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2010-Enhancing Rigour in Delphi Researchl
2010-Enhancing Rigour in Delphi Researchl
This book contains papers presented at the 13th International Conference on Metal Forming, which
was held in Toyohashi, Japan on September 19-22, 2010. The series of Metal Forming Conferences
is organized since 1974, previously by Akademia Grniczo-Hutnicza in Krakw, Poland, later since
1994 jointly with the University of Birmingham, UK, and since 2008 also jointly with the Toyohashi
University of Technology, Japan. The Conference intends to create a platform for contact between
scientists, researchers and engineers working in the field of forming of metals. The Metal Forming
Conference is well-recognized as a forum for the exchange of knowledge on the progress of research
on various forming processes such as rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet forming, joining,
shearing, etc. The papers published in this volume represent the state-of-the-art in the field of metal
forming science.
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9 783514 007741
K. Mori, M. Pietrzyk
J. Kusiak, J. Majta,
P. Hartley, J. Lin
Edited by
K. Mori, M. Pietrzyk,
J. Kusiak, J. Majta,
P. Hartley, J. Lin
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Metal Forming_Japan.indb 2
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 1
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 2
Edited by:
Ken-ichiro Mori
Maciej Pietrzyk, Jan Kusiak, Janusz Majta
Peter Hartley
Jianguo Lin
Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Metal Forming
Organizing institutions:
Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan
University of Birmingham, UK
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 3
Pr
Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Metal Forming Metal Forming 2010
September 19 22, 2010, Hotel Nikko Toyohashi, Toyohashi, Japan
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2010 Publishing Company Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
The work and all parts contained in it are protected by copyright. Any use outside the narrow terms of reference
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Any additions, important notices or corrections that might become available after the publication will be posted
on the Internet at: www.stahleisen.de/errata
Printed in Japan
This book is available from Verlag Stahleisen GmbH, Germany
ISBN 978-3-514-00774-1
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Preface
Metal forming has for many years maintained its position as the most efficient method of shaping metals and
alloys. The possibility of controlling the properties of final products by careful control of the conditions of deformation is now the principal advantage of metal forming which makes this technique competitive. Therefore,
metal forming continues to be an important industrial process attracting the interest of scientists and researchers
throughout the world.
The series of Metal Forming Conferences organized since 1974 by Akademia Gorniczo-Hutnicza in Krakow,
Poland, and since 1994 jointly with the University of Birmingham, UK, is intended to create a platform for contact
between scientists, researchers and engineers working in the field of forming of metals. During 36 years after the
first meeting in Krakow, the Metal Forming Conference is well-recognized as a forum for the exchange of knowledge on the progress of research into various methods of shaping of metals. Four years ago the decision was made
at Birmingham that the Toyohashi University of Technology would join the organisation team, which has strongly
contributed to increase of popularity of the Conference.
The special edition of the journal steel research international contains papers submitted to the 13th International Conference on Metal Forming, which was held in Toyohashi, Japan on September 19-22, 2010. 366 papers
including 4 plenary lectures and 9 special session keynotes submitted from authors representing universities,
research institutes and industry in 27 countries was published in this book and nearly 60% of these papers were
submitted from Japan, China, Korea and Taiwan. Although the contributions from European countries were major
in the previous conferences, we had a lot of new participants in this conference.
A review of the published papers also shows that there is a continuous progress in conventional forming processes such as rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet forming, joining, shearing, etc. Theoretical and technological
problems connected with new aspects and capabilities of these processes are addressed. Beyond this, researches
on new processes, which have recently become very popular due to their specified capabilities, for example hot
stamping, micro forming, incremental forming, hydroforming and plastic joining, are presented in some of the
papers. Forming processes of not only composites and powders but also high strength steels, aluminium alloys
and magnesium alloys are critical. New numerical modelling approaches such as multi scale analysis, advanced
constitutive equations and microstructure evolution are also discussed.
We would like to express our gratitude to the reviewers of the papers submitted, to the Members of Scientific
Committee of the Conference, for their hard work and critical but constructive remarks, which helped the Conference to maintain a high scientific level. We hope that this book will become a source of valuable information
useful in scientific works for researchers, engineers and students and we are pleased to welcome everyone in
Toyohashi to the 13th Metal Forming Conference.
Ken-ichiro Mori
Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan
Maciej Pietrzyk, Jan Kusiak, Janusz Majta
AGH University of Science and Technology, Poland
Peter Hartley
University of Birmingham, UK
Jianguo Lin
Imperial College London, UK
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Yohei Abe
Julian Allwood
Mohammad Bakhshi-Jooybari
Niels Bay
John Howard Beynon
Bruno Buchmayr
Jose M. A. Cesar de Sa
Yvan Chastel
Jean-Loup Chenot
Didier Claude Farrugia
Masahiro Fukumoto
Jean-Claude Gelin
Anne Marie Habraken
Gerhard Hirt
Peter Damian Hodgson
Yong-Taek Im
ManSoo Joun
Rudolf Kawalla
Youngsuk Kim
Andrzej Zdzislaw Kocanda
Reiner Kopp
Antti Samuli Korhonen
Toshihiko Kuwabara
Lihui Lang
Jianjun Li
Jerry Lord
Michael Lovell
Janusz Luksza
Ken-ichi Manabe
Ryo Matsumoto
Fabrizio Micari
Wojciech Zbigniew Misiolek
Pierre Montmitonnet
Hideshi Miura
Kozo Osakada
Masaaki Otsu
Pat Phelan
Yi Qin
Gow-Yi Tzou
Hiroshi Utsunomiya
Robert H. Wagoner
Baoyu Wang
Roger N. Wright
Fusahito Yoshida
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Table of contents
Page
Plenary lecture
Masayuki Miyanishi
Manufacturing of light weight cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Kozo Osakada
Application of servo presses to metal forming processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Gerhard Hirt, Stephan Heppner
Selected trends for metal forming innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Zbigniew Pater
Development of cross-wedge rolling theory and technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Rolling
Peter D. Hodgson, Ilana B. Timokhina, Hossein Beladi
Nanostructural engineering of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Sung-Hoon Cha, Jong-Bong Kim, Sa Sung Park, Jong-Ho Kim, Nak-Kyu Lee
Design of micro pattern forming process on thin sheet metal for electronic device panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Joerg Brecht, Peter Finge, Andreas Hauger
Tailor rolled products Innovative lightweight design technology for
body structures and chassis applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Shigeru Ogawa, Kenji Yamada, Toshiyuki Shiraishi, Takayuki Otsuka, Yutaka Sadano,
Hisataka Uto, Kazuto Yamamura, Yoshiaki Shia, Kenji Sorao, Takeo Hoshino,
Kunihiko Wakatsuki, Kouichiro Takeshita, Keishiro Ikeda, Kanji Hayashi, Akira Sako,
Yutaka Matsuda, Yuji Ikemoto, Hideaki Furumoto
Development of intelligent mill and realization of Oita plate leveler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Zongan Luo, Guangming Xie, Guodong Wang, Guanglei Wang,
Hongguang Wang, Lijun Wang
Interface of heavy gauge plate by vacuum cladding rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Falko Vogler, Alexander Duschka, Peter Groche
Part accuracy of hollow profiles manufactured through flexible roll forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Bogdan Garbarz, Jarosaw Marcisz
Thermomechanical processing of Al-alloyed structural steel with reduced
susceptibility to copper hot brittleness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Dian-yao Gong, Zheng-yi Jiang, Jian-zhong Xu, Xiang-hua Liu, Di Wu
Setup models of finishing temperature and rolling speed for hot strip mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Li Yan-mei, Zheng Dong-sheng, Zhu Fu-xian
Effect of finish rolling temperature ranges on microstructure
and mechanical properties of hot rolled multiphase steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Krzysztof Muszka, Bradley P. Wynne, Eric J. Palmiere, W. Mark Rainforth
Effect of deformation mode on microstructure evolution in Nb-microalloyed steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Yun Bo Xu, Yong Mei Yu, Bao Liang Xiao, Guo Dong Wang
Microstructural modeling and processing optimization during hot strip rolling of high-Nb steels . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Fumio Fujita, Takero Watanabe, Hiromasa Shimoyama, Lili Guo
Effects of rolling and heat treatment conditions on
texture structure and formability of magnesium alloy sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Alexander Pesin, Victor Salganik, Denis Pustovoytov
Modeling of surface crack form change of continuously
cast slabs in roughing rolling at wide strip mill 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
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Radoslaw Patyk
Theoretical and experimental basis of regular asperities
about triangular outline embossing technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
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MinCheol Lee, SooJin Jang, SeungSang Han, DukJae Yoon, ManSoo Joun
New finite-element model of thread rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
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Problems of surface preparation under burnishing rolling in aspect of product quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
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Influence of induced strain path on force-energy parameters of rolling process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
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SeungSang Han, JaeGun Eom, SoonTae Ahn, SeongMin Jang,
YoHun Son, Hyuk Kim, DukJae Yoon, ManSoo Joun
Plastic deformation behavior of pre-heat-treated high-strength steel for application in forging . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Koh-ichi Sugimoto, Junya Kobayashi, Goro Arai
Development of ultra high-strength low alloy TRIP-aided steel for hot-forging parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Shiro Torizuka, Eijiro Muramatsu
Formability of ultrafine-grained steel : Forming microscrews by cold heading and rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Sylwia Wiewirowska
Determination of content of retained austenite in steels with
TRIP effect deformed at different strain rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Qiushi Li, JaeGun Eom, YeongSu Kim, EungZu Kim, ManSoo Joun
Causes of die fracture in automatic multistage cold-forging of high-strength ball-studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Yuji Kume, Makoto Kobash, Naoyuki Kanetake
Refinement of grains and second phases in aluminum alloys by compressive torsion processing . . . . . . . . . . 270
Jaboska Magdalena, Bednarczyk Iwona, Bernstock-Kopaczyska Ewelina
Microstructural analysis of alloys from Fe-Al system by means of electron back scatter diffraction . . . . . . . . 274
XiaoWu, Jian-Jun Li, Zhi-Zhen Zheng, Hua-Min Zhou
Formability of Zr-based bulk metallic glass under different loading modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Zhichao Sun, He Yang, Xiaofeng Guo
Modelling of microstructure evolution in AISI 5140 steel triple valve
forming under multi-way loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Joseph Sehinde Ajiboye, Ki- Ho Jung and Yong- Taek Im
Selection of cold forging lubricants by tip test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Marcus Bistron, Bernd-Arno Behrens, Hanno Paschke
Reduction of wear by boron based multilayer coatings on forging dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Soo-Young Kim, Satoshi Kubota, Masahito Yamanaka
Tool life evaluation of cold forging dies using numerical
prediction model based on fatigue characteristics of tungsten carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Jong-Taek Yeom, Jee-Hoon Kim, Jeoung-Han Kim, Jae-Keun Hong, Jae-Sik Lee
Hot forging design of cam for vessel engine using finite element analysis and ductile fracture criteria . . . . . . 298
Grzegorz Samoyk, Jarosaw Bartnicki, Andrzej Gontarz
Fracture model for FEM modelling of cold metal forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
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Emi Onodera, Yunping Li, Tadayoshi Odahara, Hiroaki Matsumoto, Akihiko Chiba
Intelligent hot forging process of artificial hip joint made of Ni-free Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.12N alloy . . . . . . . . . . . 362
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Yunping Li, Emi Onodera, Tadayoshi Odahara, Hiroaki Matsumoto, Akihiko Chiba
Friction correction of deformation curves in hot forging process of cylindrical sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
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Evaluation of fracture surface features in support of extrusion tools design optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Akira Yanagida, Keisuke Ishikawa, Kensaku Okazaki, Akira Azushima
Effect of Ti addition on tensile properties of C-Mn steels subjected to ECAE and heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . 462
Yan Zhao, Hongzhen Guo, Yongqiang Zhang, Zekun Yao, Zhifeng Shi
Influence of ECAP processing parameters on microstructure of TA15 titanium alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
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Dae Woon Kim, Sang Kon Lee, Byung Min Kim, Jin Young Jung, Deok Young Ban
Prediction model of axial residual stress in multi-pass high carbon steel wire drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Tsuyoshi Furushima, Yuta Noda, Ken-ichi Manabe
Effective heating conditions for high speed dieless tube drawing process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Janusz Luksza, Katarzyna Szajding, Maciej Rumiski
Drawing process with ultrasonic activation of sectional drawing
die perpendicularly to axis of wire subject to deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Tube forming
Jean-Loup Chenot, Elisabeth Massoni, Patrice Lasne
Finite element simulation and optimization of the hydroforming process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Majid Elyasi, Pouya Zoghipour, Mohammad Bakhshi-Jooybari,
Abdolhamid Gorji, Seyed Jamal Hosseinipour, Salman Nourouzi
A new hydroforming die design for improvement of die corner filling of conical stepped tubes . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Cong Han, Yongchao Xu, Shijian Yuan, Yong Wang, Shuai Yang
Effect of feeding pressure on hydroforming of crank-shaped tubes with ultra-small bending radius . . . . . . . . 520
Mehran Kadkhodayan, Ahmad Erfani Moghadam, Mehdi Heidari
Loading path optimization of T-shape tube hydroforming process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Atsushi Shirayori, Michiharu Narazaki
Hydraulic bulge forming of small diameter tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Shi-Hong Zhang, An-Ying Yuan, Yong Xu, Ming Cheng
Influence of new hydroforming loading on formability in auto parts manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Gang Liu, Junyang Peng, Guannan Chu, Shiqiang Zhu, Haitao Xiao,Shijian Yuan
Deformation patterns in hydroforming of thin-walled Y-shaped tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
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Shijian Yuan, Xin Liu, Yongchao Xu, Xiaosong Wang, Jun Qi, Xiaojun Sun
Warm hydroforming of aluminum alloy part by axially different heating zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Vadillo Leire, Prez Iaki, Hori Izuru, Zarazua Jose Ignacio,
Mangas ngela, San Jos Juan, Paar Uwe
Gas forming of boron steel tubes at low pressure - Applasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Rainer Steinheimer, Carsten Mller-Bollenhagen, Xuelan Schrder,
Martina Zimmermann, Bernd Engel, Hans-Jrgen Christ
Closed-loop control of deformation induced martensite in
complex tube forming process for optimized fatigue properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Hasan Khanlari, Majid Elyasi, Mohammad Bakhshi-Jooybari,
Abdolhamid Gorji, Behnam Davoodi, Ghorban Mohammad Alinegad
Investigation of pressure path effect on thickness distribution
of product in hydroforming process of SS316L seamless tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Se-Ho Kim, Kee-Poong Kim
Simulation-based process development of tube press forming
for coupled torsion beam axle of rear suspension assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Zicheng Zhang, Ken-ichi Manabe, Fuxian Zhu, Mingya Zhang
Determination of circumferential mechanical properties of TRIP steel tube by ring tensile test . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Dong-Hak Kim, Man-Bin Moon, Hyo-Sub Kim, Dong-Choon Hur, Jea-WooYang
Development of 4-way pipe stress reduction machine for improved
submerged arc welding pipe dimensional accuracy and reduced residual stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Heng-Sheng Lin, Chia-Jung Lin, Yuan-Chuan Hsu, Jiing-Herng Lee,
Bean-Yin Lee, Yu-Chiang Chen
Feasibility of sinking with rotary swaging for high pressure gas cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Kazuhito Takahashi, Takashi Kuboki, Makoto Murata, Kouzo Yano
