ec ORR ea ECSU SS UiLel a Saree i Maa és PLS Se een A eect er es o Peer nereerite evienenpre rer peareen eat teeeetieerner rns nhbreon a eomnntternrien neering a i core irer amen rierenceniy ey Chere enti paren eee era err ren reece ts eer Cee earner <> ecru over spuceligh apna tery wel se Ere ear rei eames Seren emrenrcres crtneng CU ele aces fr See eee ee Ser eet Copia ee =< Ls) | METHODS eC cota state pears ee eet a eer eee ee re ee ‘i Springer OT RESORT TRON 5Astrodynamical Constants Zentrumasibliothex BLA ] Oberpiatfonhoton inv, No. LALA... sists GeO emg aevainasishn' ‘oom “arson mn coms ai! ene ao Hosen he 69 08k % asia | me semana’)? on etn a as. LR 321 +clish arora Renae 1a 1976 (non 88 TAU 194 etn 182) sien Wee 1397) henson somes was ran 99m es Sm eat Sta TS Toe Cet 50) aise oa sro hia pas 200, sean User sun nese rong fe er ais he bri DS ‘Sante TOR a| i | } 2, Introductory Astrodynamics Eve hag claboate mats bave been developed compte te motion of wc Eatsatlitesto he ih eve of ccuraey equ orn pict {ody the main fetuesof theres mays bedessribed by areasoahly imple ‘gyrosintion, Tissot fact ht he force esting rom te Eh seta rascals ether fore acing om the stele by several odes of wage, ‘nmuch the same wy thetic of te Sun goers the ton ofthe la, ‘Te las of planetary moto, whieh were found ential by Kepler aso 40 yes ag may, ero, exaly wll be ppd oa stele it ond te ah, these the basic lows of eit meio te sive frm it ips. Foe ihis jurpose stele is conser hose mass negligible compare 0 he Ets us Mfg. Assuming te Bach oe phercally symm, aceon ofthe satelite ie gvem by Newton's gravity Cats, ere the faction ~rf i 21) denotes 2 it veto piting fr he stelle tothe cone ofthe Earth wih forms the og ofthe soirdinate stm. The ‘apltade of he acelenton is proportional othe insene squue ofthe stele’ Asane rom the Earths center, By mestring the uta tration of v0 dks of kaw mas, the ga ‘aia! cont! can divety be determiged rom osionbulaceexpevinens Due oe sal sizeof te gravitation fre, hee easurents ae ext dtca, however. and Gis resem nly km wih Limited accuracy en = (667259 & 0.00085)-10° kg (Cohen & Taylor 1987. Independent ofthe messrement of Gil the rai ‘onal oot. the proc ofthe pov aional ost andthe East's rons is been dsterine wih considers precision om hemi of Mise Aitance mesures fori Earth salto Gy 398 60.4408 0.001 ka en (Best 1998). The eonespundig value of he Eas mass given by = 597410 by on1a Ais 2.1 General Properties of the Two-Body Problem “Te sy ofthe motion of satelite the spill syoetic 1 fore eld ‘face mass stl ffoedtoas Kepler's problem or as wo-bolyproble. Tv wat scold inthe scond half ofthe 17 cey by Ise Now, Who was the able o prove the valiy of Kepler aso planetary matin, 2214 Mane Moon and the Law of Areas “Te fact the frce exe on the site alway pois 1 the Earth's cee ‘nthe worbdy problem has the immediate consequence ta the omit coined touts plane forall nes. The satelite eat eae the nial plane, siete fone ir abvays npr the poston vector ad hear, dso gives fo any seeleratin pespeniclr othe plane. © nw ee ete “ Pl. 2.1. The ener oes des ste fence Fovamuteraiea esrptio of hist, one forse rss prose (2.1) the poston veto 25) ‘Te gic sie nis equston sequal to zero sce te eros prt of ‘seotor sith elf onshes The el ha side may ater hei a 26 ratarnttixra txt eo Since thet desative of» qa 200 te qumiy Hef tev constant, Fock a hm const en Geometrically. the cos proc of to vector eto aight angles 0 Bah ofthe. Theefre hepsi Yet ras well ashe velocity vector ae says enduro orn other wor—the orbit iconic apne The vector Iris the angle momento per nit mas othe see gl moment. Kis Gee Page Toy Patiom elu the angular momentum vecor by T= whe mse ras Fe ‘sili Equation (2.2, arenas implies Kepler's secon la or te dn af res Considering the atelite motion a ine ver asl ine pt, thon 1 an Lins tai 1 dar es) is jas dhe atea suey by the radi vector daring the time (ne Fig. 2.10. The solu value = [is theefore known us ea! veloc ad sine We ad Femaia constant, he ali vector sweep oer equal nea i equal ine (Kepler's secon aw. 2:12 The Form of the Onbit Some ater propertin af the abit maybe fund hy mlipying hth sides ofthe union of mon (21) wih de ecto ner n —Hewer Silex yer a9) Hier veyron see Af a) = eum = Awe-n-nepy cnet at fe xr a—omted (2) Integrating both sides wi respet oie yields hsre-Gite(2)—A 2) Whee ~A means an adive constant ofimegraiont deters the ii postion and velocity. i called the unge-Lens er Laplace sector (Goldstin 1980, Btn 1987), Note tht he neat sn of Ae jue a mateo onvention, ‘which tates the geometrical interpreta "The vector Fis par ofthe ort plane sac teppei the sng momentun vec, ain he sane ve Forte unk pston ver“rere, fein the cabal pe to, Sone fre ropertis ay be eeaed by multipin the es cestion ih ic (hier -GMge Aor en Inroocing the ama she ane tween aa the postion vetr We Gltge + Ar cose. eu whee the identity fex bye 21s lexbve hasbeen used to simply the lthund de of 2.13) One may now delve two (posi) airy qaonties| * A pee eat 216) ait ae tony btn he conic section gation =e em TFeemy “Tis cyin eitesthe stele stance tse angle betwee ts gositonvetor dint reference zeton gen by Aad has defines the stele’ ph wt ‘Sova lane Te may orer be seen dat he istae vais Between 8 miniman value of vw aw eee for y =O. ans a conn ve of roan | og OF ORES ani co tor Ise “The comespning points of he rit ne know a perigee al gp ant ie ‘anesthe five pide, The ves of he min an he sain) ance the yen mai si a, Which is oo He a em Gig} focan iit win finite spogee distance he constant «scale eccentricity since Risa measure Be i's deviation fot tle ich cortespons 9 « = “Tos parmeter p. which Jeots te distance ofthe stele fiom the F's cotee {LE pes opis ab popes, sealed sams recta (ee Fe. 2.2), ‘Eqaten(2 1) iskyawn athe ction nf acaniesection ingot ordinates wis omextension of Kepler’ fist sling hat planetary bits ae fips. canine rot hin - : > / @ 2 a a lips) Peet Bites ‘steal hee tint ype of carves may be obined rom inerscing pane ‘withacone Theyre now ellipes,pabolas, ant hype, nvewecen {cies male th cul oa les ha one respectively. Inte following. he ics ofa sali’ itn sje. Fro the a of gravity ths eo ‘aca! tthe win ay ne lis xlrary evel spe, bt co fatto a lip or aie cons seton. Hower no formato on the ie ‘Soendance of tion has yet bee derived, the rial aston at specific Vie sil kos, p25. The et fe ot etch € pate Ji oaseee oeths rps an usar viable whichis called the eccentric noma Isdefined via he equations = rene = elem e—2) or Foe rsiny =: avTesin or equivalently Fol = 26088) ey “The geomet meaning of i stated by Fig. 25. ‘Esnatnccoottntes§ ond hich denote thesatelite's postion inde abit lane wirespetth center heath one may express the areal eect =I Sea fonction of E bn eboed (cos 6) — 1-0 T= emt EVE av ie sin{)- 0 sin BE Vi= SEU — ecostt) “Tis equation muy fre be simplified using n= femeon 233) ex) | 2ahreskiont Unger Suebie ORS 28 to sve the following ileal equation forthe ees annals: coor E = em Here the mean ain (CB, nf 35) as ben ntradvcod 0 simpy the notation. itegating with spect oie fly leks Kepler Egeation BU) exin BU) = HG) 036) ‘whee denotes the tine of pesiaepussge at which the eerie svnaly n= ‘ses. The iit hand side Mana~—) em called the men amet Ie changes by 360" ding age sevoton et — in ‘ontastnthe ead cee anomalies inreasestniformly with ime, Ite