ec ORR ea ECSU SS UiLel a Saree i Maa és PLS Se een A eect er es o Peer nereerite evienenpre rer peareen eat teeeetieerner rns nhbreon a eomnntternrien neering a i core irer amen rierenceniy ey Chere enti paren eee era err ren reece ts eer Cee earner <> ecru over spuceligh apna tery wel se Ere ear rei eames Seren emrenrcres crtneng CU ele aces fr See eee ee Ser eet Copia ee =< Ls) | METHODS eC cota state pears ee eet a eer eee ee re ee ‘i Springer OT RESORT TRON 5Astrodynamical Constants Zentrumasibliothex BLA ] Oberpiatfonhoton inv, No. LALA... sists GeO emg aevainasishn' ‘oom “arson mn coms ai! ene ao Hosen he 69 08k % asia | me semana’)? on etn a as. LR 321 +clish arora Renae 1a 1976 (non 88 TAU 194 etn 182) sien Wee 1397) henson somes was ran 99m es Sm eat Sta TS Toe Cet 50) aise oa sro hia pas 200, sean User sun nese rong fe er ais he bri DS ‘Sante TOR a| i | } 2, Introductory Astrodynamics Eve hag claboate mats bave been developed compte te motion of wc Eatsatlitesto he ih eve of ccuraey equ orn pict {ody the main fetuesof theres mays bedessribed by areasoahly imple ‘gyrosintion, Tissot fact ht he force esting rom te Eh seta rascals ether fore acing om the stele by several odes of wage, ‘nmuch the same wy thetic of te Sun goers the ton ofthe la, ‘Te las of planetary moto, whieh were found ential by Kepler aso 40 yes ag may, ero, exaly wll be ppd oa stele it ond te ah, these the basic lows of eit meio te sive frm it ips. Foe ihis jurpose stele is conser hose mass negligible compare 0 he Ets us Mfg. Assuming te Bach oe phercally symm, aceon ofthe satelite ie gvem by Newton's gravity Cats, ere the faction ~rf i 21) denotes 2 it veto piting fr he stelle tothe cone ofthe Earth wih forms the og ofthe soirdinate stm. The ‘apltade of he acelenton is proportional othe insene squue ofthe stele’ Asane rom the Earths center, By mestring the uta tration of v0 dks of kaw mas, the ga ‘aia! cont! can divety be determiged rom osionbulaceexpevinens Due oe sal sizeof te gravitation fre, hee easurents ae ext dtca, however. and Gis resem nly km wih Limited accuracy en = (667259 & 0.00085)-10° kg (Cohen & Taylor 1987. Independent ofthe messrement of Gil the rai ‘onal oot. the proc ofthe pov aional ost andthe East's rons is been dsterine wih considers precision om hemi of Mise Aitance mesures fori Earth salto Gy 398 60.4408 0.001 ka en (Best 1998). The eonespundig value of he Eas mass given by = 597410 by on1a Ais 2.1 General Properties of the Two-Body Problem “Te sy ofthe motion of satelite the spill syoetic 1 fore eld ‘face mass stl ffoedtoas Kepler's problem or as wo-bolyproble. Tv wat scold inthe scond half ofthe 17 cey by Ise Now, Who was the able o prove the valiy of Kepler aso planetary matin, 2214 Mane Moon and the Law of Areas “Te fact the frce exe on the site alway pois 1 the Earth's cee ‘nthe worbdy problem has the immediate consequence ta the omit coined touts plane forall nes. The satelite eat eae the nial plane, siete fone ir abvays npr the poston vector ad hear, dso gives fo any seeleratin pespeniclr othe plane. © nw ee ete “ Pl. 2.1. The ener oes des ste fence Fovamuteraiea esrptio of hist, one forse rss prose (2.1) the poston veto 25) ‘Te gic sie nis equston sequal to zero sce te eros prt of ‘seotor sith elf onshes The el ha side may ater hei a 26 ratarnttixra txt eo Since thet desative of» qa 200 te qumiy Hef tev constant, Fock a hm const en Geometrically. the cos proc of to vector eto aight angles 0 Bah ofthe. Theefre hepsi Yet ras well ashe velocity vector ae says enduro orn other wor—the orbit iconic apne The vector Iris the angle momento per nit mas othe see gl moment. Kis Gee Page Toy Patiom elu the angular momentum vecor by T= whe mse ras Fe ‘sili Equation (2.2, arenas implies Kepler's secon la or te dn af res Considering the atelite motion a ine ver asl ine pt, thon 1 an Lins tai 1 dar es) is jas dhe atea suey by the radi vector daring the time (ne Fig. 2.10. The solu value = [is theefore known us ea! veloc ad sine We ad Femaia constant, he ali vector sweep oer equal nea i equal ine (Kepler's secon aw. 2:12 The Form of the Onbit Some ater propertin af the abit maybe fund hy mlipying hth sides ofthe union of mon (21) wih de ecto ner n —Hewer Silex yer a9) Hier veyron see Af a) = eum = Awe-n-nepy cnet at fe xr a—omted (2) Integrating both sides wi respet oie yields hsre-Gite(2)—A 2) Whee ~A means an adive constant ofimegraiont deters the ii postion and velocity. i called the unge-Lens er Laplace sector (Goldstin 1980, Btn 1987), Note tht he neat sn of Ae jue a mateo onvention, ‘which tates the geometrical interpreta "The vector Fis par ofthe ort plane sac teppei the sng momentun vec, ain he sane ve Forte unk pston ver“rere, fein the cabal pe to, Sone fre ropertis ay be eeaed by multipin the es cestion ih ic (hier -GMge Aor en Inroocing the ama she ane tween aa the postion vetr We Gltge + Ar cose. eu whee the identity fex bye 21s lexbve hasbeen used to simply the lthund de of 2.13) One may now delve two (posi) airy qaonties| * A pee eat 216) ait ae tony btn he conic section gation =e em TFeemy “Tis cyin eitesthe stele stance tse angle betwee ts gositonvetor dint reference zeton gen by Aad has defines the stele’ ph wt ‘Sova lane Te may orer be seen dat he istae vais Between 8 miniman value of vw aw eee for y =O. ans a conn ve of roan | og OF ORES ani co tor Ise “The comespning points of he rit ne know a perigee al gp ant ie ‘anesthe five pide, The ves of he min an he sain) ance the yen mai si a, Which is oo He a em Gig} focan iit win finite spogee distance he constant «scale eccentricity since Risa measure Be i's deviation fot tle ich cortespons 9 « = “Tos parmeter p. which Jeots te distance ofthe stele fiom the F's cotee {LE pes opis ab popes, sealed sams recta (ee Fe. 2.2), ‘Eqaten(2 1) iskyawn athe ction nf acaniesection ingot ordinates wis omextension of Kepler’ fist sling hat planetary bits ae fips. canine rot hin - : > / @ 2 a a lips) Peet Bites ‘steal hee tint ype of carves may be obined rom inerscing pane ‘withacone Theyre now ellipes,pabolas, ant hype, nvewecen {cies male th cul oa les ha one respectively. Inte following. he ics ofa sali’ itn sje. Fro the a of gravity ths eo ‘aca! tthe win ay ne lis xlrary evel spe, bt co fatto a lip or aie cons seton. Hower no formato on the ie ‘Soendance of tion has yet bee derived, the rial aston at specific Vie sil kos, p25. The et fe ot etch € pate Ji oaseee oeths rps an usar viable whichis called the eccentric noma Isdefined via he equations = rene = elem e—2) or Foe rsiny =: avTesin or equivalently Fol = 26088) ey “The geomet meaning of i stated by Fig. 25. ‘Esnatnccoottntes§ ond hich denote thesatelite's postion inde abit lane wirespetth center heath one may express the areal eect =I Sea fonction of E bn eboed (cos 6) — 1-0 T= emt EVE av ie sin{)- 0 sin BE Vi= SEU — ecostt) “Tis equation muy fre be simplified using n= femeon 233) ex) | 2ahreskiont Unger Suebie ORS 28 to sve the following ileal equation forthe ees annals: coor E = em Here the mean ain (CB, nf 35) as ben ntradvcod 0 simpy the notation. itegating with spect oie fly leks Kepler Egeation BU) exin BU) = HG) 036) ‘whee denotes the tine of pesiaepussge at which the eerie svnaly n= ‘ses. The iit hand side Mana~—) em called the men amet Ie changes by 360" ding age sevoton et — in ‘ontastnthe ead cee anomalies inreasestniformly with ime, Ite of specifying the tine of pig pasge describe te rb i estoy 1 ‘nro the valve Mo the mean sala some efeencespoch The wean omy at an abr stat of tne may en be found rom Mo +a —W) (238) “The eit vod the time ding hich he mean aroma changes by 2x 21s propetonl to the ere othe mean sion ad ise by 2 @ Tat =O Gti 239) “This cation is easetally Kepler's th La, whic tts tat he second per ‘ofthe eb ptod is propetona othe third power of he semi-mijor axis The fame esl that was ear derived or eel obs om the i 8 (86 (2.27) therfore val for periodic bits of abiary eccentric 2122 Solving Kepler's Hquation eps eaton relies he ie othe aot & and in he ita plane isthe eccetic somal. fonder to obtain te poston of he stele at ime ne aso nthe tne of perigee passage and he semimajc ans ocala ‘he mean anomaly One may then che value of that alls 2.36) an aly lia ana 9 ro (2:30), Kepler resutioncas, however, te solved ierainemetholsoaly. commen vy is art wil 8 apprxination of eM oe Ey=e a0Bary Aaa anscnploy Net's cue scsi feet Es oi ers aa en sapiens mone icaon oe mest enim Sosa finton iE) = Benn — ean dhe ata of Kel pation equal ofaing de eto /(E) oe Martie sen’ to Fst aye. Hone seo f maybe improved y coating se nein, = of PAE) | Ee as ot hs np so ett ih nis d= 18" /) Meta in dene ao roaeou es i pe Eas cued ye wel td fr sl c= a flrs om Hf yarn fer «Fe By een cen te rato sl be Sse om Ey = = 1 04 5 Sevag oblast talon SE pring ts anderson roe et Lane tien comb oun ne er Gee Sah 1979, Day & in Neha Bren 189, and fetes ti) Creat fr ie aan eee tee nim of eraons and ay ly se atesusa andl Smee cuales scenes so accredit acca conpuation fps Ea site en scones: boweve- Uno sto se Ke aaa ancneceigl fn or sel api, eri ier separ td comeing aa han Newton seta paar 2a 223 The Orbit in Space Sotar he steltie's mation has ben iscsi stra obit plane referee Seer allows he nt simple desetition More gencalexgesions cut ae ed by nein te ait yet P= A/IA}, which pins twas ve pee) an the perpendicular vector ,comespandng Wo eve eejy ol = 90” Using tows vectors one may expres etree denser pestion by r= P50 fe voonw PE siny ey atcos £ =o) Pav =e O sa he velocity by = ipso LEME sine PN sinceal = SEMA} scoring (02.38 easy es Q) 220sioo of Ube Sue Ose ser cd cos. —-— Fig 26. The equ conine e ‘Tienvatcommoncorntsyste or destin Fah ound elites ise irl cade ru tig wu Ea ‘enigma origi cmt Ear he i vt ie maple an egal pate fom te ry erence nero ‘aed i he wma eno) wa estes he dst fe Son ‘sien um Eathatth bein of sing ine ae the ntesection oft ti pne wil th Er ert pane Chay 3). Atte in Fg 26 the pono pst in te eqn Sone ten et ‘rect ty ete the Catenin) te conn i ices deelnation 8 atl geocetiedisiance. Thcomvesion rompers Cartesian coordinate ai vite vera my be aecomplihed athe basi eations -(:)--(S°) easy wen Sewemsiemy ore at Herth quae of ute chosen ay th sch away tha eign of thedoninster Ushis qu wan cones -D0" <= 190 for > Oand 437 fe 1200" tnt 20 = I ender deserve te retain of the ttl neil plane and the poise wit repel nite ee nh we snl eked Payee O46) “ieintntin esthemle Finest pe Aocytor Aa iclnanet nye tn pansies en is tmade is dation of revoation aout the Ea zing oppo that ofthe Eas oat,a : oF a Ielaotsntie 1 Te right ascension of the aed nde indicates the ge eee te esd plans andthe oat onthe it at whi he sei roses he ‘att rom soho oth, cs The argument of prises te angie between he dietion obesseoing rns ad the deaton of ie pegs. Joss fac! ae ger ne ptm in pac oy fe xe vy eta af ee cemenay tenons inthe bil ple 7 REN cut cee PW = yt cows en ty my rsinv 0) em tn scone sem that srs ropnd W by a gle of 0 Ge, wih an 1 fase ping othe aserdingnode), th cocina te (ye) = tron ah rsingo 40.0) 248) and coves uenstormaton swt (S05!) ncor( 2) as : s.r Inonec wo exes he sais pst in carter ot esa en aroun snd he ass yan ane ~ el {2eRETS Span cote ume othe Be of mde. & il eon 22Peison ef Upto ie 27 sxundthe new Panis) then eds he eget eects outed om SEaclont ans 5) = mecomccomcon (Ss eam : : Esai eee Se F)_(sousars~sinvcsisina® (:)-- Sue sauce! colt sy wit = rt amelie me gee a ef de ‘Siar onsets ed othe owas representation the vets Pad {that coespo to points at witdstnce witha tu analy of 0" and 90" Feohasin 2 Fainereos coe 2 4 slomsint sd Sia wcos 2 ~ corsa sin 2 = | ~sinwsins2 + corecunt cor. esy “Te hed vote W may aly Be exons ae “fini sin 2 w ey ‘tis ote hat P,Q, and War jot he colar vectors of he max PQ.) a RABID ay ess ‘sho i spcilly wal whe cotitesave be raefonnd between she ‘spatial and dhe ori plane coordinate yom. The te vectors ae usally rele 38 Gonstin eta. hoo east nur=(D4cose ies) ea T 0) 0 sn #0 sc (#59 scene dese itn od en ane Teg we vena ach oy Toes pli ange creed tre oslo) ean fee eek {Siw cn ene sl of ei is asd he oi eb 9 Me26 Atay Aspens 2.24 Orbital Hewes from Poston and Velocity Ass en showa, oa of six indepen parameters ae tequied to describe the motion of asl round the ah, Tw of ese rial mens (eae) desert he Form of the eit ne clement defines the peso skeng te bt ‘nthe hese, nd Bly etn ie erento ofthe iin spe. Given these sn elements, is always posse to uniguey cau he poston td welosity vector ice vereathoreisexatly one set of etal elements that comespos 0 gten lol ves fa aed ane may ast how to athe lemons. Pat ofthe tower i aleay cud from te olaton ofthe tee-body problem pretend hove. Ft fl the area vest vector vw-re($4) = ‘is ods eae bined re the pstion and velo. Thea, fom the representation oor W = has. fanto of and 2 in 2.54. Fallows tha (*2)-(3)-(3) Hence the inline igh fcension of seeming node ace gen by? 8 ‘an consequent ee mean motion eg ea Tinney) qt fo cnn 22 edison of Lire Sie ie Flip obits. wi slays be pos ve. The cece allows rm ent ay cosa 23. ty a) = onesinE) ‘ve may sve for es) and eos E10 Fin the ecenttic anomaly oe ee (264) 1 mel 82) cm With Being the epoch ofr and: Tn order to ind the rernining obit element wane has to deena the gue oF aad w is Solving (5) forcesw an imu yields em actan (28 Neos yan Bu) —esia Bu) tinradiansy 26) ) =a sir) 3% Furthermore the ee snomay i given by aon (ating peoper care ofthe avec quant (2.3). The eal my filly be ‘sed taba the argument of pecgce oa. = 2.68) 225 Now Singular Ehaents ‘in mny arpicaions, elite obs are choteno he news ove a constant dance fem the sufae ofthe Eartha coat lave veloc. Top tea examples are owl ema Sesing satellite geosationary setites, ‘which ae rermore required o obit te arin eater plane ‘While theres inher fey in salen poston and