Influence of initial thickness of circular tube in rotary-draw bending
adding axial pushing force for suppression of flatness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Takashi Kuboki, He Huang, Makoto Murata, Yohei Yamaguchi, Kouichi Kuroda
FEM analysis of tube straightener adopting implicit scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Sheet metal forming
Beom-Soo Kang, Seong-Chan Heo, Ja-Kyung Ku, Jung-Won Park, Tae-Wan Ku
Multi-stage deep drawing process for rectangular cup
with extreme aspect ratio using 3003-H16 aluminum alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Hu Wang, Guangyao Li
Reduction of wrinkling and crack of sheet forming based
on least square support vector regression and cross validation sampling approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
Woo-Jin Song, Seong-Chan Heo, Young-Seop Byun, Tae-Wan Ku, Beom-Soo Kang, Jeong Kim
Prediction of forming limits considering temperature and strain rate effects
for magnesium alloy sheet based on local and diffuse plastic instability conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
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Mahmoud Abbasi, Mostafa Ketabchi, Hamid Reza Shakeri, Mohammad Hossein Hasannia
Investigation into formability of tailor welded blank consisted
of IF steel sheets with different thicknesses- Experiment and simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
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Wanjin Chung, Sungjin Lim, Jongho Kim, Daeyong Seong, Dongyol Yang
Forming analysis of L-bending of sandwich sheet with pyramid core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
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Monika Hyrcza-Michalska
Drawability of advanced high strength steel and creep-resisting nickel superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
37
Masato Takamura, Ayako Fukui, Takayuki Hama, Yuji Miyoshi, Masashi Sakata,
Hideyuki Sunaga, Akitake Makinouchi, Motoo Asakawa
Twisting in curved hat channel products made of high strength steel sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
41
.9
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 17
XVII
Sa
Op
Zh
M
Ni
CA
Ni
Co
Na
Im
ba
In
M
Fl
Pa
So
of
Ba
Ti
De
Yo
In
M
Fr
Va
In
re
Tu
Fo
St
On
M
Fr
Ry
In
An
A
Yo
Nu
An
Ef
by
XVIII
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 18
M
Ya
Ra
ste
25
29
Ning Ma, Ping Hu, Wei Guo, Guozhe Shen, Liang Ying, Rong Fan
Coupled models of hot forming of ultra strength steel sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
33
37
41
45
49
53
57
61
65
69
Incremental forming
Masaaki Otsu
Flexible forming of sheets and foils by laser forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
Paolo Bosetti, Stefania Bruschi
Some remarks on formability and microstructural features
of incrementally formed sheets as a function of geometrical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
Babak Taleb-Araghi, Alexander Goettmann, Markus Bambach,
Tim Biermann, Gerhard Hirt, Andreas Weisheit
Development of hybrid incremental sheet forming processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
Yongjun Wang, Xudong Xiao, Zhenyi Yuan, Weichao Wu
Incremental sheet metal forming with multiple-head tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
Minoru Yamashita, Toshio Hattori, Kenji Yamada, Naoya Nishimura
Frictional effect on deformation behavior in incremental sheet forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
Valentin Oleksik, Adrian Pascu, Daniel Mara, Octavian Bologa, Gabriel Racz, Radu Breaz
Influence of geometric parameters on strain and thickness
reduction in incremental forming process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
Tuomas Katajarinne, Arto Komulainen, Seppo Kivivuori
Force and frictional conditions in incremental forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
Steeve Dejardin, Jean-Claude Gelin, Sbastien Thibaud
On-line thickness measurement in incremental sheet forming process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
Masaaki Otsu, Hiroki Matsuo, Mitsuhiro Matsuda, Kazuki Takashima
Friction stir incremental forming of aluminum alloy sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
Ryutaro Hino, Naoaki Nagaishi, Yuki Yamamoto, Tetsuo Naka, Fusahito Yoshida
Incremental forming with local heating for aluminum-magnesium alloy sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
72
76
Young-Ho Seo, Seong-Chan Heo, Tae-Wan Ku, Jeong Kim, Beom-Soo Kang
Numerical analysis for stretch forming process using flexible die . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
80
Ana Mara Camacho, Carpforo Vallellano, Francisco Javier Garca-Lomas,Miguel ngel Sebastin
Effect of punch geometry on strain/stress state induced in workpiece
by localised-incremental forging operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
84
.9
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 19
XIX
Yoshihiro Sagisaka
Thin-sheet-metal bending by laser peen forming with femtosecond laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
Va
W
Ku
Re
Lin Wang, Hui Long, Dave Ashley, Martyn Roberts, Peter White
Analysis of single-pass conventional spinning by Taguchi and finite element methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
Takashi Kuboki, Naoto Takahashi, Kazuhito Takahashi, Kazuhiko Sanda,
Susumu Moriya, Keisuke Ishida, Makoto Murata
Effect of initial thickness deviation on deformed tube shape in tube spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
Akihiro Ando, Shinobu Karino
Reduction in diameter of ferritic stainless steel pipe by spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
Yoichi Takahashi, Shigefumi Kihara, Takuo Nagamachi, Yoshiaki Takada
Effect of taper angle on occurrence of cracking in spinning of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Ming He
Design and validation of forming high-precision cylindrical
components by three-roll flow forming process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990
Xia Qinxiang, Lai Zhouyi, Zhan Xinxi, Cheng Xiuquan
Research on spinning method of hollow part with triangle
arc-type cross section based on profiling driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
Sebastian Hrtel, Birgit Awiszus
Numerical and experimental investigations of production of
non-rotationally symmetric hollow parts using sheet metal spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
Do
In
Sa
Ef
M
Pl
Su
Fi
Hu
Pa
M
Ja
De
Jo
Gi
Fi
Ye
Fr
M
Op
Ken-ichiro Mori, Hirokazu Osako, Osamu Ebihara, Takayuki Nonaka, Daigo Sugiyama
Hot shear spinning of cast aluminium alloy parts with inclined roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Yo
Fa
by
Iza
In
Ja
Fr
M
Ka
Ob
Se
M
Gi
Nu
Yo
Ef
To
Te
Ha
Ef
XX
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Metal Forming_Japan.indb 20
66
70
74
78
82
86
90
94
98
02
06
10
14
Jae-Keun Hong, Chae-Hun Lee, Jeoung-Han Kim, Jong-Taek Yeom, Chang-Gil Lee
Friction stir welding of dissimilar Al 5052 to Ti-6Al-4V alloy with WC-Co tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
18
22
26
Yoichiro Shimoda, Masami Tsubaki, Toshiaki Yasui, Masahiro Fukumoto, Tomoyuki Fujita, Jiro Osawa
Effect of tool shape on material flow in welding between aluminum and steel by friction stirring . . . . . . . . . 1108
30
Toshiaki Yasui, Fahridin Usmonov, Kazuo Oouchida, Masami Tsubaki, Masahiro Fukumoto
Temperature distribution and material flow in friction surfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112
34
.9
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 21
XXI
Masaki Okane, Yuichiro Takami, Katashi Miyagawa, Toshiaki Yasui, Masahiro Fukumoto
Fatigue behaviors of aluminum alloy/steel dissimilar joint by friction stirring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1120
Ulrike Beyer, Birgit Awiszus
Flat-clinching New possibility for joining different kinds of components
in flexible and effective way to planar material compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
Ju
YiM
Ch
Ex
Pi
Nu
Ji
At
An
A
Ch
Pr
M
M
Ch
M
M
Co
Te
Ef
Da
Si
M
Ry
De
Ch
In
m
Ya
Te
Ta
De
An
M
Ry
Fo
Chunju Wang, Bin Guo, Debin Shan, Ying Yao, Feng Gong
Size effect of tribology behaviour in micro U-deep drawing with T2 copper foil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177
S.
In
M
Es
fo
Jie. Zhao, Andrew. Brockett, Akhtar. Razali, Yi. Qin, Colin. Harrison and Yanling. Ma
Micro-sheet-forming and case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185
Li
Ex
XXII
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Metal Forming_Japan.indb 22
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
Yasumasa Chino, Xinsheng Huang, Kazutaka Suzuki, Kensuke Sassa, Mamoru Mabuchi
Texture evolution and enhanced stretch formability of AZ31 Mg alloy rolled by cone-shape roll . . . . . . . . . 1243
65
69
73
Ryo Matsumoto
Forging process of cast magnesium alloy with consideration of grain refinement and texture evolution . . . . 1255
77
81
85
.9
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 23
XXIII
Ha
M
Ka
A
Hajime Iwasaki, Naobumi Saito, Michiru Sakamoto, Masataka Hakamada, Kenji Higashi
Hot forging of continuously cast AZ91 magnesium alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279
Le
M
Powder forming
Katsuyoshi Kondoh, Kantarou Kaneko, Toru Akita
Advanced powder metallurgy light metals by metal working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283
Renata Wlodarczyk, Agata Dudek
Sintering stainless steel as bipolar plate material for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . 1288
Mohamed Sahli, Guillaume Larsen, Thierry Barrire, Jean-Claude Gelin, Grard Michel
Analysis and characterisation for 316L stainless metal micro-structure
replication of micro-components produced by micro-powder injection moulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1292
Hisashi Imai, Sufeng Li, HaruhikoAtsumi, Katsuyoshi Kondoh,
Yoshiharu Kosaka, Akimichi Kojima
Effect of bismuth addition on machinability and mechanical properties
of lead-free brass via powder metallurgy process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
Kazuo Isonishi
Manufacturing of WC alloys by consolidation of MA
powders made from W-C-Co or W-C-Fe-Al powder mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1300
Ayman Elsayed, Hisashi Imai, Junko Umeda, Katsuyoshi Kondoh
Microstructure and mechanical properties of hot extruded ZK61 alloy
produced by rapid solidified powder metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304
Hideshi Miura , Kenta Okawachi, Hyun Goo Kang, Fujio Tsumori, Kosaku Kurata
Laser forming technique for medical devices of Ti alloy powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1308
Shufeng Li, Katsuyoshi Kondoh, Hisashi Imai, Haruhiko Atsumi
Effects of Ti addition on microstructure and mechanical properties of
extruded Cu40Zn-2.2Bi brass by powder metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1312
Kyung-Hun Lee, Dae-Won Hwang, Kyung-Hee Ruy, Byung-Min Kim
Hybrid powder extrusion process for improvement on formability of MA Zn-22wt Al powder . . . . . . . . . . . 1316
Thotsaphon Threrujirapapong, Katsuyoshi Kondoh,
Hisashi Imai, Junko Umeda, Bunshi Fugetsu
Hot extrusion of pure titanium reinforced with carbon nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1320
Terukazu Tokuoka, Toshihiko Kaji, Takao Nishioka
Development of P/M aluminum alloy with fine microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324
Li-hui Lang, Yong Xue, Gu-liang Bu, Hui Yang
Densification behavior of Ti-6Al-4V powder during hot isostatic pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1328
Toru Shimizu, Kunio Matsuzaki, Naoyuki Kanetake
Production of high porosity stainless steel foams from powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
Yoshihiro Kubota, Tamotsu Nakamura, Shigekazu Tanaka, Kunio Hayakawa
Net shape forming of thin walled cylindrical can by DC
pulse resistance sintering process of titanium powder metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336
Do
In
Ji
Si
Gu
In
re
Be
Co
De
Re
Ya
Ev
in
Ku
Yo
In
Yo
Ta
Ef
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Al
Di
Ev
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Im
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001_Inhaltsverzeichnisvorlage.indd 24
71
75
Kazunari Shinagawa
A combined phase-field/discrete-element method for simulating sintering process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1348
79
83
Ji Hoon Kim, Ji Hyun Sung, David K. Matlock, Daeyong Kim, Robert H. Wagoner
Simple analytical model of shear failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1360
88
92
96
00
04
08
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
Dehua He, Donsheng Li, Xiaoqiang Li, Chaohai Jin, Weijun Yang
Identification of material parameters for stretch forming of aircraft skin using punch stretch test . . . . . . . . . 1416
.9
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 25
XXV
Modelling
Roland Log, Heba Resk, Zhidan Sun, Laurent Delannay and Marc Bernacki
Modeling of plastic deformation and recrystallization of polycrystals
using digital microstructures and adaptive meshing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420
Lukasz Madej, Danuta Szeliga, Lukasz Sztangret, Maciej Pietrzyk
Validation of parameters of cellular automata finite element model
dedicated to strain localization phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
Jerzy Gawad, Albert VanBael, Philip Eyckens, Paul VanHoutte, Giovanni Samaey, Dirk Roose
Effect of texture evolution in cup drawing predictions by multiscale model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
Akinori Yamanaka, Tsuyoshi Kawanishi, Atsuki Oto, Masahiko Yoshino
Crystal plasticity finite element analysis of deformation behavior of single crystal copper by nano forming . . . . 1434
Lukasz Madej
Influence of microstructure features on strain distribution
during micro forming on basis of digital material representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1438
Marc Milesi, Yvan Chastel, Elie Hachem, Marc Bernacki,
Roland E. Log, Pierre-Olivier Bouchard
Digital microstructures matching statistical distributions of
features in real materials Example of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1442
Lukasz Rauch, Lukasz Madej, Jan Kusiak
Modelling of microstructure deformation based on digital material
representation integrated with watershed image segmentation algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446
Chetan Nikhare, Alireza Asgari, Matthias Weiss, Peter D. Hodgson
Fracture of DP590 steel: A multi-scale modeling approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
Sergei Alexandrov, Tsuyoshi Furushima, Ken-ichi Manabe
A theoretical-experimental approach for improving predictive
capacity of models for free surface roughness evolution in metal forming
processes under plane strain conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1454
Guillaume Larsen, Zhi Qiang Cheng, Thierry Barriere,
Bao Sheng Liu, Jean-Claude Gelin, Mohamed Rachid Laydi
Modelling and numerical simulation of biphasic fluid flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1458
Mehrdad Foroutan, Mohammad-Amin Bahrami
Analysis of plane strain upsetting by hermitian meshless collocation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
Mohsen Loh-Mousavi, Farhad Teymoori, Ali Etesam
3-D finite element simulation of water jet tube forming process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1466
Keiji Manabe
PSPG rigid-plastic FEM analysis of large deformation in cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1470
Mehrdad Foroutan, Rahim Sotoodeh Bahreyni, Mahmoud Farzin
Forward extrusion analysis by rigid-plastic meshless method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474
Amir Reza Khoei, S. Mohadeseh Taheri-Mousavi, S. Omid Reza Biabanaki, Masood Anahid
An enrichedFEM technique for large frictional contact deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1478
Leon Kukielka
New damping models of metallic materials and its application
in non-linear dynamical cold processes of metal forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482
Xiangyang Cui, Guangyao Li, Gang Zheng, Zhou Fang
Cell-based smoothed radial point interpolation method
for contact problems in metal forming analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1486
XXVI
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 26
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Metal Forming_Japan.indb 27
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 28
Metal Forming
Introduction
1,900
Improve Engine
Thermal Efficiency
Lean Burn
Direct Injection
Multiple Function
Multi-cylinder, VVT
Aerodynamics
Body Structure
Light Weight Material
Friction Reduction
PistonRing
Engine Oil
Large class
Car weight
1,700
1,600
00 Roll over
1,500
96 Side Impact
1,400
93 Air bags
Mid class
1,300
84 Seat Belt
1,200
78 NCAP
1,100
Compact class
1,000
900
1973
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1997
2001
Under the recent needs and trend for a better global environment, the European committee has set a high target to
reduce CO2 emission by 20% from 1990 level till the year
2020. In the case of car CO2 emission, target level is 120
g/km till the year 2012, and 95 g/km until 2020. It is
known that several major car technologies of CO2 emission are developed, the hybrid technology which has the
combination of conventional gas engine and electronic
motor (HV), plug-in hybrid which can be charged from
outside electric source (PHV), and the battery car (EV).
However, each system still needs the basic performance up,
light weight car body, reducing frictional resistance of the
engine and the power train, and also better aerodynamics.
(Figure 1)
(Kg)
1,800
500
AT
400
300
CVT
MT
HV
200
120g / km
100
HV
CVT
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
95g / km
on 2020
Other Technology
Rolling Resistance
Pattern Development
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 1
Others 26
Body components
30
Window glass 3
Tires 3
Engine
12
Seats 4
Wheel, Hubs
4
Fuel tank
4
Suspension
7
Powertrain
7
Metal Forming
Activities to make the body weight lighter are shown in
Table 1. Among them, the application of a high tension
steel (a high strength steel sheet having pulling strength
usually more than 440 MPa) to the structural part of the
body, is thought of as a method which will meet our needs
for both cost and productivity.
Table 1. Light weight materials.
