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Layman Guide - Engineering
Layman Guide - Engineering
Engineering, Inc.
Terms
Voltage
Current
Resistance
Power
Energy
Load Factor
I
Impedance
d
Power Factor
Losses
Voltage
Measured in Volts (V)
Electromotive force or
potential between two
points
Reference = ground
(0 Volts)
Common analogy
Voltage is
comparable to water
pressure in a pipe.
The pressure is
available to cause the
water to flow if a
valve is opened.
2009 Power System Engineering, Inc.
Current
Measured in Amps (A)
Referred to as I
I in
electrical equations
Flow of electrons
through a circuit
Water Analogy
Amount of water
fl i through
flowing
th
ha
pipe comparable to
current flowing in an
electrical circuit
Resistance
Measured in ohms ()
Referred to as R in
electrical equations
How easily electricity can
flow through a circuit
Dependent on physical
properties of the circuit
(i.e. size of wire)
Water analogy
Smaller diameter pipes
allow less water to flow
than larger diameter
pipes
Ohms Law
Voltage = Current x Resistance (V = I x R)
Current = Voltage / Resistance (I = V / R)
Example:
Voltage = 120 V
Resistance = 10 ohms
Current flowing through the circuit = 120 / 10 = 12
Amps
12 Amps
120 Volts
10 ohms
Power
Power (kW)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour
2009 Power System Engineering, Inc.
Energy
Power (kW)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour
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Load Factor
Measure of energy utilization (use of resources)
Ratio
R i off average ddemandd to peakk demand
d
d
LF = average demand / peak demand
1800
1600
Power (kW)
1400
1200
1000
600
= 76
76.6%
6%
400
200
0
1
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Hour
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Power (kW)
350
300
250
= 28%
200
150
100
50
0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour
2009 Power System Engineering, Inc.
Impedance
For Alternating Current (AC) systems, the
resistance (R) is actually comprised of a resistive
component and a reactive component and referred
to as the impedance (Z)
Z = R + jX
R = resistive component
X = reactive
ti componentt
Reactance
Typical loads served include resistive and inductive loads
Power Factor
Power factor helps to describe how much of the
current flowing through a circuit is performing
useful work.
A power factor of 1.0 means that no current is
flowing to serve reactive loads amount of
current required is minimized and the efficiency of
the system is maximized
A power factor < 1.0 means that there is some
amount of undesirable reactive current flowing
Beer Analogy
True power (kW) that
does useful work can be
compared to the beer in
the mug
The non-useful power
(kVAR) can be compared
to the foam
The apparent power
(kVA) can be compared to
the capacity of the beer
mug which is required to
hold both the beer and the
foam
2009 Power System Engineering, Inc.
10
600
500
Switched
Capacitors
Added
kVAR
400
Switched
Capacitors
Added
300
200
100
0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
-100
Hour
System kVAR
Capacitors Added
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System Losses
System Losses = Energy purchased Energy sold
As % of Energy purchased:
System losses
Energy purchased
CAUTION!!!
Difference in time and load when consumer meters
are read compared to when substation meters are
read can lead to errors in loss calculations.
2009 Power System Engineering, Inc.
System Losses
Total losses from generation to member consumer
can be 10% to 20% (distribution system losses are
typically 5% to 10%)
Two types of losses
Load losses change with load
No-load losses constant regardless of load
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Load Losses
Current flowing through a resistance yields losses
in the form of heat
Losses (power) = V x I
Recall from Ohms law that V = I x R
Therefore Losses = (I x R) x I = I2 x R
From this formula we can see that losses increase
exponentially with current. Anything we can do
to lower current will have a dramatic effect on
lowering losses.
Reducing current by will reduce losses to
10
Resistance = 1 ohm
Losses (kW)
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95 100
Current (Amps)
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20
Losses (kW)
Current = 50 Amps
15
10
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
Resistance (Ohms)
2009 Power System Engineering, Inc.
No-Load Losses
Core losses of transformers
Come
C
from
f
magnetizing
i i transformer
f
cores
Essentially constant; however, core losses do vary
with the voltage applied to the transformer
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Substation Transformers
Line Voltage Regulators
Pri. & Sec. Conductor
Capacitors
Distribution Transformers
Area of System
S b t ti Transformers
Substation
T
f
and
dR
Regulators
l t
10
1.0
3.5
Distribution Transformers
2.5
1.5
Metering Equipment
0.5
Total System
9.0
2009 Power System Engineering, Inc.
Percent Losses
12.0%
10.0%
8.0%
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
21,522
14,100
12,561
11,702
10,990
10,215
9,567
Transformer
Load Losses(kW)
Load at Substation
Sub-Transmission Line Losses
8,790
7,805
6,756
4,240
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Losses go down
when power factor
approaches unity
A = kVA/kV = 300/7
300/7.2
2 = 41
41.67A
67A
New Losses = I2R =
(41.67A) 2 * 3 ohms = 5,209 W
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Source: http://brain101.info/EMF.php
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Transformers
Voltage is changed using transformers
Transformers
Transformers are comprised of one or more
windings to step
step-up
up or step
step-down
down the voltage
Example
Vp = 7200 Volts
Vs = 120 Volts
Np / Ns = 60
Is = 60 x Ip
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Transformer Losses
No-load (core losses)
essentially
ti ll constant
t t
will vary with voltage dependent on transformer
design
greatest impact on energy losses
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Transformer Efficiency
Transformer efficiency is a function of both noload and load losses
It can be shown that maximum transformer
efficiency occurs at the load level where winding
losses and core losses are equal
Transformer size is key
T
Too large
l
off a transformer
f
usually
ll yields
i ld larger
l
core losses than necessary
Too small of a transformer usually yields larger
winding losses than necessary
2009 Power System Engineering, Inc.
Distribution System
Used to deliver electricity to member consumers
Typically
T i ll a 4-wire
4 i multi-grounded
li
d d system
3 phase wires (commonly referred to as A, B, C)
1 neutral wire for return current
Single-phase taps
1 phase wire
1 neutral wire
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Phase
Wire
Voltage
V
lt
between
b t
any two
t
phases = 12,470 Volts
Neutral
Wire
Balancing Loads
Services and single-phase taps are connected to each of the
phases of a three
three-phase
phase system
To improve system efficiency, mitigate losses and limit
voltage drop, loads should be balanced between all three
phases as much as practical particularly during peak time
periods
Simple Example
A phase = 24 Amps
B phase = 42 Amps
C phase = 15 Amps
When balanced, each phase would ideally carry 27 Amps
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Maximum (V)
126
126
126
126
Minimum (V)
-118
114
110
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System Planning
System Planning identifies projects to correct
deficiencies based on established planning criteria
Projects are generally recommended for the
following reasons
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Questions?
Thank You!
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