velocity from nou bial elements with ean lose fo or, the ever ask my cause prac esa numerical robles These lems sede ong ising fe ‘he defiaon of sot ofthe classical eit ekemens. The agoment of perigee,Beds Anois Faexample, snot ning orbit element Fr sal ecenriies, sce the ig tris wot wel deed fran alan cco ob Sl charges ofthe thot may Change te yeigce lation by sarge aout, and sal mia = ors may ea eee ors ithe emputation of ice te equation for E ‘ecume ltont sng nhs ease, iar considerations ply t snl nli- ations whe tein f rode eno onge wel Jefe and wee te eons Tord become singul, Sovcal tests hae therefore been made to substi ter prameters forthe cla Keplerian elements. These elements aes fefere at ton-sigulr, regula or aguiowial elements (eee. Brouske (Cefcla 97), ‘posible of gules hat maybe we for bet ow ecenres amd iations i dined by? ial 4a) p= sinG/2)sin [abot k= ccos2ta) 4 =sinl/2)00% Geonsely, and h los apprsinate the pojetion ofthe Runge-Lenz ‘ecto Aino the evil pau fr ebits feral elnaton, and ae Theis ‘seals he oseentnety andthe direction of psc. Sia and —g ive the approximate pojerion of eet pane mal vector W cat the eater ine eglcs the factor 1/2, which fas fen induced Co allow use o hese ‘lments Tor high intnaton, a to avid singular ot} 90?» The mean Tongitnd fc efit ws thes othe ight ascension ofthe wscening de the igume of poige and he ream soma, ny further be ieee the apposinnte ight scesion ofthe satelite for vearsirclar fis of sll inclination, ‘A allematve se of von singular elements ened by om a frm exits? +0) p=tan/2)sin® Te QtetM k= ecole) qe tantf2ieos2 is duc to Broke & Coola (1972), We (2.6) is preferable, det the i life sracor of he accel paral derivatives of the potion and velocity {esto (Dow 1973), the soc st (270) more event when wexking wit sturbaooa equations (ee Bat 1987) ‘Adopting he convention of equinatal elements by Broke & Ceol (1972, ‘ne sattie postin a vel Yet my be epesn as rexiftne pail tie an ‘analy with (248) atl OA, The othogonal unit vectors 4 em Fe cteny wibhe wicommees plop ne sate bla cose irate Tyo th eam) A : a f= coslarh YP — sion 0 aoa Dares perabelSasieObis and inlw+D)P + coso4.0V0 Hy = acd Hpyeost) + tapslatF)— by (CEA si) bees) — hy iy = esnipontr) a epyaney fe = npaain eR coue ning oe ny my 1 — 15) ae « (Cefot 1972) The eccentric lng Feevwie erm replces the escent anomaly when working wih nop-singlar lens dis {ound by solving a modiedvesion of Kepler's pation ven by Fksin(F) + heostF) =1 = a ¢042 em inal he rai sexes (1 Roast) — sat) am Inte ofthe equocti elements “Theequinotal cements defining the creation of te ita pane ate haa tothe cial plane oral Yetor W = (re Fle Fy 27 ick may be used to determine the vetoes fad g coreponing 19 3 given Psion and soe, Peection of te Runge-Lenawetor Ast x(x?) Coe 230)Bendy Aayasie nt hese reference vcs he ikl eect components re dh ne Be ean Inering timp ones cee em lao (2.70, and saving forthe it a cosine of F,Fahermor yi te exes cot) = ess sir) = ee for determining the cceni longae, rom wbich the mean lange Fea be tind via Kepler eqton (2.7. 2.3 Ground-Based Satellite Observations 2.81 Satelite Ground Tracks ‘Mca instant of ine the inerction of the obi plane af sale wi te Satfae ofthe Earth yh et ctl, which depends only om the ininacon {ie obi pane ad the pion ofthe ascend nde (FB. 28). This gest ‘Sele inersecte Ets eestor a nage tha seul toth inclination a the ‘ral pane and over zener! tides tween mini fy = nd {main of p= The geographical lite ofthe tei and is ground Fi 24The rnd tn wae ot | | | | I | 2Soeund Bod Sate cmuerine rojo i eit wo etnaton J, bo of which dent theme Between the geocentric rdine ear an the equatcal plac. The goographical angie 2 nthe ether ha denotes de ange between the Greene meridian athe teria trough the poi I counted poiivey towards Ue eat and ere Tro he rip scension bythe ht scesion 6) of the Gree met dza-ou) 34) Denoting by the me ny since 124 on January 20% he angle 1) sieaby 2 = 100.506" + 360. 9856873°.4 255) hare sal scr changes have been negesed. 9 ineeases by 360” doring re revotion afte Ea, which ist pprsimately 25856", Le. somites ak ‘noi, Sine (7) isaimesureoftetine between sabsequen meridian coins tf asa for an obeerser om Ea also hac dere feo och Hour Ange M29 pn secs a oa [As seul of he Eat’ rotation actual pred ack of satelite iors ‘tom the simple great ele that rei fom He sersetion ofthe eb pane ih the srfce ofthe Eat at pic stn of ime, Texas wth | Trice of nig i wl pt tengo ah ced gh ‘Akg me he Mate sn Dae MUD ce ame 1 herds se 20852 ary Asani: ‘mt hese refeence vcr the ies the escent components aes esi Gite Gity 2 lusting the in pe cooeintes eee Tere | ey inn 74), and slsing fv the in nd cosine of Furthermore the expres cone = 6-4 HEA OT, SS preane es sith) = hp SRO = Ma RE for dtr ing the essen longue, em which dhe mean Tonite can he died via Kepler's equation 7) 2.3 Ground-Based Satellite Observations 2.3.4 Satellite Ground Tracks Aca inst of ine, te inlets of the ita plane of seit with de surface ofthe Eth ys geet eee, whic depends oaly onthe inclination ‘theo plane an the ston of the ascending nod (Fig. 28TH seat ‘rel nero the ah sata angel sequal te etnaon ofthe ‘rl plane and coves geographical lanes beeen aminimnot y= ad {Sait of y= 1. The gongraphie! oie ofthe stele and ts ground 28 The pou ptm wi ot i Giant See Obert ‘ojeton i equal 19 is detain 8, bath of which denote heal betes ‘he gncei nes vector and he equatorial plae-The peopl git Deon the other hub denotes the angle Between the Geenvich meridian an the eid troah the pint is costed positively towands the eas a ies Frm eight asceusion a by the ight scesion 8) ofthe Greenwich meri Aaa-eun 288) Denoding by the dime in days? since 12" on 1 Jamuary 2000, the angle 249i gen hy 0 = 100.4605 + 36098568731 285) ‘wher smal secur changes he ben neglected © inceases by 36 ding oe revotion of te Earth wick a pproinitely 27°56", somewhat es tn veda Since) isameasreof time ateen subsequent menianerensings ‘ofa slarforan observer on Ear, sso known as sidered tine oe Green Hour Angle. 1.2, Sete pnt te hr a 27 = ‘Asa etl of he Hart's oun, the seta! god ek fst dites feom the ple erect that resus fom the ateseton of Ue orbital pane ih he suze ofthe Eat oa spect ist of me. Fra stelite witha edi a py ml pala aig Eh nee ge hitMey some bial petal 7 the geographic longinde 2p = 2 ~ @ at whic the stele Crosses he onto, hie by Aho = -O-7 = 02507 mine 24) om ne revoon oe et, This wets shi ground irks om hse (Gener sce visible nth projection of tie sample its of Echo 1a ‘sills in Fig. 29 Beeman 1963). Afr ks lone August 1960, eto {bite he Earth ce every to hours ata neat conta aids of 1300 ad [incination of 47.2 The cosesponding ground ecks cover South Ameren ‘nd Ata inthe some hemisphere, ax well as Noth Arve, Europe art po Asin he wrther hemisphere While te genera ieton of vin Fo west ive eft onghn Fig 29) grad ack subjests pepsi ‘tetas tof almost 30° per nit conseence of be Eas tation “The seu tek of Ee ts ypcl all ear- pieldngan estinate 0) =H at 19) forthe local eucation enor ofthe tose ores Famili ger than :Nolernce ete sep ao Be rept with snl see. Knowing ha hs ropeetonal th?" Tr the meta of oder phe ct tneston ero ‘wil hen be eal (Ym —n( 2) “a forth new sesie. Resting hist smaller than # a slving fo ills ‘he maximum allowed sepsis ir feo oN En aay fortepeating esp. In racic at 0. fess maxim ves comuonly sed forsafety esos to avoid anor usaccersol sep Isp siento ‘oe may us h forte next slp. nce to vo pid cation othe spe shoal ot however, be changed by more Wan ator of 20S fom one step 0 the mext ‘Whi this kindof stepsize cont i well capele of ane the caret eee lhe bev ofthe diferent equation, itdoes no rie ewe om ‘applying an nial ues ofthe staring epic. Aston ave isconcsned With ‘eval spec problem, some est ealettions anda bit experince wll ceria? Tp finds eeonabe vale. Fore tepration fate eb one mye str with equa 1/100 of fe te of evolu integra over serra bis ono stepsiz calcula hy He stepsina oat Technine alae may tpn be wed ay ting epic fx Sarason. Aske toy prc {omc thods hve ben dened 9 call iil pie gun 00 Severs ‘lations o he seta f (Wats 1983, Gladwell et 1987). ea. 414 Runge-Korto-Npsrdon Methods Many problems in physics ao especialy the motion of ati saeites and cele oties may te desctbed By «second-order ier eation ar.P) any {forthe acelertion Fo fonction one tps rar eloityAone eesti eon oe ep yf ad slong sols st Rompe Randi aon = 30, Hoth) = roth DBA, ’ ay Ho) = we hk) ‘ ® « (wee rat ahi +f? Dik, sudan) 20 a coins y= Deas ange Kita-Nstdp methods die rorstaadaed Runge-Kutta nthe by ‘wing (129) an (4.24 ncombiaton wih coin espe dap tothe diet tegration sonore ffeil equations ad dows ncessly ‘key equation 4.25) Several method ofthis tele en developed by ebb (1979). the highest of which seo oder 7 and reqies a tal of 1 tage. “The advantages of Rongc-Katta-Nyerin formulas over sandr Runge Kuta methods are moat teed the eeleation Fear 426) docs not depend ote velacly ofthe bay. In hi cave special Runge-Kutta Nps wets may be eva tat way need sale umber of sages to prove a given one of he cal gucation ver. embeded O(¢Nhoer ‘wet my he realized using funtion evaluations Dorman & Piace 1987, stead of T evaluations quired by the Bacher ames fost nge-Katia methods Ronge-Kuita-Nyssm methods of exer p+ 1(p) hich allow for an easy sepsige cool a ae well ull for high aesaray requenets have Been ‘eseloped by Dornan & Pine (1978), Fpl & Gr (1986) an Dormant {CORT} They ae deserbe by teins b= Dh as a autedrotehnyt Sanh) B a Pot) = hwo Shh o= 00 o om fwth = oth tS bk z= our) Ht) = wehbe Arges Mes 5 42) bee Syn i, ‘he foams for # and yield an approximation of pation and velocity ‘4 of ender p+ wher gives a eat of Ue local tuneaton eee os Ba 18297 ofthe embed pode forts Tis iy then ened cont the pss ‘ngs tte thc edo (1.27 fhe lsc Runge Kia ma Vay "Ya" eee “he colicin b= A> 0 in fie psnelr which yt determin byte er onions. dors aot fet he ston rn sine only appt a fhe spice contol Fra By ching the vl on yin ‘stizatn of te teat ee and at wl os equ eb Cesinsgnze anon Recommended ace ely ie pel ih he voles coefficients of the methods. aati “Te pei condions =I ay ay Or) -.-0—I whine at of the deg f tee eels esl sang one Caton ote fnon pete. Tiss de heat that he a ton Si (0 Fed ro pstmt oaks) on inde sep fom 04+ jth se at rst eatin fe = auth. rlosi) = Athi Sh oe oF he nest tp sang a +: ere, common 0 sek os age ‘nti een hoon adil elt st eton sl ‘ASanetomple hole tte seen nett ofDutnand Pee (is) ae sted in Tale 42. vote tnt pene is ad ay bo i srt (9ae 2. Cota oe RAT Raa Nye ad er peal ed ok Ai 4.1 Ramge Kaa Mobs 7 445 Contiayous Methods ne iscusion of sepsize contol for Range-Kutls method netic wistakon fo theft ht tie Solotion of dferenia equation foe fei at pede ne otpet point This dacs nt cans major problems a og a te iferece tween to autnequent point ix cosiderbly larga dan th epics propo by the prize contol I however. the slepsie is oe anced ery olen to ‘scp oat points, the wc of 1 Range-Kuta sed tts oe vey inefetive. Cosierng the ease of satelite orbits the ecblem of dee opt ra, for example aie fom ephemeris plot requrerets or 0 he ned foe {tumocth graphical representation ofthe eit. Dee elite pion pois ate fuera osued for a leave search for speci eveuts ike ade eres ofasielite “The saihtforwar way cope wih dis prble sto calculate he solaon ofthe diremal equation at widely sped tine span to imerpolt i the desi deme cut prints by means of an aptopae poms. A major lsadvnlage ofthis etd i, however, that eres of subsequent Rsage-Keta ‘negation steps have to be stored or nepali sini to oma ulstep sneha Within shes decades vevea amor (e.g. Her 1981, 1983, Shampine 1985, Donmand & Prace 1986 1981, Sharp & Verte 198) hve, leer, been co cern withthe design of imespoloe fro Fr Ronge-Kutt wth at preserve the charter ofa single-step meso. Me eno these formas 19 te the foneton vals by (ric hate aa een elated to on th a ‘rene fneton ®) and few adam eraatonso coos ao iepolating ‘avon! yal between 3) and yp + ‘Asan example of an inerpolant, ate ofthe Set coninous methods, which as een proposed by Horn S81, 1983) i described in what iow. ei based ‘one bedded 6stuge Range-Kutg-Feblerg method RKRUS) = Stwtobs th Souk) 6 it) = oth bky 39 Hath = eh ybk “Wich edie bythe coe oF Table 43 In adition yy the metodo Hor equines he vale rothsoen shes) a0to compute te soliton at any point between fsa y+. For 0 = @ < t an Spprosontiom st = fp ny be bane om io tom = Som ork, (43s whee the eens are polyoma te independent rile They 6 Seta ay = tea (+e (Brot) ages) mi om aes) 36) iy = o(+ec3+o8)) 8 mo (-B 0 (RoW) bj = o(240(-t40§) merase vaes of ohton sb obit beespesof hit ‘certeman nage f ih say sla acoder sing Stn tne oo et ee. "he ato rm sve single xa of a nerpelin font Range Kate eth ir iene ste he bo Has Stormer he meet ion xcs acts. lle “cs a's elo te RRP) et as yl 4+ tm oth en ceded in Erste C8) Aone SiMe 2 Uptoson te ag inept were only wall fr vera mebodsf termetit de Recently however, 4 Tender inerpoant tn embed ‘Nnh-ode sage Runge-Kata alas been aeanced by Dah Price (989) This imerpaion ora requis four futon evans in aditon hose ofthe ase mead. ‘ese out Kms ave alo been developed fr sever! unge-Kuts- [Nosed Gironde inerpoiaa,forexample, arable forthe REN) ir of Denman Prince (1987) athe authors te concerped wi We seach for ‘mn nterpolane for hr 1200} ender pir (se Brant 1989, 4.16 Comparison of Runge-Kutta Methods or the assesment of ifleent mesic integraton method vera st ft robles have bos developed by Hol et al (1972) which gray facile de Somparizon of performace Oia blaine yailferet suis. Pom the Yr test peblens proposed by Holle a. de plane tbo problem is fequey sed by may authors and dibs the rain aspects of alte mo very Wel Even though ite no possibe to