Light Weight
Materials
Cost
Technical issue
Material
Car structure Machine
Stampability
Manufacturing
Productivity Global
-ization
High Tensile
Steel
Hot Stamp
Aluminum
Plastics
270MPa
590MPa
980MPa
Max Depth
H=55mm
H=40mm
H=25mm
Test Piece
440MPa
590MPa
980MPa
Good
Acceptable
No Good
Result
Result
Wrinkle Level
Galling
Maintenance time
590MPa
980MPa
RL
1mm
RL
440MPa case
2
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 2
RL
RL
RL
RL
b c
RL
RL
RL
RL
d e
Metal Forming
270MPa
High Tensile
270MPa
elastic recovery
Stress-Strain Curve
Tensile Strength
Spring back
980MPa
Camber
590MPa
440MPa
270MPa
H(depth) = 60mm
t (thickness) = 1.4mm
Nominal
40
980MPa
30
590MPa
20
Required Tolerance
0.5mm
270MPa
10
0
Tensile
Compress
Compress
250
500
750
1000
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 3
Tensile
3. Twisting
4. Warp
Compress
Tensile
Compress
Tensile
Compress
Tensile
Methodology to Develop Stamping Methods Considering Mass Production. Upon thinking of the countermeasure for the springback in the short section direction,
we have started from our current forming methods. For
example, as shown in Figure 14, applying an extra amount
to the forming area by predicting the panel to springback
to nominal works when the amount is not so large. However, when applying this method to 980 MPa steel, the
extra amount will be large. Predicting the panel to springback will be difficult, requiring many repairs to be conducted to the die.
In addition, the material property variance will affect
the accuracy directly, making this issue difficult to solve
under mass production condition. A different countermeasure, as shown in Figure 15, which has bead shapes on the
wall that may help to keep the nominal shape with better
stiffness, but they may cause galling defects.
Metal Forming
Figure 18 shows the press die section of the flanging
process. The flange process has a pre-flange of about 30
degrees, followed by a normal flange process, which has a
pad putting pressure on the top surface during flanging. In
this process, the panel shows a springback effect, which is
due to the difference of the stress orientation caused by the
elastic recovery of the steel property. At bottom dead center, the difference of stress in the thickness direction becomes maximum. After the upper die ascends, the elastic
recovery effect causes the stress to work in the opposite
direction causing the panel to spread out. The amount of
the springback can be calculated from the flange formula (Formula 1), which is dependent on the material and
shape factor.
Spring back
After
forming
Norminal
Die surface
2nd Process
Bending
1st Process
Pre-Bend
Press
After forming
Norminal
Sec A-A
Pad
Lower steel
Lower die
M
R
EI
R
~
~
E t
Spring back
M Bend Moment
I Geometrical Moment of Inertia
Yield Point
E Young's Modulus
t Thickness
Bend Angle
R Radius
--- Formula 1.
A
A
R/F Rocker outer
Upper die
C
R/F Rail outer
View B
In Figure 19, you can see the springback amount becomes small when the flange angle is small, not relating to
material properties. This behavior is the key upon solving
our accuracy issue.
Sec C-C
Spring back []
Accuracy
concern
Parts
Spring back
2. L-direction
1. Cut section
Press
Upper
steel
High end
7
6
Low end
Required Tolerance
980MPa
590MPa
440MPa
270MPa
4
3
2
1
Springback
0
0
30
60
90
Bend Angle []
Figure 19. Bend angle and springback.
Figure 17. Rocker outer Reinforce.
4
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 4
Metal Forming
When using a 980 MPa steel, at a 90C flange, which is
common in vehicle structure, the springback amount becomes large, and the property variation makes the situation
worse. This makes it difficult to form the shape in production constantly. This stresses the importance of lessening
the dependency of the mechanical property.
Viewpoint of Measures Technology. The feature of the
measure we have developed is to use the springback effect.
The first process flanges a portion of the panel. In the next
process, the flanged area is pressured against a flat area
and bent the other way. This process causes the elastic
recovery to start, but drives the shape to spring toward the
actual shape. Therefore the part shape was changed to add
a flat "chamfered" area on the flange profile (Figure 20).
2nd process Bend
Upper
steel
Upper die
Lower die
Pad
Lower steel
Reform point
close
Old shape
New shape
Chamfer shape
Figure 21. Chamfered shape (developed shape)
After reforming
Norminal
After reform
Chamfer point
close
Tensile
Compress
Lower
open
Tensile
Compress
Tensile
Upper
open
Compress
Norminal shape
Lower R
(open
After reform
Nominal shape
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 5
Chamfer
R2
Metal Forming
quantity and direction (faces the opposite direction) in any
condition.
Ave. stress on surface [MPa]
Tensile
OPEN
2000
R2 stress
1500
41 47
65
25
1000
R1 stress
500
same volume,
opposite stress
70
0
-500 20
30
40
50
60
-1000
-1500
-2000
CLOSE
Bend angle on R1 - 1 []
Compress
A
B
Figure 26. Roof center rainforce
This part has the gradual bow-shaped W hat crosssection that was constituted along roof long direction
design curvature. By a product length difference of the
long distance direction, the flange surface has tensile stress
and the bottom surface has compressed stress during panel
stamping. (Figure 27), It becomes a problem that
springback by elastic recovery occurs when the part taken
out from die.
Stress balanced in
this area
Spring back
R1
Tensile Stress
Chamfer
Tensile Stress
R2
Best condition
1(R1
Compressive Stress
Sec A-A
View B
Standard shape
w/o chamfer
2.5
Compressive Stress
Polyhedron
Natural round
A
1.5
41
small radius
Open
standard shape
0.5
25
Norminal
47
-0.5
flat surface
65
-1
20
30
40
50
60
70
small radius
80
Bend angle on R1 - 1 []
90
Close
flat surface
New shape
View A (symmetrical)
Figure 28. Polyhedron shape (developed shape).
total
R1+Camfer+R2
6
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 6
Metal Forming
Round shape
Polyhedron
flat surface
M
flat surface
small radius
2
Spring back
total
R2
Rn
total = 1 + 2 ++ n =
M1
EI
1 R1 +
M2
EI
1
R1
2 R2 + +
Mn
EI
n Rn
Round shape
Tensile Stress
1 motion round
Tensile stress
on general surface
Polyhedron shape
small radius
Compressive
Stress
Tensile Stress
small radius
flat surface
Tensile stress
on limited portion
Compressive
Stress
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 7
590MPa
Joint
980MPa
small radius
Change volume H
Change volume
[mm]
standard
6 joints
4 joints
0
8
6
4
2
4 joints
standard
6 joints
0
0
00
200
00
400
00
600
Summary
Under the recent needs of light weight vehicles, the high
strength steel ratio is going up year by year. In the stamping process of todays mass production plant of vehicle,
the high speed cold press process is still main stream.
Stamping shops still have lots of concerns with high
strength steel because of the materials characteristic reason,
such as quality control of formability and accuracy and the
durability and maintenance of stamping dies. By this development, the measures technology by 980 MPa for two
dimensional springback on the cross section and long
direction has been elucidated. The prospect was in sight
for the mass production practical usage of high strength
materials that I overcame the main problem of accuracy.
The main points of the development are as follows:
1. By adopting chamfering shape in a part having the hat
cross-section, it will improve robust characteristics of
the part accuracy that are not controlled by materials
characteristic.
2. The adoption of the chamfering shape makes the die
tuning more controllable and total lead time could be
shorter. As the result, the die modification cost can be
saved.
3. The incidence of manufacturing defects such as galling,
which occur at the time of a mass production, is improved drastically by making the part shape simple
without depending on the measures such as shape
freeze beads.
4. By adopting polyhedron shape in a consistent curved
part surface, It will improve the volume of springback.
Arranging final measures for the accuracy and fixing
the defects in the early stage is possible.
5. This development improve high strength steel application technology to 980 MPa of the main body structure
and can contribute to the weight reduction of the body
and CO2 reduction without hanging a burden in the
production plant.
Metal Forming
Conclusions
120kg
30%
280kg
Luggage
Skin Parts
Roof
Fr Pillar
70%
Cneter Pillar
Beams
Locker
Hood
Fr Side Member
Fender
Doors
Europe
Pad
North America
South America
up to 590MPa
up to 440MPa
Humans accomplished a big development by the Industrial Revolution, and the life of people became rich. However, looking at the aggravation of the global environment
of the past and the surge of a global argument of the present, I wonder if society would be self-satisfied with the
technology reform that it was represented by mass production / mass consumption? The global environment is turning worse when we leave it. For the next generation, it is
necessary to look at the real situation well, and to create
innovations that is sustainable. It is not good to be only
highly technical. Sometimes, it will be necessary to think
seriously about the infrastructure maintenance (Figure 34)
that balances with technology at that time. It is not the
technology forcing new to fit in. It is the manageability
that many people could receive a good thing easier and
timely. Balancing materials development, manufacturing
technique, and production technology well is necessary.
Management of this balance and offering the things that it
is necessary when it is necessary. Today, the first message
from the earth to us, engineers, is to develop a highdimensional technology that is sustainable.
Personal mobility
Commuter park
pierce punch
Punch
Japan
Asia
Car sharing
City commuter
Town speed
References
chipping
Lower die
8
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 8
Metal Forming
Introduction
The servo motor system has been applied to metal cutting machine tools since 1950s, but the first servo motor
driven metal forming press appeared only in 1998, although the hydraulically controlled servo presses were
built in the 1970s. The reason for the late coming of the
servo motor driven press is that metal forming processes
necessitate low speed and high torque motors, which were
realized after the powerful magnets were developed in the
1980s. From around 2000, many of the press machine
builders in Japan, and subsequently in Germany, started to
construct various types of servo presses.
The flexible ram motion of servo press brings about the
following merits:
1) reduction of forming load by changing the frictional
condition, flow stress and deformation mode,
2) reduction of noise by easing the sudden change of
load due to initial contact and final breakthrough,
3) improvement of product accuracy by reducing or
cancelling elastic spring back and thermal distortion,
4) improvement of production speed by using shortest
ram stroke suitable for each process,
5) increase in die life by reducing impact load and ram
inclination which causes additional die stress, and
6) reduction of number of processes by synchronizing
the secondary forming operations, assembly, die
cushion, and transfer systems using sensors.
The mechanical servo presses have advantages over the
hydraulic servo presses in terms of:
1) easy maintenance due to the simple structure without
fly wheel, clutch, brake and hydraulic systems,
2) accurate ram motion by digital control without oil
compressibility which hinders accurate positioning,
3) smaller installation space without large hydraulic unit,
4) lower energy consumption by utilizing energy regeneration and avoiding steady running of motors, and
5) cleaner and more silent working environment.
Since various new forming methods are expected to be
developed by utilizing the flexible motion of servo press,
this article focuses on the effective use of the ram motion.
Ball Screw Type Presses. The simplest method to convert the rotational motion of a motor to the linear movement of ram is to use ball screws. Figure 1 is the first
servo motor driven press developed by KOMATSU in
1998. This 800 kN press with two rams is driven with two
servo motors. Tilting of the ram due to unbalanced loading
can be modified by controlling the speeds of the two motors. Similarly to the hydraulic presses, the maximum
capacity of load can be attained at any ram position.
Since the power supplied through a ball screw is limited,
numbers of motors and ball screws should be increased to
attain a large power. Four and eight point presses with
maximum capacities up to 5000 kN are now produced.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 9
Metal Forming
Stepwise Ram Motion for Improving Lubrication
Stepwise Motion. In many of the servo presses, stepwise motion shown in Figure 5 is prepared. In this motion,
the work-piece surface leaves from the tool surface when
the ram retreats and liquid lubricant may come into the
gap.
Backward
Stroke
Forward
End of
Forming
Start of
Forming
Time
Tamai et al. [1] carried out sliding tests using the apparatus illustrated in Figure 6. The sliding tool was detached
from the sheets after sliding 125 mm, and the tests were
continued with and without re-lubrication with rust preventive oil.
Figure 3. 25000 kN servo press with driving mechanism combining ball screw and mechanical link (AMINO).
10
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 10
Metal Forming
Komatsu et al. [2] reported a case that wrinkling in deep
drawing was prevented as shown in Figure 9 by applying
the stepwise motion. The sheet thickness was 0.8 mm and
various clamp holding forces were examined. It was found
that, using the servo press, wrinkling could be eliminated
with a smaller flange clamping force than the conventional
press.
Forming Load kN
Conventional Press
Machine for FM Forming
Time
Figure 11. Forming load with conventional press and machine for
FM forming [3].
Figure 12. Cups made by conventional ironing and vibratory ironing with servo press [4].
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 11
11
Metal Forming
Two Step Shearing. To reduce the noise in shearing, a
two step ram motion calling as variable punch speed
was proposed [6] as shown in Figure 15. The ram is once
stopped and then accelerated to finish shearing.
Distance Change
Figure 16 shows the change of noise level by the stopping position in the variable punch speed motion. It is seen
that the noise level is lowered especially when the punch
is stopped at the end of shearing. Although the proposed
mode is significantly effective for carbon steels and copper,
it is less effective for 18-8 stainless steel.
(c) Re-striking
In the motion (b), a finishing reduction in thickness after bending is given. By compressing to the thickness
direction, the stress state at the bent corner becomes more
uniform and springback is reduced. This motion can decrease the spring back angle effectively with a finishing
reduction less than 0.2 % as shown in Figure 19.
Constant
Variable
Stroke
Start of
Forming
Time
In U-shape bending or draw-bending, finishing reduction of thickness cannot be applied. Suganuma [10] proposed a method of re-striking (motion Figure 17(c)) to
compress the side wall height in the second strike as Figure 20 (a). This process was realized by installing a device
to change the tool distance between the bottom surface and
the flange surface after the first strike. Figure (b) shows
the bent sheets with and without re-striking. It is clear that
spring back is reduced significantly by re-striking.
End of
Forming
12
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 12
With re-striking
Without re-striking
Metal Forming
Prevention of Burr Formation in Shearing
In shearing of plate or sheet, it is known that burr formation is prevented if the shearing direction is reversed twice
as shown in Figure 21 [11]. Koga et al. [12,13] used a
servo press to realize this process and showed that burr
free shearing was possible if the working condition is
carefully chosen.
To utilize the work softening characteristics of the extruded Mg rods, a method shown in Figure 24 was proposed [17]. The billet is compressed freely without touching the die wall first, and then it is constrained at the end
of forming when the flow stress is lowered. The experimental results proved the effectiveness of this method.
Mg billet
Mg billet
(200300C)
Lubricant
Lubricant
(1)(1)Lubrication
Lubrication
(2) Heating
(2)Heating
(3)Forging
Forging
(3)
Product
Product
Matsumoto et al. [16,17] found that the extruded magnesium rod had significant anisotropy and the flow curves
exhibited work softening due to dynamic recovery as Figure 23. When billets from the extruded rod are forged in
closed dies, the final loads may be lowered if the billets
are preliminarily deformed to a large strain without constraining in the early stage of forging.
740 C
980 C
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 13
Figure 26. Bending of high strength steel sheet with electric resistance heating [18].
13
Metal Forming
Electric Resistance Heating in Shearing. Similar
method was applied to shearing of high strength sheet
[21,22] as Figure 27(a). As shown in Figure (b), the burnished surface increases with the temperature.
(1)Preliminary Acceleration
Maximum
Stroke
Control
Forming
Stroke
Position
(2)Pressure Change
Press
Slide
Motion
Die Cushion
Stroke
(5) Returning to
Waiting Position
(3) Preparatory Lift
Pressure
Position
(4) Position Locking
Figure 30. Motion of servo die cushion used for flange holding in
deep drawing (KOMATSU).
Enclosed Die Forging. In enclosed die forging, actuators for die closing and for moving upper and lower
punches are needed as shown in Figure 31: at first the
upper and lower dies are closed and then the upper and the
lower punches are pushed into the cavity.
Upper Punch
Upper Die
Lower Die
Lower Punch
Figure 28. Spline forming of heated pipe after electric heating [23].
Figure 30 shows an example of the motion when applied to deep drawing. The position controlling and force
controlling can be switched during a process. The blank
holding force is changed to prevent wrinkling of flange
while moving the cushion with the same speed as the ram.
Actuators driven by servo motors can be applied in various ways by driving the secondary moving axis in the
servo processes as explained in the followings.
14
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 14
Metal Forming
Combination with Hydraulic Actuator
Figure 33. Enclosed die forging of spline with axially driven die
and flow of gear tooth [26].
Container Driving in Double Cup Extrusion. If the container is moved in forward-backward extrusion of double
cup as Figure 34, the
frictional force helps
to change the extruded lengths of the
cup walls [28,29].
In extrusion of a
double cup product
with the usual fixed
container, one of the
cup walls is first Figure 34. Double cup extrusion with
stopped when the axially driven container.
length reaches the
objective value and
then only the other
wall is extruded. As
shown in Figure 35,
the punch pressure is
raised suddenly when
the flow is changed
in the fixed container.
By moving the container with an appropriate velocity, the Figure 35. Forward-backward combined
highest punch pres- extrusion with container driving [28].
sure can be kept low.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 15
Prevention of Fracture of Mg Alloy by Counter Pressure. Matsumoto et al. applied counter pressure to prevent
fracture in backward extrusion [34] and piercing [35].
