t he dora t aa
r a l t en
ino wconjunction
either
.
8
10.
e
p
p
process
is
centered.
and
lower
control
limits
da t a
The upper
describe the spread of the process.
The c en t e r l i n e o f a c o n t r o l c har t sho w s w he r t h
e
e
A homogeneous
subgroup is essential to the proper
i
r
o
c
study
e
ss as process.
of
guidelines
c en t e r e dCertain
can
T he u pp
p
e r a n d lo w
it s
t r o l l i m in
er be
co napplied
choosing
a
rational
subgroup.
desc r ibe t he s pr ea d o f t he r o c ess
p
Common, or chance, causes are small random changes
A the
ho mprocess
o ge n e o
u s cannot
i s e ssen tAssignable
su bgr o ube
in
i a l t o t he causes
that
p avoided.
pr o per
are
large
variations
in
the
process
that
can
be
identied
st u dy o f a r o c e ss Ce r t a i n u ide li n e s c a n be
p
a ppl i e d i n
g
as having a specic cause.
c ho o s i n g a r a t i o n a l su b r o u
p in a state of control, or
A process is consideredgto be
Co m mcontrol,
under
when
of dthe
o n , o r ch
a n c e the
ca u sperformance
es ar e sm a l l r an
o m process
c han ges
falls
within
the
statistically
calculated
control
limits
i n t he r o cess t ha t c an n o t be av o i de d Assi n a ble c aand
u ses
g Certain
exhibitsp only common, or chance, causes.
t ha t c a n bby
r o cess
e idcontrol
en t i fi e d
guidelines can be applied P
for
determining
chart
isuunder
control.
i n g a aspprocess
a s ha vwhen
ec i %
c ca
se
R chart:
LCL
U CL R
D4X
LCLR
D311
Re v is i n g t he c har t s :
00 = Ro/dz
10 A p r o cess i s c o n s i de r e d t o be i n a s t a t e o f c o n t r o l o r
,
control. Patterns may take the form of changes or jumps
der c oruns,
u n level,
n t r o l , trends,
w hen t h
f
in
or
or
f
may
reect
e pcycles
h
the
e r o r m a n c e o t e pr o cess
existence
of
two
populations
fa lls w i t hi n t he st a t ist ic a l l orl mistakes.
l d
l
Rnewx
for revising a control chart are (a) examine the

12. Thehsteps
ex i bi t s o n l y c o m m o n , o r c ha n c e c au se s Ce r t a i n
,
using the formulas presented in the chapter. Revisions to

Pa tcontrol
11 the
l c hplace
t e r n s o chart
di c a twhen
n a c ocan
n t r otake
k o assignable
f st a t i st i c a l
a r t i n only
e a l a cthe
causes
and
l Pabeen
c o n t r ohave
t t er n determined
s m a y t a ke t h
r m o f c han es o r ju m s
e fo eliminated.
i n le v e l
r u n s,
ex i st e n ce o f t w o
12 The st e ps fo r
t r en ds , o r c yc les o r
po pu la t io n s o r
p
m a y r e fl ec t t he
m ist a kes
r e v isi n g a co n t r o l c har t ar e a ex am n e t he
()
c har t fo r o u t o f co n t r o l co n dit io n s;
(b) iso lat e t he c a u s es
of
t he o u t o f co n t r o l co n di t i o n ; (c ) e l im i n a t e t he c a u se
of
the o u t o f
co n t r o l c o n di t io n ; an d
(d) r ev ise t he c ha r t
u sin g t he fo r m u l a s pr esen t e d i n t he c ha pt e r Re v isi o n s t o
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
2R Rd
l i m i t s an d
chart for out-of-control conditions; (b) isolate the causes

i deout-ofcontrol
l i n e s c an be a pp
l i e d f o r d(c)
e t er
m in in g b
n tr o l
guthe
of
condition;
eliminate
the
y cocause
of
is u n der cand
c hthe
w he n a pr o c e sscondition;
a r t outof-control
o n t r (d)
o l revise the chart,
A2X
R c har t :
11. Patterns on a control chart indicate a lack of statistical
co n t r o
y ca c u a te
Xi
UCLX x= X +mA2K
LCLg = SE A21?
+ A 2X
UCL
data.
6. The
The R
a n d s c harof
t s sahocontrol
w t he s chart
centerline
r ea d oshows
r di s erwhere
si o n o fthe
th
i=1
i =
,
y
,
standard
chart.
i s a lw aysdeviation
u se d i n co n j u n c t i o n w i t h e i t her a r an e o r a
g
. The
R and 5 i i show the spread or dispersion of the
st a n da r d devcharts
a t o n c ha r t
1-
ELE
. e w
m
md
UCLR = D200
"
CL
Jd
m d
+ Acr o
o
LCLR = D100
CL4
Acr o
CHAPTER (QUESTIONS
Rol d2
o
-
1. Describe the difference between chance and assignable

R Rd
m
causes.
j
2. A large bankpestablishes
11e w
X and R charts for the time rem
m d
quired to process applications
for its charge cards. A
1
sample of five
UCLapplications
D2o is taken each day. The rst
R
four weeks (20 days) of data give
1CL R D 1[ To
2 =16min s = 3min = 7min
-
Based on the values given, calculate the centerline and
C Hcontrol
A P Tlimits
E RforQthe
UE
XS
andT RIO
NS
charts.
3 The da a belo w
a e
x an d Rv alu es fo r 25 sam ples o f ize
3. The data below are X and R values for 25 samples

of size
The
4 t aken fr o m a pr o cess fill in g bags o f fer t ilizer
n
n = 4 taken from a process
lling bags of fertilizer. The
he ml
w eight o f t he bags i n
en t smade
ar e m on
ade the
o n tll
m ea su r emare
measurements
weight
of the bags in
pounds. o u n ds
p
-
Subgroup Number
K
Su bgr o u p Nu m ber
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
18
503
496
50 3
5013
49 6
509
49B
50 8
505
502
49 8
499
501)
50 5
SOJ
50 2
502
49 9
50.5
50.4
50 0
50.8
50 1
50.0
499
50 2
50.4
50.5
50 4
50.7
50 8
50.2
49.9
50 0
50.1
49 9
495
50.0
50 4
50.3
50 5
19
50 7
2
3
4
5
:
8
9
10
11
13
14
15
16
17
Range
Ran 8e
073
075
0 73
(179
0 75
074
072
0 79
073
071
0 72
070
(165
0 73
067
0 71
065
0 70
0.67
0.68
0 65
0.70
0 67
0.65
066
0 65
0.67
0.68
0 68
0.70
0.65
0 70
0.60
0 65
0.64
0 66
060
0.62
0 67
0.60
0 68
0 70
Set up the K and R charts on this process. interpret the

20
50in
2 control?
0 65 If necescharts. Does the process seem to be
2
1
49revise
9
0the
60 trial consary, assume assignable causes and
22 ll of the
trol limits. If the average
50 1bags0 is
64to be 50.0
compare?
pounds, how does this process
for 12 samples of
4. The data below are X24and R values
50 0
0 62
size n = 5. They were25taken from a process producing
50 3
0 60
bearings. The measurements are made on the inside
diameter of the bearing. The data have been coded
from 0.50; in other words, a measurement of 0.50345
has been recorded as 345. Range values are coded from
0.000; that is, 0.00013 is recorded as 13.
Range
K
g fill o f t he ha gs is t o be 50 0
do es t his pr o cess co m ar e?13
1
345 p
Set u p t he x
an d

223
o n t hi s pr o cess Do es t he
R c har t s
or w h
n the
n y this
up
n t r o l?W
and
to b
co charts
e in R
on
process.
em X
y n o t ?I fDoes
r o ces
s sethe
pSet
process seem to be
in
control?
Why or why not? If necessar y, assu m e a ssi gn able cau ses a n d r ev i se t he t r i al
essary, assume assignable causes and revise the trial
it s
Ccontrol
o n t r o l li m
limits.
ld l o o klook
if if
how both an X and R or s chart would
5 . DDescribe
escr ibe how bo t h an x an d R o r s c har t w o u
they were under normal statistical control.
t hey w er e u n der n o r m al st at i st i cal c o n t r o l
. Why is the use and interpretation of an R or s chart so
examining
io nchart?
o f an R o r s char t so
t at X
d in t er pr ean
6 wcritical
ny is t hwhen
e u se an
. crCreate
R chart for the clutch plate information
it ical wan
henXeand
x am i n in g an x c har t ?
in Table 18.1 on page 000. You will need to calculate the
at icontrol
on
the
x an dfor
7 Crange
Rcheach
r t he clu t chCalculate
a r t fosubgroup.
values
r eat e an
pla t e in fo r m
for each chart. Graph the data with
inlimits
Tableand
18 1centerline
o n page 000 Yo u w ill n eed t o calcu lat e t he
the calculated values. Beginning with the R chart, how
fo r ealook?
r an
ch su bgr o u p Cal cu lat e t he c o n t r o l
alu es
process
ge vthe
does
w it h
at ause
a r t Gr aph t he d
in the
each c h
for
m it s Manufacturing
an d cen t er li n e fo rmakes
. liRM
thermometers
eld. These thermometers, which read in demedical

th
e cal cu lat ed v a l u es Begi n n i n g w i t h t he R c har t , ho w
grees Celsius, are able to measure temperatures to a

do es t he pr o cess lo o kof
level of precision ? two decimal places. Each hour, RM
eight randomly selected ther
Manufacturing
8 RM
Ma n u fac t u r in gtests
m akes t her m o m et er s fo r u se in t he
mometers in a solution that is known to be at a temper-
and
therdesired
on
the
chart.
Based
X
and
R
ees Celsi uan
s, a r e abl e t o m ea su r e t em per at u r es t o a
grinterpret
reading of 3, interpret the results of your
mometer
lev el o f pr ec isio n o f t w o dec im al places Ea ch ho u r , RM
plotted averages and ranges.
Man u fa c t u r in g t est s ei ght r an do m ly sel ec t ed t h
m o m et er s i n a so lu t io n t hat i s kn ow n t o be at a t
emp
Average Temperature Range
Subgroup
at u r e o f 3 c Use t he fo ll o w i n dat a t o c r eat e an d

g
3.06
1
in t e r pr et an x an d R c har t Base d o n t he desi r e d 0.10
th
in
ic h r eto
field
These
mature
a d create
e dic a l of
er m ofollowing
m et er s, w hdata
Uset hthe
3C.
3.03
2
3 , i n t er p3.10
r et t he
3
3.05
plo t t ed av er a4ges an d r an ges
2.98
5
m o m et er r eadi n o f
g
6
7
8
Su bgr o u9p
10
111
12
2 13
14
4 15
r esu lt s o f
3.00
3.01
3.04
Av er a ge Te m p
er a t u r e
3.00
3.03
2.96
3 06
2.99
3 033.01
3 05
2.98
3.02
0.09
0.12
yo u r
0.07
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.09
Ran 8e0.09
0.14
0.07
0 10 0.11
0 09 0.09
0.13
0.08
0 07
l lim
t r oSubgroup
i s If t hNumber
e av er a e
3 00
po u n ds,
0 10
3 01
0 15
ho w
2
4 The dat a bel ow
ar e
14
347
a n d R v a lu es fo r 12 sa m l
p es o f
12
350
3
si ze n
5 Th4ey w er e t aken f346
r o m a pr o ce
11ss pr o du c i n
g
bear in gs The 5m easu r em e n t s350
15
a r e m ade o n t he i n si de
16
dia m et er o f t h6e bea r in Th345d
e
h
t
a
a
av14
e been co de d
g 349
7
fr o m 0 50; in o8t her w o r ds 348
13
a m ea su r em en t o f 0 50345
,
12
348
9
has been r eco r ded as 345 R
an ge v a lu es ar
15e co ded fr o m
354
10
0 000; t hat is 11
0 00013 is rec o r352
ded as 13 13
,
3 00
0 09
10
3 03
11
0 14
2 96
12
0 07
2 99
13
0 11
3 01
14
0 09
2 98
15
0 13
3 02
0 08
12
Scanned by
by CamScanner
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355
16
CHAPTER
NINETEEN
A P A B I L IT Y
P
RO C ESS C
PROCESS
CAPABILITY
he
r o m tthe
e a p ffrom
n t u i t i v e lleap
n iintuitive
a de a
ho h
an
f oone
as m
S
i r t u o u s ssense
he h
h e vvirtuous
ne w
a d tthe
e n s e oof
who
has
made
She
had
ccollection
o /l e c t i o n o
e v ide n c e
off evidence.
o die s
fFrom
rom B
Bodies
r a g i le
o s t ffragile
m
most
B o 1l h w i c k
ater b
5. Borthwick
by].
yj &
Water
of W
of
a r i a t io n
Q u a l it y : V
Variation
Quality:
O
i
n
t
o
R
d
c
u
e
Opportunities
p o r t u n it i e s
p
Reduction
S t a t is t ic s
Process
Capability
1 .
R e lia b ilit y
_
Qs
F M EA
V
a r ia b le s
Variables
h a rt s
C
o n tro l C
Charts
Control
Design of
E
x p e r im e n t s
Experiments
eg.
h e i r cconclusions.
h e y nneed
h e y nneed
o n c lu s io n s T
eed e
eed
v ide n c e T
support
They
evidence.
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p p o i t ttheir
h
i
t
t
H
t
a
n
w
e
r
o
e
u
d
s
e
s
k
o
h e process
n : How
o w do
o w
n o w tthe
the answer to the qquestion:
wee know
p r o c e ss
w i ll g
en er ate p
r o du cts o
ha t m
e r v i c e s tthat
h e ccustomers
will
generate
products
e e t tthe
orr sservices
u sto m er s
meet
sspecications?
r o c e s s ccapability
a p a b i l i t y rrefers
h e nability
b i Bi t y oofa
e f e r s tto
Process
o tthe
p e c \ f 1c a t / o n s ? P
a
d
d
t
r
o
c
e
s
s
o
r
o
1
c
e
t
r
o
i
d
u
c
s
l
r o v
process to P
produce Pproducts oorr Pprovide
e sservices
e r v i c e s ccapable
t 1 p t 1 b e oof
p
t h e sspecications
e e t i r g the
m
1 e ccustomer
et b
meeting
u sto m er o
by
e s ig n e r A
p e c i f i c a t i o n s sset
Ass
y lthe
orr ddesigner.
sU
t he
'
L EA R N I N G OP P D RT U N I T I ES
h e rrelationship
e l a t io n s h i p
T o gain
1
n u
n de r s t a n d in g o
off tthe
understanding
g a l n aan
1. To
h e i r averages
a v e ra ge s
n d ttheir
b e t w e e n iindividual
a lu e s a
n d i v i d u a l vvalues
and
between
d if f e r e n c e between
b e t w e e n s pe c if i c a t i o n
h e difference
T o understand
2 To
u n d e r s t a n d tthe
2.
i m it s
l i m i t s aand
c o n t r o l llimits
n d control
,specification
limits
i n t e r p r e t ttheprocess
he pro c e s s
l e a r n to
t o ccalculate
a l c u l a t e Ihd
a n d interpret
To learn
3 To
a.
C 6,.
C a n d e,
i n d ic e s e
C t
c a p a b i l i t y lndieap
and p
upapiliry
:
Jzywen.m-.
5... A. ... m...
rr
wr
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r-
d
i s c u s s e d iin
n p
r e v i o u s chapters,
chapte r s v
discussed
f f e c t s aa p
a r ia t io n a
previous
r o c e ss
variation
affects
process
d
h
m
a
t
t
r
e
f
v
e
n
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r
o
c e s s from
and mayy pprevent the pprocess
r o m p
r o du c in
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,
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g p
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r o c e s s vvariability
a r ia b il it y a
n d ccreating
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f pprocess
i
b
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and
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consistent qqualityy both
h e viability
f
ccrease
r e a s e tthe
d
v ia b i l it y o
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re
p
ct o n s o
of ppredictions
u tu re p
r o c e s s peroff ffuture
process
ser v
/) fformance
& gu r e
o r m an ce (
(Figure
9 1)
1
19.1).
M
a n u fa c t u r e r s
Manufacturers
r o du c ts a
o
n d p
off pproducts
r o v ide r s o
e r v ice s
and
providers
off sservices
s e process
o
b
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l
r
c
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s
can uuse
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capability
o a
s s i s t iin
e c is i o n s
n d
p
assist
pa
y cconcepts
decisions
c an
h i s cchapter.
ha p t e r U
ha t b
e g i n s tthis
u o t e tthat
n l i k e the
the
begins
quote
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e r s o n iin
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Consider
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tthe
2
24
224
in g p
r o du c t o
concerning
r o c e ss s
product
orr pprocess
specications,
p e c i f i c a t i o n s aappropriate
p p r o p r ia t e
co n cer n
r o du c t io n
production
p
h o d s eequipment
im e
b
methods,
n d ttime
o
A
s (: d
bee uused,
and
q u i p m e n t tto
ccommitments.
o m m it m e n ts
m et
Ca b i l it y
P r o c e s s Capability
Process
P r e d ic t io
225
225
F
s
u t u r e iis
Future
t a b l e aand
n d
sstable
r e d ic t a b le
predictable.
p
P r e d ic t io n
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s
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Future
n
ot
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r e d ic t a b l e
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predictable.
stable
s ta
F
I G U R E 19
19.11
FIGURE
r e d ic t io n s
F
u tu re P
Predictions
Future
A L U ES
N D IV I D U A L V
IINDIVIDUAL
VALUES
V ERA G ES
IT H A
O M PA R ED W
AVERAGES
C
WITH
COMPARED
S
Spreadof
p re a d o f
a v e ra g e s
averages
t iindividual
n d rv i ci u a l
he p
e r f o r m a n c e uof
a se d o
performance
onn tthe
based
capability
p a b i l i t y iiss b
f
I
n o r m ;r t i o n
e r v i c e s aagainst
p e c i f i c a t i o n s Information
r o du cts o
orr sservices
g a i n s t sspecications.
products
p
n
n d i v i d u a l s iin
he b
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behavior
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ffrom
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r o ce ss
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ca
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a pprocess.
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created iinn Fi
g u r e 19.2.
ia gr a m s
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quency
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i
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quency
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i
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f
f
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o r m al T
The
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p p r o x i m a t e l y nnormal.
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m o re w
widely
u c h more
a l u e s sspread
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iiss tthat
much
pread m
av
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r e ccompared.
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h e n tthe
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aaverages.
When
h
een
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been
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362.
o f
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df
8p r e a d
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n d iv i d u a l s
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00......
0.00.00.0000
he o r e m
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h e ccentral
e n t r a l limit
e sc r ibe d b
i d u a l vvalues,
s d
a l u e s aas
byy tthe
described
vidual
s so c ia t e d
l o w s aassociated
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i g h s aand
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o u t tthe
m o o t h out
A
v e r a g e vvalues
highs
a l u e s ssmooth
Average
,
ke e p
o keep
m p o r t a n t tto
ill b
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bee iimportant
will
n d iv id u a ls T
This
with
d
c
n
v e r a ge s a
and conhe b
h e n ccomparing
e ha v io r o
iin
i n d wwhen
ofr aaverages
o m p a r i n g tthe
n m
behavior
mind
n d sspecication
a lu e s a
and
h a t ooff iindividual
p e c i fi c a t i o n
i t h tthat
i m i t s wwith
ttrol
r o l llimits
I lOUdl ll IUI
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v e r a ge s
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subgroup
su
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9 1 rrepeats
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a b le 1
19.1
a lu e s T
Table
n d i v i d u a l vvalues.
andd iindividual
ro m
a t a ffrom
h ic k n e s s d
l a t e tthickness
lu tc h p
data
plate
a lu e s o
v e r a g e vvalues
off cclutch
n d a
a l aand
u
average
ual
O
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*
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*
*
1
*00......
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61: ; o
\ 1r p
IQ 11
9 2
F IG U R E 1
19.2
FIGURE
oi
I n d iv id u a ls
f n r Individuals
u r v e s for
N
o r m al C
Curves
Normal
c i
o
A v e r a ge s
andd Averages
an
26
CHAPTER NINETEEN
Clutch Plate Thickness: Sums and Averages
TABLE 19.1
EX.
SubgrOUD 1
Subgroup 2
0.0625
0.0626
0.0624
0.0625
0.0627
0.3127
0.0625
0.0003
0.0624
0.0623
0.0624
0.0626
0.0625
0.3122
0.0624
0.0003
Subgroup 3
0.0622
0.0625
0.0623
0.0625
0.0626
0.3121
0.0624
0.0004
Subgroup 4
0.0624
0.0623
0.0620
0.0623
0.0624
0.3114
0.0623
0.0004
Subgroup 5
0.0621
0.0621
0.0622
0.0625
0.0624
0.3113
0.0623
0.0004
Subgroup 6
0.0628
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.0627
0.3132
0.0626
0.0003
Subgroup 7
0.0624
0.0627
0.0625
0.0624
0.0626
0.3126
0.0625
0.0003
Subgroup 8
0.0624
0.0625
0.0625
0.0626
0.0626
0.3126
0.0625
0.0002
Subgroup 9
0.0627
0.0628
0.0626
0.0625
0.0627
0.3133
0.0627
0.0003
Subgroup 10
0.0625
0.0626
0.0628
0.0626
0.0627
0.3132
0.0626
0.0003
Subgroup 11
0.0625
0.0624
0.0626
0.0626
0.0626
0.3127
0.0625
0.0002
Subgroup 12
0.0630
0.0628
0.0627
0.0625
0.0627
0.3134
0.0627
0.0005
Subgroup 13
0.0627
0.0626
0.0628
0.0627
0.0626
0.3137
0.0627
0.0002
Subgroup 14
0.0626
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.0627
0.3130
0.0626
0.0002
Subgroup 15
0.0628
0.0627
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.3132
0.0626
0.0003
Subgroup 16
0.0625
0.0626
0.0625
0.0628
0.0627
0.3131
0.0626
0.0003
Subgroup 17
0.0624
0.0626
0.0624
0.0625
0.0627
0.3126
0.0625
0.0003
0.3139
0.0627
0.0004
Subgroup 18
0.0628
0.0627
0.0628
0.0626
0.0630
Subgroup 19
0.0627
0.0626
0.0628
0.0625
0.0627
0.3133
0.0627
0.0003
Subgroup 20
0.0626
0.0625
0.0626
0.0625
0.0627
0.3129
0.0626
0.0002
Subgroup 21
0.0627
0.0626
0.0628
0.0625
0.0627
0.3133
0.0627
0.0003
0.0627
0.3131
0.0626
0.0003
Subgroup 22
0.0625
0.0626
0.0628
0.0625
Subgroup 23
0.0628
0.0626
0.0627
0.0630
0.0627
0.3138
0.0628
0.0004
Subgroup 24
0.0625
0.0631
0.0630
0.0628
0.0627
0.3141
0.0628
0.0006
Subgroup 25
0.0627
0.0630
0.0631
0.0628
0.062?
0.3143
0.0629
0.0004
0.062;?"
0.3142
0.0628
0.0003
Subgroup 26
0.0630
0.0628
0.0629
0.0628
Subgroup 27
0.0630
0.0628
0.0631
0.0626
0.0627
0.3144
0.0629
0.0004
Subgroup 28
0.0632
0.0632
0.0628
006.31
0.0630
0.3153
0.0631
0.0004
Subgroup 29
0.0630
0.0628
0.0631
0 0632
0.0651
0.3152
0.0630
0.0004
Subgroup 30
0.0632
0.0631
0.0630
0.0628
0.0628
0.3149
0.0630
0.0004
9.3981
mm..." or
l
Process 3a
:
-r
averages
----- UCL
a
spread
USL
H = )=(0
ESTIMATION OF POPULATION
SIGMA FROM SAMPLE DATA
The larger the saunple size, n, the more representative the