of specifying the tine of pig pasge describe te rb i estoy 1 ‘nro the valve Mo the mean sala some efeencespoch The wean omy at an abr stat of tne may en be found rom Mo +a —W) (238) “The eit vod the time ding hich he mean aroma changes by 2x 21s propetonl to the ere othe mean sion ad ise by 2 @ Tat =O Gti 239) “This cation is easetally Kepler's th La, whic tts tat he second per ‘ofthe eb ptod is propetona othe third power of he semi-mijor axis The fame esl that was ear derived or eel obs om the i 8 (86 (2.27) therfore val for periodic bits of abiary eccentric 2122 Solving Kepler's Hquation eps eaton relies he ie othe aot & and in he ita plane isthe eccetic somal. fonder to obtain te poston of he stele at ime ne aso nthe tne of perigee passage and he semimajc ans ocala ‘he mean anomaly One may then che value of that alls 2.36) an aly lia ana 9 ro (2:30), Kepler resutioncas, however, te solved ierainemetholsoaly. commen vy is art wil 8 apprxination of eM oe Ey=e a0Bary Aaa anscnploy Net's cue scsi feet Es oi ers aa en sapiens mone icaon oe mest enim Sosa finton iE) = Benn — ean dhe ata of Kel pation equal ofaing de eto /(E) oe Martie sen’ to Fst aye. Hone seo f maybe improved y coating se nein, = of PAE) | Ee as ot hs np so ett ih nis d= 18" /) Meta in dene ao roaeou es i pe Eas cued ye wel td fr sl c= a flrs om Hf yarn fer «Fe By een cen te rato sl be Sse om Ey = = 1 04 5 Sevag oblast talon SE pring ts anderson roe et Lane tien comb oun ne er Gee Sah 1979, Day & in Neha Bren 189, and fetes ti) Creat fr ie aan eee tee nim of eraons and ay ly se atesusa andl Smee cuales scenes so accredit acca conpuation fps Ea site en scones: boweve- Uno sto se Ke aaa ancneceigl fn or sel api, eri ier separ td comeing aa han Newton seta paar 2a 223 The Orbit in Space Sotar he steltie's mation has ben iscsi stra obit plane referee Seer allows he nt simple desetition More gencalexgesions cut ae ed by nein te ait yet P= A/IA}, which pins twas ve pee) an the perpendicular vector ,comespandng Wo eve eejy ol = 90” Using tows vectors one may expres etree denser pestion by r= P50 fe voonw PE siny ey atcos £ =o) Pav =e O sa he velocity by = ipso LEME sine PN sinceal = SEMA} scoring (02.38 easy es Q) 220sioo of Ube Sue Ose ser cd cos. —-— Fig 26. The equ conine e ‘Tienvatcommoncorntsyste or destin Fah ound elites ise irl cade ru tig wu Ea ‘enigma origi cmt Ear he i vt ie maple an egal pate fom te ry erence nero ‘aed i he wma eno) wa estes he dst fe Son ‘sien um Eathatth bein of sing ine ae the ntesection oft ti pne wil th Er ert pane Chay 3). Atte in Fg 26 the pono pst in te eqn Sone ten et ‘rect ty ete the Catenin) te conn i ices deelnation 8 atl geocetiedisiance. Thcomvesion rompers Cartesian coordinate ai vite vera my be aecomplihed athe basi eations -(:)--(S°) easy wen Sewemsiemy ore at Herth quae of ute chosen ay th sch away tha eign of thedoninster Ushis qu wan cones -D0" <= 190 for > Oand 437 fe 1200" tnt 20 = I ender deserve te retain of the ttl neil plane and the poise wit repel nite ee nh we snl eked Payee O46) “ieintntin esthemle Finest pe Aocytor Aa iclnanet nye tn pansies en is tmade is dation of revoation aout the Ea zing oppo that ofthe Eas oat,a : oF a Ielaotsntie 1 Te right ascension of the aed nde indicates the ge eee te esd plans andthe oat onthe it at whi he sei roses he ‘att rom soho oth, cs The argument of prises te angie between he dietion obesseoing rns ad the deaton of ie pegs. Joss fac! ae ger ne ptm in pac oy fe xe vy eta af ee cemenay tenons inthe bil ple 7 REN cut cee PW = yt cows en ty my rsinv 0) em tn scone sem that srs ropnd W by a gle of 0 Ge, wih an 1 fase ping othe aserdingnode), th cocina te (ye) = tron ah rsingo 40.0) 248) and coves uenstormaton swt (S05!) ncor( 2) as : s.r Inonec wo exes he sais pst in carter ot esa en aroun snd he ass yan ane ~ el {2eRETS Span cote ume othe Be of mde. & il eon 22Peison ef Upto ie 27 sxundthe new Panis) then eds he eget eects outed om SEaclont ans 5) = mecomccomcon (Ss eam : : Esai eee Se F)_(sousars~sinvcsisina® (:)-- Sue sauce! colt sy wit = rt amelie me gee a ef de ‘Siar onsets ed othe owas representation the vets Pad {that coespo to points at witdstnce witha tu analy of 0" and 90" Feohasin 2 Fainereos coe 2 4 slomsint sd Sia wcos 2 ~ corsa sin 2 = | ~sinwsins2 + corecunt cor. esy “Te hed vote W may aly Be exons ae “fini sin 2 w ey ‘tis ote hat P,Q, and War jot he colar vectors of he max PQ.) a RABID ay ess ‘sho i spcilly wal whe cotitesave be raefonnd between she ‘spatial and dhe ori plane coordinate yom. The te vectors ae usally rele 38 Gonstin eta. hoo east nur=(D4cose ies) ea T 0) 0 sn #0 sc (#59 scene dese itn od en ane Teg we vena ach oy Toes pli ange creed tre oslo) ean fee eek {Siw cn ene sl of ei is asd he oi eb 9 Me26 Atay Aspens 2.24 Orbital Hewes from Poston and Velocity Ass en showa, oa of six indepen parameters ae tequied to describe the motion of asl round the ah, Tw of ese rial mens (eae) desert he Form of the eit ne clement defines the peso skeng te bt ‘nthe hese, nd Bly etn ie erento ofthe iin spe. Given these sn elements, is always posse to uniguey cau he poston td welosity vector ice vereathoreisexatly one set of etal elements that comespos 0 gten lol ves fa aed ane may ast how to athe lemons. Pat ofthe tower i aleay cud from te olaton ofthe tee-body problem pretend hove. Ft fl the area vest vector vw-re($4) = ‘is ods eae bined re the pstion and velo. Thea, fom the representation oor W = has. fanto of and 2 in 2.54. Fallows tha (*2)-(3)-(3) Hence the inline igh fcension of seeming node ace gen by? 8 ‘an consequent ee mean motion eg ea Tinney) qt fo cnn 22 edison of Lire Sie ie Flip obits. wi slays be pos ve. The cece allows rm ent ay cosa 23. ty a) = onesinE) ‘ve may sve for es) and eos E10 Fin the ecenttic anomaly oe ee (264) 1 mel 82) cm With Being the epoch ofr and: Tn order to ind the rernining obit element wane has to deena the gue oF aad w is Solving (5) forcesw an imu yields em actan (28 Neos yan Bu) —esia Bu) tinradiansy 26) ) =a sir) 3% Furthermore the ee snomay i given by aon (ating peoper care ofthe avec quant (2.3). The eal my filly be ‘sed taba the argument of pecgce oa. = 2.68) 225 Now Singular Ehaents ‘in mny arpicaions, elite obs are choteno he news ove a constant dance fem the sufae ofthe Eartha coat lave veloc. Top tea examples are owl ema Sesing satellite geosationary setites, ‘which ae rermore required o obit te arin eater plane ‘While theres inher fey in salen poston and velocity from nou bial elements with ean lose fo or, the ever ask my cause prac esa numerical robles These lems sede ong ising fe ‘he defiaon of sot ofthe classical eit ekemens. The agoment of perigee,Beds Anois Faexample, snot ning orbit element Fr sal ecenriies, sce the ig tris wot wel deed fran alan cco ob Sl charges ofthe thot may Change te yeigce lation by sarge aout, and sal mia = ors may ea eee ors ithe emputation of ice te equation for E ‘ecume ltont sng nhs ease, iar considerations ply t snl nli- ations whe tein f rode eno onge wel Jefe and wee te eons Tord become singul, Sovcal tests hae therefore been made to substi ter prameters forthe cla Keplerian elements. These elements aes fefere at ton-sigulr, regula or aguiowial elements (eee. Brouske (Cefcla 97), ‘posible of gules hat maybe we for bet ow ecenres amd iations i dined by? ial 4a) p= sinG/2)sin [abot k= ccos2ta) 4 =sinl/2)00% Geonsely, and h los apprsinate the pojetion ofthe Runge-Lenz ‘ecto Aino the evil pau fr ebits feral elnaton, and ae Theis ‘seals he oseentnety andthe direction of psc. Sia and —g ive the approximate pojerion of eet pane mal vector W cat the eater ine eglcs the factor 1/2, which fas fen induced Co allow use o hese ‘lments Tor high intnaton, a to avid singular ot} 90?» The mean Tongitnd fc efit ws thes othe ight ascension ofthe wscening de the igume of poige and he ream soma, ny further be ieee the apposinnte ight scesion ofthe satelite for vearsirclar fis of sll inclination, ‘A allematve se of von singular elements ened by om a frm exits? +0) p=tan/2)sin® Te QtetM k= ecole) qe tantf2ieos2 is duc to Broke & Coola (1972), We (2.6) is preferable, det the i life sracor of he accel paral derivatives of the potion and velocity {esto (Dow 1973), the soc st (270) more event when wexking wit sturbaooa equations (ee Bat 1987) ‘Adopting he convention of equinatal elements by Broke & Ceol (1972, ‘ne sattie postin a vel Yet my be epesn as rexiftne pail tie an ‘analy with (248) atl OA, The othogonal unit vectors 4 em Fe cteny wibhe wicommees plop ne sate bla cose irate Tyo th eam) A : a f= coslarh YP — sion 0 aoa Dares perabelSasieObis and inlw+D)P + coso4.0V0 Hy = acd Hpyeost) + tapslatF)— by (CEA si) bees) — hy iy = esnipontr) a epyaney fe = npaain eR coue ning oe ny my 1 — 15) ae « (Cefot 1972) The eccentric lng Feevwie erm replces the escent anomaly when working wih nop-singlar lens dis {ound by solving a modiedvesion of Kepler's pation ven by Fksin(F) + heostF) =1 = a ¢042 em inal he rai sexes (1 Roast) — sat) am Inte ofthe equocti elements “Theequinotal cements defining the creation of te ita pane ate haa tothe cial plane oral Yetor W = (re Fle Fy 27 ick may be used to determine the vetoes fad g coreponing 19 3 given Psion and soe, Peection of te Runge-Lenawetor Ast x(x?) Coe 230)Bendy Aayasie nt hese reference vcs he ikl eect components re dh ne Be ean Inering timp ones cee em lao (2.70, and saving forthe it a cosine of F,Fahermor yi te exes cot) = ess sir) = ee for determining the cceni longae, rom wbich the mean lange Fea be tind via Kepler eqton (2.7. 2.3 Ground-Based Satellite Observations 2.81 Satelite Ground Tracks ‘Mca instant of ine the inerction of the obi plane af sale wi te Satfae ofthe Earth yh et ctl, which depends only om the ininacon {ie obi pane ad the pion ofthe ascend nde (FB. 28). This gest ‘Sele inersecte Ets eestor a nage tha seul toth inclination a the ‘ral pane and over zener! tides tween mini fy = nd {main of p= The geographical lite ofthe tei and is ground Fi 24The rnd tn wae ot | | | | I | 2Soeund Bod Sate cmuerine rojo i eit wo etnaton J, bo of which dent theme Between the geocentric rdine ear an the equatcal plac. The goographical angie 2 nthe ether ha denotes de ange between the Greene meridian athe teria trough the poi I counted poiivey towards Ue eat and ere Tro he rip scension bythe ht scesion 6) of the Gree met dza-ou) 34) Denoting by the me ny since 124 on January 20% he angle 1) sieaby 2 = 100.506" + 360. 9856873°.4 255) hare sal scr changes have been negesed. 9 ineeases by 360” doring re revotion afte Ea, which ist pprsimately 25856", Le. somites ak ‘noi, Sine (7) isaimesureoftetine between sabsequen meridian coins tf asa for an obeerser om Ea also hac dere feo och Hour Ange M29 pn secs a oa [As seul of he Eat’ rotation actual pred ack of satelite iors ‘tom the simple great ele that rei fom He sersetion ofthe eb pane ih the srfce ofthe Eat at pic stn of ime, Texas wth | Trice of nig i wl pt tengo ah ced gh ‘Akg me he Mate sn Dae MUD ce ame 1 herds se 20852 ary Asani: ‘mt hese refeence vcr the ies the escent components aes esi Gite Gity 2 lusting the in pe cooeintes eee Tere | ey inn 74), and slsing fv the in nd cosine of Furthermore the expres cone = 6-4 HEA OT, SS preane es sith) = hp SRO = Ma RE for dtr ing the essen longue, em which dhe mean Tonite can he died via Kepler's equation 7) 2.3 Ground-Based Satellite Observations 2.3.4 Satellite Ground Tracks Aca inst of ine, te inlets of the ita plane of seit with de surface ofthe Eth ys geet eee, whic depends oaly onthe inclination ‘theo plane an the ston of the ascending nod (Fig. 28TH seat ‘rel nero the ah sata angel sequal te etnaon ofthe ‘rl plane and coves geographical lanes beeen aminimnot y= ad {Sait of y= 1. The gongraphie! oie ofthe stele and ts ground 28 The pou ptm wi ot i Giant See Obert ‘ojeton i equal 19 is detain 8, bath of which denote heal betes ‘he gncei nes vector and he equatorial plae-The peopl git Deon the other hub denotes the angle Between the Geenvich meridian an the eid troah the pint is costed positively towands the eas a ies Frm eight asceusion a by the ight scesion 8) ofthe Greenwich meri Aaa-eun 288) Denoding by the dime in days? since 12" on 1 Jamuary 2000, the angle 249i gen hy 0 = 100.4605 + 36098568731 285) ‘wher smal secur changes he ben neglected © inceases by 36 ding oe revotion of te Earth wick a pproinitely 27°56", somewhat es tn veda Since) isameasreof time ateen subsequent menianerensings ‘ofa slarforan observer on Ear, sso known as sidered tine oe Green Hour Angle. 1.2, Sete pnt te hr a 27 = ‘Asa etl of he Hart's oun, the seta! god ek fst dites feom the ple erect that resus fom the ateseton of Ue orbital pane ih he suze ofthe Eat oa spect ist of me. Fra stelite witha edi a py ml pala aig Eh nee ge hitMey some bial petal 7 the geographic longinde 2p = 2 ~ @ at whic the stele Crosses he onto, hie by Aho = -O-7 = 02507 mine 24) om ne revoon oe et, This wets shi ground irks om hse (Gener sce visible nth projection of tie sample its of Echo 1a ‘sills in Fig. 29 Beeman 1963). Afr ks lone August 1960, eto {bite he Earth ce every to hours ata neat conta aids of 1300 ad [incination of 47.2 The cosesponding ground ecks cover South Ameren ‘nd Ata inthe some hemisphere, ax well as Noth Arve, Europe art po Asin he wrther hemisphere While te genera ieton of vin Fo west ive eft onghn Fig 29) grad ack subjests pepsi ‘tetas tof almost 30° per nit conseence of be Eas tation “The seu tek of Ee ts ypcl all ear- pieldngan estinate 0) =H at 19) forthe local eucation enor ofthe tose ores Famili ger than :Nolernce ete sep ao Be rept with snl see. Knowing ha hs ropeetonal th?" Tr the meta of oder phe ct tneston ero ‘wil hen be eal (Ym —n( 2) “a forth new sesie. Resting hist smaller than # a slving fo ills ‘he maximum allowed sepsis ir feo oN En aay fortepeating esp. In racic at 0. fess maxim ves comuonly sed forsafety esos to avoid anor usaccersol sep Isp siento ‘oe may us h forte next slp. nce to vo pid cation othe spe shoal ot however, be changed by more Wan ator of 20S fom one step 0 the mext ‘Whi this kindof stepsize cont i well capele of ane the caret eee lhe bev ofthe diferent equation, itdoes no rie ewe om ‘applying an nial ues ofthe staring epic. Aston ave isconcsned With ‘eval spec problem, some est ealettions anda bit experince wll ceria? Tp finds eeonabe vale. Fore tepration fate eb one mye str with equa 1/100 of fe te of evolu integra over serra bis ono stepsiz calcula hy He stepsina oat Technine alae may tpn be wed ay ting epic fx Sarason. Aske toy prc {omc thods hve ben dened 9 call iil pie gun 00 Severs ‘lations o he seta f (Wats 1983, Gladwell et 1987). ea. 414 Runge-Korto-Npsrdon Methods Many problems in physics ao especialy the motion of