When a counter force is applied in piercing as shown in
Figure 38(a), brittle fracture is prevented and a long
smooth shear surface is obtained [35] as shown in Figure
(b). The deformation mode is changed from pure shear to
forward-backward extrusion, and the slug is shortened.
15
Metal Forming
Combination with Robot
References
(a) Equipment
(b) Product of
incremental forging
Figure 39. Free forging with robot and servo-press [36].
Concluding Remarks
Although the history of AC servo press is short, it is
spreading very fast in Japan. At the moment, the servo
presses are mainly used in the sheet metal industry to
extend the forming limit, to obtain better product accuracy
and to reduce forming noise.
Since the servo presses can realize completely different
motions from the existing ones, they have a great potential
to change metal forming technology if new forming methods and new applications are developed.
Judging from the development process of NC and CNC
cutting machine tools, the number of driving axes of servo
presses will be increased to provide them with larger flexibility. The forming machines will be controlled as a group
with the cutting machine tools and other machines in the
manufacturing systems. This may change the concept of
metal forming to a great extent.
Since the ram velocity can be varied freely, the servo
presses may be effective in the case that the forming velocity gives great influences. Because the flow stress at
high temperature is strain rate sensitive and heat conduction is time dependent, warm and hot forming methods
may be changed greatly by the servo presses.
To realize new forming technologies using the servo
presses, advancement of the related technologies are essentially important, in such areas as tool structure, tool
material, heating method, lubrication and work-piece material.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express sincere thanks to Prof.
T. Ishikawa (Nagoya University), Prof. K. Mori and Mr. T.
Maeno (Toyohashi University of Technology), Dr. M. Otsu
(Kumamoto University), Dr. R. Matsumoto (Osaka University) for providing with the illustrations and advices for
improving the manuscript.
16
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 16
Metal Forming
Introduction
One of the most important long term global challenges is
to achieve sustainability with respect to the use of natural
resources. Recognized decades ago but repeatedly ignored,
the need for action is increasingly impacting public awareness in view of the now visible effects of climate change
and the foreseeable exhaustion of fossil energy sources.
Clean and regenerative power generation, low-emission
and energy-saving mobility modes, and resourceconserving production techniques are selected areas in
which modern metal-forming can contribute to solving
global challenges.
For many years, resource-conservation has already been
a key driver of forming technologies in metal production
and processing for economic as well as technical reasons.
Metals remain one of the most important categories of
engineering materials to this day. In industrial nations like
Germany, their production and processing accounts for
about 9 % of the annual energy consumption in the household/retail, industry and transport sectors (Figure 1) [1].
Energy consumption in Germany:
about 9.1 mill. TJ
Manufacturing industries
Household, retail and services
Transport
29%
Metal production
NF metals, foundries
Metalworking
14%
27%
16%
44%
About 9% of
total energy
70%
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 17
efficiency of process chains have been significantly improved in the past, it can be assumed that new materials
and new process modeling and control possibilities will
yield considerable potential for further savings in the future. At the production stage, metal forming has two important tasks: producing the specified geometry and establishing the required material and product properties. In
both respects, the goal is to overcome existing constraints
and to implement new solution approaches.
Besides the frequently cited and long-established megatrend of miniaturizing components and systems, an equally
major trend can also be observed at the other end of the
scale where the manufacturing of ever larger components
and systems regularly demands new technologies and
engineering concepts. The growing size of systems is
evident in many engineering sectors, the most recent and
striking example being the Airbus A380 which also caught
public imagination. Particularly in energy technologies,
but also in shipbuilding and offshore structures, aerospace
and architecture, the dimensions of the required metal
products are steadily increasing. In energy technologies,
many different approaches are being pursued with the aim
of achieving greater sustainability. In addition to developing the renewable solar, wind and sea energies, major
efforts toward reducing resource consumption and climatedamaging emissions will have to be made by increasing
the efficiency of conventional power plants, promoting
decentralized cogeneration of heat and power, and intensifying the use of nuclear energy. The challenges here will
be to overcome the current constraints in metal forming
related to product size, material to be formed, product
quality and complexity.
For this paper the following examples have been chosen
to demonstrate how the new challenges stimulate advances
in metal forming and how metal forming can in its turn
help to meet these challenges:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
17
Metal Forming
Shipments
100%
1990 1995
2005 2009
50%
<2 2-4 4-6 >6
Rolling force in MN
0%
18
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 18
Modifizierte
Dornwalze
Modified mandrel
roll
218 mm
63 mm 73 mm
Durch
Wulstbildung
With
bead
formation
132mm
Mit Kragenwalze
With
flange roll
120mm
62mm
70 mm
87 mm
80 mm
Figure 3. Cross sections of rings produced by varied processes.
Interface
Assistant System
Microstructure
Model
Strain
Model
Visualisation
Temperature
Model
Optimisation
Figure 4. Concept of ntended assistant system for open die forging processes.
Metal Forming
they deliver not only information about the deformation
distribution, but also about the temperature field and the
microstructure distribution, even after multiple forging
passes. Figure 5 (top part) shows the deformation
distribution of the center fiber of a forged block after three
forgings. FE simulation with calculation of deformation,
microstructure and temperature field would take about 30
minutes. The calculation time of the fast algorithm is
negligible by comparison.
The temperature field can similarly be calculated very
quickly by using a reduced FD model (Figure 5, center)
[6]. This allows the interfacing of the microstructure
model StrucSim [7] and so a possibility to calculate the
grain size distribution along the center fiber (Figure 5,
bottom).
Equivalent strain
1.2
0.6
0.0
Temperature in C
1190
Fast models
FEM
1160
40
70
Specific length in %
100
F = ld bk fmQ p
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 19
100
0
2
3
Shape factor ld/hm[-]
Figure 6. Resistance to forming as a function of the roll gap ratio
and the initial plate thickness.
500
0
200
Grain size in m
1000
(1)
1220
thickness
Initial thickness
20 mm
30 mm
50 mm
100 mm
200 mm
400 mm
600 mm
900 mm
300
FEM
Sims
Lugovskoi
0
0
1
2
Shape factor ld/hm [-]
It can be seen that the FE simulation reflects the influence of external friction (ld/hm>1) as well as the internal
shearing (ld/hm<1) on the increased rolling force. Further
variations of process parameters (friction coefficient and
rolling speed v) and material properties of the rolling stock
can be calculated with relatively little effort. In the future
it will thus be possible to make better predictions for the
rolling force by using the geometry factors calculated by
means of FE simulations.
19
Metal Forming
2003: NSB-Study
New Steel Body
AHSS and HPTH-parts
2002: atlas space-frame
steel space-frame with
HPTH parts in conventional carriages
Process chain
Prozesskette
2004: ABC-Study
Arcelor Body Concept
Tailored blanks und
sandwich steels
1998: ULSAB Study
high-strength steels (HSS)
20
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 20
Cost of material
Materialkosten
Cost of
Fertigungsmanufacturing
kosten
Cost of joining
Fgekosten
Overall cost
Gesamtkosten
Weight
Gewicht
Number
of parts
Bauteilanzahl
Reference
ReferenzB-pillar
B-Sule
Deep
Deep
TiefTiefdrawing
drawing
ziehen
ziehen
20.47% 0.74%
0.74%
20.47%
19.05%
19.05%
7.43%
48.27%
48.27% 7.43%
20.88%
20.88%
31.26%
31.26%
100%
100.00%
100.00%
100%
9
9
43.63%
43.63%
91.74%
91.74%
62.00%
62%
2
2
Dachanbindung
Roof connection
IHU-B-Sule
HPTH B-pillar
2009: SuperLIGHT-CAR
Composite design of
aluminum, steel,
magnesium and plastics.
IHU-B-Sule
HPTH B-pillar
Inner part
Innenteil
Stiffening 1-7
Outer part Versteifung
Auenteil
17
Referenz-B-Sule
Reference B-pillar
HPTH
IHUdesign
Bauweise
IHUHPTH
Groove
Rolling direction
Strip / blank
Figure 10. Process principle and sample results from strip profile
rolling.
Metal Forming
and the geometry was a rectangular profile with a width of
170 mm and homogeneous thickness of 2 mm.
Processing was done in a strip profile rolling machine
built by Dreistern equipped with twelve profile rolls (see
Figure 11). Using optimized geometries for the discshaped rolls [12], the TRS with a width of 186 mm and a
64 mm wide groove in which the thickness is reduced
from 2.5 mm to 1.5 mm was achieved in 25 rolling passes.
The TRS coils of 60 m in length were then further processed by roll forming the TRS to pipes. This was possible
by the cooperation between the PtU and a Swiss company
(JANSEN AG), which processed the TRS to pipes using
its industrial production system. The result is a TRS pipe
with a diameter of 60mm and changing wall thickness in
the circumferential direction. The formed TRS pipe
showed a small deviation from the ideal pipe of only 0.3
mm.
Figure 13. Possible applications for sheet and foil riblet surfaces
Semicircular
Optimal
0.2 < riblet height (h) / riblet spacing (s) < 0.7
70 m s 100 m
Frictional drag reduction increase
Figure 14. Three distinct riblet profiles providing different dragreduction potential.
Both the strip profile rolling and the roll forming process
can be operated continuously. This offers the potential of
cost-effective production of such tailored tubes and profiles.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 21
21
Metal Forming
hardened and 1.2 mm thick material). For the opposite
material a thickness reduction of 36 % is required to obtain
the same form filling. The final thickness of the entire
rolling stock becomes respectively 0.92 mm and 1.28 mm.
Experimental results as well as numerical process simulation [13] reveal that decreasing the thickness of the rolling stock, or increasing the rolling force, ensures that the
riblet height will increase. The relationship is presented in
Figure 18. The plot of thickness reduction versus form
filling shows that a form filling of 65 % can be achieved
for a thickness reduction of 24 % (in the case of the strain
22
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 22
Metal Forming
Incremental sheet forming (ISF) as a method for manufacturing geometrically complicated sheet parts with minimal tooling effort can provide new opportunities for
designing lightweight structural sheet components [15].
However, application of the process is currently limited by
excessive sheet thinning in steep component areas and by
the very long processing time. These limitations are now
to be overcome by combining incremental sheet forming
with multi-axial stretch-forming, so that the sheet thickness distribution can be modified specifically and the
process time can be reduced (Figure 19).
Figure 19. Left: Hybrid sheet forming center with 13 CNC axes for
ISF, stretch forming and milling. Right: stretch forming of a clamp
attachment cover of work vehicle.
Sheet thickness in mm
Section line
Section line in mm
Figure 20. Comparison of thickness distribution of pure incremental sheet forming and incremental sheet forming combined
with stretch forming.
In combination with alternative concepts for loadbearing structures in architecture, the incremental sheet
forming method could become a key to self-supporting
shells, whose free formed surfaces are fragmented into
individual sheet elements braced by folding with the help
of suitable algorithms. Their economic manufacture using
ISF would allow novel constructions and building designs
(see Figure 21).
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 23
Modeling of Metal Forming Processes with Deformable Tools. At present, commercial FE simulation programs are capable of considering elastic tools within the
forming simulations. However, modeling such processes
considering the workpiece and tool as deformable bodies
in a single FE model will not only complicate the computation but also affect the convergence criteria. The situation becomes even more complex when the contact region
size is very small and if the tools themselves are subject to
significant rotations or additional contact conditions. For
example, in cold rolling the elastic deformation of the rolls
significantly influences the product quality as it may be
responsible for the occurrence of flatness defects like
center buckles or edge buckles. To model such processes,
very fine discretization is necessary for both the workpiece
and the tool which in this case requires taking into account
not only the work roll but also the backup rolls. However,
as the FE mesh size decreases, the computation time increases exponentially.
Considering the above mentioned effects, an optimized
modeling technique is being developed to precisely take
into account the interaction effects between tool and work
piece while separating the computation of the forming
process and elastic tools into two different simulation
models. In this context, the process simulation consists of
the work piece and the rigid tools. On the other hand, an
additional elastic simulation model is considered for the
tools. At predefined time steps, the contact forces are extracted from the process simulation and automatically
applied to the corresponding contact nodes in the elastic
tool simulation model (see Figure 22). The deformed tool
geometry is then updated back into the process simulation.
Thus, instead of one very large finite element problem two
significantly smaller problems are being solved, which
reduces the overall computational effort [19].
23
FE-Model for
process simulation
(With rigid tool)
LARSTRAN/SHAPE
Increment
FE-Model for
elastic tool simulation
DOELTOSIM
LARSTRAN/SHAPE
Continuum FEM
Metal Forming
Deformation*
damping
Elastic-plastic
material model
Mapping table
Pure elastic
material model
CP-FEM
Contact-pressure
As representative applications of the concept, cold rolling and also impression die forging were investigated. For
the comparison of computation time, flat rolling process
simulation with identical FE meshing was computed with
PEP/LARSTRAN and a commercial FE program (ABAQUS STANDARD 6.7). With the help of 200 coupled
cycles, the simulation results from the new concept model
correlate very well with the results from single FE models
(see Figure 23). The computation time was reduced to half
(610 min with ABAQUS and 334 min with LARSTRAN)
with the new concept.
LARSTRAN
ABAQUS
24
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 24
References
[1] Internet: http://www.ag-energiebilanzen.de: Deutsches Institut fr
Wirtschaftsforschung .
[2] V. Goldbach, G. Hirt: 9th International Conference on Technology
of Plasticity, Gyeongju, (2008), 341-342.
[3] J.M. Allwood, T.F. Tekkaya: Steel Research International. 76-2/3
(2005), 111-120.
[4] G. Hirt, I. Tiedemann, D. Michl, N. Khanjari, R. Kopp: Production
Engineering Research and Development, 3 (2007), 227-232.
[5] D. Michl, G. Hirt, V. Jenkouk: Proc. 17th International Forgemasters
Meeting (IFM 2008), Santander, (2008), 244-250.
[6] M. Franzke, D. Recker, G. Hirt: Steel Research International, 78-10
(2008), 753-757.
[7] K. Karhausen, R. Kopp: Steel Research, 63-6 (1992), 247-256.
[8] R.B. Sims: J. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., (1954), 191-214.
[9] A. Tselikov: Stress and Strain in Metal Rolling, Univ. Press of the
Pacific, (2004), 109-117.
[10] M. Urban, G. Hirt: Steel Research International, 80-1 (2009), 16-21.
[11] R. Kopp, G. Hirt, F. Jackel: Advanced Technology of Plasticity, Proc.
8th ICTP, Verona, (2005), 493-494.
[12] D.H. Dvalos Julca, G. Hirt, M. Mirtsch, P. Groche: Proc. XII National Sheet Forming Conference, Porto Alegre, (2009), 203-216.
[13] G. Hirt, M. Thome: Production Engineering Research and Developement, 1 (2007), 351-356.
[14] G. Hirt, M. Thome: CIRP Annals Manufacturing Technology, 57-1
(2008), 317-320.
[15] B. Taleb Araghi, G.L. Manco, M. Bambach, G. Hirt: CIRP Annals
Manufacturing Technology 58-1 (2009), 225-228.
[16] F. Roters, D. Raabe, G. Gottstein: Acta Mater., 48 (2000).
[17] P. Gurla: Dissertation RWTH Aachen, (2007).
[18] K. Putten: Dissertation RWTH Aachen (Umformtechnische
Schriften 141), (2008).
[19] M. Franzke, S. Puchhala, H. Dackweiler: Proc. 9th International
Conference on Numerical Methods in Industrial Forming Processes,
Porto, (2007).
Metal Forming
R p = 100% (S0 S ) S0 ,
Introduction
Cross-wedge rolling (CWR) is the metal forming of axially symmetrical products by tools in the shape of wedges.
The tools are mounted on shafts, or on flat or concave rolling mill plates.
The basic geometric parameters of the process are given
in Figure 1, showing the CWR scheme of the elementary
shaft (with one, central necking). These parameters include forming angle , spreading angle , charge diameter
d0, diameter of the formed shaft step d and the length of
the rolled step l. The following basic zones are distinguished in the tools utilized in the CWR process: knifing,
forming, and sizing. In the knifing zone, the wedge gradually sinks into the material at a depth of r, reducing the
charge diameter to the established value d. In the forming
zone, as a result of the reaction of the wedge side walls,
spiral reduction expands over the whole length l, of the
rolled part. In the sizing zone, however, the workpiece is
subjected to rotational compression, during which all irregularities in the shape resulting from the previous phases
are removed.