X. is of the mean of the population. p. in
average,
salptple
WT words. \ becomes a more reliable estimate of p. as the
01
sample
srze Is increased. The ability of X to approximate p is
measured by the expression (r/ V31, the standard error of the
mean. It is possible to estimate the spread of the population
_____ LCL
or
\.\ Distribution 0'
individual values
LSL
GURE 19.3 Comparison of the Spread of individual

Alues with Averages
Scanned
individuals
using the sample data. This formula shows the
relationship between the population standard deviation ((7)
and the standard deviation ot-the subgroup averages (HY):

(f
(T
Vii
Ca p a b i l it y
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227
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by CamScanner
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A
19.22
Ass FFigure
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9
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T
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e 19.1.
a
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18 aand
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19 5 boti g u r e 19.5,
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by the
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er
228
IN E T E E N
H A PT ER N
C
NINETEEN
CHAPTER
228
'63l
0 0630
00625-91
0.0620-t
_______________ UCLX=O.0629
0 062 7
= 0.0627
Qx
U C Lx
0 0629
0 06 2 5
C Lx = 0.0625
LLCL)(
W
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0 06 2 0
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0 00 0 7
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0007 l UCLR
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0 00 0 3
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0.0003 - . .
R
0.0000
0 0 0 00
F
I G U R E 19
19.44
FIGURE
I n d iv i d u a l s
a n d Individuals
v e r a g e s and
xX- aand
h a r t Sh
o w in g A
n d R
Averages
Showing
RC
Chart
h a n ge m
u st b
d
t h e cChange
9 7 b ) the
bee dramust
F i gu r e 1
19.7b),
o n tro l (
d
(Figure
u t o
r i ft s o
off ccontrol
out
drifts
i
fi
i
t
f
o
n
a
c
e
c
d
t
s
d
i
u
o
o
er e
h e parts
r e considered
co n s
out of specication.
b e f o r e tthe
p
m a t i c before
p a r t s aare
matic
ER S U S
P R EA D V
S
T
H E 6
t
VERSUS
THE
60SPREAD
L I M IT S
P E C I F I C A T I O N LIMITS
S
SPECIFICATION
he m
i s tthe
eas
h e iindividuals
c r is
r o c e ss 6
n a
measn d i v i d u a l s iin
60,
a pprocess,
off tthe
h
h
i
i
e
t
d
f
t
e
t
l
w
i
i
h
c
o
n
r
t
o
u
es o
ea
e rrealities
o ccompare
o m p a r e tthe
with the ddeu
re u
s e d tto
of pproduction
ure
used
s
he p
e v i a t i o n iis
ta n da r d d
f tthe
h e ccustomers.
r o cess s
i r e s oof
u st o m e r s T
deviation
ssires
standard
The
process
d
l
h
l
f
t
a
R
t
a
:
h
i
r
n
r
o
c
a
d
o
c
b
t
r
r
o
m
r
s
o
e
e
o
n
e
a
s
chart
data:
R
from
control
based on either 5 or
h e sspread
T
The
pr ea d
~ _3
0'
s
C4
c4
or
a _ Ei
U
6
h i s situation,
c r iis
s
IIn
tthis
sit u a t io n
1 SL
n
60'
S L - LSL
= U
USL
h
l
A
t
e
r
o
c
e
n
a
s
s
s
B
o
s
9
1
i
F
a
l
r
e
process
)
u
h
as
the
e
t
a
n
c
l
long
F
t
o e
p
((Figure
e tolerance
19.83). As
g
o the
e q u a tto
g
equal
h a n g e iin
n p
r o c e ss
n o c
w i t h no
process
e n t e r e d with
change
an d c
n ccontrol
o n t r o l and
r e m a i n s iin
centered,
remains
i t h i n specication.
sp ec ific a t io n
w ill b
h e parts
tthe
bee wwithin
vvariation,
a r ia t io n
p r o d u c e d will
p a r t s produced
6cr
I : 60
C
a s e III:
Case
H
o w ev er,
However,
8 b ) will
w ill
e a n (Figure
i n the
( F i g u r e 19
t h e process
19.8b)
s h i f t in
mean
a shift
pr o c ess m
d
d22
SL
U
USL
her e
where
- UCL
UCL
ta n da r d d
e v ia t i o n
st im a te o
deviation
off ppopulation
6' = eestimate
l
l
i
d
i
d
r o c e ss
t
=
d
t
c
a
e d ffrom
ro n p
v
n
c
a
l
u
r
e
o
a
a
t
a
n
e
s
s
a
m
process
s
calculated
deviation
_5_
sample
p standard
f
l
l
d
f
b
=
t
r
m
r o c e ss
jB
o
s
c
a
c
u
a
e
r
o
u
u
a n ge o
v e r a g e rrange
process
a
of ssubgroups
average
p calculated from p
R
g
A p p e n d ix 2
n Appendix
o u n d iin
C
2
c44 aass ffound
d
i
2
d
i
A
f
x
d
n
e
n
o
u
n
a
s
2
d22 as found in Appendix
pp
=
Ta r g e t 110
Target
Po
v a lu e
value
R
ec a u se
e m e m be r , b
because
Remember,
LC L
h e s e ttwo
h e eestimators
w o
n d d
C a
st im a to r s (
) tthese
d2),
(c4
off tthe
4 and
LS L
LSL
formulas will yield similar but not identical values for &.
f the
i nd i v
h e aallowable
l l o w a b l e sspread
t h e individi m i t s tthe
S
Specication
p r e a d oof
p e c i f i c a t i o n llimits,
h e process
h e 660'
i t h tthe
o
c r sspread
o m pa red w
r e ccompared
als a
with
u
p r o c e s s tto
p r e a d ooff tthe
uals,
are
h
ci
i
e
f
i
t
t
b
l
h
n
e
s
p
t
s
s
o
m
e
e
r
o
c
e
s
h
e
a
e
i
c
a
w
d
o
e t e r m n e how capable
the pprocess is of meetingg the speci
p
determine
h e n specicai t u a t i o n s ccan
x ist w
i f t e r e n t ssituations
a n eexist
s p eci f i
hree d
when
a tio n s T
ccations.
different
Three
h e 660'
1 ) tthe
r o c e ss s
an
[T p
r e compared:
c o m pa r e d : (
i o n s aand
cT a
process
spread
ttions
n d 6
(1)
p r e a d ccan
are
60
i
fi
l
i
he
i
i
2
h
f
t
t
t
d
s
c
a
o
n
m
t
c
e
s
e
h
o
)
(
h
r
e
a
t
e sspread
b
limits;; (2) the
a n the
of the specication
e s s tthan
p
p
bee lless
P
ro c e s s
Process
bu t w
it h i n specication
c o n t r o l but
s p e c if i c a t i o n
outt ooff control
within
o u
US L
USL
f tthe
h e specih e sspread
s p eci
o tthe
a n b
6
bee eequal
r o c e ss s
cr p
p r e a d oof
spread
q u a l tto
process
60
p r e a d ccan
t ha n
a n b
r e a t e r than
h e 660
s p r e a d ccan
r o c e s s spread
cT p
3 ) tthe
i m i t s ; ((3)
bee ggreater
process
ccation
a t i o n llimits;
the
the
Ta r g e t
v a lu e
lim its
h e sspecication
f tthe
sspread
p e c i %c a t i o n limits.
p r e a d oof
- 1LSL
h e most
h i s iiss tthe
SL T
m o st d
e s i r a b l e ccase.
a se
This
desirable
l
h
l
i
i
i
T
h
h
ig u r e 1
h i s rrelationship.
F
e ccontrol
o n t r o limits
m t s have
l l u s t r a t e s tthis
9 7 iillustrates
av e
e la t i o n s
Figure
19.7
p The
been placed on the diagram, as well as the spread of the process
f the
v e r a ge s (
d o t t e d lline).
i n d iv id u a ls
a
the p
in e ) T
he 6
r o c e s s individuals
t s
averages
(dotted
process
The
60
spread
p r e a d oof
iiss sshown
ho w n b
f the
h e sspread
in e A
t h e ssolid
i n
t h e indio l i d lline.
x p e c t e d tthe
byy the
Ass eexpected,
p r e a d oof
v i d u a l vvalues
a l u e s iis
h a n tthe
h e sspread
d
s g
r e a t e r tthan
f
h
vidual
r
e
a
t
o
e
a
e
s
e
a
v
r
h
greater
of
;
the
averages;
how
p
g
ever, the values are still within the specication limits. The 60'
sspread
f tthe
h e iindividuals
n d i v i d u a l s iis
h a n tthe
h e sspread
s lless
e s s tthan
h e sspecicap r e a d oof
p r e a d ooff tthe
p e c if ic a
io n s T
ttions.
h
i
ll
o w s ffor
o r m
Thiss aallows
o r e rroom
o o m ffor
o r p
r o c e s s shifts
more
s h i f t s while
w h i l e sstay
tay
process
iing
i t h i n the
n g w
t h e sspecications.
within
h a t even
o t i c e tthat
i f tthe
he p
e v e n if
Notice
p e c i fi c a t i o n s N
r o cess
process
SL
C
a se L
USL
I: &60'T << U
Case
LSL
DUdI II ICU by
Uy CamScanner
\JdIIIOUdI II ICI
Scanned
LLCL
CL
P r o c e s s iin
Process
n ccontrol
o n tro l b
u t out
out o
but
01f specication
E x p l a n a t i o n Purposes
Cha r ts
FIGURE 19.5 FFor
o r Explanation
P u r p o s e s Only,
h e s e Charts
O n ly T
These
ho w C
S
L i m i t s versus
o n t r o l Limits
Show
i
Control
i
v e r su s S
t
m
s
p e c i fi c a t i o n L
Specication
Limits
F IG U R E 1 9 5
lit y
P
am
ro c e ss c
Process
Capability
U
h e xi aand
s i n g tthe
h a r t s tto
n d R
he P
A s s e s s tthe
roc e s s
o Assess
Using
R C
Charts
Process
S IG M A T O O L S
L E A N s lx
229
229
t W O R K
(b
t h e spread
s pre a d
t h a t the
R chart
he R
e v e a l s that
c h a r t rreveals
t h e sections
s e c t io n s o
S
t u d y i n g the
onn tthe
Studying
i
s e c t io n
l
n section
h
u e s in
6
T
9
e
v
a
1
)
F
i
e
r
u
i
values
(
The
n
h
19.6).
n
i
a
d
c
f
h
(Figure
t
t
s
g
e
a
a
g
o
g
of the data is changing
norm a l
t h e normal
de n o t e d b
byy the
v a r ia t i o n denoted
m ou nt o
off variation,
A
a v e r a ge a
amount
ave a
ann average
A hhave
i
e c t io n
n
e
s
i
a
s
i
c
e
n
r
Va r i a t o n increases in ssection
s e c t io n A
o section
A. Variation
ccurve
c o r r e s p o n d i n g tto
u r v e corresponding
B)
l
e ((B).
r
v
u
c
a
r
m
t
h
o
n
d
e
n
curve
o
r
e
a
d
b r o a e r sspread
on the normal
in a
p
m u c h broader
a much
B
e s u lt i n in
B, rresulting
b
t he
h
n
o
w
c
i
s
s
the
i
by
t
i
n
y
i
o
s
e
c
shown
n
i
t
is
n
i
a
o
C
r
a
n
v
section
e
e c re a s
in variation in
ig n if i c a n t d
T
h e ssignificant
decrease
The
read o
h
t
i
e sspread
b
off
e
s
h
d
r
t
R
c
e
s
p
r
the
h
a
T
c
i
e
describes
t
o
n
ib
u
chart
i
t
r
R
d
d
The
k
s
ea e
distribution.
a rrow p
n
peaked
narrow,
x chart.
h e )7
c ha r t
h e iindividuals
n d i v id u a l s o
tthe
onn tthe
i B m a tteam
ix S
eam h
A
ean S
as b
e e n sstudying
Six
Sigma
has
t u d y i n g the
t h e rresults
A llean
been
e s u lt s o
e n s i le
off aa ttensile
T
h
t
b
t
t
t
e
s
o
t
e
e
r
u
test.
he p
To
better
understand
g
ro c e ss p
strength
and
e r f o r m a n c e and
process
performance
h e iindividual
n d i v id u a l vvalues
tthe
h e sspread
a l u e s that
h e aaverages,
t h a t ccompose
p r e a d ooff tthe
o m p o s e tthe
v e r a ge s
e m be r s h
h e tteam
eam m
tthe
ave o
v e r l a i d tthe
members
have
he R
ha r t p
h e xX
overlaid
a tt e r n o
R cchart
pattern
onn tthe
h i s easily,
ha rt T
o d
o tthis
e a s i l y tthey
he y d
i v i d e d tthe
cchart.
To
do
h e xX cchart
h a r t iinto
t h r e e ssecdivided
n t o three
ec
stre n
F ig u r e 1
9 6 ) cchosen
h o s e n oon
t i o n s ((Figure
t he b
19.6)
n the
f h
he d
h e xX
tions
a s i s oof
o w tthe
ata o
basis
how
data
onn tthe
b
t
r
t
o
e
e
a
h
a
r
r
o u pe d x
a
cchart appear
a l u e s iin
to be ggrouped.
pp
n section
s e c t io n A
r e ccentered
K vvalues
e n te re d a
A aare
att
nd a
r e vvery
i m i l a r ]In
he m
e a n aand
e ry s
tthe
are
n section
mean
similar.
t he X
x vvalues
s e c t io n B
a l u e s are
a re
B, the
bo v e
a
above
he m
tthe
ean a
nd m
o r e sspread
mean
and
more
ut S
e c t io n c
ave a
a lu e s h
Section
p r e a d oout.
C vvalues
have
a
re n d
o w n w a r d ttrend.
s l ig h t d
downward
slight
_ - UCL;
.x WA
---------------- LCL;
o:
---------------- UCLR
g \/\
'
9 6
F
IGU R E 1
19.6
FIGURE
/
c
B
A
_____________
LCLR
LU
>
lM
D:
/ c
Pa t t e r n
h a r t Pattern
ht R
) v e r i a y i n g tthe
(Overlaying
R CChart
SL
, UUSL
ha r t
h e xX C
Chart
on tthe
o n
h e 60
h a t tthe
6c r
A
L SL
S L LSL
t i m e tthat
n y time
II: 6
C
cr >
a s e I111:
Any
> UUSL
60
Case
d
b
le
d
i
l
h
h
t
i
s
n
u
n
e
r
a
t
t
r
a
n
c
e
s
r
e
a
a
d
t
o
e
a
n
e
a
e
r
r
e
s
an
undesirable
e
a
sspread
r
than
the
tolerance
spread,
is
greater
p
g
p
,
h e process
is
F i g u r e 119.9a).
t h o u g h tthe
9 9a ) E
v e n though
x ist s (
Even
(Figure
situation eexists
p r o c e s s is
sit u a t io n
UCL
_ LSL
i s inca
iitt is
i n c a p able
a ble
v a r ia t io n
h i b i t i n g oonly
a t u r a l patterns
n ly n
natural
exhibiting
p a t t e r n s ooff variation,
f
h
i
i
T
i
b
h e sspec1cations
t
t
t
t
c
o
r
r ec t
n
m
e
r
o
s
s
e
e
c
u
s
o
c
a
e
c
o
e e t i n g tthe
To
correct
set
by
the
customer.
off mmeeting
y
p
ex
60
Target
T
a rg e t
in t e r v e n t io n
his p
a n a g e m e n t intervention
tthis
r o ble m , m
management
problem,
i l l be
b e nnecessary
n
e c e s s a r y iin
will
to
h a n g e tthe
he p
o r to
t h e vvariation
d e r to
a r i a t i o n or
t o cchange
r o c e s s tto
o d
e c r e a s e the
process
decrease
order
h
f
l
i
i
t
b
h e process
f
h
i
T
t
e
o
a
c
a
e
r
c
e
s
s
n
r
o
e
c
e
s
s
a
e c e n t e r tthe
rrecenter
capability
of
the
if
necessary.
The
y
p
p
y
i
i
h
i
t
h
h
i
t
s
n
b
d
x
i
e
e
n
n
t
t
t
a
n
m
c
v
w
n
o
e
o
u
F
o
e
c
a
r
o
c
e
s
s
without changing
cannot be improved
g
process
g g the existing
p
p
i n the
tan da r d
t h e sstandard
T o aachieve
e d u c t i o n in
c hie v e a
a ssubstantial
u b s t a n t i a l rreduction
r o c e s s To
process.
p
o r
LC L
b)
(fb
)
a)
((a)
SL
L
LSL
shift
Processcontrol
O
ut
Out
ut
off c o n t r o l bbut
iindividuals
n d i v id u a l s
it h i n sspecication
w
p e c ifi c a t i o n
within
d
e v ia t io n
deviation
ill h
t o auh e data,
a v e to
d a t a management
m a n a ge m e n t w
o r spread
sp r e a d o
have
will
off tthe
or
thorize the utilization
i f fe r e n t
off ddifferent
t h o r iz e t he u t iliz a t io n o
h e overhaul
o f
o v e r h a u l of
m a t e r i a l s tthe
materials,
,
the machine, the purchase of a new machine, the retraining

he p
r o c ess
o tthe
i g n i f i c a n t changes
c h a n g e s tto
process.
h e ooperator,
t h e r ssignificant
o r o
o
other
off tthe
p e r a t o r or
i
h
h
i
p r
t
i
t
s
l
d
w
h
n
t
e
a
probo
l
i
e
s
this
d
b
l
r
o
a
c
with
h
e
a
s
e
s
s
e
r
a
dealing
O
to
t e r less desirable approaches
Other,
pp
d
c t
h
u
r
o
t
i
e
i
t
n
o
n
o
c
s
e
t
product,
n p
10 0 percent
on the p
llem
o perform
r e tto
em a
p e r c e n inspection
are
p e r f o r m 100
a
r
v
e
a
r o c e s s average
the p
l i m i t s or
s h i f t the
o r shift
ge
process
t h e specication
s p e c i fi c a t i o n limits,
iincrease
n c r e a s e the
en d
n e end
at o
c c u r at
one
t h e nnonconforming
l l ooff the
o n c o n f o r m i n products
h a t aall
o tthat
sso
p r o d u c t s ooccur
,
F
IG U R E 1
9 7
FIGURE
19.7
L SL
S L - LSL
<
t
USL
< U
C
a s e II:: 6
60'
Case
sh ift in 8
c a s e s shifting
I n certain
c e r t a i n cases,
9 9 b ) In
F i g u r e 119.9b).
d i s t r i b u t i o n ((Figure
t h e distribution
off the
,
u t o
re o
h a t aare
off sspecicap e c i fi c a
out
a r t s tthat
l t iin
he p
off pparts
r o d u c t io n o
n tthe
production
result
r e su
he
io n A
ttion.
n tthe
n c r e a s e iin
n iincrease
An
lso
r o c e ss a
the p
also
n the
process
r e s e n t iin
i a t io n p
present
variation
v a r
t e s an
an o
u t o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n Situation
out-ofspecication
creates
cr ea
s i t u a t io n
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
8c )
Fi g u r e 19
((Figure
l9.8c).
he
i n c r e a s e tthe
d increase
s c r a p and
e l i m i n a t e scrap
c a n eliminate
a v e r a g e can
he p
r o c e s s average
tthe
process
i
n
a
s
i
r
e
n c
g
c o st s b
byy increasing
s c r a p costs
a v i n g scrap
t h u s ssaving
e w o r k thus
o f rrework,
m o u n t of
a
amount
an
k ccosts.
o st s
rework
rew o r
30
2
230
H A P T ER N
IN E T E E N
C
CHAPTER
NINETEEN
____._...___..
Ta r N
Target
USL - LSL
Out ooff seci