ati saeites and cele oties may te desctbed By «second-order ier eation ar.P) any {forthe acelertion Fo fonction one tps rar eloityAone eesti eon oe ep yf ad slong sols st Rompe Randi aon = 30, Hoth) = roth DBA, ’ ay Ho) = we hk) ‘ ® « (wee rat ahi +f? Dik, sudan) 20 a coins y= Deas ange Kita-Nstdp methods die rorstaadaed Runge-Kutta nthe by ‘wing (129) an (4.24 ncombiaton wih coin espe dap tothe diet tegration sonore ffeil equations ad dows ncessly ‘key equation 4.25) Several method ofthis tele en developed by ebb (1979). the highest of which seo oder 7 and reqies a tal of 1 tage. “The advantages of Rongc-Katta-Nyerin formulas over sandr Runge Kuta methods are moat teed the eeleation Fear 426) docs not depend ote velacly ofthe bay. In hi cave special Runge-Kutta Nps wets may be eva tat way need sale umber of sages to prove a given one of he cal gucation ver. embeded O(¢Nhoer ‘wet my he realized using funtion evaluations Dorman & Piace 1987, stead of T evaluations quired by the Bacher ames fost nge-Katia methods Ronge-Kuita-Nyssm methods of exer p+ 1(p) hich allow for an easy sepsige cool a ae well ull for high aesaray requenets have Been ‘eseloped by Dornan & Pine (1978), Fpl & Gr (1986) an Dormant {CORT} They ae deserbe by teins b= Dh as a autedrotehnyt Sanh) B a Pot) = hwo Shh o= 00 o om fwth = oth tS bk z= our) Ht) = wehbe Arges Mes 5 42) bee Syn i, ‘he foams for # and yield an approximation of pation and velocity ‘4 of ender p+ wher gives a eat of Ue local tuneaton eee os Ba 18297 ofthe embed pode forts Tis iy then ened cont the pss ‘ngs tte thc edo (1.27 fhe lsc Runge Kia ma Vay "Ya" eee “he colicin b= A> 0 in fie psnelr which yt determin byte er onions. dors aot fet he ston rn sine only appt a fhe spice contol Fra By ching the vl on yin ‘stizatn of te teat ee and at wl os equ eb Cesinsgnze anon Recommended ace ely ie pel ih he voles coefficients of the methods. aati “Te pei condions =I ay ay Or) -.-0—I whine at of the deg f tee eels esl sang one Caton ote fnon pete. Tiss de heat that he a ton Si (0 Fed ro pstmt oaks) on inde sep fom 04+ jth se at rst eatin fe = auth. rlosi) = Athi Sh oe oF he nest tp sang a +: ere, common 0 sek os age ‘nti een hoon adil elt st eton sl ‘ASanetomple hole tte seen nett ofDutnand Pee (is) ae sted in Tale 42. vote tnt pene is ad ay bo i srt (9ae 2. Cota oe RAT Raa Nye ad er peal ed ok Ai 4.1 Ramge Kaa Mobs 7 445 Contiayous Methods ne iscusion of sepsize contol for Range-Kutls method netic wistakon fo theft ht tie Solotion of dferenia equation foe fei at pede ne otpet point This dacs nt cans major problems a og a te iferece tween to autnequent point ix cosiderbly larga dan th epics propo by the prize contol I however. the slepsie is oe anced ery olen to ‘scp oat points, the wc of 1 Range-Kuta sed tts oe vey inefetive. Cosierng the ease of satelite orbits the ecblem of dee opt ra, for example aie fom ephemeris plot requrerets or 0 he ned foe {tumocth graphical representation ofthe eit. Dee elite pion pois ate fuera osued for a leave search for speci eveuts ike ade eres ofasielite “The saihtforwar way cope wih dis prble sto calculate he solaon ofthe diremal equation at widely sped tine span to imerpolt i the desi deme cut prints by means of an aptopae poms. A major lsadvnlage ofthis etd i, however, that eres of subsequent Rsage-Keta ‘negation steps have to be stored or nepali sini to oma ulstep sneha Within shes decades vevea amor (e.g. Her 1981, 1983, Shampine 1985, Donmand & Prace 1986 1981, Sharp & Verte 198) hve, leer, been co cern withthe design of imespoloe fro Fr Ronge-Kutt wth at preserve the charter ofa single-step meso. Me eno these formas 19 te the foneton vals by (ric hate aa een elated to on th a ‘rene fneton ®) and few adam eraatonso coos ao iepolating ‘avon! yal between 3) and yp + ‘Asan example of an inerpolant, ate ofthe Set coninous methods, which as een proposed by Horn S81, 1983) i described in what iow. ei based ‘one bedded 6stuge Range-Kutg-Feblerg method RKRUS) = Stwtobs th Souk) 6 it) = oth bky 39 Hath = eh ybk “Wich edie bythe coe oF Table 43 In adition yy the metodo Hor equines he vale rothsoen shes) a0to compute te soliton at any point between fsa y+. For 0 = @ < t an Spprosontiom st = fp ny be bane om io tom = Som ork, (43s whee the eens are polyoma te independent rile They 6 Seta ay = tea (+e (Brot) ages) mi om aes) 36) iy = o(+ec3+o8)) 8 mo (-B 0 (RoW) bj = o(240(-t40§) merase vaes of ohton sb obit beespesof hit ‘certeman nage f ih say sla acoder sing Stn tne oo et ee. "he ato rm sve single xa of a nerpelin font Range Kate eth ir iene ste he bo Has Stormer he meet ion xcs acts. lle “cs a's elo te RRP) et as yl 4+ tm oth en ceded in Erste C8) Aone SiMe 2 Uptoson te ag inept were only wall fr vera mebodsf termetit de Recently however, 4 Tender inerpoant tn embed ‘Nnh-ode sage Runge-Kata alas been aeanced by Dah Price (989) This imerpaion ora requis four futon evans in aditon hose ofthe ase mead. ‘ese out Kms ave alo been developed fr sever! unge-Kuts- [Nosed Gironde inerpoiaa,forexample, arable forthe REN) ir of Denman Prince (1987) athe authors te concerped wi We seach for ‘mn nterpolane for hr 1200} ender pir (se Brant 1989, 4.16 Comparison of Runge-Kutta Methods or the assesment of ifleent mesic integraton method vera st ft robles have bos developed by Hol et al (1972) which gray facile de Somparizon of performace Oia blaine yailferet suis. Pom the Yr test peblens proposed by Holle a. de plane tbo problem is fequey sed by may authors and dibs the rain aspects of alte mo very Wel Even though ite no possibe to cover lt anpet hat ight lle the choice of tm iegration ebetd by sack a simple example, ane ea0 eta fist wea ofthe Performance ofthe Runge-Kutta mthods discos a Fo uther decison Te real refered ¥ Set 4.4 "Te ere equation ofthe two-bay problem is ive by aoe 43 jem -pvod HP iy = -nso} +h"? wi esl fn wing F— “rf as fiee-oedr iton wth r= (90) Sod (ys, 1) Il vals for =O tat deseibeun obit wih seta ais sas and exe e stating at percent ae given by 0) = toe m= no =o aa Ho = TEATS Sine the veloc varaioninan econ fbicereaeaca et ata ‘ofa numericalinteration metho to change is steps, Hal el (1972) defied "he distil test proleas DI to DS wih evercies znsing Gea e Oto fen0 instep of 12. Thesop tine edefined a2 nal ease, smesponding‘ ce a 2 fara gam of nb esto m itee Brea anet Bese atces cae perons anes a5 to 29/2 ~ 32 sevlutions The analytical slain ofthe Kepler problem sels yoy = cee = STEPsine _ sin IaH eos asm) ase ey yy = jE Foc catelatng th tt ght) negation emo. The cette anomaly bas Tica y an erative sltion of Keple’s equation which ake om Ben =r (40 Results for voto Range-Kustsa Range-Kiut-Nystrdm mets ae gen in he performance dagrun of Pg. 42. Here te trl number of Futon evel ‘lis plod spans te fil securey Fran eit fe = 01 (est case DI. Foc highes eccenticites onesies resls since the stepize ona all ets estty team, The lowing meteds were use fe he compar “Teco «= DOPRIS (RKS(A}M) is & stage method of onde 5 wha envied treb f ones develope by Darmand & Prince (1980 [DOPRIS (RKE(T)IOM) by Prine & Doemand (2981) reies 19 Keeton ‘lutions for Shaner oproxinstion. The Foran sbrotins DOPRIS fn BOPIIS wed inthe emptor rode in Haier 987). The futher evonteend the lverander mend for elatve aeetrcies f 10- tote", while DOPRIB ay be usod or the adjacent ange fom 10°? to 10". The ltr sb n meeve, be