cover lt anpet hat ight lle the choice of tm iegration ebetd by sack a simple example, ane ea0 eta fist wea ofthe Performance ofthe Runge-Kutta mthods discos a Fo uther decison Te real refered ¥ Set 4.4 "Te ere equation ofthe two-bay problem is ive by aoe 43 jem -pvod HP iy = -nso} +h"? wi esl fn wing F— “rf as fiee-oedr iton wth r= (90) Sod (ys, 1) Il vals for =O tat deseibeun obit wih seta ais sas and exe e stating at percent ae given by 0) = toe m= no =o aa Ho = TEATS Sine the veloc varaioninan econ fbicereaeaca et ata ‘ofa numericalinteration metho to change is steps, Hal el (1972) defied "he distil test proleas DI to DS wih evercies znsing Gea e Oto fen0 instep of 12. Thesop tine edefined a2 nal ease, smesponding‘ ce a 2 fara gam of nb esto m itee Brea anet Bese atces cae perons anes a5 to 29/2 ~ 32 sevlutions The analytical slain ofthe Kepler problem sels yoy = cee = STEPsine _ sin IaH eos asm) ase ey yy = jE Foc catelatng th tt ght) negation emo. The cette anomaly bas Tica y an erative sltion of Keple’s equation which ake om Ben =r (40 Results for voto Range-Kustsa Range-Kiut-Nystrdm mets ae gen in he performance dagrun of Pg. 42. Here te trl number of Futon evel ‘lis plod spans te fil securey Fran eit fe = 01 (est case DI. Foc highes eccenticites onesies resls since the stepize ona all ets estty team, The lowing meteds were use fe he compar “Teco «= DOPRIS (RKS(A}M) is & stage method of onde 5 wha envied treb f ones develope by Darmand & Prince (1980 [DOPRIS (RKE(T)IOM) by Prine & Doemand (2981) reies 19 Keeton ‘lutions for Shaner oproxinstion. The Foran sbrotins DOPRIS fn BOPIIS wed inthe emptor rode in Haier 987). The futher evonteend the lverander mend for elatve aeetrcies f 10- tote", while DOPRIB ay be usod or the adjacent ange fom 10°? to 10". The ltr sb n meeve, be used or higher osu, see Ah cufikents are mt ven wih siete nuns a digits nth ease, ange Seals 1H + RKP? ~ 1 fans method develo by Fetery (1968) — 6 simi © DDOPPIS ue uses the Mv oer ssod fornegration, whe the St-oder rod is oly used for err entiation. A tof 13 fmetonevaltons sue requled per sgp. “+ DOPRIN (RKN%6)) isan enibeded Range-Kista-Nystin meta of ret 706), which in cnt tte aforementioned meth sa fo the lret integration of special sven oder erat extn of ep 7" =F, 9). The Foran npementation sakes om Her tal (198 «+ RKNGITI) in age Runge-Kao-Nysti meth of ode 7 deve ‘ped by Falter (1975) which —in coaras to he her Nystrom sata Considered ere = my alo be used for seconde dierent eqns {pending on # An impleeattion described in Soto et 1989) + FILGIL ishagd on the 11 {Dither 17 stages RKN coetcen set 17M, by Flip Get (1986) a bs been inyerented ir to DOPRIN, 4 RKNI2(0)17M is 3 1200)voxdet sage Nyse method recent de ‘opel by Dormand el. 1987. Implementations of this code are de ‘shen Brain ta (1957, 1889) Te auth’ RKNINT propa ich ‘combine he RNI2{ 10) eo wth the RRNGG) Kuge-Kutlo-Ny om {ple Denaand Prince 1987, has heen wed forte preset compen. Ills the urerto choose betwen high precsiot Solution bine wi the Dv rder frmlas und dase ult ata sore wer grein. “Te code vaio auaable under the ne DLA in the wel Koon NAG rary “The comparison of the various meth ley shows that high-order methods are required tm achive accuracies of beter tan 10" ing 3 low-order code the DDOPRIS to produce big acute soli by using Sal epsnes res in excessive computing tines. A comparisca of KF? and DOPRIS ~ beth of thick ee embedded meds of onder 7 and ~ clsly shows te sapeany ff he approach of Demand aad Pine to apie the higheroer metho or falclad hs solton a oaly sete low-onler method for epsize cont The txeclent performance ofthe mets developed by Dorman ara Pi le? Sean ia comparison of DOPRIB or DOPRIN wih Felibergs Nxtom meal RKN()48). Methods ike DOPRIS oe DOPRIN ca be econende for a wie ‘ange of accraces, us high-ordercos like FILGH of RRINI210) ars ceri moe eee eve for moderate accuracy reieuens. Where sppiable he special Fungo Kats Nytrim metiotare preferable to sanded Range-Kt "Nahas of sir ode ‘The sips contol flees performs well up to high cecentctes since sll meth considered ae eabeded methods. Eventhough this st eet Toe nearer tts. Ties ease of Fuige-Kua tes, ince ee ‘tod ini pac can eoily be cometed to the optimum stepize daring The ‘nigroton, All examples were cleat wid Sasi stepize of 0.“Te tseusio gienbers isnimdotc lp ere ina valuation fing ‘ndes and a comparison with he ete sige of Runge Kuta ad Runge-Kutta [Nyse meidearaile od Inet &-¢gaubyetot thee rethods compared ‘ve lst andertrpolton codes to puoi anor: peseralasessne Othe Fesfonnance of lilerent yes of neraion metho 4.2 Mulistep Methods ‘The Runge-Kots etd dss so fr may be characterized as singlet moths. No ue is male of funtion vas eats in ere sep which ‘eat tha al etpraton sep ste caplet ngpendet fon aod it Feature allows compact inplementaton of singestop mths wd makes hes tics use. Since new stepsize may be we nea ep snglesey eds are well ued frien equations Wit pid eangesin he Canton tote inarated ‘One ms, however, tink completely een appogch hat iso eee ‘he total number of anti elation 6 much as prsible by tras ales om povious steps, This eu tothe concep lite meta Which are most clic or dirt egutions dened By complica fants with lot of sstheti operation, “The develope if lisp iteration method ise 19H a ery 2008 seus clos i with the work of aster who ied ther J at ‘cue description a solar system aes Among these re CAs, i ‘to Foe Jor i ceaton to the discovery of Nequune, FR, Moon a Ph H. Comal wo acutely peice the win o Halley's comet belo Is wile, mower tills the sc eines of mulstep methods assumed forthe ‘moment ht one has sty bated apposite aes of the slion 9) equines fj = 94 jh Tor j= 0, loro nein bse ofthe ‘iferenileqaton p= fon aay vi eps 1 fom 10 obi the nant expan gene [pa scone (4a) “Te integral camel, however, be eva 3, snc depen clon the ‘nino solion y(t) ofthe diferent equation. To ereuven! iia, ‘nereplaces the intepant by polyno pe that latepelates soe cf he values Li Sum aay 2bkaiccp Mee 43 gt ene ot fee tation toes ‘Nese pap previous times 1 shat are already knoen acne oe ini esunption. This resin +f no a ste inrement nc of a mulstep method is eto given by eo ond foes a tmx kt pi mt ei 43, whi eye con en Fyn oa fi {Sa Tepe ye pln) = a0 + aye + a202 aya? 446) = spf This ytd te simple expression PAHS = Mata Iy, F076 C2 = CMs fis Mins H1S016 lly este At-oderAdana- aso forma Oa = ics Fea Fa 4 SSF) a9)1h Nome sein ‘vt may be wed wo aout the approximate station regi as tha «430 of ne diereril quation a 44 =f Rept aplieation ofthe Ads ‘sf formula then git sntion ofthe lee equation for subse quent tines jh Thule to sate iteration seme We rst Fur values fy. fy 804 Fy ‘xsequivaley. ts, A985 ae eqs. They may for xan oben) {fom an og thee sep of fu &highervder Runge-Kusa od vith silent acura 42.2 Adaneashforth Methods “Te single rocedhre desided in be into section may ely Beene Co denve general maistep methods of abi on. or is purpose ae wakes use of Newin's onnula fr #plynomis) fy eer ha ntl posts Means Siemds ve odd hela pte This yoni s ive bythe sm exrenson ran= thane oni Lee?) v/s, asp te the inn oie sta for EE ax i # 1 j>O ads equal | for j=0. The backword diferenes of fae recusively ened by wr vf wh and ay be compe rom the give fagesion vals as oulined in Fi. 4, ‘ain this notation the increment nti fH mtd-rde Aaas=Bshorth outst tho may Ho be wen [Oo iow -Ensrn ash with seprize independent cota nace [' (Se (45 assy A2Nitep Matos as Sot N fis 2 hs N S fia > Whee 2 Wa N N o fia > in 2 Per > Men N \ cs s ey a Fi. cnet ee th or pao nestion Nemrical value of 0.--99 ae gen fn Tle 44. They may be obi fom a Spl weurence relation Se eg Hart al. 1987) 336) “ies Conic Ada ath a a hone ate jjer2 3 6 7 8 Sik: = Se mle “Te oa! truncation eo ft Adis Bashforth etd dcreses wih the corde mi any he estimated by Comparing wo methods Of der wand m+ 1 ata VFB — Apa My Hat =F ST) Since V"/H" i a approsimaton ofthe mth desivaive of J, te waaton err may aso be express neh as hich sows adhe or he Adams-Besoch method ise the mumber (ob was tog) ‘Sobsinting the dain f backwards dees in 4), she nen {upton may so be wien is ef i ee! m= Bo Siem boot Bandi 459) ‘This orulaton ofthe cement funtion, which hs alieady teen wed in ar fnedicory example. svede the computation of the bockvans iterencer and 1 Ueefoge ro convenint at ecen 25 lg as methods of fel oder aeAPM thet 17 i cosets cw [ue ww) that ar given in Table 4.6, Fale ales maybe seule fom he esureace reign ae ye (a5 i 43 6 7 8 vi 33 ew _ i considered. Thee se, however, sera applications where (158) is prefers, Soe te ase of backward dfeenses lows saighieward estimation ofthe Tocl truncation tor ad anes cana ofthe ere fem ove te 1 the net “The now ceficcns fy ~ wich are no Tonge independent ofthe 1dr — ay be aie fom the wing tereaion oS nal) 0) fej ov (Griguff 197)- pic aes are pen in Te 4.5 42.3 Adams-Moulton nd Predietor-Corrector Mos In the mdr Adas-Basorth met the polyoma pf) dine bm Function vates wp Wand including, tte fi, The integration showers. evformed une ihe subsequent intr twee Ki approximation aneo, Ueepected tobe very toe ‘Ave (ype of lepmetod ~kaoy a he Adas-Moulton method ~ therefore uses the ply) whieh interpolates foetion valves time Steps om a 4 Fieve ttn con = Sew (vin as ‘Upon nteetion his yes he Adams-Mulon fnaul [0 Yetou = Lr 4 900 = “The oe ofthe Adans-Maulion metho i gust om ani, therfore, the same that of tm Adae-Bashfoth nethod involving med pire ford in ‘epolting plano The oc rencaton eer ofthe Ada Moulon reo hich soem by enn = 14.65) ‘sme: bowever. than tht ofan Adams-Hasfoth method of xu onder since the errr constant] sale tha ‘bs withthe Adans-Bachfh methods, the backwards ifeences may be sce yields formation tht depends on Fly Piomatoct Reali SoAyhierms 466) ‘Trecoefficients \3, (see Table 4.7) of the mth-order method may be obtained from Ser} wine tele a for j= 1... Grignie1977. ‘Sine the ineemet fection of the Adsns-Mestlon mo Spends on fi ‘tisnot possible tacos an explicit solution a fot SFist (408) nigh =H FAP ay 4)i 1 5 67 8 wal au] at sl Pi] 38 8 | 8 2 “The Adams-Nowlton foul is erefore call! a implicit tho a some iterative procedure x equi 19 no fey "To avoid is diel). an Aduns-Bashfort meted of exe m i wully combined with an Adame Molton method of oder m of mF ina socalled edict coretr or PECE-lgoeitin Which coi of fur steps 1. best sap —the Pedic step —an ini eine of the sluion a 45 Se calevlted rom he Adame-Boeort ol Weg = + HO 4.70) 2.‘The rest is used inthe Eimer sep to find the coespoding funtion Slay Fost) am 3 In the thie step ~ called tbe Conectr~ the Adars-Mouton formula is sled dan iow vale igs = Fibro am 4. The fel tinal step sick be updo faction voc Lon Seusrnige) car which my than be wed forte the next ineration sep In principle te thi aud Fourth tp would have o he eat unt convergence in acieve ta find the exact slut of the Aams-Ataion fru, bu since ‘sich sch iteration costs soe funtion vation, he woul! not be worth he tA single eoectr sep is enough to ase tht tore o he crane ‘Aden Bashony- Mult method i al otha ofthe opt metho, en ‘ough he eal wane ero i sigh ge (el rigoell 197. “Th justification for using the some rnp pst corrector a soit ies stability of alsep eth lage epee De tothe tation athe oer a Tinted computing asia, teil sep of then ‘meal integration ae alraysafete by snl lal ers A analy fe ay in which hese errs ate propagated frm one sep othe ext bos it the strs nay grow exponentially Tor lage stepsirs nord tos his lena tehnvior nd to gurantee city. he tepsize my ot exend wer Hn at ‘penis onthe method and he deren eqn to be sve, Lorde mnths are generally mote sable eve for ngestepsiees, Doe to ‘eirmod sera, sal tepshave lobe used ayy and stably soften not sa seius protean When wing high-order multe mets, however, stabity an pose stingent iis ee allowed sepie, Evetes ta yet asic) small unstoweror may then be to lage since the propagation of lca ors ‘could eu an unbounded growth of he lol negaton re The implicit Adums-Moulion mets have ch btn hs espect shan ‘th expliit Mdans-Bashfols mats ad even the apex solton ofthe Aldans-Moution fom inthe PECE slprtin improv estat conser tly. Thisis the rnin reso why iis genealy commend we ot on Funston ealaton fer he canes step. Anoteraaatage tht he loc ‘oer canbe reduced by using he cvteeor: The dublelespese fo asngle Inepation sep cana feast parialy be compensa for by Lege sepa seer Fin 45. tte pata econ ee vere or aoe mf este ei toh aa aor ce ‘To state the practical meaning f stati the two body problem (D1 ss cn ners with ba Gta ad an R-rder Adan Boson meta {AB6, ABB) ata stepize off = 04 (see Fi. 5), Sine the kx treatin ‘or decreases wih hiahe ard, one might expet more precise sls forthe‘ABE met ol he gosto the ll negation or leary shows onset finaly. When combnad with corets the resling Adams—Bashot= ‘Moulan ethed (ABMS) ial, however, even at wie tbe stepiz. ‘As compromise teaveen a cheap pric oly method and a more sabe PPECE method, PECE*algorih(efLangeta 1989) may benef forthe west ren of perturb sailite bis. Hee E* sad fora peudo-evat ep ech ean ft some dmplifetons ate made inte Bia estimator sep. Aesorngt (6) te erluation off elves tbe emputation ofthe seston ‘shoe the dominant rst term arises fram th oul gravy eld af the th ta IP meas the sof all petstios. Since the peiabsons ae mach smaller tha the cena force. aes sll err only tape des uo ecspte the afer te eoretor step. ns peudo-evalst tp nly the dominant tern of the lol aceletonis therefore pase wath be cooaes fain inthe eect ep, ile the pestis aan fom de prodicton sl GMa, wren) = EME + pir ete) a5) Sine ie computaion of he perturbations fs much more ne-coostang dnt ofthe ental acceleration tem, the PECE® method nesses he stb at nest ‘0 atonal cx Tepe ofthe we of sain cect tp one