The basic measures of the materials plastic working in
the CWR process are:
reduction ratio , defined as
(1)
= d0 d ,
relative reduction of the cross-section equal to
Top tool
r
Bottom tool
Charge
Workpiece
2l
Sizing zone
Forming zone
d0
Knifing zone
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 25
(2)
25
Metal Forming
a)
b)
d)
c)
e)
Figure 2. Schemes of CWR processes realized in following systems: a) two rolls, b) roll concave segment, c) three rolls, d) flat
wedges, e) concave wedges.
a)
Contact area
b)
b
z
c)
x
2h
26
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 26
Figure 4. FEM calculations of deformation of rolled products as effect of the occurrence of: a) uncontrolled slipping, b) cracking inside material, c) core necking (breaking).
Metal Forming
t = 0.00 s
t = 1.50 s
CWR parameter
Uncontrolled
slipping
Core necking
(breaking)
Crack formation
Technology
t = 2.25 s
t = 3.00 s
t = 3.75 s
t = 4.50 s
ess, the extreme steps of the shaft are formed with reduction ratios of = 2.45, which are unobtainable with only
one wedge passage. This is why it was established that the
rolling process is performed in two operations. The FEM
calculation results of the rolling process of the analyzed
transmission shaft are shown in Figure 5. Due to the shape
of the product, it was necessary to use the rolling scheme
with the separating of the final scrap materials with the
frontal funnels shaped in them. Because they are located
on the ends of the rolled part and due to their size, the
scrap parts play a stabilizing role during rolling, protecting
the product from skewing. Figure 6 shows a transmission
shaft obtained from the industrial rolling tests.
The process of axial feed bar rolling [41] is another developed recently method based on the CWR. In this
method rollers turning around their axes also move in the
radial and axial directions of the rolled product. In consequence, it is possible to form stepped shafts and axles us
ing tools of relatively simple geometry.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 27
Metal Forming
5
1 2
3
r1
a = 18
5
r0 = 1
r0
r1 r
2 r3 r
r5
4
x1 x2 x3x4 x5
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 28
Metal Forming
r0
0
Upper wedge
Bottom guide
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 29
29
Metal Forming
Figure 17. FEM calculations of development of shape of shaft with eccentric step in CWR process.
limiting the cold CWR technology to the rolling of axially symmetrical products with small dimensions (maximum diameter less than 10 mm);
in cold CWR processes, cooling-lubricating agents are
used in order to raise the tool life and to remove metal
chips;
lack of technological serrations on the side surfaces of
the wedges used in cold CWR processes;
differences in wedge angles used in forming (generally
< 2).
The no-waste division of round bars, shown on Figure
19, is another method based on the cold CWR process,
which has recently been studied at Lublin University of
Technology. In the first phase of this process, the wedges
move in the opposite directions and make a groove in the
shape of the letter V on the circumference of the bar. Then,
using specially shaped tools, the part of the bar to be separated is rotated and bended. On the basis of studies [46], it
has been found that using this method, segments of the bar
with a length of l larger than 1.3 times the bar diameter d0,
can be effectively separated from the bar. Metal separation
took place as the effect of brittle cracking, which can be
intensified by increasing the bending angle and/or the
rolling depth r.
Figure 20 shows bar segments separated by the discussed method. Two characteristic zones can be distin-
Bar
Bottom
tool
Figure 18. Course of CWR process for eccentric shaft performed
in laboratory at Lublin University of Technology.
30
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 30
Metal Forming
Figure 20. Bar segments made from steel grade C45 cut in process of no-waste separation with parameters: =45, r=2 mm,
=2 (top) and =3 (bottom).
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 31
Figure 21. Virtual project (top) and prototype (bottom) of flat wedge
rolling mill produced in Polish industrial establishment.
Acknowledgements
This research work was financed by funds from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Poland over
31
Metal Forming
years 2009-2012, as a project for development no.
0457/R/T02/2009/06.
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40 (2000), 49-63.
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Technology, 80-81 (1998), 273-281
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of Mechanical Sciences, 42 (2000), 1233-1253.
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(2005), 245-246.
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Metal Forming_Japan.indb 32
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Conference Advanced Methods and Technologies for Materials
Manufacture and Processing, Minsk, (2008), 199-200.
Metal Forming
Introduction
Steel continues to evolve its response to new consumer
demands. Recently the major focus has been on achieving
weight reduction in the transport industry, but there are
examples, such as more earthquake resistant steels and
higher strength pipeline steels where there have been significant innovations. The integrity of steel products, not
only from fracture but also corrosion, continues to place
increased demands. At the same time steel continues to
maintain a significant market share because it has responded to these challenges without major increases in
cost to the customer.
Historically, the basis for most advances in steel product
performance has fallen under the general heading of microstructural engineering. This is because many of the
properties in steels are determined by features at the micron scale there are obviously nanoscale features that
have been used for some time and these will be discussed
later, but the majority of research focus has been on engineering at the micron scale.
The major basis for most thermomechanical controlled
processing (TMCP) research has been to control the evolution and state of the austenite grain structure and to then
control the subsequent phase transformation. Steel has a
major advantage over most competitive metals as it has a
very high Hall-Petch slope. Hence any reduction in the
ferrite grain size leads to significant enhancements in
strength and, as it turns out, toughness. Therefore, thermomechanical processing has been used in many different
types of rolling mills to produce ferrite grain sizes down to
a few microns.
More recently in advanced high strength steels (AHSS)
for the automotive industry the objective is to obtain steels
with a fine ferrite microstructure but containing other
micron scale particles of secondary phases such as martensite, retained austenite and bainite.
There have always been nanoscale structures that have
impacted on the product performance of steel. One could
argue that pearlite is an excellent example of a self assembled nanostructure as the ferrite and cementite grow in a
seemingly co-operative manner and it is possible to obtain
sheets of these phases that are only 10s of nanometres in
the thickness direction. Tyre-cord is an example where
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 33
33
Metal Forming
between deformations and to have almost instantaneous
cooling after the final stand [4].
High Strength through Transformation to Nonferritic
Microstructures
The above followed the traditional concepts of increasing strength by refining the ferrite grain size and in reality
the microstructure scale is not really at the nano level
except for the more extreme cases such as in Figure 2.
However, it is possible to control the transformation to
other microstructures. This has been shown most elegantly
in the recent papers by Bhadeshia and co-workers [5]
where a thermodynamic approach was taken to design a
composition where high temperature transformations
could be avoided but where it was then possible to form
bainite without martensite. This led to a nano bainitic
composite microstructure, where the layers of bainite were
separated by layers of retained austenite. The steel produced an amazing combination of strength (e.g. 2 GPa)
and ductility.
C
1
Steel
wt%
at%
Steel
wt%
at%
Steel
wt%
at%
0.8
3.5
0.3
1.2
0.2
0.95
Si
1.51
1.98
2.9
1.9
1.96
3.8
1.9
1.2
1.5
2.3
1.5
1.06
2.08
0.57
1.15
34
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 34
Mo
Ni
Cu
Nb
1.6
0.98
0.24
0.1
0.1
1.4
1.0
0.13
0.09
0.08
0.1
0.31
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.17
0.01
0.01
0.3
0.02
0.04
0.165
0.02
0.02
Our group has also been exploring this alloy and other
similar concepts. Some examples will be described here
based on three approaches. The first repeated the original
work of Bhadeshia with a high C content alloy (Steel 1,
Table 1). In the second approach a leaner composition
(Steel 2) was used and the first stage of the TCMP schedule involved partial transformation prior to holding at the
bainite transformation temperature. For the examples
shown here, both of these approaches used a bainite transformation temperature of 350C; the transformation time
Metal Forming
was reduced from 1 day to 2hrs in moving from Steel 1 to
2. The third approach (Steel 3) was based on a simple
TMCP approach utilising controlled rolling partial transformation to ferrite and then a coiling simulation at 470 C.
The tensile properties show that each approach leads to
similar strength levels but that the ductility is markedly
changed. TEM of the bainite phase for each approach
(Figure 4) shows that the 350 C a relatively aligned structure of alternating bainitic ferrite and retained austenite
with bainite lath widths from 200 to 400 nm. The retained
austenite (RA) was significantly coarser in Steel 2; it is
important to remember that RA is the residual from the
transformation, and hence this implies a lower fraction of
bainitic ferrite. Also this steel had ~20% ferrite from the
high temperature transformation.
Figure 4 TEM of microstructure of (a) Steel 1, (b) Steel 2 and (c) Steel 3.
It will also potentially introduce fine strain induced preFigure 5 APT maps of (a) Steel 1, (b) Steel 2 and (c) Steel 3 cipitates
RA: retained austenite, PF: polygonal ferrite and
that will remain in the microstructure and while
BF:= bainitic ferrite.
these are unlikely to affect the properties or subsequent
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 35
35
Metal Forming
transformation events they will be present in further analysis of the microstructure and may confuse the nature and
formation of precipitates in the subsequent phases.
The formation of proeutectoid ferrite leads to carbon rejection into the austenite, and hence the amount will depend on the amount of ferrite formed. As shown in the
examples above managing this aspect of the transformation can have a very profound effect on the final microstructure and properties.
Much of the interest in most modern steels is to use Si or
other elements to promote the formation of a carbide free
bainite. This leads to further rejection of carbon into the
austenite and the potential to have islands of high carbon
austenite which are then stable at room temperature (ie
they dont transform to martensite). The above APT maps
and other work soon to be published question whether the
bainite can really be said to be carbide free. There is some
debate about whether the high carbon areas are precipitates or just clusters but most of our work does suggest a
wide range of carbides being present in the bainitic ferrite.
For Steel 1 under the current conditions the average
number density of C-rich clusters was - 7 x 1011 m-3. Most
of the fine carbides had a plate-like shape with average
thickness of 3.3 0.9nm. The carbon level in the fine
particles varied from - 20 to 80 at%C, with the balance Fe.
Most of these carbides had a composition close to that of
low-temperature Fe32C4 carbides and Fe3C. The bainitic
ferrite formed in Steel 1 had a higher carbon content (0.35
0.05at%) compared to the para-equilibrium level, which
suggests diffusionless type of transformation of austenite
to bainite. However, this is still an area of active investigation and debate.
For Steels 2 and 3 there was also a high level of C in the
bainitic ferrite. While these steels are seen by many as
futuristic even some of the new TMCP TRIP steels have
complex nanoscale microstructures (Firgure 6) that can be
highly manipulated to achieve a range of properties.
Figure 6. TEM of a TMCP TRIP steel showing nanoscale distribution of the various phases.
36
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 36
Metal Forming
are now seeing a much more complex range of precipitate
morphologies that may appear as simple round objects
under TEM. Here, though, we see that the precipitates are
more randomly spaced and are much larger.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 37
37
Metal Forming
normally harmful elements to provide new steel products.
Combining this concept with some of the above clearly
opens up many potential areas for the industrial nanoscale
engineering of steels for the next few decades.
Conclusions
The work presented here highlights the potential for the
engineering of steel structure at all scale lengths to improve the properties; particularly strength and ductility.
Atom Probe Tomography can now be used to sample relatively large volumes in reasonable time and therefore is
more amenable to obtaining new insights. This supported
by conventional TEM and FEG-SEM with advanced
EBSD can allow us to more fully understand the relationships between processing and structure. In the future these
techniques could be combined with new processes such as
strip casting with inline rolling to create materials that
maximise their potential while minimising their environmental impact.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Australian Research
Council through grants and Professor Hodgsons Federation Fellowship. Much of this work has also involved
extensive collaboration with Professor E. Pereloma at the
University of Wollongong.
References
[1] H. Beladi, G.L. Kelly, P.D. Hodgson: International Materials Reviews,
52-1 (2007), 14-28.
[2] N. Tsuji, R. Ueji, Y. Minamino: Scripta Materialia, 47-2 (2002), 6976.
[3] R. Priestner, P.D. Hodgson, Materials Science and Technology, 8-10
(1992) 849-854
[4] K. Miyata, M. Wakita, S, Fukushima, M. Eto, T. Sasaki, T. Tomida:
Materials Science Forum, 539-543 (2007), 4698-4703.
[5] H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia: Materials Science and Engineering A, 481-482
(2008), 36-39.
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Int., 44 (2004), 1945-1951.
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Materials Society/AIME (USA), (1997) 2169-2175.
38
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 38
Metal Forming
Design of Micro Pattern Forming Process on Thin Sheet Metal for Electronic Device
Panels
Sung-Hoon Cha1), Jong-Bong Kim2), Sa Sung Park3), Jong-Ho Kim3), Nak-Kyu Lee4)
1)
Graduate School of NID Fusion Tech., Seoul National Uni. of Tech., Seoul / Korea; 2) Dept. of Automotive Eng., Seoul National Uni. of
Tech., Seoul / Korea, jbkim@snut.ac.kr; 3) Dept. of Product Design and Manufac. Eng., Seoul National Uni. of Tech., Seoul / Korea; 4) Dept.
of Manufac. Convergence Tech., Korea Institute of Industrial Tech., Ansan-si / Korea
A roll-to-roll forming process is one of important metal processing technologies, because the process is simple and economical. These
days, a roll-to-roll forming process is tried to be employed in the manufacturing of the circuit board, barrier ribs and other electronic device.
In this study, the roll-to-roll forming process for the micro scale pattern in electronic device panel is designed and analyzed. Because the
electronic devices such as flexible display have millions of cavities, the analysis of forming process considering all the cavities is impossible
due to the high computational costs and memory limit. Therefore, the optimum analysis conditions that guarantee the analysis results and
computational efficiency are found. Also, the analysis is carried out for indentation process instead of the roll-to-roll forming process for the
computational effectiveness and the reliability is verified. The macro scale experiments are carried out to validate the analysis results. Then,
the pattern shapes are designed in viewpoint of formability. The effect of punch shapes such as pitch and draft angle on crack initiation are
investigated. Crack initiation is evaluated by Cockcroft-Latham damage values. The effect of temperature on formability is also investigated.
From the analysis for various punch shape at various temperature, the successful forming conditions are found.
Keywords: Roll-to-roll forming, Micro pattern forming, Damage
Introduction
With the increasing demands on the small sized electric
products, a lot of studies have been carried out for forming
of micro-scale or sub-micron scale feature on parts. For
the forming of micro-sized parts, micro extrusion [1],
micro embossing [2,3] and micro punching [4] processes
have been studied. In these studies, the shape and size
effects on formability are mainly investigated together
with the effect of grain size. In addition to these microscale parts, the forming of macro-scale parts having microsized features also has become one of the major research
topics. The forming processes of micro channels for fuel
cell [5], a micro-reactor component containing miniature
pins [6] and barrier ribs in PDP (Plasma Display Panel) [7]
are the examples.
A thin metal sheet is considered to be used for flexible
display substrate [8] in these days. In display panel, barrier
ribs, spacers and periodic patterns are needed to be formed.
In this study, the pattern forming on thin metal sheet using
roll-to-roll process is investigated. A metal roll forming
process that is similar to the roll-to-roll forming process is
simple and can be effectively used for mass production
with its high productivity [9]. In a roll forming process, a
sheet strip is passed through the rolls and desired shape of
the product is formed incrementally by a pair of rotating
rolls. In most of the conventional roll forming processes,
sheet products having constant cross-section are formed
and the major forming mechanism is bending [10].
The roll-to-roll forming process is a little bit different
from the conventional roll forming process. By the roll-toroll forming process, array features such as embossing,
groove, or cavities are formed. The roll-to-roll process was
frequently used in printing process in display industry [11].
In this study, the roll-to-roll forming process is introduced
for the forming of micro cavity arrays on a thin micro
metal sheet metal. Arrays of micro pattern are formed by
two rotating rolls. Positive protrusions are shaped in one
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 39
Metal Forming
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Indentation
0 .0 5
0 .0 5
0 .1 5
X coordinate [mm]
75.05
Roll-to-roll
0 .1 5
D= 150
Unit : m m
2
D= 150
D
Analysis Verification
L
P
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1. Configuration of (a) the roll-to-roll process for cavity
forming, (b) the upper roll and (c) a protrusion.
Table 1. Johnson-Cook coefficients for Al6111-T4 [14].
A
B
C
n
m
Melting Temperature
150 MPa
412 MPa
0.10
0.66
2.16
662 C
ni t
(a) Deformed shape
A
B
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Analyzed shape during (a) the roll-to-roll forming process and (b) the indentation process.