used or higher osu, see Ah cufikents are mt ven wih siete nuns a digits nth ease, ange Seals 1H + RKP? ~ 1 fans method develo by Fetery (1968) — 6 simi © DDOPPIS ue uses the Mv oer ssod fornegration, whe the St-oder rod is oly used for err entiation. A tof 13 fmetonevaltons sue requled per sgp. “+ DOPRIN (RKN%6)) isan enibeded Range-Kista-Nystin meta of ret 706), which in cnt tte aforementioned meth sa fo the lret integration of special sven oder erat extn of ep 7" =F, 9). The Foran npementation sakes om Her tal (198 «+ RKNGITI) in age Runge-Kao-Nysti meth of ode 7 deve ‘ped by Falter (1975) which —in coaras to he her Nystrom sata Considered ere = my alo be used for seconde dierent eqns {pending on # An impleeattion described in Soto et 1989) + FILGIL ishagd on the 11 {Dither 17 stages RKN coetcen set 17M, by Flip Get (1986) a bs been inyerented ir to DOPRIN, 4 RKNI2(0)17M is 3 1200)voxdet sage Nyse method recent de ‘opel by Dormand el. 1987. Implementations of this code are de ‘shen Brain ta (1957, 1889) Te auth’ RKNINT propa ich ‘combine he RNI2{ 10) eo wth the RRNGG) Kuge-Kutlo-Ny om {ple Denaand Prince 1987, has heen wed forte preset compen. Ills the urerto choose betwen high precsiot Solution bine wi the Dv rder frmlas und dase ult ata sore wer grein. “Te code vaio auaable under the ne DLA in the wel Koon NAG rary “The comparison of the various meth ley shows that high-order methods are required tm achive accuracies of beter tan 10" ing 3 low-order code the DDOPRIS to produce big acute soli by using Sal epsnes res in excessive computing tines. A comparisca of KF? and DOPRIS ~ beth of thick ee embedded meds of onder 7 and ~ clsly shows te sapeany ff he approach of Demand aad Pine to apie the higheroer metho or falclad hs solton a oaly sete low-onler method for epsize cont The txeclent performance ofthe mets developed by Dorman ara Pi le? Sean ia comparison of DOPRIB or DOPRIN wih Felibergs Nxtom meal RKN()48). Methods ike DOPRIS oe DOPRIN ca be econende for a wie ‘ange of accraces, us high-ordercos like FILGH of RRINI210) ars ceri moe eee eve for moderate accuracy reieuens. Where sppiable he special Fungo Kats Nytrim metiotare preferable to sanded Range-Kt "Nahas of sir ode ‘The sips contol flees performs well up to high cecentctes since sll meth considered ae eabeded methods. Eventhough this st eet Toe nearer tts. Ties ease of Fuige-Kua tes, ince ee ‘tod ini pac can eoily be cometed to the optimum stepize daring The ‘nigroton, All examples were cleat wid Sasi stepize of 0.“Te tseusio gienbers isnimdotc lp ere ina valuation fing ‘ndes and a comparison with he ete sige of Runge Kuta ad Runge-Kutta [Nyse meidearaile od Inet &-¢gaubyetot thee rethods compared ‘ve lst andertrpolton codes to puoi anor: peseralasessne Othe Fesfonnance of lilerent yes of neraion metho 4.2 Mulistep Methods ‘The Runge-Kots etd dss so fr may be characterized as singlet moths. No ue is male of funtion vas eats in ere sep which ‘eat tha al etpraton sep ste caplet ngpendet fon aod it Feature allows compact inplementaton of singestop mths wd makes hes tics use. Since new stepsize may be we nea ep snglesey eds are well ued frien equations Wit pid eangesin he Canton tote inarated ‘One ms, however, tink completely een appogch hat iso eee ‘he total number of anti elation 6 much as prsible by tras ales om povious steps, This eu tothe concep lite meta Which are most clic or dirt egutions dened By complica fants with lot of sstheti operation, “The develope if lisp iteration method ise 19H a ery 2008 seus clos i with the work of aster who ied ther J at ‘cue description a solar system aes Among these re CAs, i ‘to Foe Jor i ceaton to the discovery of Nequune, FR, Moon a Ph H. Comal wo acutely peice the win o Halley's comet belo Is wile, mower tills the sc eines of mulstep methods assumed forthe ‘moment ht one has sty bated apposite aes of the slion 9) equines fj = 94 jh Tor j= 0, loro nein bse ofthe ‘iferenileqaton p= fon aay vi eps 1 fom 10 obi the nant expan gene [pa scone (4a) “Te integral camel, however, be eva 3, snc depen clon the ‘nino solion y(t) ofthe diferent equation. To ereuven! iia, ‘nereplaces the intepant by polyno pe that latepelates soe cf he values Li Sum aay 2bkaiccp Mee 43 gt ene ot fee tation toes ‘Nese pap previous times 1 shat are already knoen acne oe ini esunption. This resin +f no a ste inrement nc of a mulstep method is eto given by eo ond foes a tmx kt pi mt ei 43, whi eye con en Fyn oa fi {Sa Tepe ye pln) = a0 + aye + a202 aya? 446) = spf This ytd te simple expression PAHS = Mata Iy, F076 C2 = CMs fis Mins H1S016 lly este At-oderAdana- aso forma Oa = ics Fea Fa 4 SSF) a9)1h Nome sein ‘vt may be wed wo aout the approximate station regi as tha «430 of ne diereril quation a 44 =f Rept aplieation ofthe Ads ‘sf formula then git sntion ofthe lee equation for subse quent tines jh Thule to sate iteration seme We rst Fur values fy. fy 804 Fy ‘xsequivaley. ts, A985 ae eqs. They may for xan oben) {fom an og thee sep of fu &highervder Runge-Kusa od vith silent acura 42.2 Adaneashforth Methods “Te single rocedhre desided in be into section may ely Beene Co denve general maistep methods of abi on. or is purpose ae wakes use of Newin's onnula fr #plynomis) fy eer ha ntl posts Means Siemds ve odd hela pte This yoni s ive bythe sm exrenson ran= thane oni Lee?) v/s, asp te the inn oie sta for EE ax i # 1 j>O ads equal | for j=0. The backword diferenes of fae recusively ened by wr vf wh and ay be compe rom the give fagesion vals as oulined in Fi. 4, ‘ain this notation the increment nti fH mtd-rde Aaas=Bshorth outst tho may Ho be wen [Oo iow -Ensrn ash with seprize independent cota nace [' (Se (45 assy A2Nitep Matos as Sot N fis 2 hs N S fia > Whee 2 Wa N N o fia > in 2 Per > Men N \ cs s ey a Fi. cnet ee th or pao nestion Nemrical value of 0.--99 ae gen fn Tle 44. They may be obi fom a Spl weurence relation Se eg Hart al. 1987) 336) “ies Conic Ada ath a a hone ate jjer2 3 6 7 8 Sik: = Se mle “Te oa! truncation eo ft Adis Bashforth etd dcreses wih the corde mi any he estimated by Comparing wo methods Of der wand m+ 1 ata VFB — Apa My Hat =F ST) Since V"/H" i a approsimaton ofthe mth desivaive of J, te waaton err may aso be express neh as hich sows adhe or he Adams-Besoch method ise the mumber (ob was tog) ‘Sobsinting the dain f backwards dees in 4), she nen {upton may so be wien is ef i ee! m= Bo Siem boot Bandi 459) ‘This orulaton ofthe cement funtion, which hs alieady teen wed in ar fnedicory example. svede the computation of the bockvans iterencer and 1 Ueefoge ro convenint at ecen 25 lg as methods of fel oder aeAPM thet 17 i cosets cw [ue ww) that ar given in Table 4.6, Fale ales maybe seule fom he esureace reign ae ye (a5 i 43 6 7 8 vi 33 ew _ i considered. Thee se, however, sera applications where (158) is prefers, Soe te ase of backward dfeenses lows saighieward estimation ofthe Tocl truncation tor ad anes cana ofthe ere fem ove te 1 the net “The now ceficcns fy ~ wich are no Tonge independent ofthe 1dr — ay be aie fom the wing tereaion oS nal) 0) fej ov (Griguff 197)- pic aes are pen in Te 4.5 42.3 Adams-Moulton nd Predietor-Corrector Mos In the mdr Adas-Basorth met the polyoma pf) dine bm Function vates wp Wand including, tte fi, The integration showers. evformed une ihe subsequent intr twee Ki approximation aneo, Ueepected tobe very toe ‘Ave (ype of lepmetod ~kaoy a