specication
f i cat i on i
a)
((a)
c)
((C)
b)
((b)
F
I G U R E 19
8
FIGURE
19.8
C
I: 6
a s e III:
SL - LSL
L SL
c r -= U
Case
60
USL
O
u t
Out
of specication
p e c if i c a t io n
of s
- - UCL
SL U
USL
T
a rge t
Target
USL - LSL
_ LCL
SL
L
LSL
= =
(a )
'
FIGURE l9.9
b)
LSI. *~ [51.
Case lll: (m
RO C ESS
A L C U L A T IN G P
C
PROCESS
CALCULATING
I
N
I
C ES
IT
Y
D
A P A B IL
C
INDICES
CAPABILITY
2
2.
"
d e v i a t i o n in
s t a n d a r d deviation.
average sample
s:
p l e standard
a v e r a ge s a m
m
rn
: sSi
ll I
_ = *ss
m
m
'1
"
'
3
he
3. C
Calculate
ca
t a n d a r d deviation.
d e v i a t i o n S5.. for
fo r each
sample
eac h
p l e sstandard
r
sa m
s u bgm u p
subgroup.
t h it t 4
a t h e m a t i c a l rratios
a t i o s that
n dice s a
re m
u an
capability
are
mathematical
quanp a b i l i t v iindices
b t l i t v of
\ a
h e aability
o c e s s ltor p
m du ce p
n l d u c t s within
w i t h i n the
t he
ttify
1 Bv lthe
produce
a :process
products
h
hi
l
i
l
n
d
i
h
T
ad
l
t
\
:
:
e
n
e
u
J
r
r
e
i
):
c
indices compare
the spread
of
specications.
PJ
:
:
wi
i t i ons The capability
he p
i t h tthe
h e specication
s p e c i fi c a t i o n
r )i e ss w
reaw d h
h e iindividuals
with
n J i v i d u a l ccreated
tthe
byv tthe
process
T
h
d
i
he
h
h
t
l
t
r
l
o
r
e
s
e
s
n
e
m
e
r
t
u
:
l
\
u f tthe
i
e
1
t
i
or
designer.
The
txr
spread
by
the
customer
m
g
p r e a d of
limits set
h
l
d
l
h
b
1
w
t
t
t
r
e
s
s
e
a
e
l
a
a
s
r
u
a
o
c
n
u t
n
a
e calculated {or a new p
a n be
process that has not
iindisiduals
n d i \ t d u a s (can
produced a signicant number of parts or for a process curbe
i t h e r ccase.
I n eeither
aw
a
a l u e ccannot
ru e M
a n n o t be
a ttrue
60r vvalue
11 operation.
r c n t l \ lin
p e r a l i l n In
rently
l
d
l
b
t
i
i
c
n
m
h
\
e
r
a
s
o
n
ed
e* r
r K e S S is uunder
e P
as described
control.
n 1i l tthe
process
d
e t r m i n e d uuntil
determined
t s 1Ifl tthe
he p
r t K e s s iis
s n
o l
n J s5 har
h a r i s oorr k
process
h e xX aand
charts.
not
h
n d R
X iand
R charts
by\ 1the
b
i
r
h
t
v
t
t
e
r
e
s
e
n
e
l
e
a
o
t
r
J
n
a
v
l
\
t
u
c
s
m
a
?
be
representative
of
l
thee
values may not
Th e ccalculated
t a h l e the
a cu a
p
1
stable.
a p B b i l 1t v
ttrue
r u e process
P r X e S ) ccapability.
P
r t x t :i \
Process
(Calculate
: a l L u l ;l t e the
t he
he r e
where
sta n da r d d
f u r each
s.- = standard
e v i a t i o n for
deviation
e a c h ssubgroup
u b gr o u p
s,
4
he
4. CCalculate
c / t im a tc
t h c population
u f the
estimate
st a m l a n l
of
p o p u l a t i u n standard
d
e v i a t io n :
deviation:
u m be r o
m = nnumber
u bg r o u p s
of ssubgroups
(7:.i
L
4
$
he r e
w
where
he p
A
r1K h s
s s u m i n g tthe
Assuming
process
h e ltwo
w n
the
rtx e ss:
process:
p
following
o l lo w i n g
de r
s e oone
n e
1n t r t l w
J a l c
wee uuse
control.
statistical
is under
;
h
al
Aul
at
e
A
e
w
h
a
n
1
0
s to calculate her of a new
e 1
m
methods
is u n
i 5 obtained
} h t a i n e d from
f r n t Appendix
c , is
A p 1w n d i 1 2.
2
5 M
ti
b v 6.
u l t i p l y tthe
h e population
5.
Multiply
1a n d i 1r d deviation
d e v i a t i u n by
Pt p u l a t i n n sstandard
c
t 1
f r u 1n
d i t a from
se e o n J m
l u l a Bm g or}
t h e data
e t h s l of
h d iiss to
u s e the
10 use
A\ second
t o
method
calculating
is
s s 5
i
e
h
}
l
h
m
T
o n 1mo
a
t e proctSs
a r t Once
t h a t the
s su m d
n c e aagain,
a ccontrol
chart.
is aassumed
that
p
g a i n iitl 1s
t
1
a ke
I. TTake
[i
a
80
4 tfor
l r 1
20 subgroups
sa m p l e ssize
t n 1 a l of
o l
u b gr o u p s o
il e 4
e a s t 20
at lleast
ofl sample
aB total
at
C
a lc u la t in g &
64}}
Calculating
o
ofl
m c n 1s
measurements.
m ea su n
UamScanner
d e r sstatistical
v a r ia t io n
o i variation.
i 1h nno
l a t i s i L a ] mntml.
o u
u t l e m s of
c o n 1m l w
n u su a l 1
under
unusual
patterns
with
u n
P
Ca p a b i l i t y
r o c e s s Capability
Process
rb
w o "
O O L S aatt WORK
IG M A T
lx S
SIGMA
TOOLS
LEAN sSIX
8
:n g 6
"Calculating
"
66
23
231
h
T
ix S
i g m a tteam
h e llean
eam m
e m be r s m
ean S
o n it o r i n g a
a p
ro c e ss m
a k in g
The
Six
Sigma
members
monitoring
process
making
fo r p
h a f t s for
8 uusing
t o ccalculate
rroller
r i n t e r s wish
w i s h to
t h e data
o l l e r sshafts
a lc u l a t e 6
s i n g the
data
printers
6:}
iin
Ta b l e 19
hey h
2 T
n Table
iz e 5
ave 2
u bg r o u p s o
a m p l e ssize
19.2.
o r aa
They
have
211 ssubgroups
off ssample
5 ffor
total of 105 measurements, more than the 80 recommended.
T h e y ccalculate
h e ssample
ta n da rd d
a m p l e sstandard
e v ia t io n S
or e
a c h subThey
sub
deviation.
si.j ffor
each
Ta b l e 19.2).
19 2 ) F
r o u p ((Table
h e s e vvalues
h e aaverage
h e y ccalculate
r o m tthese
a l u e s tthey
group
v e r a ge
From
g
ta n da r d d
ssample
a m p l e sstandard
e v i a t i o n ]s::
deviation,
T h e next
i n v o lv e s
n e x t step
s t e p involves
The
i o n sstandard
ttion
d e v ia t io n :
t a n d a r d deviation:
h e populao f tthe
t h e eestimate
s t i m a t e of
c a l c u l a t i n g the
p o pu
calculating
_3_
c4
C4
0.02
0
94 00
0.9400
= 00.021
02 1
is b
2 aand
ased o
n d is
fro m A
onn
T h e vvalue
b t a i n e d from
based
s o
a lu e o
C iis
Appendix
p p e n d ix 2
off C4
obtained
The
4
i z e ooff 5
a sample
5.
p l e ssize
'
a sa m
A
he y
t e p tthey
h e final
f i n a l sstep
Ass tthe
d ev
t a n d a r d devrahe p
l t i p ly tthe
population
multiply
m u
io n b
ttion
byy 66::
0 03 1
0 029 +
m
m
12 6
6 (0 0 2 1 ) = 0
6 6 = 6(0.021)
0.126
66'
- ++ 00.015
0 15
2
211
0 4
4 14
h e specifica
it h the
s p eci f i
t h e spread
T h i s value
s pre a d o
o m pa r e d w
v a l u e can
off tthe
can b
This
with
bee ccompared
he
b y tthe
h e iindividual
i o n s tto
r o d u c e d by
ttions
n d i v i d u a l products
o d
o w tthe
e t e r m in e h
produced
determine
how
pr o d u c t s p
he d
i t h tthe
h e sspecifications
e s ig n e r
r o c e s s compare
et b
c o m pa r e w
designer.
with
byy tthe
process
p
p e c i f i c a t i o n s sset
0 02
21
9 2
TABLE 119.2
x aand
Va l u e s ooff R
ha ft s
n d s5 Values
o l le r S
X
Roller
Shafts-
N u m be r
Number
xX1,
)1
1
1
1 950
1
11.950
12
000
12.000
12
030
12.030
1
1 980
11.980
12 0 10
12.010
1
1 994
11.994
0
03 1
0.031
2
2
12
030
12.030
2 020
1
12.020
1
1 960
11.960
1
2 000
12.000
11 980
11.980
11 998
11.998
0 29
0
0.029
3
3
12
0 10
12.010
12
000
12.000
1
1 9 70
11.970
1
1 980
11.980
12
000
12.000
1
1 992
11.992
0
0 16
0.016
4
4
1 9 70
1
11.970
1
1 98 0
11.980
1
2 000
12.000
12
030
12.030
1
1 990
11.990
1 1 9 94
11.994
0
0 23
0.023
5
5
1
2 000
12.000
12
0 10
12.010
12
0 20
12.020
i12.030
z 3 0
2 12.020
0 20
1
2 0 16
12.016
0
0 11
0.011
6
6
1
1 980
11.980
1
1 980
11.980
12
0 00
12.000
2 0 10
1
12.010
11 990
11.990
11 992
11.992
0
0 13
0.013
7
7
12
000
12.000
12
0 10
12.010
1
2 0 30
12.030
:12.000
2 130 0
11 98 0
11.980
1
2 004
12.004
0
0 18
0.018
8
8
12
00 0
12.000
12
0 10
12.010
1z
040
12.040
!12.000
? 03)
12
0 20
12.020
1
2 0 14
12.014
0 0 17
0.017
9
9
12
000
12.000
2 0 20
1
12.020
1
1 9 i50
11.960
:12.000
2 000
1
1 980
11.980
11 992
11.992
0 0 23
0.023
10
10
12
020
12.020
12
000
12.000
1
1 G r0
11.970
12
0 50
12.050
12 0 0 0
12.000
1
2 008
12.008
0 0 30
0.030
1
111
1
1 980
11.980
1
1 970
11.970
1
1 960
11.960
1
- 9 50
11.950
12 0 0 0
12.000
11 9 72
11.972
0
0 19
0.019
1
2
12
1
1 920
11.920
1 9 50
1
11.950
1
1 920
11.920
1
1 940
11.940
11 960
11.960
11 938
11.938
13
13
0
0 18
0.018
1
1 980
11.980
1
1 9 30
11.930
1
1 940
11.940
1
1 9 50
11.950
11 960
11.960
1
1 9 52
11.952
0
0 19
0.019
4
1
14
11 990
11.990
1
1 930
11.930
1 940
1
11.940
1
1 9 50
11.950
1
1 960
11.960
1 1 9 54
11.954
1
155
0 0 23
0.023
12
00 0
12.000
1
1 98 0
11.980
1
1 9 90
11.990
1
1 9 50
11.950
1
1 9 30
11.930
11 9 70
11.970
16
16
0
0 29
0.029
12
000
12.000
1
1 980
11.980
1
1 970
11.970
1
1 960
11.960
1
1 990
11.990
1
1 980
11.980
7
1
17
0
0 16
0.016
1
2 020
12.020
1
1 98 0
11.980
1
1 9 70
11.970
1
1 980
11.980
1
1 990
11.990
11 988
11.988
18
18
0 0 19
0.019
12 0 0 0
12.000
12
0 10
12.010
0 20
12
12.020
2 0 10
1
12.010
1
1 990
11.990
1
2 006
12.006
19
19
1 1 9 70
11.970
0
0 11
0.011
12 0 3 0
12.030
1
2 000
12.000
12
0 10
12.010
1
1 990
11.990
12 0 0 0
12.000
2
0
20
1
1 990
11.990
0 10
12
12.010
0
0 22
0.022
12
0 20
12.020
12
00 0
12.000
12
0 10
12.010
12 0 0 6
12.006
2
211
12 0 0 0
12.000
1
1 98 0
11.980
1
1 990
11.990
1
1 990
11.990
0
0 11
0.011
1
2 0 20
12.020
11 996
11.996
0
0.015
0 15
\
1
he p
a k e tthe
1. TTake
a s t 20
past
20
2
he
2. C
Calculate
b g r o u p s ssample
o re
siz e o
a m p l e size
subgroups,
off 44 oorr mmore.
su
R ffor
u bgr o u p
o r e
a c h ssubgroup.
range,
each
g e R,
ran
4 C
h e estimate
4.
Calculate
estim a te o
the p
ofr the
o p u la t io n
population
ta n da r d
sstandard
D
e v i a t io n
deviation,
5'::
3 Calculate
C a l c u l a t e the
3.
t h e aaverage
R:
v e r a g e rrange,
a n g e 11:
(a:
r
m
m
2 Ri
R,
i
zL
m
m
w he r e
where
d 2.E-lwl
A i n e d ffrom
A p p e n d i x 2.
(122 is obtained
r o m Appendix
2
5 M
u l t i p l y the
t he p
5.
o p u la t io n s
Multiply
ta n da r d d
population
e v ia t io n b
6
standard
deviation
byy 6.
he r e
where
R i = individual
i n d i v i d u a l range
R.
h e ssubgroups
r a n g e values
o r tthe
v a l u e s ffor
u b gr o u ps
n u m be r o
a ll number
u bgr o u p s
off ssubgroups
ky
l1/
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
U
s in g
Using
racy o
t he
racy
off the
h a n 20
r e tthan
2 0 subgroups
more
i l l iimprove
s u bgr o u p s w
m p r o v e the
t h e accuac
will
nm
la t i o n s
calculations.
c a lc u
2
32
232
IN E T E E N
C
H A P T ER N
CHAPTER
NINETEEN
rb
IG M A T
O O L S aatt w
lx S
SIGMA
TOOLS
o R Kl
LEAN sSIX
WORK
d
cCalculating
. Ia t i n s 6
6c}
/b
Ta b l e 1
9 1 tto
T
o
h e llean
he d
n Table
i g m a tteam
eam m
1x S
a t a iin
ea n S
19.1
e m b e r s uused
s e d tthe
The
Six
Sigma
members
data
iz e
h e cclutch
lu tc h p
a m p l e ssize
la t e T
h i r ty ssubgroups
ccaICUlate
a l c u la t e 6
o r tthe
u bgr o u ps o
, ; ffor
off ssample
6i}
plate.
Thirty
5
h e i r rranges
h e aaverage
r a n g e W::
n d ttheir
a n ge s a
v e r a g e range,
re u
s e d tto
o c
5 aand
are
used
calculate
"1
2R.
4:1
R
R =
m
m
= 00.0003
000 3
N
he
e x t tthe
Next.
h e y take
t a k e the
t h e vvalue
d ffrom
a l u e fior
o r d2
ro m
s iz e o
off 55, tthey
a sample
p l e size
z
a sa m
2
A
Appendix
p p e n d i x 2.
: tthey
he y
T
e t e r m in e D
687.
Too ddetermine
6
6
66'
21
21
h e population
lt i p l y tthe
t a n d a rd
multiply
p o p u l a t i o n sstandard
m u
d
e v i a t io n b
byy 66::
deviation
+ 0.0004
0 0004
+
0
0 0 0 3 ++ 0
0 0 0 3 ++
0.0003
0.0003
U
s in g
Using
= 6(00001)
0 0006
6 (0 0 0 0 1 ) = 0.0006
i m i t s to
it h the
t h e sspecification
to
h i s vvalue
a lu e w
p e c i f ic a t i o n llimits
with
now compare
p a r e tthis
i
f
m
n
r
i
r
o
s
e
tt
h
e
s
s
r
t e p
oc
e
is pperforming.
ow w
g
de t e r m in e h
the
process
well
how
determine
T
he y
They
now com
he p
o p u la t io n
h e estimate
e n g i n e e r s ccalculate
e st im a t e o
population
engineers
off tthe
da rd d
e v i a t i o n 6'::
standard
deviation,
sta n
6-:
\\
X
0 0003
E
0.0003
2 326
d
b/
0 000 1
0.0001
2.326
T
he C
a p a b i l i w IIndex
n de x
The
Capability
l a t e d tthe
h e ((Tr vvalues
ev
e t e r m i n e ssev
u s e d tto
a d
a l u e s ccan
an b
determine
calculated,
bee used
h e capability
c a p a bi li ty
a pa b ility T
e
o process
r a l iindices
n d i c e s rrelated
e l a t e d tto
The
eral
p r o c e s s ccapability.
ant
1
S
l
i s tthe
SL
L
L
h rratio
iindex
U
t
a
a t io o
r
n
c
n d e x (C, is
o
e
e
and
66'::
(
of
tolerance
(USL
LSL)
)
r
p
O
n ce
Once
c a lc u
C
C
SL - 1
51
LSL
_ UUSL
x
p
p
= ccapabilityindex
a p a b ili t y i n d e x
l
l o w e r sspec=
l i m i t - lower
s
1
u
pec
upper
LSL
p c c i : i t a t i o n limit
p p e r sspecication
i m i t oorr ttolerance
o le r a n c e
l c a t i n n llimit,
iication
'
ca
s
-m t iitt iis
h i s iiss nnot
) p t i m ; Bl 1
Ha ) T
u toptimal,
but
Fi g u r e ]19.83).
This
e x i s t s ((Figure
situation exists
s i t u a t io n
"
1"
'
Wo r k
o o ls a
lx S
igm a T
att Work
Tools
ean S
Sigma
f r o m the
t h e eearlier
a r lie r L
Six
l a t e from
Lean
c lu t c h p
plate
clutch
T
h
0
0
3
u
e
0
0
5
6
2
0
upper
0
f
The
ppe r
1
t
o
0.0003.
l m i s of 0.0625 1
a s sspecmcation
ffeature
e a t u re h
p e c i f i c a t i o n limits
has
l
i
m
s
f
i t iIS
i
i
t
n
o
i
c
a
l
r
c
limit
s
e
h
o
e
t
w
d
e
2
8
n
specification
0
6
a
0
p
lower
i
the
i m i t IS
s 0.0628 and
sspecrfication
p e c i f i c a t i o n llimit
C
t
i
e
T
a
a
c
u
o c
0 6 2 2 To
0
calculate Cc;
00622,
r
:
0 06 22
0 6 2 8 :99622
SL
S L ~ LLSL
_" 00.0628
_ UUSL
0
0
0
0
0.00066
6
6.;
CF
, r
1i
1i t y IIndex
n d e x II
M " Capability
"
"Finding
"
the
b
h e rroller
s ha ft
o l l e r shaft
be r s m
monitoring
members
of
l
m i t s of
i
f
n
i
t
i
o
T
i
a
i
h
c
e
c
limits
t
c
s
e
s
u
e y use specmcation
s CC. They
o ccalcwate
a +c u a t e 1its
p
a n t tto
r o c e ss w
want
process
p
,
5
1
9
1
S
L
L
=
12
SL
U
OS.LSL =1195:
12 OS
USL
eam
S i g m a tteam
t 1 Sigma
T
he B
ea n S
Six
lean
The
m em
'
U SL _ L SL
_ 93L
6.;
= o 794
LS
12 0 5
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
USL 1LSL
L SI
t )
t t
i t v iindex.
n Ai c x
ity
R
TO
O L S a3tWO
SI X SISIGMA}
GM A
WORK
eOLs
ihpijfsix
LE A N
or}
d e s i r a b l e situas it u a
lless
t h c most
n m s t desirable
1h M 1 i] iis
s the
e s s than
1: i
: Bv : h l l 1t v Iratio
A: capabilitv
he p
h c less
k : 5; s ccapable
r o cess s
h1: >ratio.
a p a b k tthe
is oof
>h : L
a l itl
process
ition.
o11 The
t : g H i the
the
larger
he
f
tthe
h
i
i
c
u
s
e
o
t
I
i
o
c
n
t
t
U
i
s
e
a
s
i
t
r
v
t
n
1
a
s
m
c
;
T
A
t
confuse
a
t
h
c
l n _ specications.
Be aware that it is easyy to
m
A
meeting,
p
p
h
i
e capabils tthe
n d e x is
s e d iindex
] ll c m
(v ;t c
iindices.
o m n l t ) n h, u
ttwu
wu
11 Ll i : : ; the
most
commonly
used
c a ab
[
Finding the Capability index I
T
he
The
c(N ,
w
b
H the
rh=
n l l c) w s : If
1r e t e d a
s iinterpreted
ll t c r 1
as; Ifollows:
n d e x jis
capability
p a h i l i t y iindex
h
S
i
:
1
.h
x
(
t
(
,
11
t
:
l
a
m
t
hai
I
M
:
u
a
exists
s
h l d e x is ar
larger
a p a t) i h t y index
gcr than 1.00. a (Iase l situation
ccapability
h
l
h
i
l c
h ? greater
a u e the
r ahl t
h i s iiss desi
9 7a )
The
F i g u r e ]19.7a).
desirable.
g n a t e r tthiss vvalue,
This
((Figure
II
(
l
0
n
l
s
a
1
1
A
: ll
l
e
n
;
o
d
h
;
t
a
a
(ase
i
u
l
h
i
then
i
e
c
x
1.00,
t
n
to
h
equal
:
a
a
is
I
t
c
c
index
h
q
e t t e r if the capability
y
better.
p
he
T
The
he
i s ccalled
a l l e d tthe
ccapability
a p a b il i t y
i nJ i at or ooff p
r o ce ss
is
process
indicator
d
b
l
i
i
i
h e ccapability
t y index,
n ex
i n l i l a r hto) tthe
a pa
h i s rratio
s ssimilar
a t i o iis
a f io T
n p a b i l i t y rratio.
ccapability
This
I t is
is
d e n o m i n a t o r It
t h e denominator.
h e numerator
a n d the
n u m e r a t o r and
h o u g h iitt rreverses
e v e r s e s tthe
tthough
d
n l lo w s :
e fi n e d a
ass ffollows:
dened
,
her e
where
) Sl
L
USL
Ra t i o
The C
a p a b i l i t y Ratio
Capability
The
A
n o f he r
Another
6
6
60'
cCp
h e n aa C
h a n 1.00,
1 0 0 tthen
n
i s lless
a s e iIll
e s s tthan
Case
. f the
n d e x is
fe a s i b l e If
t h e ccapability
a p a b il i t y iindex
feasible.
d
h
1
f
l
i
t
are u
n es r
a n 1 are
e s s than
9 9a ) V
undesira lu e s o
i t u a t i o n eexists
of less
x i s t s (Figure
( F i g u r e 119.9a).
Values
ssituation
h
e c i fi c a t i o n s
t
s
t
e
l
b
i
i
i
m
e
e
t
o
t
n
a
l
h
f
d
specications.
e
s
s
s
b
l
the
o
c
t
r
t
to
meet
c
e
e
e
n
r
a
e
a
inability
p
the
processs
reect
y
able and
p
"
K "
'
me
he p
h a t tthe
o f meet0 m
r o c e s s tis
A vvalue
c a p a b l e of
s just
e a n s tthat
a lu e o
j u s t capable
process
off 11.0
means
A
h e customer's
h e demands
d e m a n d s placed
n iitt b
c u s t o m e r s specifications.
s p e c if i c a t i o n s T
Too
byy tthe
ingg tthe
p l a c e d oon
t he
i l l nneed
h a n ge s w
h e ssafe
m p r o v e the
ide
e e d tto
b
cchanges
o o
c c u r tto
o iimprove
a fe s
side,
will
occur
bee oonn tthe
)n
e rfo r m a n c e
process
performance.
pr o c e s s p
la
0 R7
O O L S aatt w
lx S
IG M A T
WORK
TOOLS
LEAN sSIX
SIGMA
lac ed
placed
he d
em a n ds p
demands
e e t i n g tthe
Th is p
s n
a p a b le o
r o c e s s lis
o t ccapable
meeting
not
off m
This
process
h
e
t
t
m e e the
o meet
t a k e place
o take
n e e d tto
w i l l need
m p r o v e m e n t s will
o n it.
1t IImprovements
p l a c e tto
on
x pe c t a t i o n s
c u sto m e r s e
expectations.
customer's
11 9 5
1.2.95. "14195
oize'
[(1
Pro c e s s C
a p a b i l it y
Process
Capability
cC
pkk
p
he
T
The
f tthe
he p
i n g oof
i s sshown
r o c e s s is
ho w n b
centering
process
A
byy C
ro c ess
Cpk.
A pprocess
pk
cen te r
R
i s cCpk. CPk
c
a qg e t v
a l u e is
target
value
pr
pk
fformula:
l
o r m u a :
i n tthe
h e ccenter
f tthe
h e specications
e n t e r oof
o p e r a t i n g in
s p e c i t i c a t i o n s sset
operating
et b
t h e de
de
byy the
l
l
i
d
s
u
a
i
i
l
m
s
u
r
e
r
b
o
h a n oone
e
n
e
s
s
r
a
h a t iiss consistently
is usuallyy more desirablee tthan
n e tthat
signer
g
c o n s is t e n t ly
i g h oorr low
a r t s tto
o the
the h
l o w sside
r o du c in g p
parts
i d e oof
f tthe
h e sspecication
producing
high
p
p e c i fi c a t i o n
i g u r e 19.10,
1 9 I O aall
l l three
n F
i m i t s IIn
llimits.
th r ee d
is t r ib u t io n s h
Figure
distributions
h e ssame
a v e tthe
have
am e
h o u g h each
i n d e x vvalue
a lu e o
3 T
C
f tthese
hese p
off 11.3.
e a c h oof
Though
Cp index
r
o
h
c
e
s
he
s
e
processess has
a s tthe
h e y rrepresent
n d e x tthey
a p a b i l i t y iindex,
a m e ccapability
ssame
e p r e s e n t tthree
hr ee d
i
f
f
e r e n t scenar
different
sc en ar
h e frst
i r s t ssituation
i t u a t i o n the
I n tthe
iios.
t he p
o s In
r o c e s s iis
process
s ccentered
en ter ed a
e ll a
ass wwell
ass c a
,
z (m in )
Z(min)
-
3
3
h e r e Z(min)
h e smaller
i s tthe
z ( m i n ) is
o f
s m a l l e r of
where
zZ(USL)
( U SL )
ca-
pable. In the second, a further upward shift in the process
x
S L )(
U
USL
= A
0'
x LSL
L SL
)r
or zZ(LSL)
( L S L ) = r
o r
w o u
can b
a l c u la t e d u
t h e ffollowing
s i n g the
can
bee ccalculated
o l lo w i n
using
g
C k
p
Pk
l d rresult
n aan
n oout-ofspecication
u t o f s p e c i fi c a t i o n s
e s u l t iin
i t u a t i o n The
would
T h e reverse
situation.
re v e r se
h i r d ssituation.
t h e tthird
it u a t io n C
n the
h
t r u e iin
o l d s true
c do
d o not
holds
a n d Cr
CPp and
n o t ttake
a k e iinto
n to
e n t e r i n g of
t h e ccentering
the p
o f the
a
c c o u n t the
h e rratio
T
r o c e ss
account
process.
t 1a t rreects
a t i o that
The
e l 7e r t s
h e process
how
e r f o r m i n g iin
1o w tthe
n tterms
performing
e r m s ofa
o f a nnominal,
o 1T1 i n a l tcenter,
p r o e s s iiss p
e n t e oorr
T
(0'
= Cp
11
c tthe
h e process
F i g u r e 19
c e n t e r e d Figure
19.11
p r o c e s s iiss centered.
,
l l u s t r a t e s Cp
iillustrates
h a t is
f o r aa p
c aand
i s ccentered
C
en ter ed
v a l u e s for
r o c e s s tthat
n d Cpk
values
process
pk
,
h e n Cpk
W
C k
When
USL
USL
UC L
Ta r g e t
Target
LC L
LS L
LSL
P
ro c e s s
Process
d
centered
b
e tw e e n
between
sspecications
p e c it ic A t io n s
P
ro c e s s
Process
a b o v e ttarget
a rge t
above
b
ta r g e t
e l o w target
below
1 3
cCD213
1 3
C
Cp=143
p
C
1 3
Cp=1.3
p
c e n te r e
in P
h i f t s in
sShifts
r u c e ss
Process
FIGURE 19.10
F I G U R E 1 9 10
L SL
SL
L
LSL
P
ro c e s s
Process
C
C0
p
USL
c.
1 00
= H!)
= cCu:
.
=
SL
U
USL
Process centered
LSL
S L LSL
a,
USL
6 n = U
P
m c e s ti
Process
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
LS L
P r o c e s s not
n o t centered
c e n te r e d
Process
c e n te r e d
centered
e n te re d
ccentered
Centering
ent
er i ng
Pro c e s s c e n te r e d
19 1 1
I G U R E 19.11
F
FIGURE
P
ro c e s s
Process
ccentered
e n te re d
ver t u s A
( e n 1e r i n g : tCr versus
Centering:
pL
r
CM
233
233
USL
N IN E T E E N
C
H A P T E R NINETEEN
CHAPTER
34
2
234
Finding cpk
r/b
Fin d i n g c
O RK
O O L S at
a t w
WORK
S IG M A T
I X SIGMA
TOOLS
SIX
LEAN S
pk
he
D
h e cC F
o r tthe
Determine
for
p'
1 9 90
e
o 1
equal
11.990.
q u a l tto
x iis
h e average,
s
a v e r a g e Y,
roller shaft values. TThe
r o l le r s h a f t v a l u e s
=
C
Cpk
pk
zZ(LSL)
(LS L )
Z(min)
pk
L \m in l
3
3
he r e
where
11.950)
1 1 9 50 )
0.021
1 905
= 0.635
U
= ii
3
=
1 1 9 90
((11.990
0 021
= 1.905
1 905
o t capable.
c a pa b le
s n
he p
r o c e s s iis
h a t tthe
not
e a n s tthat
process
t ha n 1
e s s than
A
means
1 m
a lu e o
off lless
A cCpk vvalue
3 5 ) a r e nnot
6
0
(
ot
C
h
v a l u e (0.695)
t
e
d
4
n
9
7
a
0
)
l
Cpk
value
e
C
h
the
(
a
u
v
and
t
B
e
s
e
u
(0.794)
e
09
value
Because the p
pk
are
t h e sspecrficatlon
e t w e e n the
e n t e re d b
p e c if i c a t i o n
ot c
s n
t he p
between
r o c e s s iis
centered
not
e
process
equal.
q u a l the
x LSL)
LS L )
U S L ~ Ii))
((i
((USL
.
zZ(min)
m a l l e r o f :or
o
, r .
( m i n ) = ssmallerof
r
(0'
r
c0'
_
I
Z
SL)
Z( U
USL
\\
i m it s
llimits.
12 0 50 11.990)
1 1 990 )
((12.050
_
22 857
8 57
1(1/
0
021
0.021
C
a l c u la t i n g C
Calculating
Cpkk
t WORK
W O R K
I G M A T O O L S aat
s lx S
SIGMA'TOOLS
LEANSIX
/b
T
he
he C
o r tthe
Too ddetermine
Cpkk ffor
p
Cp k
pk
la t e :
clutchh pplate:
z ( LS L ) =
Z(LSL)
c lu t c
zZ(min)
(m in )
3
1
1
3'
= 0
33 33
0.3333
0622
0.0627 - 0.062_2_
: 55
0 000 1
0.0001
1
i s less
h a n 11 aand
l e s s tthan
3 3 3 3 is
to C
nd n
ot e
not
equal
CDp = 1.
value of 00.3333
q u a l to
T
h e cCpk
The
v a lu e o f
T he p
i m it s
i s nnot
h e specification
r o c e s s is
o t ccentered
e t w e e n tthe
s p e c i f i c a t i o n llimits.
e ntered b
The
process
between
he re
where
0
0628 0
0627
0.06g
0.0627
=
mm) =
0
0
0
:
0.0001
IQ
Z (U S L )
d oone
h a t iiss ooff
ff ccenter.
h e rrelationships
b e t w e e n cCp aand
n e tthat
en ter T
e l a t i o n s h i p s between
n d
and
The
,
f
l
l
a
r
a
o
w
e
s
o
s
:
are as follows:
pk
an
cCpk
nen C
1
1. wWhen
C
the p
r e a t e r the
m c e s s iis
s
a value off I1.00 oorr ggreater,
process
d
d
i
b
l
i
ro
u c n g p
ro
u c t c
e o
a pa
e e t n g sspecications.
producing
product
capable
of mmeeting
p
p e c i fi c a t i o n s
h e cCp
2. T
The
,
3
4
she n
h
as
has
a v a lu e o
o es n
o t rreect
e fl e c t p
r o c e s s centering.
cen te r in g
value ddoes
not
process
v a lu e
h e pprocess
n e n tthe
w
r o c e s s iis
s
When
centered, cCp, = C
Cpk.
pk
cen tered
h a n oorr eequal
i s a l w a y s lless
e s s tthan
o C
CP.p
q u a l tto
pk is always
W
t h a n or
n en C
r e a t e r than
h
o r e
o 1
an d C
as a
a
When
Cpp iiss ggreater
equal
1.00 and
Cpk
has
q u a l tto
pk
l
r
i
00
i
1
d
h
i
t
o F e it indicates
vvalue
a u e o
n
c a t e s tthe
e p
r o c e s s iis
s p
ro du c
of 1.00 oorr mmore,
process
produc
iing
h a t cconforms
n g product
o n f o r m s tto
o sspecications.
p r o d u c t tthat
C
C
pk
h e n cCPk h
6
as
When
has
6. W
h a n 1.00,
1 0 0 iitt iindicates
e s s tthan
n d i c a t e s the
t he
a value lless
:
i
d
d
h
j
d
e
s
s
t
t
"
ro c
u c n g p
r0
u c that
a t does
0 es n
o t cconform
0 n f o r m tto
process
is pproducing
product
o
not
p
sspecications.
k
7
7. AA CCP
a v a lu e
l
ha n 1
i n d i c a t e s tthat
00 indicates
e s s tthan
h a t the
the p
r o c e s s iis
value
off lless
1.00
s
process
p
bl
t
a
a
e
n
o
c
not capable.
p
S
U M M A RY
SUMMARY
P
r o c ess
Process
i n d ; c (: s aare
c a p a b i l i t y indices
r e u
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o judge
capability
c o n s i s t e n t ly
used
j u d g e how
the process is performing. These indices provide a great deal
o
n f o r m a t i o n cconcerning
o n c e r n in g p
off iinformation
r o c e ss c
e n t e r i n g and
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process
a n d tthe
a b il it y
centering
f
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t
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r
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c
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of the pprocess to meet
e e sspecications.
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c a p a b i l i t y inp e c c a t o n s Process
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an g
u i d e tthe
m p r o v e m e n t process
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guide
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e
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t a r g e t value.
v alu e
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T
A K E AWAY
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ccapability
a p a b i l i t y refers
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o
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process
i
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f
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p r o c e s s spread
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he p
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4
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are
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t h e current
cu r ren t p
r o c ess
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i s the
t h e sspread
66
t h e process
p r e a d ooff the
r o c e s s capability.
p r o c e s s oorr p
process
c a a b i l it y
5
c ' tthe
he
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i n d e x is
capability
i s the
p a b i l i t y index.
t h e rratio
h e tolerance
a t io o
t o le r a n c e
,
off tthe
e
S
J
L
L
SL
(USL
(
a n d the
LSL)) and
t he p
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a p a b i l i t y (6(3).
capability
( )
6
c ' the
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,
ca
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a t io o
t h e process
c a p a h il it y
off the
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ttolerance
o l e r a n c e ( U SL L
(USL LSL)
SL )
ca
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he
((60')
a n d tthe
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is t he r a t io t h a t r e fle c t s h o w t h
i s performp erf i
r o c e s s is
thee pprocess
.Cpk
p k I5 the r9110 that reects how
i n g iI
n r e la t io n t o a n o m i n a l c
e n te r o
v a lu e
t a r g e t value.
relation to a nominal, center,
mg
orr target
,
OUdI II ICU by
Dy CamScanner
DUI I IOUdI ll IUI
Scanned
Process Capability
Stress tests are used to study the heart muscle after a