(b) Region A
(c) Region B
Figure 5. (a) Comparison of the deformed shape and the filling
status for the region (b) A and (c) B (Pitch=4 mm, Cavity Length=3
mm, Draft angle=30o).
40
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 40
Metal Forming
Analysis Results
Punch Stroke Decision. The analyses are carried out for
the indentation process in micro-scale. For the computational effectiveness, only 8 cavities are analyzed as shown
in Figure 6. The maximum punch strokes are decided
from the load-displacement curve for various punch
shapes and are given in Table 2 [12]. The analyses are
carried out up to the maximum punch stroke shown in
Table 2.
Maximum
Draft angle
Punch Stroke
10o
33 m
Length = 150 m
20o
35 m
Pitch = 200 m
30o
37 m
45o
41 m
10o
40 m
20o
42 m
30o
44 m
Length , Pitch
Length = 100 m
Pitch = 150 m
CL= 1d
(1)
ND= 1d / C
(2)
2.0
1.5
1.0
Pitch=150
0.5
Pitch=200
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
o ]
0.60
0.55
2.5
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0
100
200
300
400
o ]
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 41
41
Metal Forming
recommended that the draft angle should be greater than or
equal to 30o.
Figure 12 shows the maximum normalized damage values
at various temperatures for the draft angle of 10o. Because
the critical damage value, C, increases as temperature (see
Figure 7), the normalized damage value decreases as temperature. For the case of 10o of draft angle and 200 m of
pitch, it is predicted that crack does not take place at temperature over 400 oC. For the case of 10o of draft angle and
150 m of pitch, crack does not take place at temperature
over 100 oC.
D
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.0
Normalized damage
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Draft = 10
Critical value = 1
20
45
30
0.05
0.10
Distance [mm]
0.15
Normalized damage
Normalized damage
0.05
0.10
Distance [mm]
0.15
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Conclusions
Pitch = 200 m
Pitch = 150 m
100
200
300
400
500
42
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 42
[1] J.Y. Kim, S.M. Joo, H.K. Kim: Trans. of Kor. Soc. Machine Tools
Eng., 17 (2008), 1-7.
[2] M. Geiger, M. Kleiner, R. Eckstein, N. Tiesler, U. Engel: Annals of
the CIRP, 50-2 (2001), 445-459.
[3] H. Ike, M. Plancak: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 8081 (1998), 101-107.
[4] B. Y. Joo, S. I. Oh, Annals of the CIRP, 50-1 (2001), 191-194.
[5] L. Peng, X. Lai, D. Liu, P. Hu, J. Ni: J. of Power Sources, 178 (2008),
223-230.
[6] G.Y. Kim, J. Ni, R. Mayor, H. Kim: J. of Manuf. Sic. Engrg. Trans.
ASME, 129 (2007), 246-251.
[7] J.J. Park, H.S. Hwang, Y.S. Kim, H.C. Jeon: Int. J. of KSME, 26
(2002), 2082-2088.
[8] I.S. Kim: Information Display, 9 (2008), 29-36.
[9] B.Y. Joo, S.W. Baek, S.I. Oh: Trans. Kor. Soc. Mech. Eng., 30 (2006),
157-163.
[10] K.H. Kim: J of Ocean Engrg. Technol., 13 (1999), 75-81.
[11] C.-Y. Lo, J. Hiitola-Keinanen, O.-H. Huttunen, J. Petaja, J. Hast, A.
Maaninen, H. Kopola, H. Fujita, H. Toshiyoshi: Microelectronic Eng.,
86 (2009), 979-983.
[12] S.-H. Cha, M.-S. Shin, J.-H. Kim, H.-J. Lee, J.-B. Kim: Elastomers
and Composites, 44-4 (2009), 384-390.
[14] G.R. Johnson, W.H. Cook: Proc. of the 7th Int. Symp. on ballastics,
Den Haag, Netherlands (1983), 541-547.
[14] D. Li, A. Ghosh: Mater. Sci. Eng., A 352 (2003), 279-286.
Metal Forming
Tailor Rolled Products Innovative Lightweight Design Technology for Body Structures and Chassis Applications
Joerg Brecht1), Peter Finge2), Andreas Hauger3)
1)
2)
3)
After starting mass production of Tailor Rolled Blanks (TRB) in 2001 for automobile uses, a lot of car manufacturers are using this technology for structural parts today to reduce the component and vehicle weight. Many applications have been found, at first mainly for premium
vehicles, but the growing demand for weight reduction and lower CO2 emissions have also made applications in smaller vehicles possible.
Because tubes are also in common use for components of the vehicle, such as tubes for instrument panel beams and exhaust pipes,
Mubea has started to produce Tailor Rolled Tubes (TRT) from TRB in 2004 as an extension of the product line. Further development of this
tube manufacturing process and optimizations in the TRB and TRT production made it possible to produce more complex tube geometries
and different tube materials. In order to investigate the weight reduction potential and other advantages of such TRT in use as complex,
assembled instrument panel beams or as stainless steel exhaust pipes, two studies were performed and the results are being presented in
this paper. It was found that using a TRT for a complex, assembled instrument panel beam can lead to a weight reduction of more than
20 % while maintaining the stiffness properties of the steering column. Also for the TRT made of stainless steel as an exhaust pipe, a possible weight reduction of more than 25 % seems feasible without negative effect on the part performance.
Keywords: Tailor rolled blanks, Tailor rolled tubes, Tailored products, Flexible rolling, Instrument panel beam, Exhaust pipe, Exhaust system, Weight reduction, Cold rolling
Introduction
The strong need for further improvements of emission
and reduction of fuel consumption as well as for increased
passenger safety for cars requires new product concepts
for the automotive industry.
As an expansion of the Tailored Products for structural
parts in automotive use, Mubea has developed the process
of flexible rolling to provide new possibilities of weight
reduction while maintaining or even improving vehicle
safety at the same time. With this technology, the mass
production of Tailor Rolled Blanks (TRB) was started in
2001. During the first years, many applications of TRB for
structural parts were put into mass production, mainly for
premium vehicles. The growing demand for weight reduction and the optimizations in the TRB and TRT production
have also opened the market for medium size and small
cars recently.
In this study, the technology and its possibilities are explained and application studies for new possible applications are presented, focusing on the use of Tailor Rolled
Tubes (TRT).
Principle of Flexible Rolling
Flexible rolling is a new manufacturing technology, producing a semi-finished product for light weight structures
of automotive car body parts. The weight reduction is
based on the varying sheet material thickness of the products. The material thickness variation comes from load and
function requirements for the specific part and offers a
weight reduction potential of 20 % - 30 %.
Within a joint research project with the Institute of
Metal Forming (IBF) of the University of Aachen in Germany, Mubea developed this cost effective rolling process
for metal sheets and set it into large scale series production.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 43
43
Metal Forming
The process is designed to generate sheet material with
smooth thickness transitions that, in an ideal case, are
exactly adapted to the load case of the finished part.
Generally, the process can be applied to all rollable metallic materials and hereby offers a great variety of applications.
Properties of Tailor Rolled Blanks (TRB)
Flexibly rolled blanks are an expansion of the Tailored
Products for automotive use. Material thicknesses are
varying in the rolling direction and can therefore be chosen freely in the produced blank. The ideal application for
TRB can be found, where body or chassis parts have different loads applied over their length.
When using flexible rolling, the number of thickness
changes is not limited and also does not affect the production costs. Because of this, the development target for
every application is to reduce the part weight as much as
possible, using as many thickness changes as necessary,
thus creating the maximum possible benefit at constant
manufacturing costs.
By continuously changing the size of the rolling gap
during the rolling process, thickness runs with different
slopes can be generated. Possible slopes start from 1:3000,
meaning 1 mm thickness change on 3000 mm length, and
can go up to 1:100, meaning 1 mm thickness change on
only 100 mm length. The process provides very tight
thickness tolerances, so that easy further processing of the
TRB is guaranteed.
1,8
1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
0
0,6
200
400
600
800
Blank Length in mm
nominal value
0,4
gewalzte
Bandkontur
nominal
value
actual
value
Sollprofil
actual
value
0,2
0,0
0
200
400
600
Meweg
in mm
mm
Length in
800
1000
44
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 44
Thickness
Banddickein
inmm
mm
1,6
2,10
1,90
1,70
1,50
1,30
1,10
0,90
0,70
0,50
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Blank Length in mm
Metal Forming
The result of the stiffness simulation with the new design is shown in Figure 7.
Thickness Run
2.5
thickness /mm
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
length /mm
Thickness in mm
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Tube Length in mm
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 45
2.50
thickness /mm
Thickness Run
3.00
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0
250
500
750
length /mm
1000
1250
45
Metal Forming
Exhaust Pipes. Since the process of flexible rolling is
applicable to all kinds of rollable metallic materials, also
applications of stainless steel TRTs are possible, for example as exhaust pipes.
The exhaust system in the vehicle has to fulfil many different requirements such as durability, good NVH performance, processability in production and all this with the
minimum possible weight. A reduction of material thickness in all areas of the tube is not possible, since weldability and bendability under mass production conditions and
also fatigue life will not meet the requirements. However,
straight sections, where no welding operation is performed,
may not need the full material strength. Also in bended
areas, where the bending radii are big, less material thickness may be sufficient. The achieved weight reduction can
lead to reduced vibration due to less mass involved and
therefore higher fatigue life. Also the mode of vibration
can be tuned in a positive way by specifically reinforcing
or weakening certain areas of the tube.
The following illustrations show the approach of a performed study to investigate the possible weight reduction
when using stainless steel TRT for an exhaust system.
welding
operations
bending
operations
combination of both
requirements
Figure 8. Combination of different requirements for TRT exhaust
pipe design.
46
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 46
Metal Forming
2)
A new concept rolling mill for flat products, NSC Intelligent Mill (NIM) has been developed. The NIM concept is that it can estimate and
control roll force distribution across the width acting between the work roll and rolled material during rolling. The roll force distribution reflects longitudinal stress distribution in the rolled material, which has direct relationship with flatness of the rolled material. Hence NIM
enables real-time flatness detection and control, and therefore NIM can get rid of limitations of conventional flatness control technology:
delay of control response mainly due to transporting time from rolling mill to flatness sensor, non-control portion of head end of the rolled
material, and limitations of flatness control accuracy due to accuracy of flatness sensor. Oita Plate Leveler (OPL) has been realized based
on NIMs concept. OPL improves flatness of plates immediately after cooling bed before shear-cut processes with extremely small reduction in thickness, 0.2%. OPL has established an in-line leveling process of steel plates, which renders improvement in quality of products
and productivity.
Keywords: Flatness control, Roll force distribution, Intelligent mill, Plate leveler, In-line leveling process, Divided backup rolls
Introduction
The crown and flatness control technology for rolling of
flat products of steel has been made significant progress
through development of powerful actuators such as pair
cross mill, HC mill and high capacity work roll bender. In
particular, for hot strip rolling, combination of powerful
crown control actuators and sophisticated crown set-up
models have brought us complete technology of flexible
crown control.
On the other hand, flatness control technology is not satisfactory level in a sense that, even with above-mentioned
technologies, flatness actuator of a rolling mill needs frequent adjustment according to current flatness measured
by flatness sensor located behind the rolling mill to get
satisfactory flatness. This is mainly because control allowance of roll gap profile required for flatness control is
extremely tight compared with the one for crown control
[1]. With this type of flatness control system, transporting
time of rolled material from rolling mill to flatness sensor
is regarded as dead time for the control system. Due to
this dead time, it inevitably becomes rather slow control
system, then product yield aggravation may occur, or additional leveling process may be needed due to flatness defect remained in the rolled material after rolling.
With this background, in this work, to get rid of limitations of the conventional flatness control technology, completely new concept of rolling mill is proposed. The rolling mill has capability of detecting and controlling flatness
by itself; the rolling mill is named NSC Intelligent Mill
(NIM).
Concept and Structure of NIM
Concept of NIM. Flatness defect arises due to uneven
distribution of longitudinal strain across the width of rolled
material, and flatness is precisely described by longitudinal
strain distribution. Longitudinal strain distribution corresponds quantitatively with roll force distribution through
feedback effect of longitudinal stress distribution [2].
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 47
(c) Side
Metal Forming
Algorithm for NIM real-time flatness control is shown
qi
in Figure 2. Based on measured backup roll forces
and
As-U positions
set
by
individual
backup
roll
positioning
ui
system, absolute positions of divided backup rolls
in
u iB
the direction of common normal to work roll and backup
roll are calculated according to the following equations.
uiB K ijB (q j q 0j ) (ui U i0 )
(1)
where K ijBis a matrix describing mill deformation characteristics, which is measured by kiss-roll tightening test prior to
rolling operation. q i0 and U i0 are divided backup roll forces
and absolute backup roll positions respectively at zero
adjustment timing of As-U positions. In this paper, usual
summation convention is adopted for repeated indices.
Work roll deflection u iWin the direction of common normal to work roll and backup roll is given by composing
horizontal deflection x iWT and vertical deflection y iWT.
(2)
uiW T(ix) xiWT T( iy) yiWT
xiWT K ijWT T( xj ) q j c x zi d x
y
WT
i
WT
ij
y
( j)
( p j T q j ) c zi d
(3)
y
(4)
T cos i T sin i ,
(5)
where K ijWT is the deformation matrix of top work roll, pi is
roll force distribution, and i is angle formed by rolling
direction and common normal to work roll and backup roll.
Compatibility equations between top work roll and divided backup rolls are given by the following equations.
K ijfT q j uiW uiB CiWT
(6)
where K ijfT is a roll indentation matrix,
expresses
CiWT
work roll profile.
Substituting Eqs. (1)-(5) into Eq. (6), the relationship
between pi and qi can be formulated. And then utilizing
measured value of qi , considering constraint conditions
i.e. equilibrium equations for vertical force and moment of
top work roll,
x
(i )
y
(i )
where
and
are the vertical work roll bending forces
of work-side and drive-side respectively, then current roll
force distribution pi as well as current work roll deflection
is obtained. This concludes real-time estimation of roll
force distribution.
After obtaining current roll force distribution, introducing target roll force distribution, target backup roll force
distribution is calculated to attain target work roll deflection, which is calculated from current work roll deflection
considering change in roll force distribution. Then utilizing compatibility Eq. (6), target absolute backup roll positions are calculated. Finally target As-U positions are calculated from equation (1) considering mill deformation
characteristics. Control is done according to the target AsU positions considering adequate scale factor.
NIM Prototype Mill and Its Performance
Specifications of NIM Prototype Mill. Figure 3 shows
schematic layout, and Table 1 shows roll dimensions of
the NIM prototype mill, which was temporarily remodeled
from the conventional 2 high mill in a commercial line.
Four of seven divided backup rolls are on entry side, and
three of them are on delivery side. On each side, backup
rolls are positioned at 480mm pitch in the roll axial direction, and hence, combining both sides, work roll is supported by divided backup rolls at 240mm in pitch. Each
divided backup roll is supported by linear bearing whose
sliding movement is in the direction of common normal to
work roll and backup roll. Each divided backup roll is
equipped with two load cells, and its eccentric axis can be
rotated by hydraulic position control system to set the
backup roll to desired position.
Hyd. cylinder
Load cells
Detect AsAs -U positions & BUR forces
Calculate BUR deformation
BURs
M ill deformation
characteristics
WR
Pinch rolls
M ill deformation
characteristics
2835
2835
I i ( p i T( iy) q i ) F W F D 0
(7)
zi ( pi T(iy) qi ) a ( F W F D ) / 2 0
(8)
FW
48
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 48
FD
Metal Forming
prototype mill. The control scheme has worked out
successfuly for rolling of steel plate (SS400) of 2.3-16.5
mm in thickness and 1060-1650 mm in width.
Figure 4 shows flatness of rolled plate of 8.9 mm thickness and 1635 mm width. It has been found that rolling
with NIM can improve flatness of rolled plate drastically
with extremely small reduction in thickness, 0.2%.
Steepness (%)
before
rolling
after
rolling
C
4
15
Flatness Gauge
Dividing Shear
150
Cooling Bed
( 6567m )
OPL
2
2204
BUR number
Plan-view Gauge,
Thermo-tracer
E
E
Residual stress
0
0
000
BUR number
0
0
20
20
0
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 49
Plate Size
Thickness
Width
Length
Plate temperature
Reduction in thickness
Rolling speed
10-65 mm
1400-5500 mm
6-63.5 m
R.T.-250 C
0.2 %
10-120 m/min
Metal Forming
Structure of Bottom Roll Assembly of OPL. Divided
backup roll system is also adopted for bottom roll assembly to control horizontal and vertical deflection of bottom
work roll. As is for top roll assembly, bottom backup rolls are
positioned on the entry side and on the delivery side alternately to reduce horizontal deflection of bottom work roll.