he Adas-Moulton method ~ therefore uses the ply) whieh interpolates foetion valves time Steps om a 4 Fieve ttn con = Sew (vin as ‘Upon nteetion his yes he Adams-Mulon fnaul [0 Yetou = Lr 4 900 = “The oe ofthe Adans-Maulion metho i gust om ani, therfore, the same that of tm Adae-Bashfoth nethod involving med pire ford in ‘epolting plano The oc rencaton eer ofthe Ada Moulon reo hich soem by enn = 14.65) ‘sme: bowever. than tht ofan Adams-Hasfoth method of xu onder since the errr constant] sale tha ‘bs withthe Adans-Bachfh methods, the backwards ifeences may be sce yields formation tht depends on Fly Piomatoct Reali SoAyhierms 466) ‘Trecoefficients \3, (see Table 4.7) of the mth-order method may be obtained from Ser} wine tele a for j= 1... Grignie1977. ‘Sine the ineemet fection of the Adsns-Mestlon mo Spends on fi ‘tisnot possible tacos an explicit solution a fot SFist (408) nigh =H FAP ay 4)i 1 5 67 8 wal au] at sl Pi] 38 8 | 8 2 “The Adams-Nowlton foul is erefore call! a implicit tho a some iterative procedure x equi 19 no fey "To avoid is diel). an Aduns-Bashfort meted of exe m i wully combined with an Adame Molton method of oder m of mF ina socalled edict coretr or PECE-lgoeitin Which coi of fur steps 1. best sap —the Pedic step —an ini eine of the sluion a 45 Se calevlted rom he Adame-Boeort ol Weg = + HO 4.70) 2.‘The rest is used inthe Eimer sep to find the coespoding funtion Slay Fost) am 3 In the thie step ~ called tbe Conectr~ the Adars-Mouton formula is sled dan iow vale igs = Fibro am 4. The fel tinal step sick be updo faction voc Lon Seusrnige) car which my than be wed forte the next ineration sep In principle te thi aud Fourth tp would have o he eat unt convergence in acieve ta find the exact slut of the Aams-Ataion fru, bu since ‘sich sch iteration costs soe funtion vation, he woul! not be worth he tA single eoectr sep is enough to ase tht tore o he crane ‘Aden Bashony- Mult method i al otha ofthe opt metho, en ‘ough he eal wane ero i sigh ge (el rigoell 197. “Th justification for using the some rnp pst corrector a soit ies stability of alsep eth lage epee De tothe tation athe oer a Tinted computing asia, teil sep of then ‘meal integration ae alraysafete by snl lal ers A analy fe ay in which hese errs ate propagated frm one sep othe ext bos it the strs nay grow exponentially Tor lage stepsirs nord tos his lena tehnvior nd to gurantee city. he tepsize my ot exend wer Hn at ‘penis onthe method and he deren eqn to be sve, Lorde mnths are generally mote sable eve for ngestepsiees, Doe to ‘eirmod sera, sal tepshave lobe used ayy and stably soften not sa seius protean When wing high-order multe mets, however, stabity an pose stingent iis ee allowed sepie, Evetes ta yet asic) small unstoweror may then be to lage since the propagation of lca ors ‘could eu an unbounded growth of he lol negaton re The implicit Adums-Moulion mets have ch btn hs espect shan ‘th expliit Mdans-Bashfols mats ad even the apex solton ofthe Aldans-Moution fom inthe PECE slprtin improv estat conser tly. Thisis the rnin reso why iis genealy commend we ot on Funston ealaton fer he canes step. Anoteraaatage tht he loc ‘oer canbe reduced by using he cvteeor: The dublelespese fo asngle Inepation sep cana feast parialy be compensa for by Lege sepa seer Fin 45. tte pata econ ee vere or aoe mf este ei toh aa aor ce ‘To state the practical meaning f stati the two body problem (D1 ss cn ners with ba Gta ad an R-rder Adan Boson meta {AB6, ABB) ata stepize off = 04 (see Fi. 5), Sine the kx treatin ‘or decreases wih hiahe ard, one might expet more precise sls forthe‘ABE met ol he gosto the ll negation or leary shows onset finaly. When combnad with corets the resling Adams—Bashot= ‘Moulan ethed (ABMS) ial, however, even at wie tbe stepiz. ‘As compromise teaveen a cheap pric oly method and a more sabe PPECE method, PECE*algorih(efLangeta 1989) may benef forthe west ren of perturb sailite bis. Hee E* sad fora peudo-evat ep ech ean ft some dmplifetons ate made inte Bia estimator sep. Aesorngt (6) te erluation off elves tbe emputation ofthe seston ‘shoe the dominant rst term arises fram th oul gravy eld af the th ta IP meas the sof all petstios. Since the peiabsons ae mach smaller tha the cena force. aes sll err only tape des uo ecspte the afer te eoretor step. ns peudo-evalst tp nly the dominant tern of the lol aceletonis therefore pase wath be cooaes fain inthe eect ep, ile the pestis aan fom de prodicton sl GMa, wren) = EME + pir ete) a5) Sine ie computaion of he perturbations fs much more ne-coostang dnt ofthe ental acceleration tem, the PECE® method nesses he stb at nest ‘0 atonal cx Tepe ofthe we of sain cect tp one shoud ot ria Ineeae the od ofa mulistep mod in an ten o inerese the stepsie sad ‘hesccurney. Forth requirement oftypiel xbitcomptation ert ithe age fom 12 can wsaty be rvoninended 4254 teen ‘Tremakisepmsinrof Adm ype may eens mer vo rv clon etmadae sp pls Pa pop some SSS PRE tea ie wet edo sce fe a tos incline aproiateriateome tne! eee ce Frome nyu htt Senet on AD ae) ‘on may couse he inept polyno nition nittersy= Sew (vii, at tha woe wedi thimpit Aduns-Monlten Fora ofthe cones step. Merete donees tht ff, fea preter sae wil al ter, res rom he “nacre values of previo sep. seg this polyoml ino eine fon othe diferetl equation teats “e marabvane [ misiod am mito) = 9 FRE FOILS (678) on jer [en (7! raere Loni (t a fos wm ‘The coffins depend on ad mst therefore be ele separately fo ch dsited out salu Appropeaterecarence raion ay be fund ef. ‘Shampin & Gordon (1975). ince the illeena econ tha te lly eae by mutstep tio are caroctecized by complied fnetons fhe Com ‘afoot iterpotation cece is egies pplication. Tishoud be note ht he ierpoan gen hee onus the pid points ‘by defini, but tht testa Is not te forthe fs deat, For more ‘kee iseussion of smooth iterplaie we eles ua Wats & Shampoe (1986) ‘td High (198, 4425 Variable Order and Stepsize Meds Ine det of he Anas ad Ads Mouton mets it 0 fa ee sett the slo oft dietenial ego easel eth const sepine, ton sete equine points Ths coon {oie whenever he evr of he ston eqs changes epi igh tert. “hess wa realize aie sesize consis oftoping she iteration sad eaelating ne stating ves fo anther spe ea Rae Ka ‘thd wheneer he cet tpi be soli Atte) te me ‘stenpoltin fri ie hse Gocibed shove Bd se to sting ‘ola Both appro r fembe when pis shoes aera vets ne ‘hen costa spec wed for most of te npn ‘tote ible soon sab gneazng th dans foals of he resus sections. Inde nef nity spies the nde rd fc fecthecomputtin ofthe soliton ty, maybe ween ae tw En 430)Hee the ators nettle ty wan) cozespond othe colicin yo the ed tpn formula, while the 6500 = [lier Sesto 432) replace the backwarddierences 9 (eee g here 1987 Theexpesions “Tis -oty]oeknown ae lvideddifercesant result onus of Newon's imate for gener interpottion polynomial. They ate eevrively defined By mh Fil — fhith — fenton a orcs ps Wioechesd= ahi ash u ‘The ening) and (1) a6 well as tose of a comespoing eorestor focus may by ceed fon rere relations which ate esenal foro ‘ficient plementation of variable order metas (er ep Shapine & Gowda, 1995, or the sleton of ele an tepsize the ero or the oder ceil in use Ista aswell athe expected err for ajacemt order Alte same Line « tow sepsis seated boa on the arent errretinatc and the cet or. "alatng disinformation anew ode sei canbe shore, Since changes In the