shoud ot ria Ineeae the od ofa mulistep mod in an ten o inerese the stepsie sad ‘hesccurney. Forth requirement oftypiel xbitcomptation ert ithe age fom 12 can wsaty be rvoninended 4254 teen ‘Tremakisepmsinrof Adm ype may eens mer vo rv clon etmadae sp pls Pa pop some SSS PRE tea ie wet edo sce fe a tos incline aproiateriateome tne! eee ce Frome nyu htt Senet on AD ae) ‘on may couse he inept polyno nition nittersy= Sew (vii, at tha woe wedi thimpit Aduns-Monlten Fora ofthe cones step. Merete donees tht ff, fea preter sae wil al ter, res rom he “nacre values of previo sep. seg this polyoml ino eine fon othe diferetl equation teats “e marabvane [ misiod am mito) = 9 FRE FOILS (678) on jer [en (7! raere Loni (t a fos wm ‘The coffins depend on ad mst therefore be ele separately fo ch dsited out salu Appropeaterecarence raion ay be fund ef. ‘Shampin & Gordon (1975). ince the illeena econ tha te lly eae by mutstep tio are caroctecized by complied fnetons fhe Com ‘afoot iterpotation cece is egies pplication. Tishoud be note ht he ierpoan gen hee onus the pid points ‘by defini, but tht testa Is not te forthe fs deat, For more ‘kee iseussion of smooth iterplaie we eles ua Wats & Shampoe (1986) ‘td High (198, 4425 Variable Order and Stepsize Meds Ine det of he Anas ad Ads Mouton mets it 0 fa ee sett the slo oft dietenial ego easel eth const sepine, ton sete equine points Ths coon {oie whenever he evr of he ston eqs changes epi igh tert. “hess wa realize aie sesize consis oftoping she iteration sad eaelating ne stating ves fo anther spe ea Rae Ka ‘thd wheneer he cet tpi be soli Atte) te me ‘stenpoltin fri ie hse Gocibed shove Bd se to sting ‘ola Both appro r fembe when pis shoes aera vets ne ‘hen costa spec wed for most of te npn ‘tote ible soon sab gneazng th dans foals of he resus sections. Inde nef nity spies the nde rd fc fecthecomputtin ofthe soliton ty, maybe ween ae tw En 430)Hee the ators nettle ty wan) cozespond othe colicin yo the ed tpn formula, while the 6500 = [lier Sesto 432) replace the backwarddierences 9 (eee g here 1987 Theexpesions “Tis -oty]oeknown ae lvideddifercesant result onus of Newon's imate for gener interpottion polynomial. They ate eevrively defined By mh Fil — fhith — fenton a orcs ps Wioechesd= ahi ash u ‘The ening) and (1) a6 well as tose of a comespoing eorestor focus may by ceed fon rere relations which ate esenal foro ‘ficient plementation of variable order metas (er ep Shapine & Gowda, 1995, or the sleton of ele an tepsize the ero or the oder ceil in use Ista aswell athe expected err for ajacemt order Alte same Line « tow sepsis seated boa on the arent errretinatc and the cet or. "alatng disinformation anew ode sei canbe shore, Since changes In the sepsize rege a ince elfot forte computation oft evelicients {A the steps ie change only ifthe recommended stpsize is eto ll "ha he resent one by a factor of at stv. "Acreatnbvontge of warble oder ani epsize mesos is tho fe that they hv oot mie tring peenedure. Staring rm oder one and very smal nil Steg, bth order aml tepsize may be insrensed up oa pin value win ‘few scp This rakes varoble oer ad stpsits codes atc easy tu ‘Among the various inplemeatatins ie following ate mentioned: + DVBQ- develope tthe et Propulsion Laboratory by Krogh (1969, 1974) iso of the eres varie ede a stpsize mult codes, DVBQ us. for example, been use or the numerical integration Fe sol stem eliereis DEIUD (Newhall et a, L983. e2Muaaep tne 3 + DINDEADM is nef the mon pep mat of it kind. The ce andi ‘cortical background ate epi nda in the txuok of Samp ‘& Goad (1973), The ogi code DE ha since heen paved home! ‘ead of program itares (Stmpine & Was 1979) adie wale wader the name DEAM now. Pure amines of heterotic se reported in Wats & Shampue (1986), + YOAS is a vole oer al slepie piste code by Sedgwick (1973. Aside fom dierent iplemeataon is characteris and performance snesinilr to DEDEABM, 4 TM pedicen-comecor method of Hall & Wats - npn es DOZCIF inthe NAG Feta bear provides inter olaton for dese out silat {6 DEDEABN, 4.26 Stovemer and Comet Methods Inthe discussion of Runge-Kutta nets Nsom nethads pave heen nadie ‘hat ace especially designed for he die inepation of econ lr iflerenta ‘sions. Comesrnding multe mets that re known Scere and Cow cl methods maybe deed by an extenson af lh concep Adm me Fo is papose the diferent equation Fear 488) snare evice to or the equivalent oar quien ‘Using pil ineration be double inert ca be replaced bya single negra - i fate rind Pecee-oatcont nati tshcrdeshonsHL. teprion ‘Schott Sump fergie case 7 a es 0 zh ah alth alk atin a —=—sMsGSsBMesOeOON fle HGH) 2rd + r—B) i sn HH [ e-nladitst resin atimsb, re shIs As inthe dsivatn ofthe Adans-Beshfr formals ome my now use polo ia rough poos eth tinge tht) \osmyonint and rit eng Th ies te Steer oma at Brat 4S Va, cs) vith coos given by v fool) +C) am hy el nee of ng Ad pare) 0 i ne tr side fo sion soca cin oe ny ‘Sci soe oh (oS So Sala! "Rc Ser msl ay ee! ye ip Coe tel be ran 2 EHS SV a won 2 casecioe: he cooiets 5 ae penn Table Sup toner. Farther vales ello fro he simple elton Fahy 49) 4.2.7 Gause-Jckson or Second Sam Methuts ‘The Gauss-chson or second som, methods Uaskson 1924, Meron 1974) ane laity moe yess of th Sioera-Coell method fo secon ander di een equation nd poy tees commendable xed epi male ‘menos for eit computations. The expt toate formal i telace by tg ution rat PS 5a, a ‘nd the modied Covel fone piven by ri BST a en ‘elstes ates step maybe obser sina equations thst tow from tne ‘AdansBasor Malton formals war an Sryeh a 95) sad na hea 6) ‘The eoecients yj, yf. 8) amd 3 ar listed in Tables 44, 4620848. ‘The expressions for rig a involve the use of fit and secre sas '¥—, which ae generalizations ofthe backwands diferences ined allie. The te impli deine bythe econs = Vg van a= Ia id ‘in clseaaogy with definition 53). By applying te back diecence oper ‘sor V tice othe expt second su form (3.99) fo 9s obtane rast et «498 ich is est equton (4.88) of the Scermer method, In sina waner ase may prove the vy of he impli second sth formulas Well the fst sone formals forthe prediction of ‘Despite the apparent equivalence ofthe Beshorh-Mouton dnd Stoeone: Covet ors and to fs and second sum Forms te lates ar gency refenedisprctalcompustion- AccordingtoHenc( 92) aul Beri (157),164 Nuera ease 1072 the sum formas are ess nfuenee byrne hat es om he nite computing accmacy. Ts i specks inp in Unger nepations ‘wher roun-offenorearethe min sear of eno sce the ol usc ror ‘in atnays be ined by choosing ihe arder meso anon sl sepsis Tender ose the sunied versio ofthe Stoennee-Coell fora ene ae to determine inal vals of he rad secon! un ston ote al et of hekoard dlerences or stating the caution it i assed that one knows the psi and velocity (7.8) ote satelite ora gven st of equiisuak fines t= Ip jk =m, 0). These data ca alvays be oad from th inal values yr. 4) by & backwards integration with hh onder Rage ‘Kas meta oan xtraplation metho. From postion and wos ne le 0 ales theseelertons a andthe bck dfereees Vay... "ay The ‘les ale ofthe fist and second ms can now be determined by Slving the implicit Adats-Moulton ap Col fos for Vaya Ve: ee ee ‘Asan leave to sing single step mead for obtaining the iti et of assertions an! backward dfltences oe may use aspera stating calcula ‘io, I volves an iferaivereftement of crude apron of the seals ‘coordina an the coresponding erence able iat nay be based eon te “Soumption of en unpstrbed Keplerian eri. For a dead description of tis nelod th sears eee to Henk (1971, 172) 42.8 Comparison of Mulstep Methods “The ltive performance of some ofthe wisp meals described sofa icon aod ig 4.6 The ws covers ender Ada Bashfoth method (AB two Adans-Bashfoth-Multon methods of ode 8 and 12 (ABMS, ABM) ar te variable order. variable stepsize coe DE Shampine & Gordon 1975), all of wich aye used or erating general scone fecal equations fa Teel tt ight in iew ofthe smilie oft TDE.TT cine erence ites sil inpieton fer model of slr syste dynamics. While th post "Newtonian equation bold inespecive ofthe se of TCB or TB tine the TD 5. Def sic pln ae hese 195 se 00 Pie {emis Cand DBhebneapyelty sa Owe hem donate tepe ‘omen Patho second fonger than de TC secon bya factor Ly. Frthecmore in onl to ‘tan the ate merc value c= 9792458 m/s 610 ofthe poe off the length af nee slike fern inthe TC an TO system. Ina similar sane derived unites like te masses ofthe Sam Eh, and ples are affect by the scaling dilerece (Helings 1986). Conierng howe hal precise slr system epeeies ares fa base on «TB ike ‘sl, the comme use oF TUE is sil accepted by the caret LAU eslaions 5:14 Sideceal Te and Univers Tine Greenwich Mean Sidereal Tine GMS. ako known & Greenwich Hoar A ‘devotes We angle between the ean vem eines of dae a the Gsvich eit, tsa dret measure ofthe Eats otto and ay jy he ees in angus units or wits fn with 340” (2)conespondae i 24a tem of ‘St seconds, the length ofa sdereal dy (se the Eas spin prod) aunts to 2395645001 O°008, making abot our mses shorter Ue #20 soar eto lenge day varaans win amp of sever ils seal ‘ne canaot be computed rom ke tine ales with ues press ba st be derived tom aston adpeodeteoserratons,166 $-Tieami Reformer yen bases Sa Sop oh tin Pst pv by ea eS Universal Te LPTs the presently pt realization of sn slate scale wih the purpose of achieving «costa average length of the slr day of 2a Asa rest the leash of one reeond of Univeral Time wo onsan, ‘ects net mean length day dependsonthe rato ofthe Ea ad ine syparent motion of ie Su ie the eth af the yan) Siac sires tie, ‘Snot posible o dtenine Unis Tine by dest somes Some gaa tne, ean theron the Hark eanme be price ecu Every singe Inte Earth’ rotation les the lng he dy, nist theefote Be ake ino sccodat in UTI. Univesal Ties therefore defined afc of sera ine, which dey eects te rtaton ofthe Earth, Far any ptt day UT ened asthe instant at which Grecawich Mean Shere Tie asthe ve @astaPUrly = 24140854841 sos0Ls12866. 75 ++ 02083108 73 —o%ca0n62 72 an) (oki tal 1952) tis expression he ie argue sDOHUT) ~ 2451545, ~ Date Bososs 6.18) aos the numberof lan conus of aver Tie tht nave lags since ‘2000 Sun, LS UT atthe bepiming the day Foran airy Heo he dy te expesion may be generalized o otsin the relation he mst = 28110:Si841 SGHOIBE812866 7, 4 HURTSIINNISOMSUTI 6.19) ++-0r05810872 oropo0062 79, nee the te agent WUT = 2451545, a (520 secs th ine in Julian conus f Universal Time elapsed ince 2000 Ban, 15 on “he diecence beeen Lsversl Tie and erst Tinea Internation Aone Time car only be detesnined terspectively. Atte endo tie het ‘AT = TT-UTTsmountstoroughly 68nd incotes by aout 0. to LOsecos De year (ef Fig. 5.3. In adit the secular variation, which is cuse by ial Toon inthe Eur-Moon syste UTT is subject pera vans on the Freel hat are eased hy el petctatons of the polit omen ne ee McCarthy (1996) an eferenes therein). By couneton, Zonal tide erm wih tio between 5 and 35 days me removed from UTI t btn the eae Universo Time UTR. Value he UTIRATAT re ference piston soni bss in Balen B ofthe Iteational Ea otation Service ERS) ig. 5-9. the adopiodexpresion or UTL-UTIR tien in MeCarthy (1995. Aside rom reconstructed, pos-faco values th arth aiatition paras1 Time Ree Stes tulleinpovides aprox forecasts over two mone fame at Say rd oy inevals. Using quai interpolation ofthe ibid dt, UTI may be aie for abit stants fom phen TAL or TT), which hen lies OMST tobe computed uss fuetion of TAT wing the convertion relation 5.19, ‘Clock ime, which ews for everyday purposes, is devve fom Condit Universal Tine (UTC). Since 1972, UTC beatin from atl locks nag at these a neal Atoms Tie ad Test Te By the uso ep seconds, which muy be inert a teed of ane nthe en of seme cae {Sten enna UTC never deviates by more than 0.9 scons rom Univeral ‘TaeUT (ei, 5) Betoon 172and 199, oll of 2 esp seconds ave been ingoduced as summarized Table. New lypsecouds are aoutced in Bulle CCof the HERS (Fg. 5.5) about haa yar in advance of te inplemewain. SS. Asoicemot fw UIC ep ms a Bak Ce ERS rd Eh S2Csot ma Teri Roemer 10 ion GHETAL| ew WTAT| —Feaw ET Tmt nls | Tai [Wm | oe Bam) He [folds Su | apis te Wtesen 1 Mise | tet “ase 5.2 Celestial and Terrestrial Reference Systems ‘Tee uation of motion as rived in Chap. 3 describes the eit of a stele with reset toa qus-inetil or Newtonian reference sytem, ie. wih espe to 4 conn system ht moves with the center ofthe Eat ti fee of oon. Satelite obsernations onthe ther hun arcurmonly elttne fam an observing ‘eon he safe ofthe Eth whic swt a ret wth respect otis efeeace ‘stem In onder o compare ground tnsed measurements ith he computed ae ‘te positon,» eons definition of eles! ante eerence stem ‘quien des mutual elton ho be elise Tradonily, celestial reference ames have bee es he Earths ation ‘dita eoltion around he Sn, In vw of the apptent orstany of eh ‘he obit plane and te ronton axis of he Earth, celta sotdnne syn ‘be defined a rsigforward stunner. Te intone eines te psiton of it in pce wihespetto th cic ie Ears tal plane, wl other ‘one refers wo the Ears equatorial plane (ie plane pepe othe ation 4s | vgs. icant egncymS Tinea lore Sse xi, Tes panes ant tan sgl ~ 235 dh in nents Somme stofethcandn sf 3 Tet arse st ‘eine econ he wena quinn or Ft Po es, ied T Tithe tothe Noh Cel P ea) dh mx oe sttielipcttie ah. Acong te eine etn rts Fan eclipse ise dyson F=Rior 62) tt th procs ae fhe aig yn in (5.42) Te coe Been Celpcandeqentorial coordinates nly 8 question of viidess abd come: heace Pantry eis or example are lind sal angles oe Eas tba plane and re herelore commonly desde in ecliic coordinates. ta. teil ceodnaes, onthe ter hd are chsly ltd geographical ccondises Sn pone natal ink oan Earned fee te ke a pin yan al a ae tong a the ata oe spr wo de ral vector his colton des nt I fete Barth deo he presence of the soa sysem planets Thies sales