Moreover crown adjustment function is incorporated to bottom divided backup rolls to control vertical deflection of
bottom work roll. Figure 7 shows schematic view of OPL
structure.
Main Cylinder
BUR Cylinder
Without OPL
Grade K36A
As-roll size 26/23.5464027100
Gauge1 (26mm)
Gauge2 (23.5mm)
Turn-up
Dome/Dish
5.1m
10.2m
15.3m
20.4m
25.5m
Wave
Buckling
With OPL
Grade K36A
As-roll size 26/23.5373026180
Gauge1 (26mm)
Gauge2 (23.5mm)
Frame
Carriage
Load Cell
4.8m
Work Roll
9.6m
14.4m 19.2m
24.0m
Backup Roll
Housing
Plate Temp.
Performance of OPL. OPL system operates fully automatically; it extracts a plate from cooling bed, measures
temperature distribution and plan view configuration of the
plate, and then rolls the plate to improve flatness with single
pass rolling. During rolling, control algorithm shown in
Figure 2 is consecutively activated every 30 ms.
Features of OPL are as follows: 1) powerful capacity for
flatness improvement with high productivity, 2) applicable for
wide range of thickness (10-65 mm) of plate, 3) excellent
surface quality of rolled plate with no exfoliation of surface
scale, 4) capable of improving flatness of a Longitudinally
Profiled (LP) plate, 5) capable of improving flatness of a plate
with temperature distribution.
Figure 8 shows an example of improving flatness of LP
plate by OPL. While conventional roller leveler cannot
improve flatness of LP plate, it has been found that OPL
can remedy LP plates with poor flatness.
Figure 9 shows schematic illustration of thermal strain
compensation. With this function, longitudinal strain distribution induced by OPL is controlled according to measured
temperature distribution to assure flatness of plates after cooling to room temperature. This function is crucial for in-line
leveling processes.
Lighter reduction
at the cooler region
Heavier reduction
at the warmer region
Conclusions
A completely new concept rolling mill for flat product,
NSC Intelligent Mill (NIM) has been developed. The concept and performance of NIM have been verified with a
NIM prototype mill which was temporarily remodeled
from conventional 2 high mill in a commercial line.
NIM has been realized as Oita Plate Leveler (OPL) to
improve flatness of plates immediately after cooling bed
before shear-cut processes with extremely small reduction
in thickness, 0.2%. OPL has established in-line leveling
process of steel plates, which renders improvement in
quality of products and productivity.
References
[1] H. Suzuki: Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity,
20-217 (1979), 83.
[2] H. Matsumoto, K. Nakajima, T. Kikuma, U. Uehori: Journal of the
Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity, 23-263 (1982), 1201.
50
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 50
Metal Forming
State Key Laboratory of Rolling Technology and Automation, Northeastern University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110004 / Peoples Republic of
China, luoza@ral.neu.edu.cn; 2) Baosteel Co., Ltd, Shanghai, 210190 / Peoples Republic of China; 3) AnShan Steel Co., Ltd, Anshan,
114001 / Peoples Republic of China
A cladding steel plate was successfully made using vacuum cladding rolling technique. Vacuum level in the cladding interface has a significant effect on the microstructures and properties of cladding plate after plastic joining by vacuum cladding rolling. With increasing vacuum
level in the cladding interface, inclusion size of the interface reduced and the strength of cladding plate were enhanced. When vacuum level
reached to 110-2 Pa, the tensile strength in the thickness direction and the contraction of cross area closed to the basal material, fracture
occurred in the basal material and the inclusions in the interface disappeared.
Keywords: Cladding interface, Plastic joining, Cladding steel plate, Vacuum cladding rolling, Inclusions in interface, Electron beam welding,
Heavy Gauge Plate
Introduction
Experimental Procedure
The heavy gauge steel plate with high strength has been
widely applied to large building, ship lock and heavy nuclear power plan [1,2]. Heavy gauge plates having thickness exceeding 100mm are hardly able to be achieved by
the continuous casting method due to the restriction of
reduction ratio. At present, the casting ingot method is the
main technique to produce heavy gauge plates, whereas
this method will take on the obvious drawbacks of complicated procedure and low efficiency [3,4].
The vacuum cladding rolling technique producing heavy
gauge plates which thickness is larger than 240 mm was
invented by JFE Steel Corporation [5,6]. Figure 1 shows
the following producing processes: (a) the surfaces of two
continues casting slabs used to cladding were machined;
(b) the surfaces of two continues casting slabs were electron beam welded; (c) welded continues casting slabs were
rolled at low speed and high reduction rolling.
Because the research report of JFE Steel Corporation
only briefly introduces producing process and do not investigate in detail on relationship between the microstructure and mechanical properties of heavy gauge steel plate.
Therefore, our investigation mainly focused on the effects
of vacuum level on the microstructures and mechanical
properties of a heavy gauge steel plate.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 51
Figure 2 shows the microstructures of the cladding interface produced at different vacuum level. In 110-2 Pa,
none defect was detected and the cladding interface was
replaced by recrystallized grains, indicating a sound heavy
gauge plate can be achieved by vacuum cladding rolling
under the investigated parameters. Where the vacuum
levels are 110-1 and 100 Pa, a large number of inclusions
appeared in the cladding interface. With decreasing vacuum levels, size and amount of the interface inclusions
gradually enhanced. This is attributed to severe oxidation
reaction under low vacuum level.
51
Metal Forming
(a)
aluminum and silicon elements will react firstly with oxygen element to produce oxide [4].
(b)
(c)
Figure 3 shows the EDS results of the interface inclusions at different vacuum levels. The EDS analyses revealed that the interface inclusions contained a lot of Al
and Si elements beside Fe, O and Mn elements. This is
attributed to high oxidizability of Al and Si elements. The
oxidizing ability of each element in steel is different. The
sequence of their oxidizing ability is in turn aluminum,
silicon, manganese and iron, thereby resulting in generation of the selective oxidation mechanism. Therefore,
52
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 52
The Z direction tensile properties for the BM and cladding plates at various vacuum levels are shown in Figure
4. Compared to the BM, the cladding plates exhibited low
strength and reduction of area. With decreasing vacuum
level, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and the reduction
area reduced. Figure 5 shows the fractural locations of the
tensile samples at different vacuum level, indicating the
different fractural locations at different vacuum levels. At
high vacuum level of 110-2 Pa, fracture occurred in the
BM and the sample has high plasticity, whereas at low
vacuum levels of 110-1 and 100 Pa, fracture appeared in
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
the interface and the plasticity of sample remarkable reduced with reduction of vacuum level. This is attributed to
the weakening effect of inclusions on mechanical properties of cladding plate.
Conclusions
1. Heavy gauge steel plates without any defects were successfully produced after plastic joining with total reduction ratio of 53.6% using vacuum cladding rolling
method at high vacuum level of 110-2 Pa.
2. With decreasing vacuum level, size and mount of the
interface inclusions increased and the mechanical properties reduced.
3. At vacuum level of 110-2 Pa, the interface inclusions
disappeared and the mechanical properties of cladding
plate closed to the BM.
References
(a)
[1] C.Z. Sha: Wide Thick Plate (In Chinese), 5-6 (1999), 6.
[2] D.X. Cai, J.F. Li: Bao Steel Technology, 4 (2007), 45, (in Chinese).
[3] P. Liu, K. Liu and L.H. Feng: Journal of Anshan University of Science and Technology, 30-5, (2007), 473, (in Chinese).
[4] G.M. Xie, Z.A. Luo, H.G. Wang, G.D. Wang, L.J. Wang: Advanced
Materials Research, 97-101, (2010) 324-327.
[5] JFE technical report, 5, (2004), 65.
[6] Z.A. Luo, G.M. Xie, Z.H. Hu, T. Jia, G.D. Wang, L.J. Wang: Journal
of Plasticity Engineering, 16 (2009), 125, (in Chinese).
(b)
(c)
Figure 5. Fractural locations of Z direction tensile samples at
different vacuum level.(a) 100 Pa, (b) 110-1 Pa, (c) 110-2 Pa.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 53
53
Metal Forming
Introduction
In automotive industry due to well known requirements
of ecological matter, performance and comfort, production
processes have to be further improved. To achieve more
rigid and light structures, complex forms and high strength
materials are being used. Actually this favours stamping
processes in many cases. Roll forming which is a continuous production process with the advantage of high output
with low tooling costs is limited to constant cross section
of profiles. This limits the application of roll formed parts
considerably. Several developments have been conducted
to supply a wider range of parts geometries of profiles
with non constant cross section.
State of the Art Production of Profiles with Lengthwise Non
Constant Cross Section
Roll Forming. The roll forming process can be described as bending with rotating tools. Starting from a flat
sheet the forming is done in several discrete steps. The
intermediate forms can be depicted in a flower diagram.
Typical prismatic profiles are shown in Figure 1.
roll forming of
stamping
trimming roll forming of
U-profile
of recess
of flange
cap profile
Figure 2. Kronenberg-Method for production of lengthwise non
constant profiles [3].
Flexible Roll Forming. A process which does not reduce the advantages of roll forming is the development of
flexible roll forming [4]. In contrast to conventional roll
forming the forming tools are moved translatorically and
rotatorically to allow the forming of lengthwise non constant profiles (Figure 3).
connecting line
between roll
shafts is always
orthogonal to
trajectory
rolls in
90 angle
centre of rotation 2
linear movement
Figure 1. Example of flower diagram [2] and part variety for roll
formed products [1].
As shown, a great diversity of profiles can be manufactured. Due to the inflexibility of the tooling system, variations and additional operations are difficult to achieve.
None the less many process combinations are known, like
cutting and joining [2]. The variation of cross sections can
be achieved in stamping-like operations which though
need to halt the roll forming line to execute this process.
54
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 54
pure rotation
linear movement
lateral axis, y
centre of rotation 1
height axis, z
x, longitudinal axis
Metal Forming
Principal Total
Strain Major
movement of rolls
4.555e-2
2.903e-2
-4.005e-3
-7.008e-2
forming rolls
fix
ed
phenomena, where flange height, sheet thickness, transition radius and material properties are important factors
[4]. For the chosen design this has been considered and the
design has been found to be feasible. Finite element analysis (FEA) has been conducted to verify the prediction and
to plan the flower diagram. For the FEA the commercial
software Marc Mentat 2007r1 was used. Solid shell elements are used with isotropic elastic-plastic material formulation of the micro-alloyed steel HL320LA.
Conventional roll forming is being used to close the profile. The layout of this process was conducted with the
commercial software Copra RF which allows laying out a
suitable flower diagram and tooling design. A linking of
the FEA allows the consideration of hardening during the
flexible roll forming (Figure 6).
ele
m
en
ts
tension
compression
mesh
-3.704e-2
-3.704e-2
-4.005e-3
-4.005e-3
Figure 6. FEA model and result of flexible roll forming using half
symmetry.
960 m
m
60 m
m
material: H320LA
sheet thickness: 2mm
m
60 m
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 55
position 3: position 4:
tension
middle of blank
zone
4
3
z
x
Process Adaptation
The reference flange height of the U-shaped intermediate stage for the treated profile is 30 mm. Deviations
showed to be up to 2 mm, while varying extensively along
the profiles length. This resulted from the unsatisfactory
shaping of the bending radii. The produced radii, measured
at several specific points on the profile were too small
(Figure 8).
55
Metal Forming
constant radius
forming starting at the
outer end of the bend
y*
constant radius
forming starting at the
inner end of the bend
up
pe r
up
per
10
z [mm]
20
10
10
z [mm]
position 1
position 2
position 3
position 4
reference
6
4
2
0
10
y' [mm]
10
20
10
15
position 1
position 2
position 3
position 4
reference
8
z [m m ]
z [m m ]
25
10
5
6
4
2
y' [mm]
10
4 6 8
y' [mm]
additional roll
y
10
Pre-Cut Adaptation
In flexible roll forming considerable longitudinal strain
is induced in the profile flange (Figure 7).
In the transition zone depending on convex and concave
shape tension or compression occurs.
As a result transverse strain leads to height deviations of
the flange which can not be counterbalanced by process
optimization, as the longitudinal strain is process imprinted and necessary to reach the profile geometry.
The method to compensate this deviance is to adopt the
pre-cut of the blank. The longitudinal strain can be calcu56
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 56
tension zone
P3**
x
flat blank
Figure 10. Nomenclature for calculation of offset of pre-cut.
The calculation is exemplarily carried out for the compression zone. The correlations are valid for the tension
zone as well, with inverse algebraic sign.
The longitudinal strain in the compression zone can be
calculated by [4].
R RDa y
(1)
x ( y) = ln1 + Dm
RDa
l
Assumption of constant volume and homogenous material behaviour leads to the following equation:
R RDa y
1
1
(2)
y* ( y) = x ( y) = ln1 + Dm
2
2
RDa
l
y*
V1 (l)
u (l)
y
V0 (l)
y* = b
y*
y
u (y*)
y
y* = y*
V1
(y*)
V0 (y*)
flat blank
formed blank
y*
V0 (0) = V1 (0)
y* = 0
Figure 11. Schematic depiction of deformation in compression
zone.
u (0) = 0
blank
upper roll
lower roll
RZm
RZi
Because of the tooling used for the first forming approaches, a clearance exists, into which the blank can give
way. A tooling modification using an additional roll avoids
this clearance. This roll supports the blank outside in the
bend. Implementation of this tooling in the FEA resulted
in significantly smaller deviations in the flange height
(Figure 9).
2
P3
Tooling Adaptation
RZa
The forming was first done using constant radius forming starting at the outer end of the bend. Due to the tooling
used the blank lost contact to the forming roll. An
adaptation was therefore made to use constant radius
forming starting form the inner end of the bend. The guidance of the blank could thereby be improved significantly.
As a result the forming was improved to reach a flange
height with sufficient accuracy (Figure 8).
y*
P2
RDm
P2**
30
RDa
10
4 6 8 10
y' [mm]
compression zone
15
10
P1
y*
l
outer bending line
z [m m ]
z [m m ]
15
blank edge
25
20
30
6
2
y' [mm]
blank
support
25
l
r ol
l
rol
l
rol
30
er
low
l
rol
er
low
clearance
blank
support
R
y
(4)
Dm
Da
1 y
u ( y) = 1 +
RDa
l
l
RDm RDa y 2
(5)
1 dy
utot = 1 +
0
R
l
Da
Metal Forming
Solving the integral leads the following equation:
2 RDa l RDm RDa
1 +
1 l
utot =
RDm RDa
RDa
(6)
P1
R2
P2
R 2*
PRm
PRm*
P2
Pm *
flange height y* [mm]
utot
Pm
20,4
original pre-cut
modified pre-cut
20,2
20
19,8
19,6
0
100
200
300
profile length x [mm]
400
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 57
Conclusion
For the production of closed profiles with lengthwise
non constant cross section one suitable approach is to use
flexible roll forming. To reach high precision shape several aspects have to be considered.
Due to the deformation during flexible roll forming and
the limitations in the tooling system special attention has
to be paid to the roll forming strategy. Constant radius
forming starting form the inner end of the bend was found
to achieve good results. Alternatively an additional forming roll can be used, which reduces clearances in the forming area.
Because of the fraction of transverse strain in the flange
resulting from flexible roll forming, a height difference in
the flange occurs. This deviation is critical for closing of
the profile, especially if laser welding is applied. An analytical calculation was found to adapt the pre-cut of the
blank. This ensures close tolerances for the joining of the
blank edges.
References
[1] M. Lindgren: Experimental and Computational Investigation of the
Cold Roll Forming Process, Lule , (2009).
[2] G. Halmos: Roll Forming Handbook, CRC Press, (2006).
[3] H. Tolle: Proc. 6. Fachtagung Walzprofilieren 2008, Darmstadt,
(2008), 9-25.
[4] A.-O. Zettler: Grundlagen und Auslegungsmethoden fr flexible
Profilierprozesse, Shaker Verlag Aachen, (2007).
[5] C. Dohr: Tailored Products fr den kostengnstigen Leichtbau,
ThyssenKrupp Tailored Blanks, (2003).