sepsize rege a ince elfot forte computation oft evelicients {A the steps ie change only ifthe recommended stpsize is eto ll "ha he resent one by a factor of at stv. "Acreatnbvontge of warble oder ani epsize mesos is tho fe that they hv oot mie tring peenedure. Staring rm oder one and very smal nil Steg, bth order aml tepsize may be insrensed up oa pin value win ‘few scp This rakes varoble oer ad stpsits codes atc easy tu ‘Among the various inplemeatatins ie following ate mentioned: + DVBQ- develope tthe et Propulsion Laboratory by Krogh (1969, 1974) iso of the eres varie ede a stpsize mult codes, DVBQ us. for example, been use or the numerical integration Fe sol stem eliereis DEIUD (Newhall et a, L983. e2Muaaep tne 3 + DINDEADM is nef the mon pep mat of it kind. The ce andi ‘cortical background ate epi nda in the txuok of Samp ‘& Goad (1973), The ogi code DE ha since heen paved home! ‘ead of program itares (Stmpine & Was 1979) adie wale wader the name DEAM now. Pure amines of heterotic se reported in Wats & Shampue (1986), + YOAS is a vole oer al slepie piste code by Sedgwick (1973. Aside fom dierent iplemeataon is characteris and performance snesinilr to DEDEABM, 4 TM pedicen-comecor method of Hall & Wats - npn es DOZCIF inthe NAG Feta bear provides inter olaton for dese out silat {6 DEDEABN, 4.26 Stovemer and Comet Methods Inthe discussion of Runge-Kutta nets Nsom nethads pave heen nadie ‘hat ace especially designed for he die inepation of econ lr iflerenta ‘sions. Comesrnding multe mets that re known Scere and Cow cl methods maybe deed by an extenson af lh concep Adm me Fo is papose the diferent equation Fear 488) snare evice to or the equivalent oar quien ‘Using pil ineration be double inert ca be replaced bya single negra - i fate rind Pecee-oatcont nati tshcrdeshonsHL. teprion ‘Schott Sump fergie case 7 a es 0 zh ah alth alk atin a —=—sMsGSsBMesOeOON fle HGH) 2rd + r—B) i sn HH [ e-nladitst resin atimsb, re shIs As inthe dsivatn ofthe Adans-Beshfr formals ome my now use polo ia rough poos eth tinge tht) \osmyonint and rit eng Th ies te Steer oma at Brat 4S Va, cs) vith coos given by v fool) +C) am hy el nee of ng Ad pare) 0 i ne tr side fo sion soca cin oe ny ‘Sci soe oh (oS So Sala! "Rc Ser msl ay ee! ye ip Coe tel be ran 2 EHS SV a won 2 casecioe: he cooiets 5 ae penn Table Sup toner. Farther vales ello fro he simple elton Fahy 49) 4.2.7 Gause-Jckson or Second Sam Methuts ‘The Gauss-chson or second som, methods Uaskson 1924, Meron 1974) ane laity moe yess of th Sioera-Coell method fo secon ander di een equation nd poy tees commendable xed epi male ‘menos for eit computations. The expt toate formal i telace by tg ution rat PS 5a, a ‘nd the modied Covel fone piven by ri BST a en ‘elstes ates step maybe obser sina equations thst tow from tne ‘AdansBasor Malton formals war an Sryeh a 95) sad na hea 6) ‘The eoecients yj, yf. 8) amd 3 ar listed in Tables 44, 4620848. ‘The expressions for rig a involve the use of fit and secre sas '¥—, which ae generalizations ofthe backwands diferences ined allie. The te impli deine bythe econs = Vg van a= Ia id ‘in clseaaogy with definition 53). By applying te back diecence oper ‘sor V tice othe expt second su form (3.99) fo 9s obtane rast et «498 ich is est equton (4.88) of the Scermer method, In sina waner ase may prove the vy of he impli second sth formulas Well the fst sone formals forthe prediction of ‘Despite the apparent equivalence ofthe Beshorh-Mouton dnd Stoeone: Covet ors and to fs and second sum Forms te lates ar gency refenedisprctalcompustion- AccordingtoHenc( 92) aul Beri (157),164 Nuera ease 1072 the sum formas are ess nfuenee byrne hat es om he nite computing accmacy. Ts i specks inp in Unger nepations ‘wher roun-offenorearethe min sear of eno sce the ol usc ror ‘in atnays be ined by choosing ihe arder meso anon sl sepsis Tender ose the sunied versio ofthe Stoennee-Coell fora ene ae to determine inal vals of he rad secon! un ston ote al et of hekoard dlerences or stating the caution it i assed that one knows the psi and velocity (7.8) ote satelite ora gven st of equiisuak fines t= Ip jk =m, 0). These data ca alvays be oad from th inal values yr. 4) by & backwards integration with hh onder Rage ‘Kas meta oan xtraplation metho. From postion and wos ne le 0 ales theseelertons a andthe bck dfereees Vay... "ay The ‘les ale ofthe fist and second ms can now be determined by Slving the implicit Adats-Moulton ap Col fos for Vaya Ve: ee ee ‘Asan leave to sing single step mead for obtaining the iti et of assertions an! backward dfltences oe may use aspera stating calcula ‘io, I volves an iferaivereftement of crude apron of the seals ‘coordina an the coresponding erence able iat nay be based eon te “Soumption of en unpstrbed Keplerian eri. For a dead description of tis nelod th sears eee to Henk (1971, 172) 42.8 Comparison of Mulstep Methods “The ltive performance of some ofthe wisp meals described sofa icon aod ig 4.6 The ws covers ender Ada Bashfoth method (AB two Adans-Bashfoth-Multon methods of ode 8 and 12 (ABMS, ABM) ar te variable order. variable stepsize coe DE Shampine & Gordon 1975), all of wich aye used or erating general scone fecal equations fa Teel tt ight in iew ofthe smilie oft TDE.TT cine erence ites sil inpieton fer model of slr syste dynamics. While th post "Newtonian equation bold inespecive ofthe se of TCB or TB tine the TD 5. Def sic pln ae hese 195 se 00 Pie {emis Cand DBhebneapyelty sa Owe hem donate tepe ‘omen Patho second fonger than de TC secon bya factor Ly. Frthecmore in onl to ‘tan the ate merc value c= 9792458 m/s 610 ofthe poe off the length af nee slike fern inthe TC an TO system. Ina similar sane derived unites like te masses ofthe Sam Eh, and ples are affect by the scaling dilerece (Helings 1986). Conierng howe hal precise slr system epeeies ares fa base on «TB ike ‘sl, the comme use oF TUE is sil accepted by the caret LAU eslaions 5:14 Sideceal Te and Univers Tine Greenwich Mean Sidereal Tine GMS. ako known & Greenwich Hoar A ‘devotes We angle between the ean vem eines of dae a the Gsvich eit, tsa dret measure ofthe Eats otto and ay jy he ees in angus units or wits fn with 340” (2)conespondae i 24a tem of ‘St seconds, the length ofa sdereal dy (se the Eas spin prod) aunts to 2395645001 O°008, making abot our mses shorter Ue #20 soar eto lenge day varaans win amp of sever ils seal ‘ne canaot be computed rom ke tine ales with ues press ba st be derived tom aston adpeodeteoserratons,166 $-Tieami Reformer yen bases Sa Sop oh tin Pst pv by ea eS Universal Te LPTs the presently pt realization of sn slate scale wih the purpose of achieving «costa average length of the slr day of 2a Asa rest the leash of one reeond of Univeral Time wo onsan, ‘ects net mean length day dependsonthe rato ofthe Ea ad ine syparent motion of ie Su ie the eth af the yan) Siac sires tie, ‘Snot posible o dtenine Unis Tine by dest somes Some gaa tne, ean theron the Hark eanme be price ecu Every singe Inte Earth’ rotation les the lng he dy, nist theefote Be ake ino sccodat in UTI. Univesal Ties therefore defined afc of sera ine, which dey eects te rtaton ofthe Earth, Far any ptt day UT ened asthe instant at which Grecawich Mean Shere Tie asthe ve @astaPUrly = 24140854841 sos0Ls12866. 