person has had a heart attack. Timely information from
these stress tests can help doctors prevent future heart
attacks. The team investigating the turnaround time of
stress tests has managed to reduce the amount of time it
takes for a doctor to receive the results of a stress test
from 68 to 32 hours on average. The team had a goal of
reducing test turnaround times to between 30 and 36
FORMULAS
)
HWSIW
CAPABILITY INDICES
hours. Given that the new average test turnaround time
USL - LSL
C1, = A
60
6c?
C' = %
USL LSL
Pk
235
Z(min)
3
where Z(min) is the smaller of Z(USL) = (USL RM}
or Z(LSL) = (x LSL)/&.
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1. What do control limits represent? What do specication
limits represent? Describe the three cases that compare
specication limits to control limits.
2. Why can a process be in control but not be capable of
meeting specications?
3. A hospital is using i and R charts to record the time it
takes to process patient account information. A sample
of ve applications is taken each day. The first four
weeks (20 days) data give the following values:
i = 16min
R = 7min
If the upper and lower specications are 21 minutes and

13 minutes, respectively, calculate 66, CP, and Cpk.
Interpret the indices.
4. For the data in Question 3 of Chapter 18, calculate
65, Cp, and Cpk. Interpret the indices. The specication
limits are 50 :t 0.5.
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
is 32 hours, with a standard deviation of 1, and n = 9,

calculate and interpret CF and Cpk.
Hotels use statistical information and control charts to
track their performance on a variety of indicators. Recently
a hotel manager has been asked whether his team is capable of maintaining scores between 8 and 10 (on a scale of
1 to 10) for overall cleanliness of room. The most recent
data has a mean of 8.624, a standard deviation of 1.446,
and n = 10. Calculate and interpret Cp and Cpk.
The Tasty Morsels Chocolate Company tracks the

amount of chocolate found in its chocolate bars. The
target is 26 grams and the upper and lower specica-
tions are 29 and 23 grams, respectively. If their most re-
cent X has a centerline of 25 and the R chart has a

centerline of 2, and n = 4, is the process capable? Cal
culate and interpret CP and Cpk.
From the information in Question 7 of Chapter 18, calculate 68, Cp, and Cpk. Interpret the indices. The speci
cation limits are 3 i 0.05.
For the data in Question 10 of Chapter 18, use s/c4 to
calculate 68, Cp, and Cpk. Interpret the indices. Specications: 400 :1: 150 particulates per million.
10. A quality analyst is checking the process capability