variation fhe xb plane we knows pantry precession. ‘te ane he Ea uo sion ered ye gee {he equator! ul bythe So and Moon. Th orgie eso alt he oqo ‘eh the tie anders neyo maton of the Bc aon st ‘ound the pe of he elie with pedo about 26€00 years. A re {histuisotarpreession evel elo este slowly on hectic. whereas {he obiguiy tte eli rennin exert conan. to ation to pesesson ome minor pros perrtaen of he Bars tao atinay Be observed at cn sl iti fe lr os tie Seales lage ont nvew of titi dependent resto of xa cepa smd: foe wu edo ee tr i ‘vleqinox of one nalepet, whichis cue selected asthe eine Year 200. Aces to the Ear eon Eyuanr ant Equi of J200 (32000) Bs powdeby the FKS sor caso (tek eal. 1988), which roviespecse Positions nd roper nmin soe (0 tr forthe epoch 3200 eee tone gen eee fame, Ine of rcp diet weed he anil eon of ‘etic ant equines he 2 Kista & Akt 1983, was cided by te TAU Sn 1801 tessa new lero Cots Reeence Stem (CRS and ptt fa se ro 198 onvards Fee ee Minar 198). The evga of he JERS sete a he slayer taryeeer win elas meer nis aves re ied ith respect 1 dst extragalactic rao objects. These ae oppose hive poyr oto, tha ensuring athe ICRS exhibits wo net ‘tion Tora onion fe mw yn, the TERS ates we cosa in eet foc Src et 8 oem sty tetera A Roe Pane eo ap $2.Cseth and ro Reon Sens sich ay tole consistent wi he previous FS yen to within the oseaey ofthe late. The Fundamental plane the ICI snc age wth he eg ant equator a 2000 ath ei a ight ssconson i ined by anata "ig scrasior ofthe quasar 3C2T, “The pascal reaization ofthe ICRSis designates the nt rtonal Celestia Aeference Prame(ICRE aso msininedhy he IERS ante AU Washing ‘Growp om Reference Frames (Aras el 1995), I manly based on hse [esison observations of extragalactic radio sources using Ver) Long Bases Inecterometry (VLBI) ard maybe accesed though 2 ctloypeoiding sure cordnats of 608 objets, McCarthy 1986), Links to existing optical eslogs repro radio sur (Sidelrnn 1908), vile the CRS ai pracy ee ets provided by VLBI observations of planetary spect u Wel sane ls ‘gag (LLR) (Follies tl 1954, Stach 198), Compemcniary tte ICRS, te erations Teresral Reference System (1785) provides the conceptual definton ofan Es iedretetene syste Me, Canty 196) ts gin is oad athe Earths center of ass Ginn sta and espe) and is unit of length isthe SH mee tment wih he TCs {ime coe). Te emation ofthe ERS Reference Pole UP) an Alrtan (at sr consistent wit she presi adopted BIH yea cp 984.0 al {he former Cementiona ftrrationa rig (C10) (ef Sect 5-3) The tine Tuco ofthe ETS is suck that ahi uo al onion withthe as ust, Realization of the ITRS ar giver ty the dteroinal Tera Refer ence Frame (TRE) th proves ciated eos and eco ela bserving stations ver authori of the IERS, Observational estnigas sed ‘her determination nce slit ae ranging (SLR, lat act aing LR, ‘ota Psioning System (GPS) and VBI messemens New version of tis FIR are pushed anally and exhibit lel ifereces alte celine ve ‘The transfomation between te International Celesial Reference Sten and ‘he Intemational Temesial Reference System accompliaied By conve odes for + pecesio List eta 1977), desing he sca tinge the eretne "in ofthe ari’ rotation ais dhe ino, ‘+ mutation Seetman 1982), desribng the period shxtar vation ‘ofthe equate pd the vera eginoe and + Sieteal Tine in rettion to UTI (Akl et 1982), deseising the Bute ‘exten abou i ‘These modes ce spplemented bythe IRS Fath Observation Paneer (EOP, comprising {+ obsertons ofthe UTL-TAL deren sd + messredcordites fhe rtton ais relive tthe ERS Referee Pole ERS 1998). The eeing eansforwation may be expressed as OWN) Perrices‘wher te ation aces PN, ad I dsr the corn changes doe {o precession, nation, Ea lation, and polar motion, especialy. A deed scot of dhe uderying cones of tase ansformations and Ue adopted me tere expresons spent nthe Saquen eto, 5.3 Precession and Nutation 5M Lanivolar Torquesd the Motion of Uh Barth's Rotation Ane Inorertodosribe tb procesiono ihe Ec’ rladon axis, he ah iscomsidered ‘sa rtatenallysynmsrie gyroscope wit an angle that changes ‘with tender the influence a extemal ave D scconding to a Hoy 62 ven hol the dco of the angular momentum may ia geal, iro Ae amar ais ofa gyroscope andthe lsanancots ais of rtaton sme ms ne! ose ferences the sso of precession aol lon al she ‘hat ig parle othe uit sei that deta to Ear axis. Fig 57). Then I= Cone, om ong = 729-107 tals 625) ‘sthe angular velaey of the Fan's ation and Cite momeat of ines. For spherical bly of bonogencous densty with muss Af anradis Re the oxen fine is given by ' SMon 526) den, ‘ foranaebitney as ofrtton. Du tote Earths atening nisin sire he actual moment of neti re given by sigh dflerng values A=O529%gR and C= 0.3308 om fora rotation around an axis inthe equiva plane anda rosation aroun! the Pr ani especie. ny be noted hat these quanti ate elated athe Cp open eet by C= A= ~Coltah 625) ‘The tre D duet pot nas (Le. the Sun oF Moo at» peocenie postion rie given by D=-mir xi 1629) 1 designnes the celeron of bythe ervitaonl fore of the Bah. Ne. sling higher-order zoal wasn the expansion fhe aepetets isa SO S27 -s7hr — Here] 6.0) GMa, 36Myi forarotationsly symmetric Eth (Sect. 3.2) where =re is thedisance of onthe estore. Altes of he acceleration fat repre oe ais vector aft she Ears enter of mass, oly atthe resting tore is ven by Shesinple expression (a1 “The Sun moves around the Bath na nec obit dhs nein an angle «with espa to Ue eqatr athe resin or vies whenere the ‘Sun ese te equator (20). atedaing the wit veto, ite dnston of "he era equinox ef. Fig 57), he tore ofthe San rig ges othe ino1S Tine a Ree Sate nodes fod oe seinesone Do = 6Meic ~ EE, 63 spect wheter te Sn tna owe eri plane. This es inant ome Bo = owgic - a 2s, 3 ‘in tnedection ofthe vem eunox daring he couse ofa yea whereas the mean componente diction jependiulr we, vatsbes. Makiog we of Kepler's "had aw the ast expression may Turter be mtn Bo=3C—Arsinecosendex uy ‘where fe mean motion of the Sun int orbit ound the Ear ‘Siniarcomsiertin ul for ln Mon, withthe exception attention fhe fare with espct © Ears wot edb ae ete 13" and 25" ding a period f about 18 years Since tis peo s small unpre {othe time seale of eel, one ay. however ese tht the Moon moves it ‘he cli just ik the Sun. Tis ies tal can erg of Badic~nincase (Settee 12 which changes neither the Earth’ tetal ang mentum norte aig eb Tower to ove aco th pole oft elipie a an angular veleity DDL _3C-A nb toile rs Bom = Suri =e Og sand 532 Coordinate Changes dc to Precesson ‘The combined elects of precession he crentaton a theeclptic andthe oguste ancien ig. 5.8 where the mation of bt planes x described wit eect othe mean eqaatr a esl of the reference epoch 120%) (200 Janus 13). ‘Deco recession the intersection Utne equator of posh and the mean elie of 12000 lags bead the weal equinox "apn of 12000 by an angle We sonetsr thr? oa) haces alos inary with aw, while de neinaon of the mean equator ile respect othe ecliptic of J200 isa canst apart. 070s-7? (538) Saheim eden 178 te eevee ge oe / Here P= gD —n4sisisay/s65250 6a) ‘sensed in Jolin ceri Teresi Time since 12000 TT. ‘While the gravitational pul of the Sun and Mo canes the ieton ofthe tis anésand he eqontorl plane it desta he ae tation othe clpie ‘Longer change ofthe nea osbict the Earth rou the San J, however, rom the ifn o th plats. which sess concep motion of de ‘slide, Wdhespecttotheeclipicof 2000 the elie atanbe ep sini Samingleof 4790029. 7 — 07033027? + ot000nK0 «79 hte te inf insason i describe hy the sage T= 1re76383889 —ao9"909-7 | 0203536-72 an) ‘hese valves follow Kom a theory ofthe seule changes ofthe Bais ela lemensan hav een dsivedby ieskeetal (1977 felloning carer enelaons hy Neweowh| : 640 ‘moiety ae fT Tien arene Daal TieAs esl of planetary precession te oblgity ofthe ei sil de r= 245920111 — 46781507 —oFONUS9T2 + OL0OIBIST? (SA) “Te combine recession i Hg p= AW T= 5029"0965.7 4 ITHHNS-T—oromMNDET? G8) ‘ssomenat sales, beter, than the unis precession aloe. “The enaton of he mean eqs degen ech Twit spect 0 the enor sl xing of 2000 des by te ee ales 5 = 232ist 7 + 073008872 4 o%017908 79 = 200473109 7 ~ 0742658 7? — of041838 7? oy =f s0'7028077 4 ofoonn05 7? 8 that follow fom the foadaental quantities, 112, an coring to Fig. 58 the vats(oroaton fen coordinates ree tefered 0 themean era inn of 1200 a eerste rele ode mean eto nd equinox of some oer eye ("ean") may now be ten as Fa = Prices 645) wee the mais is the produto ee consecutive ions: P= R92) RW) AEOO5) = Rak RA 646) valatng the max prods, one obtains the Flowing expression Fr Pw (7 my = ~sinzsing + 6082080 cose pas = eosssing +s eos cose pu = Hsia eue ry = ~sinzco.g —coneosd sing Bev “hewn zeont ~ sinceos@ ine oan po = ~sind ing my = ~emzen? pm Ps =sinzsino toon Since Pie rotation tis, ts ivere Pisa tthe tanspose 2: Pa Pha RCI OR) 5.48) SStrecianaNitig 7 ‘pesson soi een inay ps Tithe pay Pye, 649 ete P (7) dnote the ain Grom the ean ester nd equinox of 0 oe ean equator sn espn of ep 7 Alterately, the penelope GIT.2) = (4230672181 + 18396567 ~ of000139-72)r -H40"30188 — OFUONSLAT)2 4 OF0r7I98e2 S(T.1) = (4230672181 4 11396567 — o2000139777)¢ ss) “+¢+1200468 + ufooone6 7)? + asNas3037° 9(T.2) = G200483109 —0°955307 — 07000217 72)¢ +-0742665 — of000217 7)? —orDHIES3,> (ies ot 1977, Like 1979) with Tet EIT) = 2451545.0)265950 ny 2 Ren = apyTH aw aTHy/s6s950 ‘em be used compute the ansformation is POs Ti) = RAAT) ROT VRA-RITD) 652) iets fom the mean equator and enn of pch F othe mean exes ad ‘guinox of epoch ‘The 3nd polynomials forthe precession angles given in (5.50) obey the ence ato = 3 ATH) = at.) 6s) Oren) = —0TN, Accor, POT) = RUHT H.-R CLOT 41, ORTH, 9) REG ORB. IRAE.) 350) = POT) este igrous inverse of PT, 7). the the and te easily elation PUTS Ty) = POD FNP 1) 39 ‘spot mainained exactly hy the generalized precession angles is teefone beter in practical aplication of expression 50) aid he seen wo som acs. Oterise. eres ypey ofthe onc 10° a rl sie for epochs yng within one century fom the efeens epoch 200 ine scien f= {0a kgaly gn OOS nLite 197 ans beer te opr “OD a Lee 7)18 5-Tme Ref Stine 53 reein a Nsig 8 5.3 Nutation inroprha| av worl [ae awry ere [ae [ae ‘Aside rom he secular precession ton te eieation f the Bar's ation 7006 t| -ABecTaT aoe eet {is aleted by sl psa petbtios tht are knot a tan. They 4900 3) ae vaar| utasr a} | a Ste doe won ad smo Yrston the oer and oar ee tht ve eased Me it as] een avenged inte wetment of pecson The mao eontibuton to wBaKON ao] ° i} -s]3 eet ig cen eee eRe eae als 4 War ‘itnlor as expressed ty telnet te Moons ascending nde 2-1 nace st I Wesel ‘evo it aa smear, Ws}s ay = —12700-sni) 650 a0 of ice er] sear ofl a fe eral equivon and change ocd t] a arr ° r =-499203 cost) ssn oss a) 4 ofthe obit of hectic ding the 18 ea ol eid ofthe Mon. As g2eas) yor 2 scorer horaut ple ates eeepc sat como es pon oe eee | {Sales yt tne prvesaon fioeil oe a “Te unt toed TAU 94D stan ses i as wr coin of Ki Hee sei) os : ois (197) a Wal (1581.1 expresses te naan angles cael a i fe ee ara, peat ‘ i ws) _ ; ae = Dison) oraas 7 reese 2 by toa of 106 terms, when are sumamarid in Table 5.2 (Seidman 1982) bora oar : Etc enn describes pod fancton ofthe meso erent fe iar adsl ieeoa sot ; nt wi gument eset tote 2 t= pul rel 4 Drv pos pas? 539) bo2 ol 0 and integer coeffi. Pras Pn Poi and pag The oer protest boa 2 ‘he ons ean aroma ht Sun's can ana) (he mean dace of foot aur : {hedoon fromthe ase oe (he erence between he ne ings aed aye ‘ofthe Su ai the Moon (), ah ean ong of the aceadng Noe of he fiei al ifs Meera) Nother tree ei ela ebay ane cca Vs ‘gly ies 334) iif a 1 atsesrusras -Amies2taten 74 312107 +0f067? ping 3] 3 SSP'SWENON + SSHBPLIRAT ~ orsTTT? —oroIDT* [ oat a) ah Go 10 RTT 4 amNoOOTOSELSTT — 1af2577? wO"DNIT? aay Hi Set He ae aorsvovsar + a42srostlias — «fot? 4070197 3 BH d Hal _SONAONISN— I9BHORIO'S VT 4 TSSTt +e T?Jon Sine and Ree Syne aaaaeee ea Te spiiae TPE ip 9, Teste os ~~ * Saestonce te tuewas? oper oe come in Seidelmunn (1982, while slightly modied expressions ecommende by he TERS are gven in Mey (1990), allowing Fi. 5.9 he Gasformation rom mean alco eer tothe mean equator and eine to tuft cordate (ferret the te sar ad uno ay be water as ns = MIT a sary NT) = Bled) RAW) ROD 6a) ‘The elemento he uaasormation mix N = (n) in equtrial oordnstes are piven ty my = Heavy sen = Heastey sits) sayy = slaw sinc mua = —eosley-siacav) nay = este) -cosle’) -con{ 38) + ine) site) 6) Inge ste) site’) -os(.4¥7)~ sia) cate) sayy = since singe) na) slate ces) costa) ~c05()-siae') gy = sie sate -co5( AW) + cost) ease) where ¢ ane! = e+e ate the mean and te ie P= (DIT) = 2481545 09/3525, rom VLBI ad LL. oberon, th TAU 1980 theory of tation iknow \oteinerrron te evel of several ml aesecond aan proved nation ty (ERS 1986) due to Retina us boa made aval in Mth (1098) [Neverdes, the TAU 1981 eres rene as oficial stand in the HERS con ‘ations athe existing decease are compensated for by observed yale of ‘he cele poe oes 3 and be. Impeoted auton anges are otsned by king thse conection tthe TAU 1980 vas: OF = A¥unne® + 546 604) 4 = desu + 340 ofthe stipe at SAEs Ratna st ‘Te comesponing covetion tthe tein aie stained rom 1 sbaycoe —saysine Ninna we(assapeoe hae Hdwsine tsar 1 (eCory 1996, Post-ficto desertion and sort ern yrditions ofthe ee esta pole ofsets ate pubis on a monthly bass in Bulletin Bo he TERS os Fis. 5), 65) $4 Earth Rotation and Polar Motion Sar te m Aboot the Celestial Ephemeris Pe ‘The LAU precession and tation hore yl the insentaaeous neato ofthe Fstis ation ae, ore pect, the venation ofthe CelestlEpheers Pole (CEPY wih respect ou Iverntionat Cok Reference Syleis Meo tation bout he CEP axis et is eserbod by te Greeawich Mean Side Te {GMST) that mesnures the angle beeen the ean neal equinon adhe ioe, wich Meridian, Sel 