75 ++ 02083108 73 —o%ca0n62 72 an) (oki tal 1952) tis expression he ie argue sDOHUT) ~ 2451545, ~ Date Bososs 6.18) aos the numberof lan conus of aver Tie tht nave lags since ‘2000 Sun, LS UT atthe bepiming the day Foran airy Heo he dy te expesion may be generalized o otsin the relation he mst = 28110:Si841 SGHOIBE812866 7, 4 HURTSIINNISOMSUTI 6.19) ++-0r05810872 oropo0062 79, nee the te agent WUT = 2451545, a (520 secs th ine in Julian conus f Universal Time elapsed ince 2000 Ban, 15 on “he diecence beeen Lsversl Tie and erst Tinea Internation Aone Time car only be detesnined terspectively. Atte endo tie het ‘AT = TT-UTTsmountstoroughly 68nd incotes by aout 0. to LOsecos De year (ef Fig. 5.3. In adit the secular variation, which is cuse by ial Toon inthe Eur-Moon syste UTT is subject pera vans on the Freel hat are eased hy el petctatons of the polit omen ne ee McCarthy (1996) an eferenes therein). By couneton, Zonal tide erm wih tio between 5 and 35 days me removed from UTI t btn the eae Universo Time UTR. Value he UTIRATAT re ference piston soni bss in Balen B ofthe Iteational Ea otation Service ERS) ig. 5-9. the adopiodexpresion or UTL-UTIR tien in MeCarthy (1995. Aside rom reconstructed, pos-faco values th arth aiatition paras1 Time Ree Stes tulleinpovides aprox forecasts over two mone fame at Say rd oy inevals. Using quai interpolation ofthe ibid dt, UTI may be aie for abit stants fom phen TAL or TT), which hen lies OMST tobe computed uss fuetion of TAT wing the convertion relation 5.19, ‘Clock ime, which ews for everyday purposes, is devve fom Condit Universal Tine (UTC). Since 1972, UTC beatin from atl locks nag at these a neal Atoms Tie ad Test Te By the uso ep seconds, which muy be inert a teed of ane nthe en of seme cae {Sten enna UTC never deviates by more than 0.9 scons rom Univeral ‘TaeUT (ei, 5) Betoon 172and 199, oll of 2 esp seconds ave been ingoduced as summarized Table. New lypsecouds are aoutced in Bulle CCof the HERS (Fg. 5.5) about haa yar in advance of te inplemewain. SS. Asoicemot fw UIC ep ms a Bak Ce ERS rd Eh S2Csot ma Teri Roemer 10 ion GHETAL| ew WTAT| —Feaw ET Tmt nls | Tai [Wm | oe Bam) He [folds Su | apis te Wtesen 1 Mise | tet “ase 5.2 Celestial and Terrestrial Reference Systems ‘Tee uation of motion as rived in Chap. 3 describes the eit of a stele with reset toa qus-inetil or Newtonian reference sytem, ie. wih espe to 4 conn system ht moves with the center ofthe Eat ti fee of oon. Satelite obsernations onthe ther hun arcurmonly elttne fam an observing ‘eon he safe ofthe Eth whic swt a ret wth respect otis efeeace ‘stem In onder o compare ground tnsed measurements ith he computed ae ‘te positon,» eons definition of eles! ante eerence stem ‘quien des mutual elton ho be elise Tradonily, celestial reference ames have bee es he Earths ation ‘dita eoltion around he Sn, In vw of the apptent orstany of eh ‘he obit plane and te ronton axis of he Earth, celta sotdnne syn ‘be defined a rsigforward stunner. Te intone eines te psiton of it in pce wihespetto th cic ie Ears tal plane, wl other ‘one refers wo the Ears equatorial plane (ie plane pepe othe ation 4s | vgs. icant egncymS Tinea lore Sse xi, Tes panes ant tan sgl ~ 235 dh in nents Somme stofethcandn sf 3 Tet arse st ‘eine econ he wena quinn or Ft Po es, ied T Tithe tothe Noh Cel P ea) dh mx oe sttielipcttie ah. Acong te eine etn rts Fan eclipse ise dyson F=Rior 62) tt th procs ae fhe aig yn in (5.42) Te coe Been Celpcandeqentorial coordinates nly 8 question of viidess abd come: heace Pantry eis or example are lind sal angles oe Eas tba plane and re herelore commonly desde in ecliic coordinates. ta. teil ceodnaes, onthe ter hd are chsly ltd geographical ccondises Sn pone natal ink oan Earned fee te ke a pin yan al a ae tong a the ata oe spr wo de ral vector his colton des nt I fete Barth deo he presence of the soa sysem planets Thies sales variation fhe xb plane we knows pantry precession. ‘te ane he Ea uo sion ered ye gee {he equator! ul bythe So and Moon. Th orgie eso alt he oqo ‘eh the tie anders neyo maton of the Bc aon st ‘ound the pe of he elie with pedo about 26€00 years. A re {histuisotarpreession evel elo este slowly on hectic. whereas {he obiguiy tte eli rennin exert conan. to ation to pesesson ome minor pros perrtaen of he Bars tao atinay Be observed at cn sl iti fe lr os tie Seales lage ont nvew of titi dependent resto of xa cepa smd: foe wu edo ee tr i ‘vleqinox of one nalepet, whichis cue selected asthe eine Year 200. Aces to the Ear eon Eyuanr ant Equi of J200 (32000) Bs powdeby the FKS sor caso (tek eal. 1988), which roviespecse Positions nd roper nmin soe (0 tr forthe epoch 3200 eee tone gen eee fame, Ine of rcp diet weed he anil eon of ‘etic ant equines he 2 Kista & Akt 1983, was cided by te TAU Sn 1801 tessa new lero Cots Reeence Stem (CRS and ptt fa se ro 198 onvards Fee ee Minar 198). The evga of he JERS sete a he slayer taryeeer win elas meer nis aves re ied ith respect 1 dst extragalactic rao objects. These ae oppose hive poyr oto, tha ensuring athe ICRS exhibits wo net ‘tion Tora onion fe mw yn, the TERS ates we cosa in eet foc Src et 8 oem sty tetera A Roe Pane eo ap $2.Cseth and ro Reon Sens sich ay tole consistent wi he previous FS yen to within the oseaey ofthe late. The Fundamental plane the ICI snc age wth he eg ant equator a 2000 ath ei a ight ssconson i ined by anata "ig scrasior ofthe quasar 3C2T, “The pascal reaization ofthe ICRSis designates the nt rtonal Celestia Aeference Prame(ICRE aso msininedhy he IERS ante AU Washing ‘Growp om Reference Frames (Aras el 1995), I manly based on hse [esison observations of extragalactic radio sources using Ver) Long Bases Inecterometry (VLBI) ard maybe accesed though 2 ctloypeoiding sure cordnats of 608 objets, McCarthy 1986), Links to existing optical eslogs repro radio sur (Sidelrnn 1908), vile the CRS ai pracy ee ets provided by VLBI observations of planetary spect u Wel sane ls ‘gag (LLR) (Follies tl 1954, Stach 198), Compemcniary tte ICRS, te erations Teresral Reference System (1785) provides the conceptual definton ofan Es iedretetene syste Me, Canty 196) ts gin is oad athe Earths center of ass Ginn sta and espe) and is unit of length isthe SH mee tment wih he TCs {ime coe). Te emation ofthe ERS Reference Pole UP) an Alrtan (at sr consistent wit she presi adopted BIH yea cp 984.0 al {he former Cementiona ftrrationa rig (C10) (ef Sect 5-3) The tine Tuco ofthe ETS is suck that ahi uo al onion withthe as ust, Realization of the ITRS ar giver ty the dteroinal Tera Refer ence Frame (TRE) th proves ciated eos and eco ela bserving stations ver authori of the IERS, Observational estnigas sed ‘her determination nce slit ae ranging (SLR, lat act aing LR, ‘ota Psioning System (GPS) and VBI messemens New version of tis FIR are pushed anally and exhibit lel ifereces alte celine ve ‘The transfomation between te International Celesial Reference Sten and ‘he Intemational Temesial Reference System accompliaied By conve odes for + pecesio List eta 1977), desing he sca tinge the eretne "in ofthe ari’ rotation ais dhe ino, ‘+ mutation Seetman 1982), desribng the period shxtar vation ‘ofthe equate pd the vera eginoe and + Sieteal Tine in rettion to UTI (Akl et 1982), deseising the Bute ‘exten abou i ‘These modes ce spplemented bythe IRS Fath Observation Paneer (EOP, comprising {+ obsertons ofthe UTL-TAL deren sd + messredcordites fhe rtton ais relive tthe ERS Referee Pole ERS 1998). The eeing eansforwation may be expressed as OWN) Perrices