associ
ated with the production of struts, specically the amount

of torque used to tighten a fastener. Twenty-ve samples
of size 4 have been taken. These were used to create
i and
R charts. The values for these charts are
as follows.
The upper and lower control limits for the
X chart are
74.80 Nm and 72.37 Nm, respectively. i
is 73.58 Nm. R is
The specication limits are 80 Nm :1:
10. Calculate
1.66.
60', Cp, and Cpk. Interpret the values.
CHAPTER
TWENTY
E L IA B I L IT Y
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Scanned by
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237
237
h e compoC
tthe
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syste m
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3
3. Maintenance
i s a p p l i e d oorr
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be
o
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ccircumstances?
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ystem
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s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d designs
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break
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reliability.
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5
edu n da n t
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I s it
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r o d u c t 15
approach
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p p r o a c h to
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v a i l a b i l i t y ? Will
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nnance
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M a n u fa c t u r in g
6 Manufacturing
m
e tho ds
6.
a n d
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methods
and
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H
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t h e chosen
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quality
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reliability?
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rel
i abi l i t ? HHave
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d e s i g n e d to
cchasing
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a n d
p o l i c i e s been
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rreliability?
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7
a i n t e n a n c e of
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o f complete
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r system
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reliability?
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be
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y s t e m sshould
2
38
238
C
H A PT ER T
W EN T Y
CHAPTER
TWENTY
a t h e r e d iin
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A
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The
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Hearings
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o b e r t Davis
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e n gin e s
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As p e c t 5
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e l ia b i l i t y
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2
39
239
R
e l i a b i l
Reliability
C U RV E
IF E C
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hr o u gh 2
9 9 5 tthrough
1
Off 13
2004.
1995
T
o
u e tto
t
r
l
e
s
r
d
n
a
r
e
o
e
r
r
True
t
j
d
u
c
jets.
c
w o o
e t s and
an
on larger
g
m a l l e r jjets
occurred
two
o c c u r re d o
onn ssmaller
occurred
m is
ccycle
y c le
iincreased.
n c re a s e d
if e
h e llife
tthe
as
ccurve,
u r v e as
ha v e
a i l u r e s have
h a v e aged,
t h e jets
a g e d ffailures
j e t s have
the
hr o u gh
r e v e n t e d tthrough
be p
prevented
be
ma
i
d
f
l
n
a
n
gear
o
m
r
h
d
g e a r maina
r
o
g
f
h
of
landing
t
a
a
t
t
a
i
rc ra
g
that had a pprogram
a in te n a n c e a
aircraft
m
maintenance.
re
r e a t e r relia d greater
nd h
i
h
rates a
g
had
d
s
a
and
m
e
d
d
c
rates
r
u
i
e
n
c
e
p
e
mishap
r
e
x
reduced
ttenance
e na nce e
experienced
p
h
t
e
f
r
o
e
s
s
t
c
o
the
r
for
a n a g e m e n process
l i f e cycle
p
c y c le m
d e f i n e d life
management
u l l y defined
b i l it y A
a
A ffully
ability.
hro u gh
a t q u i s it i o n tthrough
h e time
t i m e ooff acquisition
r o m tthe
a n d i n g gear
llarger
g e a r ffrom
a r g e r jets'
j e t s llanding
e ars
f o r several
seve ra l y
years.
i n place
b e e n in
a s been
p l a c e for
d e p lo y m e n t h
has
n d deployment
r o d u c t io n a
and
production
p
l
c
e
i
a
n
s
ro c e s
h is p
in place.
p
h a v e tthis
process
o t have
d id nnot
e t s did
t h e ssmaller
m a l l e r jjets
B
e c a u s e the
Because
and
e p a i r and
m a i n t e n a n c e rrepair,
n e e d i n g maintenance,
r e l ia b le
needing
e s s reliable,
he y w
e r e lless
tthey
were
t he
t h a n the
c o s t s than
h i g h e r costs
a t higher
a n d at
r a t e and
r e a t e r rate
att aa ggreater
r e p la c e m e n t a
replacement
A
lt h o u g h
Although
lw a y s
i s h a p s cannot
ca n not a
m
always
mishaps
llarger
a r g e r jets.
je t s
an
onn an
m a in ta in e d o
e e n maintained
h i s t o r i c a l l y bbeen
a v e historically
h
j e t s hhave
T
s m a l l e r jets
e
The smaller
i n g le
a ssingle
to a
r n i n g to
t
u
h
e
n
r
t
a
h
returning
r
t
e
a
r
than
m
r
rather
n l o c a t i o n program
pro g a
on-location
s n e e ded o
a
asneeded,
Co n t i n u e c o
((Continued)
W EN T Y
H A PT ER T
C
TWENTY
CHAPTER
2
40
240
it h ttheir
he ir m
h e larger
la r Be r jjets.
a in t e n a n c e
ets w
maintenance
a c i l it y T
with
The
maintenance ffacility.
k
k
t
s i n g le
n
c
w
o
r
a
e
n
c
a
r
e
o
t
r
l
m
e
e
l
b
u e
ave a
g
y work taken care off aatt aa single
emergency
ro c e s s h
all but
have
process,
p
if
i
f
it
f
h
i
i
b
n
t
O
n
e
o
a
v
n
r
e
n
i
f
i
l
t
c
a
e
n
e
s
a
c
i
of
having
repairs
benefit
pa irs
g
m
a n t e n a n c e facility.
g
y One significant
maintenance
i
i
k
h
i
k
l
i
t
t
o
e
n
l
n
n
w
r
n
r
r
o w l e d ge
o
i
a
s
c
e
a
s
e
e
c
t
e
o
d
s
n
a
f
in
worker
knowledge
a
r
m
is
the
increase
e
r
o
location
e
at a single
g
performed
p
f
i
i
h
l
A
t
t
t
t
i
d
r iin
f
t
c
c
a
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e
e
r
r
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o
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o
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n
s
n
o
c
o
n rref
s
a
n
t
i
h
o
f
t
a
c
r
a
Another
critical
factor
r
e
of
and
its
components.
o
p
of the aircraft
h a t oone
i m e tto
n e llocation
r o v id e s e
a s y acac
e p a i r iis
s tthat
o c a t io n p
o rrepair
d
e a n ttime
provides
easy
u c in g m
mean
ducing
in e
f l ig h t lline
h e smaller
e t s aged,
a g e d flight
a rts A
s m a l l e r jjets
o rreplacement
e p la c e m e n t p
ccess
e s s tto
parts.
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e c rease
e li a b i l it y llevels
e c o m e s lless
e s s effective,
e f f e c t iv e rreliability
e v e ls d
m
a in te n a n c e b
decrease,
becomes
maintenance
m a in te n a n c e
n d rreplacement
e p l a c e m e n t ccosts
osts
e pa ir a
nd m
a
and
maintenance,
and
iincrease.
n c rea se
t ho r o u g h
m
a i n t a i n e d thorough
maintained
rrecords
e c o rds
h e llarger
T
et m
a n a g e m e n t tteam
eam
a r Be r jjet
management
The
be
to m
o t h bee p l a c e m e n t ccosts
osts b
e p a i r and
a n d rreplacement
both
relatedd to
maintenance,
i
i
i
i
o
l
h
d
f
r
n
t
t
t
t
t
e
ffore
c
n
n
e
n
v
n
v
m
m
e
m
e
a
n
e
r
e
e
e
a
n
a
e
r
ore a
preventive maintenance program
p gra m
and after implementing
p
g the p
b
i
f
h
f
ffor
2
0
1
d
h e llarger
b
l
h
t
ee n
e
n
v
r
c
e
a
o r tthe
a r g e r jjets.
e t s IIn
n T
a
e
e
s
e
e
e
s
have
been
Table 20.1 these differences
im e b
he m
e tw e e n
e a n ttime
e l i a b i l i t y cconcepts.
o n c e pt s T
u a n t if i e d u
s i n g rreliability
between
quantified
using
The
mean
q
h e nnumber
M T B F ) rrates
ffailure
u m be r o
a i l u r e ((MTBF)
ates w
e r e ccalculated
a lc u l a t e d b
ase d o
off
were
based
onn tthe
r e la t e
h a t rreduced
e l i a b i l i t y related
e d u c e d rreliability
r e l a t e d to
t o landing
l a n d i n g gear,
recognizedd tthat
g e a r c0.
c
i
c
o
r a f t concerns,
ncerns n
i
c
r
n
a
i
h
t
d
l
it
a
e
c
e
w
s
e
s
aircraft
t
d aa cchange
a
necessitated
e
h a n g e in
aging
g
with
g
pled
i n it
itss
p
f o r its
i t s ssmaller
m a l l e r jets.
r o c e s s e s for
m
a in te n a n c e p
je t s B
processes
o m p a r i s o n the
Byy ccomparison,
maintenance
t he
h e i r maintenance
i t h ttheir
ro c e ss a
llarger
process
e ts w
a r g e r jjets,
with
approach,
ave
p pr o a c h h
haVe
r e c o g n iz e
t h e corporation
10 0 m
c o r p o r a t i o n over
i l l i o n in
a v e the
ove r $
o ssave
in
$100
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r o j e c t e d tto
s p
r a m iis
projected
gram
g
d
i
o
r
e
0
r
1
e
a
period.
a
p
y
a 10-year
i n c r e a s e s product
r o c e s s increases
process
r e v e n t i v e maintenance
H
pr o d u c t
preventive
a v i n g aa p
Having
o l lo w i n g :
t h e ffollowing:
n the
e s u lt i n g iin
l i a b i l it y rresulting
reliability
re
e ffe c
r is k
L
o w e r risk
Lower
of
R
educed
Reduced
o r k lo a d
a in te n a n c e w
workload
o c a t io n m
maintenance
remote llocation
rem ote
w it h
if e ccycle
osts a
to p
r o j e c t llife
b i l i t y to
associated
project
y c l e ccosts
ability
IIncreased
n c re a s e d
e p la c e m e n t
o m p o n e n t rreplacement
a n d ccomponent
m
a i n t e n a n c e and
maintenance
h e ccosts
s s o c ia t e d
osts a
i f f e r e n c e bbetween
ig n i f i c a n t d
e t w e e n tthe
h e ssignificant
associated
h o w tthe
difference
show
f le e t
i r c r a f t oorr an
n t i r e fleet
an e
a n aaircraft
entire
r o u n d i n g an
of g
grounding
of
is k
L
o w e r rrisk
Lower
with planned maintenance and unplanned maintenance, as
a n a ge m e n t
c r is i s m
e e d i n g crisis
management
n c id e n t s n
F
e w e r iincidents
needing
Fewer
ir c r a f t B
a se d
a v a i l a b i l it i e s o
iff e r e n c e b
he d
Based
e t w e e n availabilities
off aaircraft.
between
difference
welll l aass tthe
w e
o r a le
IIncreased
n c re a se d m
morale
C
LP C
o r p o r a t io n
Corporation
CLP
CCost
e t w e e n Failures m
"
s in g M
a in t e n a n c e U
la n n e d M
MeanTIme
Using
or P
n a l y s i s ffor
Maintenance
o st A
Planned
Analysis
l Ti e BBetween
TB F
M
MTBF
TBF
M
MTBF
A
irc ra ft
la n n e d
it h P
o st w
it h P
la n n e d C
Aircraft
Planned
Cost
with
with
Planned
i l a b i l it y
A
a
v
i
t
a
n
c
e
M
n
a
n
e
Availability
Maintenance
3,917
9%
9
99%
3 8 0 14 0
$
$380,140
8 300
8,300
A irc ra ft
la n n e d
w /0 P
la n n e d C
Aircraft
o s t wlo
w /0 P
Planned
Cost
Planned
wlo
A
M a in t e n a n c e
v a i la b i l it y
Availability
Maintenance
M
a in t e r :a n c e
Maintenance
M
a in t e n a n c e
Maintenance
"
L
ea r
a n d in g G
Landing
Gear*
a ilu re
of ffailure
i n g l e ffacility
a c i l it y
at s
n o w l e d g e at
single
knowledge
G
m a in t e n a n c e k
r e a t e r maintenance
Greater
L
a in
e ft M
Main
Left
or d
e p lo y m e n t )
(a v a i l a b i l i t y ffor
t i v e n e s s (availability
deployment)
effectiveness
IIncreased
n c re a sed
l if e
o m p o n e n t life
IIncreased
n c reased c
component
i r c r a f t aavailv a il
Aircraft
completed.
p le t e d A
com
he
h a t iis,
s tthe
i m e to
t o repair,
r e p a i r tthat
iinclude
t he m
n c l u d e the
e a n ttime
mean
i
i
n
a
f
r
i
t
a
r
e
h
e
t
t
r
c
e
a
i
i
k
r
v
t
t
e
o
s
e
a
t
r
t
t
t
e
r
n
e
m
v
s
repairing
g
a
e
o
u
a
e
r
e
a
e
after
p
average
g time it takes to return the jjet to service
h
t
e
t
e
a
r
i
t
o
s
s
e
c
T
h
a
n
c
n
e
n
m
llanding
t
t
e
a
n
are
the
m
c
o
m
o
n
e
costs
a n d in g g
e a r ssystem
s
e
maintenance
gear
component.
The
p
y
la n d i n g g
ear
h e ffailed
a i l e d landing
gear.
e p l a c e tthe
o rrepair
e p a i r oorr rreplace
o t a l ccosts
o s t s tto
a v e r a g e ttotal
average
T B F aand
nd a
v a i la b i l it y
o M
availability
e l a t e d tto
T
h e rreliability
a l c u l a t i o n s rrelated
e l i a b i l i t y ccalculations
MTBF
The
0 1
TABLE 220.1
a ir c r a ft re
he ir m
a ny p
r e v e n t iv e m
ne o
many
a in te n a n c e
preventive
i s oonly
n ly o
off ttheir
maintenance
one
process
p r o c e s s is
l
t
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e
r
e
h
r
s
r
t
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e
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e
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n
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e
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larger
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j
O
a
r
preventive
e
the
maintenance
g
v
p
p
programs.
p r o g r a m s Overall,
b i l i t y ccalculations
a
a l c u la t io n s
ability
ec o rds
a i n t e n a n c e rrecords,
o
maintenance
onn ooperational
p e r a t io n a l m
T h e llanding
l i a b i l i t y The
a n d i n g gear
a in t e n a n c e
maintenance
ge a r m
aircraft reliability.
iincreased
n c reased
failures observed by the maintenance staff and the number of
ha d
h e jjets
ttakeoff-and-landing
a k e o f f a n d l a n d i n g ccycles
e t s had
y c l e s tthe
i t h aan
a n d i n g gear
n extended
if e aand
e x t e n d e d llife
with
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ge a r w
nd
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ig h ly
h
highly
B:
50 6 680
$
$506,680
7
8%
78%
'
ig h t M
R
a in
Main
Right
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N
ose
Nose
ear
L
a n d in g G
Gear*
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8
18 6
8,186
4 2 1 12 7
$
$421,127
9%
9
99%
0 4
3
3,043
5 (i 8 4 3 8
$
$568,438
4%
7
74%
400
7
7,400
407 392
$
$407,392
8%
9
98%
5,138
4 7 3 4 13
$
$473,413
8%
6
68%
"
19
c yc l e s
0 0 0 ttakeoff-and-landing
a k e o f f a n d l a n d i n g cycles.
if e : 8
Ex p e c t e d llife:
8,000
*Expected
"
test is concluded when an established number of hours is
E L IA B I L IT Y
F R
EA S U R ES O
M
RELIABILITY
OF
MEASURES
Overall system reliability depends on the individual reliabilisu ba sse m

n d subassemo m po n en t s a
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t e r 1n s oof
a il u r e rates,
e a s u r e d iin
n terms
m e a n life,
measured
bility
i s sio n
mission
im e b
b i l i t y mean
sp e c ific m
a
n d specic
m e a n ttime
e t w e e n ffailures,
a i lu r e s a
ability,
and
between
a i l u r e s b_'
A s aa ssystem
rreliability.
e l i a b i l i t y As
o n c e r n i n g ffailures
se d d
a t a cconcerning
data
y s t e m iiss uused,
es
to
h e utilized
u t i l i z e d to 951'
T h i s iinformation
ccome
o m e a
v a i l a b l e This
n f o r m a t i o n ccan
a n be
available.
Fa i l u r e
he m
f a i l u r e rrate
t h e ssystem.
i f e aand
m
a t e tthe
o f the
e a n llife
n d failure
a t e of
yst e m
mate
mean
Failuref
d of
p e r io 0
s t a t e t l period
a stated
fa il u r e d
t he p
rrate,
u r in g a
a te
r o ba bility o
during
A, the
probability
ofr aa failure
as
t e d as
c a lc u la
i m e cycle,
an b
bee calculated
ttime,
c yc le
o r n
m p a c t s ccan
u m be r o
or
number
off iimpacts,
a re
fo l l o w s :
follows:
cc u r
h e n aa p
u m b e r oof
r e de te r n in ed n
n de d w
f failures
Ja i l u r e s ooccur
number
are eended
when
predetermined
he d
c o n c e r n in g
h e ssample
i t h i n tthe
e c is io n
ested T
w
a m p le b
e i n g ttested.
concerning
The
decision
within
being
h e nnumber
h e t h e r tthe
u 1T 1b e r o
h e product
s b
a se d o
c c e p t a b l e iis
off
based
onn tthe
whether
p r o d u c t iiss aacceptable
h e test.
im e ter m in a ted
hat h
test A
r o d u c t s tthat
u r i n g tthe
a v e ffailed
a i le d d
A ttime-terminated
products
have
during
p
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
A
.
cestimated
st i m a t c d
b se r v
f a i l u r e s oobserved
b e r of
o f failures
number
ed
n u m
or c y c l e s
u l t i o r cycles
r t e st m
ssum
u m a
multl
oftest
R
e l ia b i l it y
Reliability
41
2
241
Calculating Failure Rate and Average Life

/&
i p e r motors
t im e
b e i n g ttested
s in g a
e s t e d uusing
m o t o r s are
a r e being
Tw e n t y windshield
a timew i n d s h ie ld w
wiper
Twenty
ho u r s
0 0 hours
ded w
h e n aa ttotal
o t a l of
of 2
200
concluded
when
t h i s test,
te st
ha v e b
u r i n g this
e e n ccompleted.
o m p le t e d D
c o n t in u o u s o
During
o
been
operation
p e r a t i o n have
off continuous
h e ttest
e s t iis
te st T
s
tterminated
e r m i n a t e d test.
The
he
tthe
he
i p e r s tthat
h a t ffail
b e f o r e rreaching
i n d s h ie ld w
e a c h i n g tthe
a i l before
of w
n u m b e r of
wipers
number
windshield
i m it
i m e llimit
ttime
2
0 0 hours
h o u r s iis
s
200
of
of
or
or
c o n c lu
counted.
c o u nted
hr ee
IIff tthree
Oemale"
s t '" ated
ft e r
i p e r s ffailed
a i le d a
after
wipers
=
T
he
The
off failures
number
f a i l u r e s oobserved
bs e rv e d
n u m be r o
_
tAesi'mam
ated
ssum
o f t e s t t i m e s o f c y c le s
u m oftesttimesofcycles
1
2 5 ++ 152
1 5 2 ++ 189
18 9
125
9 ++ ( 1 7 ) 2 0 0
1 5 2 ++ 18
1 2 5 ++ 152
189
125
1289
8 9 hhours
-0200 = 12
o u rs
3
1 289
s 1.289
i p e r motor
m o t o r iis
i n d s h i e ld w
he w
i f e of
wiper
o f tthe
windshield
average
g e llife
av e ra
h
o u rs
hours.
,
nd
1/ 1 aand
b a s e d o n l/A
e tw e e n B
if f e r e n c e b
H
he d
Gestimated
e r e tthe
between
difference
e s t i m a t e d based on
Here,
t
n d in g
d
rrounding.
i
o
o
u
l
i
t
u
e
d
s
e
c
r
l
l
d
t
to
O
a
c
u
a
e
due
c
is
directly
y
calculated
Bestimaied
e s t im a t e d
,m
number of failures
t he
n d the
h e failure
f a i l u r e rrate
89 h
a te
12 5 1
5 2 and
o u rs c
and 1
A aand
hours.
calculate
125,
152.
189
l if e 0:
e:
v e r a g e life
a
average
3
3
i m e s oorr ccycles
e s t ttimes
yc le s
sum of ttest
su m of
= .#dd
o bs e r v e
n u m b e r o f f a i l u r e s observed
+ (17)200
( 17 )2 0 0
= 00.0008
0008
h e average
i f e ccan
F
c a lc u l a t e d :
h i s e9. tthe
a v e r a g e llife,
an b
r o m tthis.
bee calculated:
From
1
1
1 = 1250
h
1 2 5 0 hours
s
0.5ad = XA1 = 00 00008
00 8
du
ou r
n m ate
F
the
t h i s , e , the
r o m this,6,
From
b/
i m e iitt iiss
f ttime
h e aamount
f tthe
m o u n t oof
t e r m s oof
n
m l g e d iin
terms
can bbee jjudged
v a i l a b l e ffor
o r u
se:
a
use:
available
i f e ccan
c a lc u la t e d :
an b
bee calculated:
average
g e llife,
av e r a
can
=
a
m im a\ ed
oestimated
h i
abi l i =
A val
ia l my
A va
lblt
t
M
T BF
MTBF
or
o r
Oe sl i n i a l e 1 =
Oeslimated
-
The average life 9 is also known as the mean mm.