5.1), Given the UTL-UC or UTI-TAL te ifirene ‘8 monjered and pulsed by de TERS, the Greenwich Moun Side Toe ot ‘ny instant eo be computed fon become relation (19) ‘similar to GMST. the Greenwich Apparent Sdereal Tae (GAST) measnes the ou angle of he re equinos. Both rales ler by te mtation fee GAST—GMST = Ay cose 6566) ‘chil anwnstheepaion fe eninou% Gne e pp ‘tion, the tmatrix. epee 010) = RAGAST) 60 pies the wapsormatontetieen tbe uae cordate se as defined by the adopted precssion-nmainnteoy) a a system aligned wi the Eh "ator aod Grecichmetiin. i Ge Epis Pic ly he ae nn a fic sober Naeem rues ‘noe and hte ope ete pl sms {he Eas tee irene hen pl ms nh eat Scns er rata) Cen Wee a i or ina aces ny ei in th i of he ypsins y ms germs Funan wih ey te nha eke veces Si be adil we ig i (Te pans ae ee ‘outing om coingbrcey ein sn ae nese ‘eon fap! Cope Gen 19% Nan ee).Westmead Reo Syston ‘The common sus of bo systems pont to she Celestia Ephemeris Pole, hic snot. however fed with respect othe sofas ofthe Ear, ba performs 4 pede mon foun ace postion rom which ies by at most 10 "Tis maton is known as polar motion an ean bo understood by considering 8 ratios symmetrigarscop. nich the aon asimnves rnd he ‘of igure inthe sence extra onus, SA2 Pree Eaerian Preceesion Inabeay xed coorinte system (ee, 3) ht ligncd withthe piel aes fine the ager momesture of waymmetiepyoscope gv hy ago =(040)e 508) wae ‘whew ithe instantaneous ation xi i where Aad Care moments of Jneraorarattion wound Kcey- rey nd the ean respectively, Wie feral trquesthe angular momen? scons nan inal eerence system, ft since fers rlting ye io the elation aa a Upon insertion his yields Euler's eguations texra0 6) at yee any = 0 ant CM ow o forthe motion of with espe tothe boy fed erie syste othe pile jae case of symetcayrescope- Whe dhe thd equation imps constant onponat of aru smelt, he soon nthe Bs wegen tesco by sn = m2 Amy +8) 4 sti 8) “Te isaniancous rotation veto thereon describes ices the ey ans, ‘shee the aus and phise bare i hy the nal condone. The period om n= sean 6m S4Cah Ronan Poe nkco 18S depends om he angular velocity andthe Nteing ofthe gytosope as expresso bythe faction of the moment of nti, Fa the Earth, ti ima! ening CAC ~ A) as died fom the observed precession ue ef. Set. 5.1)amouns 9 0.00525, which yields a pid of 305 days, 543 Observation nd Esteapoaton of Polar Mot ‘Onceraions show thatthe Bath's pol motion is scully a sipemposton of "wo components. One is the fie precession wih a pviod of about 135 day Ihe ‘Chanter pero) tha st weer in ct withthe eapeted 303 da pind ‘dcan ely be explained by a non igi Earth mae. corps isan mal ‘oton tat isinduce by seasonal anges ofthe Eats drat ie Sleand water flows, Ineonasttorecesionand mation dhemavion of eration sss with epee 10 este othe Earth anne, herelore, be pedi rom tary but hs 0 De ‘monitored by cotinaouscbgeratons. For this purpose he mean pon ofthe eof recon daring the yeas 190010 190i choses the iin plas motion measurrent Histrcally two sihly ler eference polis have een ‘ployed by various instars. The C10 (Conve neato Origin) ‘elmo bythe location of ie stations ef the Ie rnoml Lede Service (LS) at has bc swoel in pol motion messiements fom he being oe ‘eau, Wheteas he BEL poe wa ater adopted bythe Rave Iemaona de eae. ‘Thedifeenceberween ees dest estimated ler a (Gioten 198). Following he into ote fteratonl Teresi Renn ‘System (FTRS) al pout medion data he conse hoe rele to the TERS, Reference Pole IRP), which Wasinally aligned with he BI ae a 19840 i510. Dee opt ncn he ale Epes CEP psn esi {lh ks Ree Rte pan he i eh ‘ie CoP esac ate raat11S Tinea Roem System Examples of polar mon observations are given in Fig. .10 which tows he coos stl yp of the Caleta pene Poe with vespet to the ERS, Reference Poe as a ncn of ine. The aad )-es ae algae with he HERS Reference Meridian (Grech meridian) and he West erin A dspace ‘eat of UT contesponts to non the sree he Ear, Since 1900 he men Prion ofthe poe a hed by shout 1 aco sal changes ia The ae tas intibaton Fi 5.10) Av ares of ison Which s Koown as pla rome, the over ition of he ton aie to tng symete th ‘espe! ote adoed CIO/SI poe. The superponin of the anal oscilla tnd Ue fie rection i evden fom the frequency speci of polar motion shown in Fig 5.11 both contusions are of neareguat magne end almost ‘incl ache with bet pre of 5 6 yeas (fg 5.10} Caen! ales ‘fae pol coordi ae yubtished oes moot bse in Bulletin Be Fi. 3.8) ‘the Initio! Earth Rotation Service with relation fone and fv dys, reepctvely, om these dt nee aes foray ney he oa ‘quate nepolation with sunt accuracy. sen eine See ee oes ven though polar mation canna grou be predicted, snetepolaon ver a certain itera s never posible rom previous daa, Portis pups the ‘maton of te pole may be meted ax saperposiom of near mote (polar wander) ansciliion vidapeid of 368,25 daj (ans em) anda sian ‘wha period of 135 days (Chander em. Apo coefikns that provide an ctrl of abused polar mio ta wi an acceacy a abou 01 over ‘ne nh ae published hice pr week in HERS, Bulletin A fst joy by dhe TERS and US Nationl Earth Orono Serves EOS). Sin preston’ are so provided by the US National Imagery and Maing Agency (NIMA ex put ‘oF the GPS precise eptererispeneraton process (MMA 199) Foraproviction ove longer timescales mare exible model has bea popuncd by Chao (1985). The two components of por mation ae Tepesenied ty time: SSGeaki Dunne 18 epenent anatios B= ae FONE ea cH Py da) hee OH2RE/ Pes a 15.93) Sp = Ay byt ey SRT) Pa +) iN Py +H) With ott of 16 ee parameters og, fy tal ar bined frm ales sqres Fito six yeas of past polar motion dat By atoning for dileran sonal ad ‘Chundeianpcous PrP a wells dlleen ses nd the and -comonent of portion some additonal Segre of er ie isola ‘this mv tat imove the preci ia ies of notahe pend changes (en ating in 1977), Wiha a oe Year prediction aera an seuey of "02 ene has be achieve 5444 Transformation tothe ltersatinal Reference Poe Base onthe previous discussion the tansfrmustin fom ofl vores (defined by de they of precession ad ution) tthe aeration Testa Releonce Syscm muy be expen ae rime = 10 Fag om er © (5.61) deste the Earth's ation abot he CEP ans whi 1 sy Rime (0 1 615) miptty We Ryo secomis fr polar motion an descr he syn ransom t the Ht ‘ional Reference Pole and Meridian. I view of the smal ages vale (OPS [Sura second erder terns ean safely be negested inthe expansion of the Uigonoietric fonctions an he ieariod for of IY fl deat Io al sp pleations. SS Geodetic Datums Besides the Inmatons Terestal Reloeace Sytem an its anully wed resliationsITRFyy.a varity of ther global enti dau in ween as ‘Common al systems ithe goa fextababing global cordial sytem hn ‘fginaes tthe Bar's centr of mas and is closely signed withthe Gren Imei ad heaped ple ‘The Wind Gendetc Soko 1972 (WOST2) and 1984 (WOS8A) have bes sabe by the United States Deparient of Defense (D0) ad te Defoe ‘Mapping Avene" (DMA foruse withthe TRANS eal GPS sate navigton syste, WSS, in initia ealizaan, ws elf sed relrence sate ior Non nae a pine Ag (NDA)186 Tinea Ree yes oorinates obi by TRANSIT Doppler measurements aid achieved a gobs ceurany of 1-2 meters. Ta pve pelo, tr now relrmions teal ‘WOS8E(G730) and WGS84 (G13 were eablisod (Malye & Ste 91, Maly: «tal. 1997 base on acute GPS poioning teshniqes- The revised sae ‘onsdeed agree wifi TTRF othe desir and emer eel eh NIMA, 1997) Similar othe ase of WOSS4 tn GPS appliestons, the Russan GLONASS -jtem employs speci datum know a2 oreerence ane ICD-GLONASS. 1998). Tia acc Canam Ce Yon, haces hoe agen ton} _ford_tanl | 10°] oroot_onai_onnt | meio wostt [sen siz aes | | sigs “a3 90 fen parame ae fate eee rms waseiosry| 31-1 a 12 107 [| Except tical nes the aan ation ord, dhe relation ‘ecco fern dais maybe expen By on nfs seven-pramtet sanantonio 9s Helier anstormaton ad accounts fora of tin the opted eign (7 9, sea difference (D) at g misalignment of the enone ates U3) Given the coednates ri the vigil ssn, he ornate fa ater system may be expeessed us TY (4D —Rs +R =(n)s(+e 40 “ar 676) JR em +0, Sample rameter fo common waefoatons ae provided in Tobe $3 In view tf eliferenc conventions forthe ares an igs ofthe waraformation paneer, “are shld taken when applying the ove equation wih oe porter sel, Supplier tthe Cason coordinates nthe eres eres ster the ection of pons ono ea the surfs of he Earths omen expen terms of geodetic coordates flav to ache eerence elisa The gee longi .sidentical tothe geocentric Togitide and measures the angle between ‘he Greenwich meridian (ore International Reference Merian) amen rou he point. hy enveaion 2s counted paste towards the ast of Gren. ‘wih Unie the geen ate ht sess the cit ofthe poe ‘eco with espet othe eatrialplane the pode tae yes angle ‘etween he Earthsea sia he onal othe reerence eli. ak egals ‘heeertion of the noth eesti pale bore te local tanget plane lS Gas np ae The referee ellipsoid i rainy 5 M Syimmetvic and any plane teh she ‘symmetry ai intersect the ein in tele ofateningf which dened bythe relaive diflerene of de cust radian the ptr ae Ro~ Fe ne 6m All pins onthe Gresnvih meridian therefore oe the relation : em hh mya fe ten inthe ite om te gp fount 3 One rand et np ad cording othe efistom fa by equa th epson oe obtains x09? tag 6s loser his tion nt te ton ft i a svg fr ily eds 1 ee Vivi pPaaty TOF LFe-Paie cy po ee eer GS) Vir Hran (1 70= psy18 § Tinea Reems Sent “This relation between Caran ad geadeticonrdiae mayest be ene forarbiery pois yielding, EN + pcos pcos ra [_oesmengsinn oxy (= pe Eh) sng swt oe os) 4@-Nsin'y fs an airy quant da i itrated in Fp $.12 and were ode el shove he eevee eis "whith eomputtion of Cares conlinses fom given geodetic coord esi aly simple th iver transfonanion slighty mre nove, Besides necro Dat inoe he soon gute equation (Boku 1989, Bowring 985) hee te several trative ethos, which sual comerae epi "The metho deere seins the quay dear“ EW say = 2 sng a5) wee foe 35 stands othe eesti of the efetence ellipsis 6, which woot peroination fr al ponte hat ae reasonably lose tothe sce oF te Ea lnpoved ales re dey ase fom 6a we sing ntl the eration converges. The geet ngage and ate and th eight owe deference ellipsoid may then he ella fro 2 = san(2} o> acta as) 1588) RESTS EP A SSCoatiicOmame 1 “aes Common laren tse Neca oe econ 198 Nia 7 cay 195 Maria 3980 ep aeons 188 oss which follows innedatey fom Fig 512s oted tha he above eons ae singel points the zen, which islets the caer many dec methods (sree Setcimgan 192), Since te iferece beter the Bar's ext ant pola ees Yn 22am the Hatening f° 1/298.257 ia wey smal sanity und te ifereae ‘becom geodetic and gooenc latitudes mont othe armies l mast “Toa ts appro eae fine). 6x ‘which shows ha the difference between andy echo ts mann for ier ‘oats train tthe poles dd eq: Numeical lero the pene tenn for Vassar ipso1S Tl Roe Stan Exercises LExercie 51 (ICRS to FERS Transformation) Compute ch wansfomation {rom the International Cele Referece Sytem ore meanegtaocaneginox ‘200 to the nao Teresi tere Sysiem (or the fence poke ‘nd Greet metidian for the epoch 99 March 0 UC, ints Obtain Terentia Tie (7) a8 Univer Tine 1 (UTI) well ple ‘oorinaes the tne of inet om dhe espetve HERS bulla cig 3.4 fu 55} Employ the 1A 1376 precession theory and the LAU 1980 tation "tec to compute the staan orenaon of the Celesial Epbemers Pole {acelecting any coestons tothe auton angle), Icon the Fath ton trnsformatir coon fo the convention relation terween UT and GRIST ae ell ov the Ms-oder Gee of Ue gun the equines Sofuion: The TERS Bulls B (No, 138) and (No. 16) provide he lowing ath entation parameters and derived sans: ure=TaL = —32'0 Tr-uIe = y6uise Uri —uTe = 401640232 ® 40700740 % 40013 Using dhe above ssomption, he fllosing sept step transformation mastic For precession (P) ao },Eathrtaton (9), al por moton (FP) ae bund (samt -+0.00018581 “ta ) “onno185s1 099550098 “o.90000001 “ogoo9s78 “ooxxumnoot +1 on00%00 +100000000, -BaMDKER 40.09001944 Wve { “noose coon ¥a00005207 “noms “o.omns207 “+1,090000 09173044 03033547 -v0.9Nn00000 @=( -o2ss47 “usnscn7 Huon “0.000000 -noonn0000 +1:0N000000 “+1.90090000 <.0noGan00 -+0-09000033 = ( +o.oon0000 +1.00000000 “0.000007 anus .9000017 + 1.09800009 Mutipicton then yields the nats 091739503 032011695 —oonndsast newr=| 0.220116 “o9s7s7803 —o.m0.s63 o.ooiams —o.ocan3330 10.999999 hat esr he fal ICRS to TRS aaron om Beni 8 BrerciseS.2 (Velocity athe Rarthlned Frame) TheGP'precaeephaneides ofthe Nasional gery and lapping Apeney (NIMA) provide the ae wets of the GPS stele ina Baths eens sate (reselly WOE (ORT) ‘This tame is considered as rating, which lista the rtation ofthe aes must be considered in te transformation of te eect Nee ros = UGE Pens aeesoy ts) wos = UEESbncas 3s oynens + ORE Given te state vector was = (18480 95380, 16881.609273, 6777-11502) km wos = (=U.8111807456, ~02573790137, 0689508128) kids ‘fale PRN 15 atepoe 1999 March 0" GPS ime, compote th postion ad ‘velocity vector inte Iteationa ClestolRefeenee Sytem ean equator equinox of F200, Check your result by showing tht the cresponding rial emes deeribe a nereieaar obit with twelve prin (a = 26560 kn) nn ncn of abou 6, ‘inis_Twe WOSE4 (E73) fame seria othe Iteration Tees Rete nce Frame within an accuse of fe conti Incompting the ervatve of the ICRS to FTRS wousforwaton the posession, ttn nl polation nay ‘ay be considered as constant ako 40 EO 29 p 690 Purthermor, the de deivative ofthe Bath rotation mati sven by o 40 dow, BO raf 0 of ow 1522) ooe bere oasn) 2 = HOASD ss omersramnssanas, S11 58553.0-6 y= SR gg = TESS. 10 (cl. (5.19) isthe Ears angular velit. TERS Eth orientation parameters for the dt of ater ae provided inthe previow sect, Seluion: The GPS-UTC tne eifferone amounts 13, whish eis in he ICRS-ITRS trnstocaton natric 09107414 4032101491 -0.90008425 v=( oxi) “assis “o.oo6s71 Snogo1oe24 —e.c00n330 40999909M2 STieaeRtoues Ste odin derivate 02308778 0 GRETIN —KD0:56L t= ( Foosnei74s “023108770 -noon06167 } 104s {40.nno9e089 —eoodaNuas -+0.09000000 ‘Ten reas = UE ras = (-2350,593, ~9747074, ~67795829) kom reas UF ays +O ros (G1 381504, —L. 751346, ~3 068851) bras intense weenie els efnencesystens The aerator (bil element of the GPS satelite ae oes Seminoraxis 265610134 Escensiciy = O070606 Incinion = 563387 Roawevd onde 2 1.16 ‘Ang clpoigee| STOP eon anomaly Ay 10935" ‘hich motes the spesifed bial characters of the GS apace mea rere $3 (Genetic coordinates) ‘The Cartesian coorlintes of de NIMA GPS oon at Drege Gara Ben by racic) = CH91TH52 190, 46920782399, —80136.118) epoch 1997.0 Cominghan Cars 1996) Compute Ue comespodins geet ‘Sette sing the WOSE4 erence ellis Solin ost onginwle = 472.36312004" Eptiade y= 726554008" Heit = —68.667m 6. Satellite Tracking and Observation Models, 6. Tracking Systems ‘oni determinton on arti soit egies snp ncenmemens ha rs ‘elated to the stelio’s potion oF velo. Thee date we celleted by 2 satelite tock sytem tht measures prope of electromagnetic Wve propagation ‘eevee the ansniter and the esver. The vansmiter as well he rcsiver ‘yet be 8 oud Saton 6 Sale G.L1 Radar Teaching ‘Suc heey times of spac adr techies have bee wiz gar information on the postion ap8 vey atl stellt Restricting to 3 ‘Simpl consgration wi one ground ston and ane ste: 1 the ping angles in Ue topocenuic sytem of he grou Sato ae = taney meurng ee doton ofthe maxim irl apt de space 2. the lant ange or ita fom the sllite to foe san comte Ge the ound igh me of 2 radar signal eine fog he prod sao ncn ote safle an rate bk to the tation, 3. the vmge ato liso ight velit fe pacar relative tthe proved stone drivel fom the Dopplet shit ofa dared the grou stato, tanepoaed by the seine and geseived ain a the proud In many cases range and ange rate measurements ae o-way memareents ya ground sition serving as wansier abd receiver This i elated 10 Ue ue thon few sais ae equiped wit ighreisin tea egtency sonal to por one-way ange hil seccson Warsi Ge eed) oF ‘one-way Dople (high pecs remit fequeney regina essere. La ‘inf grounl-aeed two-way mcaneent he sn inetd spe ney ‘well she reception tne ad regency af deerned Wey accurately aii the Tryon ground sttlonequpmen Inthe sequel a Yarety of difere lar tracking seas a picipls reset ance det6, Sai Tino Obrien Mk “The GPS makes se oft detieatad epsoutations ofthe GPS sate ot its wich acon as eanand oaet ephemers (see Annex A2)-Bath rier sels ale Wansma as part of he GES muvigaion message a enable Stier eine 0 compute positions of te GPS satellites with dient eels oF scenic, Almsie data are mainly vse etnias the collation of VsBle ‘atte above He hrizon,t see the best saeites for navigation aa ode termine proximate Doppler sil for mpwove sgl cyan The eer Ins to demote the ene nyigaon dla spertiame wile 12.8 mites enmpeey ree alana dt, The lata scary isnt 90 wiih $ope ay neva fom th rannmnsion of he alana aa depres» 1200 a he sexpectvely witha oge-week an vo-wek neva (Spe 194), ‘Amanae ups te permed teat one ix dys, The epemt parane ‘er.om fhe ser ha. poviea mich mote toate description of the Pucca trajectory tat sean free emptiness user ost Bae. The trast epomarides are sce to 5-10 mn the bens of SA ad 5-100 {Wotan Welleobo eal. 1987) if $A is clive. Bradeas ephersers updates are ‘performed aprosimately every hour si are aid Hugh a pro of Four hows. In avordance with he evige sap. he low-aceracy nana pratt ars slay provide for the ulema of active seis, ween eh stele ‘nly tases ephomers purses for el "iain othe ee GPS mnsaarenent pes, val of combinations of ra measurement wpe wo failiat the daa analy These dried ‘meacrenet types ae ia ger, constructs by competing Be ieence of ‘aw GPS measirerens refering tothe sani messurcient ect Taking single ‘aera ditfereaces tht voive to reeves and asingle GPS satelite, Lea) ‘ge showy tat be seis lok ror cance. Likewise dbl cae phase “iiernees atecomputed from single camser phase lifereoss 010 OPSatlies, Bog GPS stele and mer clock ett sre cael for this da pe. Vie er, ‘he combination of av mssreen tes allows the soon of speide emer coibaons. Asanesanple nulipthefctstha are caused rec srfes Inthe vc of te GPS anon ean be evaned by forming the ilerence of ‘eamsplee-coneced coe an ete giendorange. (62 Tracking Data Models (62.1 Transiter and Receiver Motion Satie acking maids ole the propagation of v sigol over 3 ite time spn, The sign eine from a waste a ceria sme and reared at ‘he wesivee as ater ine + ¢ > Th, rigorous servation mol sto cit forte mons be Wane an he yeacve ing the signal vel te “Thos trvetime ange fom ms forlow-Eaeh iting (LEO) slits upto 10m for geostionary stelle (GEO), Ths the comptaion of te 62Tiackig mete ‘atelite position athens ofsgolratmision rf ~e) cae prt ier by an inerolation of agjocent pston values or by xT expansion nero —Hors dae. 61% tere aL te the nei stele eect an acceleration respectively Wi = stele velocity of 3 hal for GED's and 7. ks for LEO" th iar tc (6.1) issbou1 40m forGEO'sad 100 mfr BOs wie hese ode te show 2 nn. When using numerical negation method forthe tn edit te sete postion at lea rananision ay he chained om inepation of sasoguent nteyration eps. Pefeahly, cvs ineraion metho shuld [eqs hat dict opps dense opt generation Ct Chap. The motion of gro sian in an neal reference syste is Joma by she Eat oan wi elit of 460 mls a the equi, Which the motion of ground ston is modes inthe inertia Intertionl Celestial Relerence Syslem (HRS, see Set, 52, he postion Ras of th stn Ia he nterstn “esos Reference System (TRS) hos tobe tansfomed wring te ses for recesion CF), nation 0), sth tation (8) at ple wotoa (A) acon Rens = PONTO OM) Reans (020 Inlionhe rosie compte he rd stat sin mi mt tine ste ascents eo al praised pte Mtn De ee ‘tect not secs he sd Eh et en mina Suede of 2m With ay pe Haale a ee ‘hanover anne Tce ite etrahceans stot an esac rod tn ges ase ha too saints art can ad lesen cnn ane any 6 The pees ae aed ye cot ptr ao a thc qe Oe oie aoa, The eon tres ‘marino radi Salento 5 mand vn rol pce 7 mn ary 199) Siar snes nu spe ong, ‘nora rons tthe eta of spe nae kim th at's are (Mae 1991) rola span, rete dn of ato iret cin plats th serosa ee ‘rts my te ss re ine mon tal Det ee 622 Angle Measurements Lig Tea Aberin Angle messiremens are modeled using the wator = r ~ fom de red ‘suton o he satlis. Dee the fae veloc of Hib, the geomet relate2106 Satie Teting ond Obseratin Mls stim fo = FU) — RG) at he ime of spn receptions dere From te ube sign puh. This is ive by Hie vector dari RO) 621) ht aks she goad station portion RU) atthe reception Hin wo dhe satelite postion r(e-e) athe aseson time (Fg. 6 5) The signal wavelet my igs te computed fom he mpc ie eqton erste) Re 1622) ‘Staring oman ini val of = Oe ight sine is consseatvely dteined sag the xed point tration 89 a e-|rttme) ~ ROL 23) “The cain my be conus nl suecesive valves of agree fo beter than 3 emsin thresh, sch 10°" = for gener dla pes. Given agi tne of 01 $ {oslo acting elite, the ight oretion for angle menstremenss [Sint oxder of 7. Hes. the comecton refers Ue ieence between thee signal path (f and he geome relative poston - oN pe Remedy ts My ets ‘The sean ofthe tie eqation yk the sgn path athe neta system which itferent, however ro she apparent drecan to the spacer ‘ea moving ground ton. Titec row ae eberron and ay be wer soc by consieving te lave oon of he icoming signa an the observer (Fig.66). Neglecting rigorous Formulation within thetbeary of pil reat, ‘he observe ditetion eve by the vector aa, 626) whee V isthe instal velit ofthe ground station relative tthe gesceter Ths "he spent poston Wed erV arm ROEM) = HORE 625) ces the peomeric position st time — +t fis ord The aberrations about (0.6 forlom-Faeth satelite al 0.3” geostationary sete. sua be cglectok in os cies ew’ of he ite ation of ent ada tacking Syster 2 Teekig Dated 21 Local Tangent Coontnaes Forastation wit este corti, he ee ait eters a(S) w= (ES) a (SE) 20) ° ay. sing Sophie ath ition pe at aes fan fr desing mies mi iho eon Pp ‘ction, yey ogni oe ea lige ev pins oe gti eh eam al devon the gd tm he ly eee lige be neni a ae Wi hn nd tl ned ye al ce ‘he nee comnts inte ce ange coin te il son tm may bo inh projecting Ue ato sie err ra Rs te Laine ea nlc ee ane ts (*) Pra he) en msink—eork og =sinyeota —singsina e089 (028, Feospeash peoxpsind sing.ano 6 Sle Tig ed hero Mae ets How ‘an otonornal mstus rade up the est orth ad 2h ‘Sc. eeanse the Catinn coorinales cannot he measured eed by rsking | Tr seria oats ae equal ermplyed to speci he sateite pos ‘Co a eal tangs or boizouta esenats “The ns comma pei eons ae known math and leat. “The azimuth angle meus the longa athe horizontal plane and scouted tustvly rom north oesstsilustatodin ig 68 Theclevation angle species Theluiude rove oxizotal plane and isneasted psivel othe zenith. he ata conversion betezn teas ml pia oor prove by thereon @-) - oo ston o-oo reson ou pe ad es anes oi 2TekigDastlokte 213 Altomatvely angles aresometines se ttle om sith ateleation ty choise ofa tefeenee plane aight wales fo the hao (et Fi: 69 way semi) ‘Bah X-and angles res than 90° (1/2 by magaitude for al poids above the bevizon ws) 62.3 Rage Measurements Round igh Tne “Two-way falar an nser ranging Complies the signal pik So the grown station (othe sete ad the dink Kom the stele the ground Sain, ‘Whe 9 to way ange mearienoos hasbeen record the grou! sation time, the signals been eve and Unsaid hack by the satelite ~ ry nee 1 te downlink ig uve tine, The esnsin ime ofthe il {he rou sation ste given bY #— ry ~ oy wha he opin igh tel ‘ne “Therefore, the moda of ange mesurcment exe the trav seas cof eo lphetine epsone for he down and the wp path tf, Fig 6.0) “Te algrt forte downlink its compotion ws desire in (22) 4nd (623) prof te angle meosremen modeling. For he up the ight tie ven bythe implicit equaion cra ead ROH 63) xed point eration for ue uplink wit 9 Hes ear Ramah wo {perfumed uti successive values of spree br than a cetin hesol 10-7, requies oe Heration sep ee a forthe downlink since i ‘ale of i "ty can be applied In aon, dhe lightime cotecon to the ‘pia is factor af apt 20-30 smaller han er the Jovan dew the aio oF the inertial ground stato velocity andthe inet velocity ofthe ite "The two-way range measurement is en rnc ow the average of the pinand dala rage yard py, acco iat ad= Eve os218 Sete acing Cee ode ofasngl average ng ate mesureent (ef. 6.1). When the Doppler ms ‘uremea tine a elerso the en he conn htt he atone cri Signal wes ansponded by the slit a #p~ ry al eaneed bythe grou Sitio ra ~ a, Sit he iat oie st = ‘vas ransponde alte satelite af tame ry Ad rede rm the pean station atime) ~ the~ ts Thus tbe werage age Fate rcasureent Hy Be ‘adel eee oa) (tet tw) _ 16m pw)— tent) 3) z 7 2 t nove. For tee: whore the a = cn eote the individ one-way ranges ‘vay Doppler easement, whet th signa innit fom around Suton, Utusponded by he sli, and eceived ata diferent rou station he mel Isaccordingyappicble f.. Siebipsatettaamenmeet One Wry Range Rate “Theme forone-way Doppler measurements easly dvd rn the Wwo-way range rate mol, Here the cre sgl is uansnied fon the ground tothe ‘elite (DORIS) or om Satelite w the roan. Considering easement wih Time tg hat eerste of co irl. he sina asso ike ftp —n1 The beginning o the count ners then y= ad the sted ttasison dine is «Hens, the one-way ange rat del pael=M_ immo i Ics noted tha in comrast two-way Doppler measurements, obe-way Doppler smeasremcts epie precia requeney sana bth the tsi sha he reveiter Nanas the regency ference ofthe trent id the eer Should be estinted as pao the rit determin (62g Dene 217 Rotational Doppler Bias A spinning spacerat exits 3 meltion of he r-may Dopple hi de to the rttona motion of he spaceal antenna the declan veto rm the satliteote srw station, Following Kalleneyn& ougean 1990) he aeags range ene daring the coort inte i cangby Set f a-wsinasinwnds 63) Hore isthe dstince ote spin axis tothe eecleanenna cece ies’ ‘za velity, anda is the angle hee the spin #8 and te deton te ound sain. aston tothe eral Doppler olin, tonal Does ‘Bia al present for cru polarized sgl. To understand he pipe of this bin, slit antenna fconsiesed which een ight hand ena aout ‘he positive ansof the anna zenith. A the ant eisai han car aged wave lon he psi ais the tnsnissonfeqeney ia ceased oy ‘hospi se of dhe antenna tbe antenna lel adie ols sia! slong the positive z-axis the nied ney is decreas by Bespin ao ‘he seit. Spimning stelites cause sich fey shits bt ie eceion tna the trasnission ofthe signal. According to Matin (1070 thn eency Sit inroducee bine peetres ape etn (60) Wo the ange rate measrements, where 2 i the signal wavelength, Tf he transponder rumen rto ands ands dete the mes ofthe eqns ‘lon reepion and wsmssion, respectively. Casing seit speenng two revoltons per second ama satlite antenna withthe sane polreto f ‘earsmisson at recep (Le. ry sp), the ean Doppler bis 23 ml in the Stan 625 GPS Messurements Prcudoranges Following (6.1), psewdoranges may te mace as By = (tebe 84) any Heresy she signal rave tne om the GPS sie othe use stele, which isobaind from the eal sition the light ine equation ‘Theos (of dhe user stele lock fom GPS sytem state with expansion scomnenly ‘he mbit trig program basen a second oer Tar rere So a1) b+ Sonar + Mico, wySS Thing Obrien oe sown free spor ptr theresa lack bia i), the lock di Sivan the el tte tessa i he einai praeterS “he oft (7) of the GPS satelite clack om GPS sytem te miy be sso fom th anid roads epheneri parameters acct sp ; ayo pH) bayalt ~ where denoes he satelite clock reference epoch an 1 22 ae the lock is equcey i, ad feghency di spect. In don wth dependency ofthe signal eel ise and the OPS wee