im e
1e a n ttime
fa i lu r e N
i n i c tto
o failure.
he m
e a n ttime
Mean
o r tthe
a i l u r e s or
b e t w e e n ffailures
mean
between
L
h
1
H
h
i
I
h
:
t
F
l
c
n
nmuch
i u c
o w
: ai l ur ei (MTBF),
has elapsed
time
b e t w c e n failures
( M T B ) how
I :d
between
"
when
r e pa i r a h lc s ys
h e n sspeaking
used
se d w
s u
between
b
a i l u r e s iis
e t w e e n ffailures,
p e a k i n g ooff repairable
sysnon
t u r J1
s uused
failure
t H 1 rrepairable
l u r e is
s c d for
Mean
h n c to
to a
1
vi e a n ttime
tems.
w 1D a h t :
tem s
M T Bd)
a i l u n : s ((MTBF)
b e t w e e n failures
i m e between
M
e a n ttime
Mean
im e
e a n ttime
a n d m
mean
and
off
ass aa :function
u n 9 t io n k
d e s c r i h e rreliability
e 1i a b i l i t y a
M T T F ) describe
to
f a i l u r e ((MTTF)
t o failure
i m e that
t h e s y s t e m iis
c t u a llv
off ttime
t h a t the
Here
time.
m o u n t o
t h e aamount
e r e the
t im e H
system s aactually
i s ooff great
c o n c er n
operating
g r e a t concern.
p e r a t i n g is
F
o r
For
x a m p le
e
example,
i t h o u t their
the ir
w
without
t he
n d theres igh t le s s a
r e sightless
t r a f f i c ccontrollers
o n t r o lle r s a
and
a i r trafc
are
sc r e e n
air
screen,
da r
l
h
l
i
b
d
t
d
r
b
i
e
a
e
a
T
e
r
e
r
i
c
o
n
s
e
n
e
r
o
t
the
radar
n
a
r
reliable,
ffore
t
o
e
o
considered
To be
u
o r e o
of operation.
out
p
f
h
f
i
i
t
t
i
o
(:
t
a
m
o
u
n
l
f
c a n
o r a
a ssignificant
amount of the exb e ffunctional
u n c t io n a
for
u s t be
m
gn
must
r e
B
eed p
a n Y ssystems
a u se m
i
e
c
t
i
prem
e
d
t
n
many
r
a
e
o
Because
t
e
c
e
y s t e m s nneed
time.
operating
pected
g
p
p
b
i
l
l
it y
i
r
s
r
i
t
e
m
s
s
i
i
a
t
c
e
e
n
n
a
n
e
a
t
v
reliability
e
m
a
system's
c
r
e
i
r
o
y
v en t v e o
orr ccorrective maintenance,
ventive
da r
radar
r a
rb
'
meantime
t o rrepair
T T F ++ m
e pa ir
M
e a n t i m e to
MTTF
l a c e of
TT F
o f M
n p
s e d iin
MTTF.
place
values can bbee uused
v a lu e s c a n
e l i a b i l it y
C
a lc u la t in g S
Reliability
System
ys t e m R
Calculating
f t e s t times
c v c le s
t i m e s oor
r cycles
sum ooftest
o hsc r v c d
o f a i l u r e s observed
n
u m h e r offailures
number
su m
syst e m s
systems.
M TT F)
i m e to
t o ffailure
a il u r e (
(MTTF)
mean ttime
m ea n
is d
e pe n d e n t
h e n ssystem
W
dependent
When
p e r : o r m a n c e is
y s t e m performance
the
a s the
u c h as
u c c e s s : LI W ssuch
o : 11 p l c [ c c l ssuccessfully,
;:v : ]c s c
cycles
completed
b e r of
im es a
a
o f ttimes
number
n u m
coin-operated washing machine accepts the coins and begins

h e probap r o
m e a s u r c d i n tterms
o p c r a t i m i t h e i l rreliability
in e r m s o0ff tthe
then e l i a b i l i t y iiss measured
operation,
h
b
b
ility
i
i
ro a
1: i l i t y
u c c e ss :u l o
operation.
Reliability
el i abi i t y iss tthee pprobability
of ssuccessful
bility
p e r a t c) n R
ik e
i 11 e p
i l l notfail
e r io d L
t t B1 tal product
a r t i c u l a r ttime
u r in g a p
i n Jl j tl il d
[that
period.
Like
duringa
particular
p r o t 1m 1 wwill
0
etw ec n 0
t a k i : s oon
n n
a lu e s b
u m e r i c a l vvalues
e h a b i h t y takes
r t 1 L) a hl M [ y rreliability
numerical
between
0.0
probability,
.1
f
d
l
i
i
8
7
8
l
0
l
b
i
i
i
7
t
t
t
A
t
o
s
n
e
r
r
e
e
a
s
o
u
o
d
1
v
a
0 A rreliability
u e of 0.78 is interpreted
e a
in
as 78 out off
;and
1.0.
p
y value
a r t i c u la r t i m e
x pe c te 1 d u r in g a
10 0 p a r t s w i l l f u n c t i o n aas
time
during a pparticular
100
parts Will function s eexpected
f n iiss tthe
h e total
t o t a l nnumber
o t 1
w ill n
u m be r o
n it s h
e in g
n d 2
c r io d a
not.
lfn
off uunits
being
222 will
and
period
p
t h o s e uunits
e r f o r m i n g ssatisfactorily,
n it s p
a t i s fa c t o r il y
t e s t e d aand
e p n : s e n t s those
n d s5 rrepresents
performing
tested
the"
t he n
h e ffOllOWing
fo r m u l a :
is g
iv e n b
R is
lia b i lit y R
o l l o w i n g formula:
byy tthe
given
reliability
r e
R
R
De t e r m i n i n g A
Availability
Determining
t h e nnumber
u m be r o
off
on the
o n
re
b y cconsidering
d e t e r m i n e d by
t h e reliSy s t e m rreliability
s determined
o n s i d e r i n g the
System
h e ssystem.
h e ccomponents
b i l i t y ooff tthe
n d parts
o m po n e n t s a
a
and
ability
yste m
p a r t s ooff tthe
O O L S
IG M A T
L
EA N s
lx S
TOOLS
SIGMA
SIX
LEAN
O R K
att W
WORK
o iinstall.
n sta ll
a n d easy
e a s y tto
a v a i l a b l e and
r e rreadily
e a d i l y available
o to rs a
W i n d s h ie ld w
r pe r m
are
motors
wiper
Windshield
he
C
Calculate
he
i l a b i l i t y ooff tthe
availability
ava
i p e r s on
on a
us
w i n d s h ie ld w
wipers
a bbus
windshield
A
Availability
e t w e e n ffailures
a ilu re s o
im e b
t he m
a y illf the
e a n ttime
between
orr
mean
o u rs a
e ig h t h
a dday,
eight
hours
motor
wiper
average life 0 is 1,250 hours. When the Windshield
d
r iv e n
driven
1
24
12 50 +
24
1250
or a
a ttotal
o t a l ooff
he b
e r v i c e ffor
u s Iis
S o
ut o
bus
off sservice
out
must be replaced,
p l a c e d tthe
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
M T BF
t im e b
a i l u r e ((MTBF)
e t w e e n ffailure
between
time
1250
. we. 2 0033
98
: O_#.
m u st be r e
24 h
ou rs
24
hours.
M
ean
mean
: i'a'r"1"Fn'aaiime'i6(587 #
M T B F + m e a n t i m e t o r e pa ir
T
he b
s
u s iis
The
bus
h e time.
t im e
8 percent
i la b le 9
98
p e r c e n t oofB tthe
available
ava
W EN T Y
H A PT ER T
C
TWENTY
CHAPTER
42
2
242
e x i s t s iifproper
f p r o pe r
e r i e s exists
n s
A ssystem
series
er ies
n S
R
A
e l i a b i l i t y iin
Series
y s t e m iin
Reliability
n
h e ccomponents
* tthe
o m p o n e n t s iin
h e t h e r aall
n w
e p e n d s oon
whether
t Bn c t i o r 1i n g d
ssystem
depends
functioning
ys t e t n 4
t
n
e
o
n
m
o
c
f
e
n
n y o
a i l u r e oof a
one component
p
any
h e ssystem
re f
Failure
u l 1c t i o n i n g F
tthe
functioning.
y s t e m aare
l
x am p e o
off
o r t r ays a
F i g u r e 20
ann eexample
i l l ccause
a i l u r e Figure
20.22 pportrays
w
a u s e ssystem
will
y s t e m ffailure.
i l l ffunction
u n c t io n
h e ssystem
i a g r a m , tthe
he d
n tthe
e r i e s IIn
n s
aa ssystem
y s t e m wwill
diagram,
series.
y s t e m iin
c om
i f oone
n e compou n c t i o n i n g If
r e ffunctioning.
f o u r ccomponents
l l four
i f aall
o m p o n e n t s aare
n l y if
o
only
h
T
r e lia
e
i
i
n
f
n
t
o
l
l
reliai
n
c
The
s
e
u
ccease
ea
h e eentire
w
f a i l s tthe
functioning.
n t i r e ssystem
g
n e n t fails,
nent
y s t e m will
idu a l
d
i
i
v
h e individual
n
n tthe
s d
e p e n de n t o
b
i l i t y ooff aa ssystem
on
e r i e s iis
n sseries
dependent
bility
y s t e m iin
r e lia bilit y
e r i e s ssystem
a l c u l a t e sseries
o n e n t r e li a b il it i e s T
co m
y s t e m reliability,
Too ccalculate
,
reliabilities.
component
p
u l
re m
mule lia bili t ie s a
are
h e iindividual
o m p o n e n t rreliabilities
n d e p e n d e n t ccomponent
tthe
n d i v i d u a l iindependent
t i p l i e d ttogether:
o ge t h e r :
tiplied
,
RS.
...
7;
r.
r2 r3
Ri
.l-n
rl-r2-r3.
he r e
where
= rreliability
o f sseries
er ies s
e l i a b il i t y of
system
yst e m
o m po n en t
e li a b il i t y o
rtii = rreliability
off ccomponent
n s
n
u m ber o
system
off ccomponents
yst e m
it = nnumber
R
R5,
he
T
The
rreliability
e lia b ilit y
d d e d iin
t s aare
n
r e a
added
nents
n en
o m po
o r e c
as m
e c r e a s e s as
o
compomore
decreases
off aa ssystem
yste m d
h e sseries
h a t tthe
T h i s means
e r ie s s
m e a n s tthat
sseries.
e r i e s This
system
yst e m
"Calculating
" M "
Se r i e s
n Series
Sy s t e m iin
System
0 2
GU R E 2
FI
20.2
FIGURE
r e l i a b i l i t y of
t h e reliability
o f the
t he
t h a n the
i l l nnever
ev er b
bee greater
l i a b i l i t y wwill
g r e a t e r than
reliability
re
lleast
e a st
o v e r the
t he
u s t a i n e d performance
p e r f o r m a n c e over
Sustained
l i a b l e component.
co m po n en t S
reliable
r e
n severa]
se v e r al
b e enhanced
e n h a n c e d iin
c a n be
r o c e s s can
r o du ct o
llife
i f e of
orr pprocess
o f a
a pproduct
d
b
t
n
s
a
r
t
o
c om
d
compon
a
d
standby
n
d
u
y
or
e
rredundant
n
P a r a l l e l systems
sy s t e m s a
and
w
a y s Parallel
ways.
h
t
i
e
e
o v e r a ll
n c reas
t o increase
the overall
s e d to
can b
bee uused
o n f i g u r a t i o n s can
n
e n t ccongurations
nent
e li a b ili t y
ssystem
s y s t e m that
s a
tha t
s y s t e m iis
a system
A p
a r a l l e l system
Pa r a l l e l A
i n Parallel
parallel
R
e l i a b i l i t y in
Reliability
i
i
s fu n c t o n i n
o m p o n e n t s ismctioning.
r t e oofits
e a s t oone
f i t s ccomponents
g
bl e tto
iiss aable
u n c t i o n iifat
o f
f a t lleast
function
ll
i
t
h
e
m
w
l
T
s
l
l
s
f
e
u
will
e
i
r
a
system
funca
n
The y
isp lays a
a s
20 4 d
F i g u r e 20.4
p
system
y s t e m in parallel.
displays
Figure
f a i l e d In
I n aa
h a s nnot
o t failed.
n e n t has
o
m
o
c
n
e
l
t
o
d
t
s
d
i
e
a
component
a
e
io n p
p
one
v
ttion
r
o
least
provided at
i n parallel
h a t aare
r e in
w i th
h e ccomponents
o m p o n e n t s tthat
p a r a l l e l with
a
s ste m
a r a l l e l system,
allll ooff tthe
parallel y
p
t he r
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FIGURE 20.3 FFlashlight
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he m
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F I G U R E 20.4
20 4
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yst e m
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h a v e aa rreliability
9 20 0 C
l t e r n a t o r s eeach
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ttheir
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e l i a b i l i t y vvalues
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o
off 0.9936.
r2 = 0.9200
lt e r n a t o r 2
A
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2
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FIGURE 20.5
F IGU R E 2 0 5
t h e operop
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ase
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o o iis
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s vvery
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a lc u la t e
Calculate
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reliability
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yst e m :
a t a m o m e n t s n o t ic e
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tthe
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9992
0.9600(1
0.9800)
0.9992
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9992
v e r a l l rreliability
h i s redundant
s y s t e m iis
s 0
The
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0.9992.
off tthis
r r
CHAPTER TWENTY
244
EN T Y
c H A PT ER T W
244
I TH
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IX S
SIGMA
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h o w n iin
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s y s t e m sshown
h e alarm
a l a r m system
tthe
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h e rreliability
s C
Calculate
o m p o n e n tts.
b a c k u p ccomponen
n d backup
s e r i e s parallel,
p a r a l l e l aand
0 99
= 0.99
o l lo w s :
s ffollows:
h e ssystem
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h e ooverall
The
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e te r m in in g
e g in b
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begin
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t h e ooverall
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o c
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off tthe
r e l ia b i l it y o
v e r a l l reliability
t h e ooverall
the
of
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84
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yst e m s
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s a
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Reliability
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F
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20.6
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2
51
251
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2
52
252
C
H A PT ER T
W EN T Y O
N E
CHAPTER
TWENTY
ONE
rb
T O O L S at WORK
I G M A TOOLS
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2
288
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253
253
Pl a c k e t t B u r m a n S
c re e n in g D
e s ign s
Plackett-Burman
Screening
Designs
u se
t io n s t h a t m a
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254
C
H A PT ER T
W EN T Y O
N E
CHAPTER
TWENTY
ONE
F
a c to rs A
Factors
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255
255
F u n c t io n
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I G U RE 21.7
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2 1 11
Fi g u r e 21.1
N O V A compares
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) An
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ANOMs,
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2
58
258
C
H A PT ER T
W EN T Y O
N E
CHAPTER
TWENTY
ONE
TP2
TP2
Tp2
Tp2
TP1
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5
Si1
F
IG U R E 2
1 10
FIGURE
21.10
51
81
5
2
82
I n t e r a c t io n E
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FIG
U RE 2
1 11
FIGURE
21.11
Optimizing Order
'
Pick, Pack, "and "Ship
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t h e jjob
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p ic k i n g
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t h e team
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proposed
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F
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as 50 unique products, numbering up to 5,000 of each unique
rodu c t C
H S
h i p p i n g uuses
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off iitems
ccustomers
u s t o m e r s iincrease.
n c re ase
F
IG U R E 2
FIGURE
1 12
21.12
Q
u a n t i t y (Qty):
( Q ty ) :
Quantity
w
ave
wave
L
in es:
Lines.-
To t a l nnumber
u m be r o
Total
i e c e s picked
off ppieces
i t h i n aa g
iv e n
p ic ke d w
within
given
T
he d
i ff e r e n t iitems
The
different
t e m s ((products)
p r o d u c t s ) oon
h e oorder
n tthe
rde r n
e e d in g
needing
tto
o b
ic k e d
e p
be
picked
C
u be :
Cube:
T
h e space
s p a c e needed
The
n e e d e d ffor
he q
o r tthe
u a n t it y o
quantity
i n e s ffor
off llines
or a
p
a parl a r g e s t ooutbound
order ((largest
u t bo u n d p
a rc e l b
parcel
o x ccube
u be o
box
r ttote
o t e cube;
c u be ;
or
t
o t e iis
s a
aa tote
a b
o x without
w it h o u t a
box
to p)
a top)
i c u ta r
tticular
o rde r
W
e igh t :
Weight:
o
rd e r
order
T
he
The
i g h t ooff tthe
weight
h e quantity
q u a n t it y ooff llines
i n e s for
f o r aa particular
p a r t ic u la r
w e
L
eve l
Level
M
ax Q
ty
Max
Qty
5 0 0 0 (+)
(+ )
5000
1
0
0
100 (H)
P
ack
Pack
Ma x L
in e s
Max
Lines
5 0 ((+)
+ )
50
1
0 (H)
10
S
h ip
Ship
D
e pa r t m en t Wo r kl
Department
o ad U
Workload
s i n g Wave
W av e O
Using
r de r P
Order
r o c e ss in
Processing
g
M
a x Cube
C u be
Max
M
ax W
e i Bh t
Max
Weight
P
a r c e l ((+)
+ )
Parcel
1
5 0 (+)
(+ )
150
T
o t e (H)
Tote
2 5 (H)
25
D
e s ig n
Design
x pe r im e n t s
Experiments
off E
2
59
259
Batch template parameters are

5:00 AM.7:00 AM. >
user-defined and can be adjusted for
BUild and save batches (see

batching
pareme
cube, weight, lines, etc. Theserecommended settings are defined

o cum e nt
tta c he d d
t h e aattached
iin
document.
n the
ter settin g s ) ,
11
ii
:
Release work to cue the buffer

xfor
= :
sortation-
Release 1420 waves
7 0 0 A-M-
730
' "
(minimum of 14).
cue
"
"
area
Use Wave status report to monitor

Begin picking first set of waves.
picks by wave and picks remaining
7:00 AM. > Pick waves complete and fill > by wave by pick area to monitor wave
Buffer.
pick complete.
l
Use staggered start times and
7
:3 0
7:30
A
M
AM.
>
start Sortation and Packing at

7:30 or however long it requires
to buffer 14-20 waves.
4 2 0 active
a c t iv e
ic k 1
nd p
a
1420
pick
and
w ave
s e wave
t im e U
Use
w ave s a
att aa time.
waves
l e a n iinducted
n du c te d >
>
o cclean
r e p o r t tto
t a t u s report
M > sstatus
7 :3 0 A
M - 3 :0 0 p
PM.
A.M.-3:00
7:30
waves to complete to ensure
o r t a t io n
fflow
l o w tto
o s
sortation.
R
e le a s e
Release
ast
e n d s llast
c o m p le t e s o
A s oone
a v e completes
ne w
orr ssends
wave
As
l
i
i
t
d
a
n
d
o
a
h
a
n
t
n
e
s
a
e
e
s
additional
m
an
g then
message
a in t a in
o m
e l e a s e d tto
maintain
e rreleased
h o u ld b
w av e s
be
should
wave
i
t
s
w
a
v
e
e
v
4 2 0 active
1
ac
waves.
1420
ttote
o te
c t iv e
as a
r it i c a l as
n
ot a
active
ass ccritical
not
waves circulating in the Buffer Area.
is
i c k s is
O
picks
Open
pe n p
Release Air waves at point of

Upon adequate open Butter lanes
minimum active picks to ensure > release Air waves. Air wave release
3:00 PM. ->
open Buffer lanes for Air wave
priority picks in pick areas to force
flow through.
pickers to pick these waves first due
tto
o
active
'
and pick 14w20
.
waves at a time. Use weve
l e a n iinducted
n d u c t / d
t a t u s rreport
o cclean
e p o r t tto
M <> sstatus
3 : 10 pPM.
3:10
R
e le a s e
Release
t o ensure
e n s li re
o ccomplete
o m p l e t e to
waves tto
flow to sortation.
As one wave com p letes or s e nds St

m m
$i::::$geb:1gggszgig'glntain
to m a in t a in
h u
e r e le a
1 t a
w ave s
w av es
)
? ? ? >
3 : 1 0 pP.M.-???
M
3:10
FIGURE 21.13
F I G U RE 2 1 1 3
re
w ave s a
c t iv e waves
e n s u re a
are
ensure
active
ccompleted.
o m p le t e d
t o establish
e s t a b l is h a
nd
o s s i b l e to
and
o n t r o l l a b l e it
s ccontrollable,
it iiss ppossible
a c t o r iis
W he n a
a ffactor
When
h e eexperiment.
h is
n tthis
h r o u g h o u t tthe
x p e r i m e n t IIn
e v e l tthroughout
he p
a r t i c u l a r llevel
particular
m
a i n t a i n tthe
maintain
f
l
l
h
h
t
t
t
l
t
e
e
e
e
v
e
s
o
r
b
s
o
t
a
e
i
a
r
e
r
t
the
o
s
i
levels
for
a
nves g
are able to set the
e
x p e r i m e n t investigators
experiment,
e ig h t
i n e s ccube.
and w
u b e and
weight.
u a n t i t y llines,
quantity,
q
a r i a b le s
Re s p o n s e V
Variables
Response
to
h e rreaction
r o c e s s to
e a c t io n o
to d
e s c r i b e tthe
u s e d to
a r e used
off aa pprocess
describe
T h e s e vvariables
a r i a b l e s are
These
t h is
h e rresponse
a r i a b l e ffor
o r this
h o s e n ffactors.
h e cchosen
iin
a c to rs T
n tthe
The
P
H
O
d
e
e
r
o
u
r
r
i
r
i
t
s Order Per Hour.
e
x p e r m e n is
experiment
a r ia t i o n s
vvariations
fec t
Ef
Effect
h e iinvestih e eexperiment.
nv est i
x pe r im e n t T
o u tc o m e o
ff e c t iis
t h e rresult
e s u lt o
T h e eeffect
The
s the
orr outcome
off tthe
The
in d
a r a m e te r s
w ave p
t h e ooptimal
e t e r m i n i n g the
n t e r e s t e d in
r e iinterested
parameters.
determining
p t i m a l wave
gators
g a t o r s aare
o
cconsolidated
o n s o l i d a t e d tto
o
optimize
p t i m iz e
c u s t o m e r orders
a
o r de r s
w a v e iis
s a
customer
wave
i c k i n g oone
h o u s e picking
c t i v i t i e s IInstead
ne o
rde r a
n st e a d o
warehouse
order
att aa
off ppicking
p i c k i n B aactivities.
A
A
t i m e many
a r e picked.
m any o
r d e r s are
time,
p ic k e d
orders
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
ip
d Sh
and
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an
T
reatm e n t
Treatment
Fa c t o r s
Co n t r o l l a b l e Factors
Controllable
w a re
4:' 4_20
4 2 0 aactive
Na v e s '
c ti
waves
w av es
C
e m a i n i n g waves.
o m p l e t e rremaining
Complete
o
M
e p o r t tto
a v e status
s t a t u s rreport
o n it o r w
Monitor
wave
ick , P
1o w c h a r t ffor
F
o r O
r der P
ack,
Pick,
Pack,
Order
Flowchart
b
a tc h o
off
batch
s ta tu s
r i o r it y status.
system
priority
ys te rn p
T
h e nnumber
r e a t m e n t s iis
t h e nnumber
s b
ased o
u m be r o
u m be r o
ac to rs a
nd
The
off ttreatments
based
onn the
off ffactors
and
i t h eeach
h e llevels
tthe
a c h ffactor.
B a s e d oon
h e nnumber
f
s s o c ia te d w
a c t o r Based
e v e ls a
n tthe
u m be r o
with
associated
of
av e s
w
waves
d a y aand
h e eease
n d tthe
a s e of
r o c e s s e d per
o f wave
w ave b
u i ld i n g a
u ll
processed
building,
p e r day
p
a ffull
h o s e n ((Table
Ta b l e 2
F
1 3)
e s ig n w
a s cchosen
a c t o r ia l d
factorial
design
was
21.3).
D
re e do m
e gr e e s o
off F
Freedom
Degrees
The d
t h e ttotal
e gr e e o
r e e d o m iin
n a
s the
u m be r o
o t a l nnumber
The
degree
off ffreedom
ann eexperiment
off
in u s 1
h e r e aare
llevels
e r e tthere
w o llevels
e v e l s ffor
or a
ac to rs m
e v e l s ffor
or
r e ttwo
minus
1. H
Here
alll l ffactors
4 X
2
t he d
o the
e gr e e s o
e q u a ls
r e e d o m equals
E
a c h ffactor
actor (
(4
2 = 88)) sso
degrees
off ffreedom
each
8
8 - 11 = 77.
=
In t e r a c t io n
Interaction
t o g e t h e r tto
a rresult
e s u lt
i l l wwork
ro d uc e a
fa c to rs w
o p
B e c a u s e the
o r k together
t h e ffour
o u r factors
produce
will
Because
i n B ly
n l y uused
s e d ssingly.
if eeach
e r e oonly
ha t w
ac h w
d i f f e r e n t ffrom
o u l d result
r e s u l t if
ro m w
were
what
would
different
n
o n s id e r e d iin
t ha t m
e cconsidered
u st b
h e ffour
iinteractions
e t w e e n tthe
o u r that
x is t b
be
n t e r a c t io n s e
must
exist
between
Th e eexperiment.
x pe r im e n t
the
((continued
c o n t i n u e d ))
N E
WEN T Y O
ONE
H A PT ER T
C
TWENTY
CHAPTER
60
260
t i m Iz i "
Order Pick, Pack, and Ship
Experiment Design for Optimizing
2 1 3
TABLE 21.3
iiiiiiii
Max Lines
Max Qty
Test Wave
5
5
'100
3
3
00 0
5
5.000
1u u
00
1
100
6
6
00
1
100
10
10
000
5
5.000
1
111
P
a rc e l
Parcel
50
1
150
10
10
P
a rc e l
Parcel
15 0
150
T
o te
Tote
15 0
150
T
ote
Tote
P
a rc e l
Parcel
10
10
P
a rc e l
Parcel
P
a rc e l
Parcel
3
1
13
000
5
5,000
5
0
50
T
ote
Tote
14
14
00
1
100
0
5
50
T
ote
Tote
1
155
000
5
5,000
0
1
10
T
ote
Tote
R e p e t it i o n
Repetition
ari
o u rc e o
off vvari
e a s u r a b l e ssource
ut m
n c o n t r o l l a b le b
measurable
but
s a
a c t o r iis
A nnoise
o i s e ffactor
ann uuncontrollable
A
i
t
m
e
r
f
d
f
w
b
o
e
r
u
r e buffer
a c t o rs a
downtime,
h e nnoise
o i s e ffactors
are
h i s eexperiment
x p e r i m e n t tthe
o r tthis
t io n F
a
For
ation.
i
t
m
e
h ip p in g d
ow n
n d sshipping
downtime.
ic k d
o w n t im e a
and
downtime,
pick
p
Run
to
r e a t m e n t to
n e ttreatment
t h e aapplication
r i a l the
p p l i c a t i o n ooff oone
run iiss aann eexperimental
i
l
i
n
a
0
i
1
u
s
h
n
e
s
f
t
0
0
1
i
a
w
using
g
t
o
t
lines,
i
A
10
n
u
a
with
l
t
100,
t
n
A qquantityy of
unit.
ne e
x pe r im e n a u
o
experimental
one
n e rrun.
u n
s oone
5 p
o u n d s iis
e ig h i n g 2
pounds
nd w
ttote,
25
ote a
weighing
and
ru n
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
T
ote
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1
100
00
1
100
25
25
P
a rc e l
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0
5
50
N
a c to r
o is e F
Factor
Noise
A
A
15 0
150
0
1
10
16
15
1
50
150
T
o te
Tote
00
1
100
2
1
12
1
50
150
T
ote
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0
5
50
000
5
5.000
9
9
150
Parcel
0
1
10
0
10
100
8
8
50
10
10
5
000
5,000
7
7
50
1
150
50
50
0
5
50
000
5
5,000
5
5
P
a rc e l
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Pa r c e l
0
1
10
00
1
100
4
4
Max Weight
0
5
50
000
Max Cube
R
e p e ?it i o n s
Repetitions
o n d it i o n
t r e a t m e n t ccondition.
i p l e rresults
e s u lt s o
off aa treatment
are multiple
a r e m u lt
S i g n if i c a n c e
Significance
ad
f a c t o r llevels
e v e ls h
t h e factor
t o the
had
t h e changes
c h a n g e s to
h e t h e r the
of: wwhether
id
d
d
h
t
s
w
r
1
o
e
r
o
n other words, did
a r i a b l e In
t h e rresponse
e s p o n s e vvariable.
e f fe c t o
i g n i f i c a n t effect
onn the
a
a ssignificant
r e s u lt ?
f f e c t the
t h e result?
e ig h t a
or w
; i n e s ccube.
u b e or
affect
weight
h e quantit
h a n g i r : g tthe
cchanging
q Aj a n i : y , lines,
t
ccontrolled
i
t
o n t r o l le d
s
e
u
r
s
t
i
a
o
h
t
e
s
i
n
v
t
e
n
up
p
m
e
i
h e eexperiment,
set
x pe r
g
1b
the investigators
o n d A c l ithe
To cconduct
f
f
l
t
h
t
a
c t o r ia l
u
b
d
e
d
t
e
6
1
o
f
e
n
factorial
n
s
:
r
u
i
full
t
h
e
by
the
d
c
a
y
E
o
ase
uruns
ns b
onn each of the 16 runs denoted
based
r de rs
l
t
.
o
o
m
e
r
t
f
c
s
a
u
o
m
a
c
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r
n
Th
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s
i
2
1
0
orders,
r
u
e
s
+
b
customer
:
)
i
actual
:
e
d
runs,
from
(
These
n
e
: g
(z'able 21.3).
design
o r kw e e k
t h e nnormal
o rm a l w
o f the
u t s id e of
workweek.
l a c e oon
at u r d a y o
a S
ttool"
n a
c* p
outside
Saturday,
place
:
he
h e iinvestigators
a n a l y z e d tthe
n v e s t i g a t o r s analyzed
h e eexperiment,
x p e r i m e n t tthe
:Following
a i l w i n g tthe
to
h e ooptimum
e t t i n g s to
a v e ssettings
2 : 4 ) tto
T a b fe 21.4)
e n t i f y tthe
o id
es
ui t s ((Table
wave
identify
pt im u m w
results
T
he d
e t e : m !n A t io n
determination
The
R
e p l ic a t e
Replicate
he
o t tthe
t o aa rrepeat
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e p l i c a t e d it
s rreplicated.
it rrefers
n e
aan
experiment
he d
e s ig n
l
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t
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n
e
r
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e
r
m
e
it
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o
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hen
W
When
k d S
hi
l t i frcr; optiniifzir'i-Pfiig, P
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t R
Pckfaiid
Results
p i
TABLE 2211 .44 :E EExperiment
x
er m en
ac
esu
M
ty
ax Q
Qty
Max
in e s
M
ax L
Lines
Max
M
Cu be
a x Cube
Max
M
e ig ht
ax W
Max
Weight
O
r de r / Ho u r
Order/Hour
000
5
5,000
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5
50
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1
50
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8
8.22
2
2
0
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100
0
5
50
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1
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150
8
8.11
3
3
5 000
5,000
10
10
P
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150
150
6
6.11
10
10
1
50
150
6
6.33
1
50
150
7
9
7.9
150
150
1
50
150
150
150
8 2
8.2
4 5
4.5
5
5.11
ave
T
e st W
Wave
Test
8
8
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1
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10
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To t e
Tote
T
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T
ote
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9
9
000
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8 3
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25
8
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1
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00 0
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10
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9
59
5
4
4
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5
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5.000
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6
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7
7
5
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12
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255
2
6
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16
16
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10
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10
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15
15
8 1
8,1
5
5.11
9
4
4.9
Scanned by
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CamScanner
Scanned
T
o te
Tote
2
255
D
e s ign o
x pe r im e n t s
Design
off E
Experiments
i z e fflow
l o w tthrough
hro u gh P
ic k P
h e ir
he y b
h ip T
a c k and
maximize
and S
e g a n ttheir
Pick,
Pack,
Ship.
They
began
t he m
i m p l e ooff m
o s t ssimple
A N OG oorr aanalysis
n a ly s is o
e t h o d s : ANOG
the
most
methods:
off
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CHAPTER TWENTY ONE
262
C H A PT ER T WEN T Y O N E
262
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cCHAPTER
H A P T E R
TWENTY
T W O
TWO
F F EC T S
N D E
F
A IL U R E M
O D ES A
EFFECTS
FAILURE
AND
MODES
A
N A LY S I S
ANALYSIS
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C
H A PT ER T
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V
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9 Risk Prlorlty
3 Code
Recommended
Action.
Responsibility,
Target Date
WO
T W EN T Y T
H A P T E R TWENTY
C
TWO
CHAPTER
266
266
Effect
C
r it e r ia
Criteria
No E
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F
I G U R E 22.3
22 3
FIGURE
ffe c t
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F
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2 4
FIGURE
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Six
about
m a n a ge m e n t
vValue-added
a lu e a d de d p
r o c ess
process
2
73
273
APPENDIX 1
Normal Curve Areas P(Z s 20)
>
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
3.8
3.7
3.6
.0001
.0001
.0001
.0001
.0001
000 1
.0001
.0001
.0001
000 1
.0001
3 5
-3.5
3 4
3.4
3 3
-3.3
3 2
3.2
3 1
3.1
0002
.0002
0002
.0002
0003
.0003
000 5
.0005
000 7
.0007
0 0 10
.0010
0 0 14
.0014
0 0 19
.0019
00 26
.0026
00 36
.0036
0048
.0048
0064
.0064
0 08 4
.0084
0 1 10
.0110
0 14 3
.0143
0002
.0002
0003
.0003
0004
.0004
0005
.0005
0008
.0008
00 11
.0011
0 0 15
.0015
002 1
.0021
0 0 28
.0028
0038
.0038
00 5 1
.0051
0068
.0068
0089
.0089
0 1 16
.0116
0 15 0
.0150
0 19 2
.0192
0 244
.0244
0307
.0307
0 384
.0384
04 75
.0475
0 58 2
.0582
0708
.0708
08 53
.0853
10 2 0
.1020
1 2 10
.1210
.0001
.0001
00 0 1
.0001
00 0 2
.0002
00 03
.0003
0004
.0004
00 06
.0006
00 08
.0008
00 11
.0011
0 0 15
.0015
002 1
.0021
00 29
.0029
00 3 9
.0039
00 52
.0052
0069
.0069
009 1
.0091
0 1 19
.0119
0 15 4
.0154
(J IL J :
.0197
Ci 5 :
.0250
03 i 4
.0314
0392
.0392
048 5
.0485
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
000 1
.0001
000 1
.0001
000 1
.0001
.0001
.0001
.0001
0002
.0002
000 3
.0003
0004
.0004
0006
.0006
0008
.0008
0 0 12
.0012
0 0 16
.0016
00 23
.0023
003 1
.0031
004 1
.0041
00 55
.0055
(30 7 3
.0073
00 96
.0096
0 12 5
.0125
c: 1 6 2
.0162
0 20 7
.0207
0: 62
.0262
0329
.0329
0409
.0409
0 50 5
.0505
.0001
.0001
.0001
0002
.0002
000 3
.0003
000 5
.0005
000 6
.0006
0009
.0009
0 0 13
.0013
0 0 18
.0018
00 24
.0024
00 3 3
.0033
0044
.0044
00 5 9
.0059
0078
.0078
0 10 2
.0102
0 13 2
.0132
0 17 0
.0170
0 2 17
.0217
0 274
.0274
0344
.0344
0427
.0427
0526
.0526
064 3
.0643
0778
.0778
0934
.0934
1 1 12
.1112
13 14
.1314
.0001
.0001
.0002
0002
.0002
000 3
.0003
000 5
.0005
0007
.0007
0009
.0009
0 0 13
.0013
0 0 18
.0018
00 2 5
.0025
00 34
.0034
004 5
.0045
0060
.0060
0080
.0080
0 10 4
.0104
0 13 6
.0136
0 17 4
.0174
0222
.0222
0 28 1
.0281
035 1
.0351
04 3 6
.0436
0 53 7
.0537
06 55
.0655
0793
.0793
095 1
.0951
1 13 1
.1131
13 3 5
.1335
.0001
.0001
.0002
0002
.0002
0003
.0003
0005
.0005
0007
.0007
0 0 10
.0010
0 0 13
.0013
0 0 19
.0019
0 0 26
.0026
00 3 5
.0035
00 4 7
.0047
006 2
.0062
008 2
.0082
0 10 7
.0107
0 13 9
.0139
0 17 9
.0179
0228
.0228
028 7
.0287
0 3 59
.0359
04 4 6
.0446
0 54 8
.0548
0 05
0 5 94
.0594
072 1
.0721
0869
.0869
10 3 8
.1038
12 3 0
.1230
0002
.0002
0003
.0003
0004
.0004
0006
.0006
0008
.0008
00 11
.0011
0 0 16
.0016
0022
.0022
0030
.0030
0040
.0040
0 0 54
.0054
0 !7 1
.0071
0 119 4
.0094
0 1; 2
.0122
0 1 58
.0158
0 2 02
.02:
0 256
.0256
032
.322
040 1
.0401
04 9 5
.0495
0606
.0606
0 73 5
.0735
0885
.0885
10 5 6
.1056
12 5 1
.1251
0 6 18
.0618
0 74 9
.0749
090 1
.0901
10 7 5
.1075
12 7 1
.1271
.0001
.0001
.0001
0002
.0002
000 3
.0003
0004
.0004
0006
.0006
0009
.0009
0 0 12
.0012
0 0 17
.0017
0023
.0023
0032
.0032
0043
.0043
00 5 7
.0057
0075
.0075
0 0 99
.0099
0 12 9
.0129
0 16 6
.0166
0 2 12
.0212
0 268
.0268
0336
.0336
0 4 18
.0418
0 5 16
.0516
0 630
.0630
0 764
.0764
0 9 18
.0918
10 9 3
.1093
12 9 2
.1292
3 0
3.0
2 9
2.9
2 8
~2.8
2 7
2.7
2 6
2.6
2 5
-2.5
2 4
2.4
2 3
2.3
2 2
2.2
2 1
2.1
2 0
2.0
11.99
1 8
1.8
1 7
1.7
1 6
1.6
- 11.55
1 4
1.4
1 3
1.3
1 2
1.2
1 1
1.1
0 559
.0559
068 1
.0681
0823
.0823
0 98 5
.0985
1 170
.1170
000 2
.0002
0003
.0003
0004
.0004
000 5
.0005
0007
.0007
0 0 10
.0010
0 0 14
.0014
00 20
.0020
0027
.0027
003 7
.0037
004 9
.0049
00 66
.0066
0087
.0087
0 1 13
.0113
0 14 6
.0146
0 18 8
.0188
0 23 9
.0239
030 1
.0301
0375
.0375
04 65
.0465
057 1
.0571
0 694
.0694
0838
.0838
10 0 3
.1003
1 19 0
.1190
1 0
1.0
0 9
0.9
0 8
-0.8
0 7
-0.7
0 6
0.6
13 7 9
.1379
16 1 1
.1611
18 6 7
.1867
2 14 8
.2148
24 5 1
.2451
14 0 1
.1401
16 3 5
.1635
18 9 4
.1894
2 17 7
.2177
2483
.2483
14 2 3
.1423
16 6 0
.1660
19 2 2
.1922
2 20 6
.2206
2 5 14
.2514
14 4 6
.1446
16 8 5
.1685
19 4 9
.1949
2236
.2236
2 54 6
.2546
14 6 9
.1469
17 1 1
.1711
19 7 7
.1977
2266
.2266
2 578
.2578
14 9 2
.1492
17 3 6
.1736
200 5
.2005
229 6
.2296
26 11
.2611
15 15
.1515
176 2
.1762
20 33
.2033
2327
.2327
2643
.2643
15 3 9
.1539
17 8 8
.1788
20 6 1
.2061
23 58
.2358
2676
.2676
1562
.1562
1 8 14
.1814
2090
.2090
2389
.2389
2 70 9
.2709
158 7
.1587
18 4 1
.1841
2 1 19
.2119
24 20
.2420
2 74 3
.2743
0 5
0.5
0 4
0.4
0 3
0.3
0 2
0.2
0 1
0.1
0 0
0.0
2 7 76
.2776
3 12 1
.3121
3483
.3483
38 59
.3859
4 24 7
.4247
464 1
.4641
2 8 10
.2810
3 15 6
.3156
3 52 0
.3520
38 9 7
.3897
4 286
.4286
4 68 1
.4681
2843
.2843
3 19 2
.3192
3 5 57
.3557
3936
.3936
4325
.4325
4 72 1
.4721
2877
.2877
3 2 28
.3228
3 594
.3594
3 9 74
.3974
4364
.4364
4 76 1
.4761
2 9 12
.2912
3 264
.3264
3632
.3632
4 0 13
.4013
4404
.4404
480 1
.4801
294 6
.2946
330 0
.3300
3 66 9
.3669
4052
.4052
4443
.4443
4840
.4840
2 98 1
.2981
3336
.3336
3 707
.3707
4 0 90
.4090
4483
.4483
4880
.4880
3 0 15
.3015
33 72
.3372
3745
.3745
4 12 9
.4129
4 522
.4522
4 9 20
.4920
3 0 50
.3050
3409
.3409
3 783
.3783
4 16 8
.4168
4 56 2
.4562
4 960
.4960
3085
.3085
34 4 6
.3446
382 1
.3821
4 20 7
.4207
4 602
.4602
50 0 0
.5000
0 18 3
.0183
0 2 33
.0233
0 294
.0294
0367
.0367
04 5 5
.0455
Scanned by
by CamScanner
CamScanner
Scanned
0668
.0668
0808
.0808
0968
.0968
1 15 1
.1151
13 5 7
.1357
7--..mmnn
APPENDIX 1
276
zZ
0
00
0.00
0
01
0.01
02
0
0.02
0
03
0.03
04
0
0.04
05
0
0.05
0 06
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0 0
+0.0
5000
.5000
50 8 0
.5080
5 19 9
.5199
53 9 8
.5398
54 7 8
.5478
5557
.5557
5596
.5596
5239
.5239
56 3 6
.5636
52 7 9
.5279
0 1
+0.1
+
0 2
+0.2
5 12 0
.5120
5 5 17
.5517
5 16 0
.5160
50 4 0
.5040
5438
.5438
5675
.5675
5 3 19
.5319
5 7 14
.5714
53 59
.5359
5753
.5753
58 3 2
.5832
58 7 1
.5871
0 3
+0.3
5 793
.5793
6 17 9
.6179
6 2 17
.6217
0 4
+0.4
6 5 54
.6554
0 5
+0.5
+
0 6
+0.6
6 9 15
.6915
72 5 7
.7257
0 7
+0.7
+ 0 8
+0.8
+
0 9
+0.9
594 8
.5948
598 7
.5987
60 2 6
.6026
6064
.6064
6 10 3
.6103
6 14 1
.6141
6255
.6255
5 9 10
.5910
6293
.6293
63 3 1
.6331
6368
.6368
64 0 6
.6406
6443
.6443
6480
.6480
6 5 17
.6517
6 59 1
.6591
6628
.6628
6664
.6664
6 700
.6700
6736
.6736
6772
.6772
6808
.6808
68 44
.6844
68 7 9
.6879
69 50
.6950
698 5
.6985
7 0 19
.7019
70 54
.7054
708 8
.7088
7 12 3
.7123
7 15 7
.7157
7 19 0
.7190
7 2 24
.7224
729 1
.7291
7324
.7324
73 5 7
.7357
738 9
.7389
74 2 2
.7422
74 54
.7454
74 8 6
.7486
7 5 17
.7517
754 9
.7549
7 58 0
.7580
76 11
.7611
76 4 2
.7642
76 73
.7673
7 704
.7704
7 73 4
.7734
7764
.7764
7794
.7794
78 23
.7823
78 52
.7852
78 8 1
.7881
7 9 10
.7910
7939
.7939
7967
.7967
7995
.7995
8 0 23
.8023
80 5 1
.8051
8078
.8078
8 10 6
.8106
8 13 3
.8133
8 1 59
.8159
8 18 6
.8186
8 2 12
.8212
8 238
.8238
8 264
.8264
828 9
.8289
8 3 15
.8315
8340
.8340
8365
.8365
8 38 9
.8389
1 0
+1.0
8 4 13
.8413
84 38
.8438
846 1
.8461
8485
.8485
8 50 8
.8508
8 53 1
.8531
8 5 54
.8554
8577
.8577
8599
.8599
862 1
.8621
l 1
+1.1
864 3
.8643
8 66 5
.8665
8686
.8686
8 70 8
.8708
8729
.8729
8 74 9
.8749
8 790
.8790
8 8 10
.8810
8830
.8830
1 2
+1.2
8849
.8849
8869
.8869
890 7
.8907
90 15
.9015
90 3 2
.9032
9049
.9049
908 2
.9082
8944
.8944
9 1 15
.9115
8997
.8997
1 3
+1.3
8925
.8925
90 99
.9099
8980
.8980
8888
.8888
9066
.9066
8 7 70
.8770
8962
.8962
9 14 7
.9147
9 16 2
.9162
9 17 7
.9177
1 4
+1.4
9 19 2
.9192
920 7
.9207
9222
.9222
9236
.9236
92 5 1
.9251
9265
.9265
9 13 1
.9131
9279
.9279
9292
.9292
9306
.9306
9 3 19
.9319
l 5
+1.5
+
1 6
+1.6
933 2
.9332
934 5
.9345
93 94
.9394
9406
.9406
9 4 18
.9418
94 2 9
.9429
94 4 1
.9441
9463
.9463
93 70
.9370
9484
.9484
938 2
.9382
94 52
.9452
9357
.9357
9 4 74
.9474
9 54 5
.9545
9 5 73
.9573
96 2 5
.9625
9633
.9633
9 656
.9656
9582
.9582
96 64
.9664
9 6 16
.9616
9 64 1
.9641
9 564
.9564
964 9
.9649
9 5 15
.9515
9608
.9608
9 53 5
.9535
9554
.9554
9 50 5
.9505
9 5 99
.9599
9525
.9525
1 7
+1.7
1 8
+
+1.8
94 9 5
.9495
9 59 1
.9591
9678
.9678
9699
.9699
9706
.9706
1 9
+1.9
9 7 13
.9713
9 7 19
.9719
9726
.9726
9732
.9732
9 74 4
.9744
9 686
.9686
9750
.9750
9693
.9693
96 7 1
.9671
9 73 8
.9738
9 7 56
.9756
976 1
.9761
9767
.9767
2 0
+2.0
9 772
.9772
9778
.9778
9 78 3
.9783
9793
.9793
9 798
.9798
98 03
.9803
9808
.9808
9 8 12
.9812
9 8 17
.9817
+ 2 1
+2.1
982 1
.9821
98 26
.9826
98 38
.9838
98 4 2
.9842
984 6
.9846
98 50
.9850
98 54
.9854
98 57
.9857
2 2
+2.2
+
2 3
+2.3
986 1
.9861
9864
.9864
9830
.9830
9868
.9868
9 788
.9788
9834
.9834
98 7 1
.9871
98 75
.9875
98 7 8
.9878
988 1
.9881
9884
.9884
988 7
.9887
9890
.9890
98 93
.9893
98 96
.9896
98 98
.9898
990 1
.9901
990 4
.9904
9906
.9906
990 9
.9909
99 11
.9911
9 9 13
.9913
9 9 16
.9916
2 4
+2.4
9 9 18
.9918
9920
.9920
9922
.9922
99 25
.9925
99 27
.9927
9929
.9929
993 1
.9931
9932
.9932
9934
.9934
9936
.9936
9938
2 5
.9938
+25
9 9 53
+
2 6
.9953
+2.6
9965
+
2 7
.9965
+2.7
9 9 74
+
2 8
.9974
+2.8
9 98 1
+
2 9
.9981
+2.9
994 0
.9940
9955
.9955
9966
.9966
99 7 5
.9975
998 2
.9982
994 1
.9941
99 56
.9956
99 6 7
.9967
99 76
.9976
998 2
.9982
994 3
.9943
9957
.9957
9968
.9968
9977
.9977
9 98 3
.9983
9 94 5
.9945
9959
.9959
9969
.9969
9977
.9977
9984
.9984
9946
.9946
9 9 60
.9960
9 970
.9970
99 78
.9978
9984
.9984
994 8
.9948
996 1
.9961
99 7 1
.9971
99 79
.9979
998 5
.9985
9949
.9949
9962
.9962
9972
.9972
9979
.9979
998 5
.9985
99 5 1
.9951
9963
.9963
9973
.9973
9980
.9980
9986
.9986
99 52
.9952
9964
.9964
9974
.9974
9 98 1
.9981
9986
.9986
998 7
3 0
+30
.9987
9990
+
3 1
+3.1
.9990
9993
+
3 2
+3.2
.9993
999 5
+
3 3
+3.3
.9995
9 99 7
+
3 4
+3.4
.9997
9 98 7
.9987
999 1
.9991
9993
.9993
9995
.9995
9997
.9997
9 98 7
.9987
999 1
.9991
9994
.9994
9995
.9995
999 7
.9997
998 8
.9988
999 1
.9991
9994
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9996
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9997
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998 8
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9992
.9992
9994
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9996
.9996
9997
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9989
.9989
9992
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9994
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9996
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9 98 9
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9 989
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9 998
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CW
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Fa c t o r s f o r Co m p u t i n g Ce n t r a l L i n e s
an
d 3 t Co n t r o l L i m it s f o r x ,
C
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fo r A
v e r a ge s
Chart
Averages
F
fo r
a c t o r s for
Factors
O
bs e r v a t io n s
Observations
in
Sample, nn
Sa m p l e
2
2
Ce n t r a l Line
Li n e
Central
A2
A2
A33
d
d2
dl
2
12 1
2.121
1
880
1.880
2
6 59
2.659
1
12 8
1.128
0
8 53
0.853
00
3 686
3.686
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
9 18
4.918
0
0
20&
0.204
d1
3
3
1
732
1.732
1
023
1.023
1
9 54
1.954
1
693
1.693
0
888
0.888
1
50 0
1.500
729
0
0.729
1
628
1.628
2
0 59
2.059
0 880
0.880
5
5
1
34 2
1.342
0
577
0.577
1
4 27
1.427
2
326
2.326
8 64
0.864
6
6
225
1
1.225
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0
0.483
1
287
1.287
2
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2.534
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7
7
1
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1.134
0
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0.419
2
70 4
2.704
0 8 3
8
8
1
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1.061
0
373
0.373
9
9
1
000
1.000
0
337
0.337
2
970
2.970
0 8
1
0
10
0 94 9
0.949
0
308
0.308
1 18 2
1.182
1 099
1.099
1
032
1.032
0
975
0.975
3 078
3.078
0 <:
1
111
0
90 5
0.905
0
28 5
0.285
1
122
0
866
0.866
0
266
0.266
0 927
0.927
0
886
0.886
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3.173
3 2 58
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9.778
13
14
1
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1
6
16
17
1
188
1
199
2
200
17
249
0.832 00.249
0 83 2
0.850
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2
84 7
2.847
3 336
3.336
235
0
8 17
0.802 00.235
0.817
775
0
0
223
0
789
0.775
0.223
0.789
3 407
3.407
3 4 72
3.472
7 50
0
0.750
3
53 2
3.532
0 802
0.728
70 7
0
0.707
0
6
88
0.688
0
67 1
0.671
0 728
0
2 12
0.212
0.203
0
19 4
0.194
0
18
0.1877
0
18 0
0.180
0 20 3
d R Cha r t s
an
f o r S t a n d a r d Deviations
C h a r t '0'
Chart
Standard De v ia t i o n s
0 763
0.763
0.739
0
7 18
0.718
0
6
98
0.698
68 0
0
0.680
0 739
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Scanned
3.588
3
640
3.640
3
6
89
3.689
735
3
3.735
3 58 8
82 0
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0.770
D
D1
c
c4
0
0
26 7
3
3.267
0 7 9 79
0.7979
0
0
3 267
3.267
0
0
2 60 6
2.606
4
3 58
4.358
0
0
2 568
2.568
2 266
2.266
2 276
2.276
0
0
2 088
2.088
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 574
2.574
28 2
2
2.282
2
1 14
2.114
0
88 6 2
0.8862
4
6 98
4.698
2 08 9
2.089
0
0
1 964
1.964
5
078
5.078
0
0
2
004
2.004
1 970
1.970
0 0 29
0.029
1 874
1.874
0
0 76
0.076
0 1 18
0.118
1 88 2
1.882
0 1 13
0.113
1 806
1.806
38 8
0.388
5 0 6
5.306
0 13 6
0.136
S
1.1.54?
}B ?
(0.687
0 96 50
0.9650
0 18 5
0.185
1 8 15
1.815
0 17 9
0.179
1 751
1.751
5 39 3
5.393
5 469
5.469
0 18 4
0.184
0 223
0.223
1 9 24
1.924
1
864
1.864
1
8 16
1.816
1 777
1.777
0 9 5 15
0.9515
0 9 594
0.9594
0
030
0.030
204
5
5.204
0 96 93
0.9693
0
9727
0.9727
0 23 9
0.239
0
284
0.284
1 76 1
1.761
0 232
0.232
1 70 7
1.707
1 7 16
1.716
0 2 76
0.276
1 669
1.669
:j l !
0
0.811
5 53 5
5.535
5 594
5.594
0 256
0.256
0 283
0.283
1 744
1.744
7 17
1
1.717
0 9 7 54
0.9754
0
9776
0.9776
0 32 1
0.321
1 679
1.679
0 3 13
0.313
1 637
1.637
0 3 54
0.354
0 34 6
0.346
1 6 10
1.610
0 9 794
0 38 2
0.382
1 64 6
1.646
1 693
0 9 8 10
0 406
i3
0
922
0.922
D
D3
3
5 64 7
0 30 7
1.025 5.647
0.307
1 025
1.693
0 7 33
1 1 18
5 696
0 3 28
1
6 72
0.763
1.118
5.696
0.328
1.672
0
7
5
6
1
2
0
3
5
7
4
1
0
3
4
7
1
6 53
0.756 1.203 5.741 0.347 1.653
0
7 50
0.750
0 744
0.744
739
0
0.739
0
7
34
0.734
729
0
0.729
L im its
Co n t r o l lns
Control
D
D4
D22
fo r
Fa c t o r s .for
Factors
Fa c t o r ffor
or
Factor
in e
Ce n t r a l L
Line
Central
Fa c t o r s ffor
or
Factors
Li m it s
C
o n t r o l Limits
Control
4
4
13
Ch a r t ffor
Ra n g e s
o r Ranges
Chart
fo r
F
a c t o r for
Factor
C
L i m it s
o n t r o l Limits
Control
1
28 2
1.282
1.356
1 424
1.424
1 48 7
1.487
1 54 9
1.549
1 3 56
5 78 2
5.782
5 8 20
5.820
5
8 56
5.856
5 891
5.891
5
92 1
5.921
0
363
0.363
0.378
0 39 1
0.391
0
403
0.403
0
4 15
0.415
0 378
1 637
1.637
1 622
1.622
1
608
1.608
1
59 7
1.597
1
58 5
1.585
B
33
3
0 9 2 13
0.9213
0 94 00
0.9400
0.9794
0.9810
0 98 23
0.9823
B
B4
B5
35
1 6 18
0 374
1.618
0.374
1 58 5
1.585
0 399
0.406 1.594 0.399
1 563
1.563
1 57 2
0 421
0.428 1.572
1
54 4
0.421
1.544
1 594
0 4 28
0 98 3 5
0.9835
0
448
0.448
1 552
1.552
0 440
0.440
0 984 5
0 4 66
1 534
0 4 58
0.9845
0 98 54
0.9854
0 986 2
0.9862
0 98 69
0.9869
B6
Ba
0.466
0 482
0.482
0
497
0.497
0
5 10
0.510
1.534
1 5 18
1.518
1 50 3
1.503
1 490
1.490
0.458
0 475
0.475
0 490
0.490
0 504
0.504
1 526
1.526
1 5 11
1.511
496
1
1.496
483
1
1.483
1 4 70
1.470
A
P P E N D IX 3
APPENDIX
3
is t r i b u t io n
f tt D
V
a lu e s o
Values
of
Distribution
V
i s t r i b u t io n ,
a lu e s o
Values
off tt D
Distribution
d
dfr
to
Jo
U-
o 05
to
W 5
+?
to
o O1
0 05
'
3
0 78
3.078
6
3 14
6.314
2 706
1
12.706
3
1 82 1
31.821
63 6 56
63.656
2
2
1
886
1.886
2
9 20
2.920
303
4
4.303
96 5
6
6.965
9 925
9.925
22
3
3
1
638
1.638
2
3 53
2.353
3
18 2
3.182
4 54 1
4.541
5 84 1
5.841
33
4
4
1
533
1.533
2
13 2
2.132
2
776
2.776
74 7
3
3.747
4 604
4.604
4
4
5
5
1
4 76
1.476
0 15
2
2.015
2
57 1
2.571
3 36 5
3.365
4 032
4.032
55
6
6
1
440
1.440
943
1
1.943
44 7
2
2.447
14 3
3
3.143
3 70 7
3.707
6
6
7
7
1
4 15
1.415
1 89 5
1.895
36 5
2
2.365
998
2
2.998
3 499
3.499
7
7
8
8
1
39 7
1.397
1 8 60
1.860
2
30 6
2.306
896
2
2.896
3 355
3.355
8
8
9
9
1
38 3
1.383
833
1
1.833
26 2
2
2.262
2 821
2.821
3 2 50
3.250
99
1
0
10
372
1
1.372
1 8 12
1.812
2 2 28
2.228
?6 4
2
2.764
3 16 9
3.169
0
1
10
1
111
1
363
1.363
796
1
1.796
2 20 1
2.201
7 :
2
2.718
3 10 6
3.106
11
11
1
122
1
3 56
1.356
1
78 2
1.782
] /9
2
2.179
B: 3 :
2631
055
3
3.055
12
12
13
1.350
1.771
2.1653
2.65:)
3.012
l3
4
1
14
34 5
1
1.345
1
76 1
1.761
!
5' :.Jki
2
2 4
15.624
2
9 77
2.977
14
14
1
155
1
34 1
1.341
7 53
1
1.753
? : :
2.131
: :?
2 6
bu)
94 7
2
2.947
15
15
6
1
16
337
1
1.337
74 6
1
1.746
2 120
2.120
5
83
5&3
?
2 1
2.921
16
16
1
177
333
1
1.333
740
1
1.740
2 1 10
2.110
:2:
2:
2 898
2.898
17
17
8
1
18
330
1
1.330
734
1
1.734
2 10 1
2.101
5 :I
2
2 5552
2
8 78
2.878
18
18
19
19
1
328
1.328
729
1
1.729
2 093
2.093
2
53 9
2.539
2 861
2.861
19
19
2
0
20
325
1
1.325
725
1
1.725
086
2
2.086
2
5 28
2.528
2 84 5
2.845
20
20
2
211
323
1
1.323
72 1
1
1.721
2 0 80
2.080
2
5 18
2.518
2
831
2.831
21
21
2
222
1 32 1
1.321
1
7 17
1.717
2
074
2.074
2 508
2.508
2
8 19
2.819
22
22
2
3
23
3 19
1
1.319
1
7 14
1.714
069
2
2.069
2 50 0
2.500
2
80 7
2.807
23
23
4
2
24
3 18
1
1.318
7 11
1
1.711
2
064
2.064
2 492
2.492
2
797
2.797
4
2
24
2
255
3 16
1
1.316
708
1
1.708
2
0 60
2.060
2 48 5
2.485
2
78 7
2.787
25
25
6
2
26
1 3 15
1.315
70 6
1
1.706
0 56
2
2.056
4 79
2
2.479
779
2
2.779
2
6
26
2
277
3 14
1
1.314
703
1
1.703
052
2
2.052
2 4 73
2.473
771
2
2.771
2
277
8
2
28
3 13
1
1.313
70 1
1
1.701
2
048
2.048
2 467
2.467
2
763
2.763
2
8
28
299
2
3 11
1
1.311
1
699
1.699
2
04 5
2.045
2 462
2.462
7 56
2
2.756
2
9
29
0
3
30
1 3 10
1.310
1
697
1.697
2
04 2
2.042
2
4 57
2.457
7 50
2
2.750
30
30
3
311
1
309
1.309
1
696
1.696
2 040
2.040
2
4 53
2.453
2 744
2.744
3
311
3
322
1 309
1.309
694
1
1.694
2
037
2.037
449
2
2.449
2 738
2.738
3
322
3
3
33
1
308
1.308
692
1
1.692
2
035
2.035
2
445
2.445
2 733
2.733
3
333
278
278
Scanned by
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Scanned
"
"
df
P P E N D IX 3
A
3
APPENDIX
l Values
ues ooff tt DDistribution
i s t r i b u t i o n ((continued)
c o n tin u e d )
df
tto
10
0.10
tt 0 5
o
0.05
0 25
taazs
to
o O1
[0.01
to
0 05
t0-005
df
3
344
1
307
1.307
69 1
1
1.691
032
2
2.032
44 1
2
2.441
2 728
2.728
3
344
3
355
1
306
1.306
6 90
1
1.690
030
2
2.030
4 38
2
2.438
2 724
2.724
35
35
4
400
1
30 3
1.303
684
1
1.684
02 1
2
2.021
4 23
2
2.423
2 70 4
2.704
4
400
4
455
1
30 1
1.301
6 79
1
1.679
0 14
2
2.014
4 12
2
2.412
2 690
2.690
4
455
5
500
299
1
1.299
6 76
1
1.676
2
009
2.009
403
2
2.403
2 6 78
2.678
5
500
5
555
1
297
1.297
6 73
1
1.673
2 004
2.004
2 3 96
2.395
2 6 68
2.668
5
555
6
600
296
1
1.296
1
671
1.671
2
000
2.000
2 390
2.390
2 6 60
2.660
6
600
7
700
294
1
1.294
667
1
1.667
994
1
1.994
2 38 1
2.381
64 8
2
2.648
7
700
8
800
1
292
1.292
6 64
1
1.664
1 990
1.990
2 3 74
2.374
639
2
2.639
8
800
9
900
29 1
1
1.291
662
1
1.662
98 7
1
1.987
2 368
2.368
632
2
2.632
90
90
10
1000
290
1
1.290
660
1
1.660
1 98 4
1.984
2 364
2.364
626
2
2.626
10 0
100
2
00
200
28 6
1
1.286
6 53
1
1.653
1
972
1.972
2
34 5
2.345
60 1
2
2.601
2
00
200
00
4
400
284
1
1.284
1
64 9
1.649
1
966
1.966
33 6
2
2.336
58 8
2
2.588
00
4
400
00
6
600
1
283
1.283
1
64 7
1.647
964
1
1.964
333
2
2.333
2
58 4
2.584
00
6
600
00
8
800
28 3
1
1.283
1 64 7
1.647
963
1
1.963
2
33 1
2.331
2
58 2
2.582
8
00
800
99
9
999
1
28 2
1.282
646
1
1.646
1
962
1.962
2
330
2.330
2
58 1
2.581
999
999
Scanned by
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Scanned
2
79
279
A N SW ERS T
PRO B L EM S
O S
E L E C T E D PROBLEMS
TANSWERS
TO
SELECTED
h a p t e r 17
C
Chapter
17
1
7 10
17.10
= 3399
M
o d e = 34
Mode
34
M
e d ia n = 3
Median
388
M
ean
Mean
1
7 11
17.11
M
e a n -= 1
Mean
12 3
1.123
= 11.122
12 2
M
e dia n = 1
Median
12 3
1.123
M
o de
Mode
= 1119.8
19 8
M
o de = 1
Mode
19 8
119.8
M
ean
Mean
= 1119.8
19 8
= 00.88
S
td D
Std.
ev = 0
Dev
0.44
-
R
a n ge
Range
1
7 14
17.14
A
r ea = 0
Area
84 13
0.8413
117.15
7 15
A
r ea
Area
= 00.0047
0 0 4 7 oorr 0
4 7 % oof
f tthe
h e parts
0.47%
b o v e 00.93
re a
93 -mm
above
p a r t s aare
117.16
7 16
A
r e a -= 0
9 52 5
Area
0.9525
1
7 19
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Organizational
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Sustaining
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ISBN-13: 978-0-13-512510-6
ISBN-10:
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,