lockerrors.thepseterangemeasrementsatfeciedy ionospre perataions, rliath feet he offset of te GPS antennae centr fr the atl cee ‘of nas well athe Selective Avail (SA. Iieraed Carer Phases contin to (6.18) he integrated cane se measure maybe modeled as pp CEA 8 et uy “To esl de iteger ambiviy NY ifferneetaigges ny be appli, a di. sed i Hofnan-Wellt ea. (997, ‘A rigorous formulation of the measurement process bas to account for the eral teary ffl ih nin ta to tks ferent lites {easmirat geen distance ald aecene at woceni sane) rum at ieee inthe arvity fel f the Earth, Av conseqener, the cae Tig wave ime fs en 6am (83) G whee ryan, athe positon and elovty vets of the cen nd ‘ans The terminbrarkis scat crear erie a introduce ie ‘a. while he velostypandent erm are easly depeadeaon te eecentsicty an vary withthe sine ofthe eceire anomaly. Is dted tat he tine varying ‘elavitic ffecie of the GPS sli ae aay been mapped to the Wood Procter, aiday2 a level of eter than 9 as Wit 2o9e oar eval {an Dierepdonck al 1978). Therefore, apeciseteunontof to elise GPS fet based on (645 gus tho enol ofthe relate contrition om, ‘godin a eaking ute othe ation given in van Distendone et Ut. Tolgrated cats phase measurement te afc by ionospheric peu ‘ions and Selective Avlablty {8 Malipathefet are mach smal than for seudvange, sine th ore wavelength esl than the code wavelength 645) Negation Station "he nvigiion solutions (5, y, 2) provided by the GPS recite wot mi semen in igs ens. sine they are actly dened io a ‘ge measures. Nevertheless. saygaton solutions may in pact te aged 1 psemdoessiremens for stele ett dentin (Cate et 1998 Gil 1992). The ne for proessing magn soitions within a ni eterntion software. instad of using he Solutions tl, ny arse fo rato eto, Most. sob th seo dynam mode allows tc sneing of SAeet the ete ‘iow fons nd the bridging of gape wahoo GPS meassenents,Fthomee dynamic filering of the prion station an be we obtain elie velo ‘formation. This f impoan, because the ester proved velocity sons iit pea eos of Imi, which poset her we inti predicts An inherent evant of esing nvigation slutens instead of pearing is eit Simp measurement maeing AS the ase sate oft ay be integrate a ‘nean of reference sysen, the measurement deli jet eps rans fommaon fom he mean dae sytem to the WS cana syste hess ‘he igaton slo ctor is ive by 00s = ON Fos 66) ‘Tims, any Snoledee ofthe GPS sale epee is avid 4s wel asthe ced ih-time iterations. This renders the us of aviation saonsesgiy interesting fo spaceborne aplisions 63 Media Correetions (634 Interaction of Radiation and Atmosphere | _Hlwromagnte sgl tht ae transaid frm pcr avers the Ean’ staeaphere before they are receive hy @ Brun sation, As he signs prope, ‘tthe clectongneti ration iterats with he sewn om sot Sd molecules eating the Eas plasma envicoament and smospre to ious exon. Asm consequeses the signals uaergn u change of dein, knoe srefractive bending aod a change of well of propagation tn aldnion the smospee etter polation a ikea “The velocity of propagation and he wavelength of cecanegpeic waves de Be on the retacive index of te sureuning mem. Given the seco ‘wavelet ua sped of itt correspon vals andy ins ene of refractive inde ware rele bythe expression | aeiet oy(GPS Meteorology (GPSIMET exponent avant the Micra i seem eons by Haj and Rovans(198), A GPS eceiver fr TEC determination ‘nay boeollocate wih conventioa single femora racking sytem lo provide the esosphere reaction coection by sterplation ofthe TEC values ln the Airetons the GPS slits a the deri othe user stele. Alene, (GPS derived TEC devas rma wld network ay be applied ode {lobe TEC information nodes, which enable perc somectons or any ae Satelite Felten e 107), Coaidering the GPS system, whore prenornge Imeaswrements oy atthe Li tequency js abd pseodoeanges = tte L2 egdetey fee avalale, te enosphere ree psooorans can be derived from (6.69) 38 aff? 1 hP ‘When reson ccc eens cet piconet co ss fees etna at ase roel ete api at pet ones oper eitet ested Yo ‘Sted gondola fel or welds ible sce, ‘ee este ic) rey tee ho. ‘honiclineaphcrc acon an processes tc wel heen ‘oni Bent mide Lewelyet 7. reve deveoent isthe pat ‘tera ononphi adel GND, wich poids ee ealstinespeReton {he ltl ose rmear n-ne sli dod bed dal Da lal 195). 2 = Hts 2580, om Exes Sole the it tne uation or o-ay ‘ange measurements of» pola saelite 940 km altude (eh = 87, 9 130.7 anda ground station in ental Burope(h = 411" East =H") The owake (satelite sition) and upleg (tation to stlit igh ine concesons ‘tobe compoted atin I i, and 24 mn pt he passage of te seeing soe, which assumed oak place at 199700. OF UTC. The propos 'stobe tasedon Keperian motion, nplecing preeston and sia cece ine refereace sysem tafotins, Solon: Tie ines ofthe ihtsime evaluation te lost the ps beaming mina, and end ofthe pas To reach an aocuricy eel of In ls wag ght iain aso conser wo erations (12), whe the wey, "ime terton may sesdy be stopped altri is itera sms: (mp io} few “Inj omits salts EI een Sine th ang ad the ample ofthe ange rte ares atthe gig ad 8 of the sutelite pass, the range eareto tthe dow nxt rome ‘athe sng a Sting. AS the ihe comstion vais in ppertion tet range mic tbe correction vanishes near eulinio ft. Fi. 213} ond cages san The Fishin conection inthe scones oft ple tee itecot its) areas posi das totheirdeedenseon thew testa ‘locity. The ighttne cotton inthe upleg smal compared oi dowleg, Sine the teal miion af the rou saton ac tothe Ea ston ree tan te relative elect ofthe stelle wth espa the aio, rervise 62 (Range Rate Moeling) Compute the sverige toa range le ‘measures fo th scenario deste Exercise 6.1. asruneu Dole car Ineratt of sand tow thatthe average range re measuetnet cl pen scythe istniansous Doppler vale ate mid ofthe es ie eral ‘Theaverag andthe instantaneous range rls wel se ifeteen tobe ‘computed in steps 3 ain. Hina: "The modeling ofthe average range re mesuremedsisescribed by (637, hile the estantancous range ra flows om *, 23 y= Bay (633) Hess. do = r() ~ RU) denotes the soem distance ofthe satelite an the20. Sale Tiny Oberon Ma Solson: nthe lining ease a an fit spec fet the average range ate ‘be approximate by he expression ds Eadie) 9 “tic follow from 6.31 by sation he Room distance d forte two ‘vay me pThesgh-han side bay fare be exp ito Taylor ees ow he center of tena =f 1h ng J edie) 9) == 1 /2)4018 (675) Combining both approsimtions then show the wear ienty Blo & de = 02) (676) ofthe eased average oy range rte ate Fad the instantaneous ene {alesthe midofte counter Applied lo eexanple te following mere tesuke we obi Ure Bene eames fh Stosso “eis miskat ast fave asta “estefan 158 Gusto ngsoe tases Dk mated Gaeao ame ob tatsed Gian ginal ete, the Taylor expansion ve the count interval cobs omer of est than ‘nto the overall pproimation- The ding er eting rm the cele of stelight-tie conection given Py ~ (+ pfe nie present eset er {srespasioi orth denna ers 10-20 cm Witharunge rie messberenk accuracy of Fm ous tat Bed eft ave to be ed acrovsty ‘tat he instantaneous Doppler eomputaton i indus Tora ue nage rie modeling [eereie63 (User Clock Error from GPS Pseudorange) These clock enor ofthe GS Rogue receiver a Gldslone so be determines Grom peters of the PRN 1 GPS wilt The PRN I positon ao elck enor t (87219 ac ‘aken froma yecise epee te Itemaonal GPS Service 18) vice ia 1 alt eisc00 “ysaea.2m67 —2I6BL TMM —1STAANOS. aT fasean) Hag “2ieoastas> A391 ae Apu fetid “Hnestsie ~aea1ame TaxmD wss!e (onan “tawenasss ati iret rst a00.06 Oeasaon cosas “iemeaiand tests, S06 foanong “pstatsu inekesintytatensaens 40 1857 Becis 2 ier “One ati Beas see Heinen 1314967 —ISIBT6TITIB DITARISTHS apADSINS. “To cicomvent the eet of Selective Aviat, the petdoranges oF PRN tae late only at eps wie pee SP3 poston and GPS slck enor at ‘aia. The psendoranges on EIZIY copes the Po oceans ne ‘he? frequency (P2 an tbe CIA code psewdorngee tye Ll eqoeney ivormss fa in snip toxsr7 75-2079 sy wsaeia aor 981 22820.233 Necnana atrsiabe Snmseansts ‘anioo 21408 129213 352 ‘The we clock erp tobe determined frm lnasphere-freepoedormges deed fiom asutable consi ofP2 andl. The signal wavel ie iste eterna fom rigorous tton of the gine eqtion tas mas use of neat GPS postions. The WGS-84 coortinaes of te eciveu aldsone ae 6 Aen ‘ig: "Te lights erations usualy penned in an iets with he Station poston vector Rand the stelle position vector r. Whey dente he transformation rom the neal othe Earned WSS system the sia pal isan ducal) = BO RW) re =H), Where denotes the sgl avel ime. Making we of the approximation Hin = Rage) es ine poston of se GPS site maybe ssn by the comesponding Ear se poston . rucall =e = vee) “This yels the fightin cgpatin 6 = dca = lang cst ~ 1) — Res (om into Bart ined erence rane, whichis best sed or ase wth cannon aula ‘canal ephemesdes of OPS slits,226 See Taking and Oberon Mee Sotion: "Te eid of te onesperesfeepseudorange yes the use ck ae, cert tometer ofthe Golstone GPS teeter athe ine of the meate= ren Over atime interval of 23 ete lok det can be melted ad the es “ale of the reside hes slck bis of 1767225 m,n patel the followin eeoorangesiduals ab i vations om the ean (Dele ae fou it ind Amaxnuam varaton ofthe pe noange resales than Smif a coed wit the cciacyof he onasPhte-fe pcre. Exercise 64 Trupospherie Reaction) Compute the dil vain of the ‘eration of geostationary satelite [0 = 42 168m, e = 0.00295, = 0.05", £2 = 150-7" forte ground station given in Exerise 6.1. Assume a epoch of TWoMOUOI O UTC sn compu the eleation at tervals of 3 h, Carga he “aati elevation wih de pie ofthe wopepre retston conection, '8 derive om 650) fra pal pes of dy ar of 1024 hPa, a 2 ei humid of 07 Conserve cass With temperate Ty and Ts of 283 K and 305 K, respectively. Solan: "These is Ba = 23.65" athe epoch an wis evra dy with ‘an ampliude of about O05 The maxiaurs elevation eects pas te eck ‘the nin clvation eached a 8b, The day variton 9 the elevation fom peer wih the elevation eliactin comeetions Ey and AE, a saan as UIC 6-6 afin abe woes ct) fost Ont ber ast no sah eh oh Forte parca a consieted, he rfaction cme is ofthe ode of the Uy elevation variation bu stiysesenialy const f aver eteroogial enon The ast tempos ifeenee of 20 K changes the observed "leaton bys 0.008 eich maybe compared athe 0.061 change renlg from the croia octination, At the dsace ofa geusttoary site 0.00" erespons to ap alng- ack or eos pst vition a boat 70, Linearization ‘The tmjctory aa measurement mode developed so fr provides a concise ad sealed deseripionof astlhie' ion with spe a0 Eat ound vseye Besies the st varices tht defn th itl ene thee made depend en variety of parameters a ete the dail meiner the messes rons. Bue ote complexity ofthe applied wodel is arly posi oslve ‘ied far any ofthese parnetet oma given sel of oberon. cs therefore tsstommy toners the elation bese te oaservabies ind the indepen rameters tocbuin sine expessos tat ea be and ote ei Win Stasi obit deterinaton ope ean se deen hose tate rn elf races tat provide the bes representation of geet of easiness 2 lee Canocson an parameter eximation agi ‘A rigorous linearization of the tector a esr model eis a large numer of paral deviates, which ay be divided int foe erent cenegones + The Site Branston Mans The sae vector 3) = (2 a ome speed ep deter ‘nines the fon of he rit an ts ecetaton i spe. Any hang ofthese inal Yue resus ina change of poston and Welociy ata ater epoch! ‘whi eseribed hy theta eatin maa The Sensiviy Mavic Asi ra he ii sate the oc as ution of various paneer PG =I... Wat dteine the diferent forces ating on the sali This dependence is described By the seus ari, hy the Pati derivatives (82), 5» oa with especie free model paneer, Depling om the ppiction io ‘hind, he parameter vx yay consi the dag aad ration ese txeficients (pC) the rst evel of nance he size of ean favly mode eon.implying that ach step of « Matis clement upto 0.1 ean genaraly berated implying th iri errestion press els 1 tedvetion ofthe testa. Values of dering ncn ny ate ere ote eo se compE ih ine apprise sition ras omg er a uly el in the apron veraoe ofthe covecion proces Sen hs ers o eae nas the i get oe ‘ele the follwing ste ans na a1 = S400 afer normalization ihe veto components “ues “ani aaersl ern Bast sates Gnas 08% wnt —12azm2 A sil resa i btne for the edced force model scouatiag aly forthe scconconer zonal gravity oeeen cHedess hone “Ate —lasnss “lessons “lay Finaly the aati station ofthe Keplerian se transition muss given by van “ag aang rh aa SHBG IS ES ER UN ss Silicon relat errs may hae be observed in the ti and Fou ines, which tveneahiitanetronenssigninthemjorelmets Up erating te abovemn ‘ec tanetiona fr je and one obtains maximus lemeats = ea, ,/) C118 ad LDL respectively Ts guaaes tht the tcc ofthe J Tin mai st aot aceptble owe the concerned ie fame, wheres the Keplerian apeoximation is cesly inadequate. Detning a tshold of m= 0 ‘the Keplerian se transition mati applies forty ore that bows, shores Be model ai for alos 18 rs, 8. Orbit Determination and Parameter Estimation “Theequaion of osama themeasuementnoel provide ase meer fo ‘describing We moon of satelite with respect oa grou ttion Give a ta Psion an veloc wetor an various model parameter the set's poston andthe expected cserratons cs be compued aay lines. Even tog ‘rit predition may rire lengthy and ne-consatig Complains ines of bighaecuracrequitenens, edoesnepai an lgoiinidiffclce as vitned inthe previous chapters. The sation becomes sore inva ever af soe {ces ose the inverse problem, mel the ctexintion af ri Senn ‘and mode parameters rom a given et of oberon ofthe sati Depending he apestion, ii casopy to dsingush btvecn peti ‘nary eit determisaton wet for dhe iret compton of i rial ces ‘oun sx observations wih no ayer now o the spacer nit snl it

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