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p d p l u e p i e l ut eueYr uYu1 a J auL! uB s

p l n h t d I a d e r \ r r f <c a n \ r x l i Rm a ] r gan1Bat l i n nr akc s u r e

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f p r o ble m s , is a lso c a lle d t h e

t ice lea der ship r

ean s that eac

A ppra isa l c o sts

blis hin g a qu a lit y

JF leaders develop measures of performance to support the goals

400 more. Leaders

istrative and logistical support for the project. The proposal

' o iiss ggoing

Vul I Ivvul II IVI

" " "and U

proposal was acc

O'd eqm ment. Th

exchange must be provided at each Maxs Munchies

A PERT chart improves P0 3 (Farm chart by 51h:will?

the costs associated with the activities must be estimated

If the speed of the project needs to be increased fOr

any reason, then the path can be crashed or shortened by

of these activities more quickly. For instance, if Maxs

28 weeks, the project managers must decide whether Or not

cessing will cost them $5,000 compared to increasing the

speed of the actual transition at a cost of between $20,000

associated with a project. For budgets to be realistic, it is

Common Network Structures

CPM builds on PERT by adding the concept of cost per

create a budget, project managers study the key activities

money needed to complete the project. A complete budget

will have information about any income or revenue

expected during the life of the project, all expenses related to

iGMA*if S'oL's" at WORK

Creating a PERT Network

2. Determine the relationships between the activities

Set up work area (3)

Set up equipment (i)

LEAN SIX SIGMA TOOLS at WORK

4. Begin constructing the diagram from the end, working back

I. Compile a list of tasks/activities.

(predecessors, successors; see Figure 8.7).

3. Determine the costs and times associated with the activities

Set up work area (a)

Order computers (b)

Hire people to perform exchange/upgrade (c)

Set up equipment (i)

Test equipment (j)

Train people to perform exchange/upgrade (d)

Precedents, Timing, and Costs (1000)

CPM for Computer Installation

Budgets are not arbitrary; effort should be taken to ensure

the project on target. Budgets can enable those working on a

project to be aware of how their actions add to or take away

from the end result of the project.

project, there is a risk of failure. Organizing a project mto