57
Metal Forming
Structural
Steel
with
Reduced
Introduction
Recycling of steel causes an accumulation of more noble
than iron elements in steel scrap. Some of so-called tramp
elements of which the most common and, under some
conditions, harmful, are Cu and Sn, can deteriorate the
quality of steel products manufactured from scrap. The
most adverse influence of the tramp elements on quality of
steel semi-products and products is the occurrence of
surface hot cracking or copper hot brittleness (shortness)
[1-5]. A direct reason for the occurrence of surface hot
cracking is the formation of liquid Cu-rich phase at the
oxide-steel interface as a result of selective oxidation of
iron [6-8]. Alloying elements changing the mechanism of
the oxidation of steel at high temperature can influence the
susceptibility to the copper hot brittleness. It has been
shown that addition of Al to unalloyed or low-alloyed steel
changes the mechanism of oxidation of the iron solid
solution at high temperatures [9]. Based on such findings a
hypothesis has been put forward in the present work about
the beneficial effect of Al addition on lowering
susceptibility of steel to the copper hot brittleness.
In recent years a new class of structural steels containing
aluminium in the range of 0.510.0% (always mass % if
not stated otherwise) as the main alloying element has
become a subject of numerous investigations. Steel grades
containing typically 0.15%C, 1.5%(Si+Al) and 1.5%Mn
(TRIP) are used in the automotive industry. It was found
that substitution up to 1.2%Al for Si produced better
technological properties of the steel and improved final
properties of sheets [10]. A steel grade containing 3.5%Al
and 0.5%Si having the dumping factor 1525 times larger
than traditional carbon steel has been developed by NKK
company. Because the addition of Al causes also
substantial solution hardening at reduced density research
work aimed at developing structural steel containing Al in
58
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 58
Metal Forming
Table 1. Chemical composition of experimental steels.
B (basic)
0Al
1Al-a
1Al-b
4Al-a
4Al-b
8Al-a
8Al-b
C
0.095
0.097
0.082
0.110
0.068
0.100
0.107
0.100
Mn
0.54
0.48
0.54
0.52
0.51
0.52
0.52
0.57
Si
0.25
0.26
0.35
0.26
0.22
0.21
0.22
0.23
mass %
P
S
0.009 0.009
0.010 0.011
0.013 0.009
0.010 0.010
0.010 0.009
0.013 0.006
0.012 0.005
0.016 0.006
Al
0.017
0.004
1.06
1.10
4.12
4.13
7.91
7.97
Cu
0.03
0.52
0.52
0.53
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 59
Sn
<0.01
0.050
0.054
0.050
0.052
0.051
0.050
0.050
ppm
N
O
27
26
23
30
42
18
27
22
18
15
22
18
10
23
11
15
pearlite and
tures were
Temperature, C
Steel
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
+ (Fe,Al)3C
+ Fe3AlC0.69
Al content, mass %
Metal Forming
Physical
Simulation
of
Thermomechanical
Processing of Al-alloyed Experimental Steels. In the
diagram in Figure 1 three ranges of Al content could be
distinguished: with full transformation for Al content
approximately 0-1.5%, with partial transformation
for Al content approximately 1.5-5.5% and without
transformation for Al content above approximately 5.5%.
Existence or non-existence of transformation
decisively affects the results of thermomechanical
treatment. The main consequence of transformation
is the possibility to refine grain size. In the part of the
diagram for Al content exceeding about 5.5% precipitation
of complex carbide Fe3AlC0.69 occurs below a specific
temperature. It was found that Fe3AlC0.69 particles
precipitated from supersaturated ferrite even on very fast
cooling. These particles of Fe3AlC0.69 precipitated mainly
on grain boundaries producing poor toughness of the
specimens. Basing on the results of analysis of the
microstructures which can be generated in the
experimental steels for simulation of thermomechanical
processing 1Al-a/b and 4Al-a/b compositions were chosen.
In Figure 2 a scheme of the complete cycle of
thermomechanical treatment carried out in the GLEEBLE
3800 simulator comprising four-stage plane strain deformation is shown. In the scheme TA stands for temperature
of annealing lasting for 5 minutes, T1,2 stands for tempera-
ture of deformations 1 and 2 and T3,4 stands for temperature of deformations 3 and 4. Values of the deformation
temperatures and amounts of the deformation for particular tests as well as designations of the tests for steel 1Al-b
and for steel 4Al-b are given in Table 2.
V=10C/s
TA
Temperature
V=10C/s
T1,2
5s
T3,4
5s
V=5C/s
1s
1s
Water spray
cooling
V=2.5C/s
Time
Figure 2. Scheme of cycle of thermomechanical treatment carried
out in GLEEBLE 3800 simulator.
Table 2. Parameters of thermomechanical tests carried out in Gleeble 3800 simulator for steels 1Al-b and 4Al-b according to sequence
shown in Figure 2. Starting thickness of specimens was 15 mm and rate of deformation was 10 s-1.
Test
no.
Annealing
temperature
TA, C
Temperature of
deformations
1 and 2,
T1, 2 , C
01
11
02
12
03
13
04
14
05
15
1150
1150
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1000
1000
900
900
850
850
800
800
1000
1000
900
900
800
800
800
800
700
700
06
16
07
17
08
18
09
19
10
20
1150
1150
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
1100
900
900
850
850
850
800
800
800
1000
1000
800
800
800
800
800
700
700
700
Temperature of
deformations
3 and 4 ,
T3, 4 , C
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 60
Steel 1Al-b
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
Steel 4Al-b
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
Programmed deformation
Final
thickness of
specimen in
room
temperature,
mm
Cooling rate
after
deformation,
C/s
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
3.82
4.00
4.01
4.01
4.03
4.02
4.01
4.28
4.19
4.22
2.5
water spray
2.5
water spray
2.5
water spray
2.5
water spray
2.5
water spray
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
3.55
3.58
3.83
4.35
4.02
4.14
3.91
4.07
4.48
4.39
2.5
water spray
2.5
water spray
2.5
water spray
2.5
water spray
2.5
water spray
Metal Forming
the range of 450-480 MPa. Such treatment could be in
practice effective in case of rather small sections up to
about 10 mm. Another method for increasing yield
strength of steel 1Al-a/b above 450 MPa is to apply final
deformation in the field, at or below 700C (variants 05
and 15 in Table 2).
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 61
61
Metal Forming
Setup Models of Finishing Temperature and Rolling Speed for Hot Strip Mill
Dian-yao Gong1), Zheng-yi Jiang2), Jian-zhong Xu1), Xiang-hua Liu1), Di Wu1)
1)
2)
State Key Laboratory of Rolling and Automation, Northeastern University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110004 / China, liym@ral.neu.edu.cn;
School of Mechanical, Materials and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong NSW 2522 / Australia
For the requirement of highly accurate finishing temperature control during accelerating hot strip rolling, the finishing temperature and
rolling speed setup models have been successfully established. The relationship between the threading speed and finishing temperature
was obtained, and a method to determine the speed, acceleration rate and high acceleration zone distance was proposed when the strip is
rolled at high acceleration period using iteration calculation. A method to determine the starting and ending points of speed drop was discussed in the paper. In order to ensure the available characteristics of setup and control models, the self-learning strategies including the
self-learning of the model coefficients, acceleration rate and slab temperature slope were built up in this study. According to the on-line
control results of strip temperature composing of feed-forward and feed-back control models which was employed in a plant, the control
accuracy of finishing temperature satisfies the requirement well.
Keywords: Finishing temperature setup, Speed setup, Self-learning, Hot rolled strip
Introduction
Process control and setup model are the core components
of automation control system of hot strip mill, especially
the finishing rolling process setup model. All the temperature setup models are the first part of the finishing setup
model. Strip temperature is closely related to the rolling
speed, because after the thread rolling process, the finishing temperature of strip should be set up and controlled
through tuning inter-stand water flows based on the acceleration setup curve. The setup process of temperature and
speed theme is called finishing temperature setup, and it is
one of the important components of the finishing setup
model. The acceleration process is carried out by FTC-1,
and the water flow tuning process is actualized by FTC-2,
where FTC is abbreviation of finishing temperature control. The set accuracy of finishing rolling temperature is a
result of all of finishing temperature setup model, FTC-1
and FTC-2 components. If the task of the finishing setup
model contains only the thread process, a lot of problems
will affect rolling products, for example, when the strip
product is very thin, the temperature of strip tail may drop
significantly because of unavailable acceleration setup.
There is no dropping point in the setup model, which may
cause dropping steel with a constant speed at high speed
zone, or a sharp drop of the temperature when the steel is
dropped out. Sometime, the setup model is simplified, and
the acceleration rate is set up without considering temperature. When the threading process is ended, the acceleration
rate will be adjusted according to the measured finishing
rolling temperature. As a result, the rolling speed becomes
irregular. Therefore, the research on finishing rolling temperature and rolling speed setup models are useful in improving quality of hot rolled strips.
Temperature Setup during Threading Process
When the strip is threading on the finishing rolling mill,
the strip temperature is affected by the threading speed,
inter-stand cooling flow and pass reduction etc, and the
temperature changes relate to the air cooling, water cooling in the descaling box, inter-stand cooling and the tem-
62
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 62
t1 + 273 3
6
+
t2 = 100
(1)
273
100
100c p h
2
(2)
t w = t1 t0 + (t1 t0 ) exp 1
c h
ts tw
0.645
1.163
(3)
H (i 1)
Km
ln
cp
H (i)
(4)
Metal Forming
(5)
( R )
k
s
C = c
{H (i 1) + 2 H (i)} 3
k = Ram
s cp G
(6)
P C
(7)
C C C
where C is the adjusted value of the initial threading
speed, m/sec, P is the target finishing temperature of
steel, C, C is the calculated value of the finishing rolling
temperature, C, C is the calculated value of the strip
temperature at entry of the finishing rolling mill, C, C is
C =
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 63
-1
K m VD
= f B c G { H (i 1) + 2 H (i )} / 3
p
2
VCal ( Fs + Fsb 2 )
=
D 2 ( Fs + Fsb ) (1 + Fs )
5
Rolling speed (ms )
7
4
(8)
63
Metal Forming
Self-learning
Start
Product
Distance
Temp. Slope
Dropping out
Distance
Acc Distance
Initialize
Acc. Initialize
Finishing Temp
Note
Acc. for Acceleration
Seg. for Segment
Temp. for Temperature
Acc. Distance
Y
Adjusted
Deceleration Seg.
Distance
End
64
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 64
(9)
Metal Forming
Conclusion
Figure 3 Strip temperatures at entry and exit of mill and interstand cooling flow
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 65
65
Metal Forming
Introduction
The development history of High Strength Low Alloy
(HSLA) steel has been more than 100 years. As a type of
mass and widely used engineer structural material, HSLA
steel has a prominent function in the production and use of
steel in the world [1]. However, with the strength level of
steel increasing, its formability has decreased [2,3]. The
appearance of the multiphase steel with hard phase of
martensite, bainite or metastable residual austenite in
matrix of soft tough phase of ferrite has opened up a new
approache for the development of HSLA steel with
excellent formability [4-6].
In recent years, the continuous development of
microalloying and controlled rolling technology provides
favorable conditions for the development of multiphase
steels [3-5]. For multiphase steels, microalloy elements
can effectively control the austenization, recrystallization,
grain growth, transformation of austenite to ferrite or
bainite, and the volume fraction and stability of residual
austenite [6]. By thermomechanical control processing
(TMCP), especially appropriate rolling process combined
with ultra-fast cooling, phase composition of different
characteristic can be obtained in multiphase steels and
consequently more superior performance combination can
be obtained.
In this paper, based on micro-alloy steel containing Nb,
the microstructure consisting of ferrite, bainite, martensite
and a little amount of residual austenite was obtained by
TMCP of finish rolling in three different temperature
ranges combined with laminar cooling, air cooling, and
ultra-fast cooling. The effects of the controlled rolling
temperature ranges on the microstructure and mechanical
properties of micro-alloy steel containing Nb have been
analyzed in order to develop an optimized production
process of multiphase steels.
Material and Experimental Procedure
The experimental materials were taken from an 150kg
weight ingot, smelted in vacuum furnace. The chemical
composition of experimental material is given in Table 1.
66
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 66
Si
Mn
Nb
Als
<0.2
1.31
1.45
0.028
0.04
0.005
0.010
Metal Forming
Tensile testing was performed using GB/T 228-2002
standard samples with a crosshead speed of 2.5 mm/min at
room temperature. After grinding and polishing, the
metallographic samples were etched by 4% nital and
LePera reagent [7]. The microstructures of the samples
were observed by LEICA Q550IW Optical Metallography
(OM) and LEICA Q550IW Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM). The grain size of ferrite was measured by the
linear intercept method. The volume fraction and carbon
concentration of residual austenite was measured with
conventional X-ray procedure.
Experimental Result
Mechanical Properties of the Samples after TMCP.
The process parameters and the mechanical properties of
the samples are listed in Table 2. The samples of Nos. 1, 2
and 3 are rolled in temperature range of 900-840, 880-800
and 850-800 C, respectively. As shown in Table 2, for
Nos. 1, 2 and 3 sample, the yield strength increases in turn.
However, the change of the tensile strength is just the
opposite, the tensile strength decreasing in turn. The
elongation of Nos. 1, 2 and 3 sample is 27, 33 and 35%,
respectively. Namely, with finish rolling beginning
temperature and final rolling temperature lowering, the
yield strength and elongation of the samples increases,
while the tensile strength decreases. In addition, for Nos. 1,
2 and 3 samples, the product of tensile strength and
ductility, characterization of comprehensive performance
of material, increases in turn, respectively, 20331, 24321
and 25235 MPa%.
Table 2. Process parameters and mechanical properties of
samples.
Sample
FRBT
(C)
FRT
C
YS
MPa
TS
MPa
EL
%
TSEL
(MPa%)
No.1
900
840
470
753
27
20331
No.2
880
800
491
737
33
24321
No.3
850
800
513
721
35
25235
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3. SEM micrographs of samples (a) No. 1, (b) No. 2 and (c)
No.3.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4. X-ray diffraction spectrum of No.2 sample.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 67
67
Metal Forming
(a)
(b)
(c)
68
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 68
Metal Forming
sample is the lowest. Due to slightly more ferrite content,
lower hard phase in proportion, and finer ferrite grain in
the No. 2 sample compared with the No. 1 sample, the
elongation of the No. 2 sample is higher. While due to the
most ferrite content, the lowest hard phase in proportion,
and the weakest stress concentration of finer ferrite grain
in the No. 3 sample, the elongation is the highest. In
addition, the small size of bainite bundle zone in the Nos.
2 and 3 sample structure also contributes to the elongation.
Small size bainite bundle zone means bainite ferrite laths
misorientation increase, bainite ferrite lath become thin
and short, bainite bundle shorten, resulting in its ability to
resist dislocation moving increasing and delaying the
plastic deformation of adjacent area.
Conclusions
1. The mixed microstructure consisting of ferrite, bainite,
martensite and a small amount of residual austenite can
be obtained in microalloy steel containing Nb by TMCP
of two-stage rolling combined with laminar cooling, air
cooling, and ultra-fast cooling.
2. Under the condition of similar TMCP parameters, with
the finish rolling beginning temperature and final
rolling temperature decreasing, the tensile strength of
the experimental steel decreases, and the yield strength,
elongation and product of tensile strength and ductility
increases. When TMCP is adopted, including finish
rolling in the temperature range of 850-800C,
combined with laminar cooling, air cooling, and ultra
fast cooling , the yield strength, total elongation and
product of tensile strength and ductility reaches the
maximum values (513 MPa, 35% and 25235 MPa%
respectively) for the experimental steel.
3. The composite strengthening effects result from the
simultaneous presence of a soft tough ferrite matrix
with bainite and martensite as hard second phase. There
is the most amount and finest ferrite grain and finest
bainite bundle zone in the microstructure of the sample
corresponding to 850-800 C. When bainite bundle
zone size decreases, the misorientation of bainitic
ferrite laths increases and the interaction of dislocation
increases, consequently the resistance of dislocation
motion increasing.
References
[1] Z. Wang, T. Dong tao: High Strength Low Alloy Steels [M]. Beijing:
Atomic Energy Press, (1996), 112.
[2] T. Senuma: ISIJ International, 41-6 (2001), 520-532.
[3] B. Maek, H. Stakov, Z. Nov, et al.: Journal of Materials
Engineering and Performance, 18-4 (2009), 385-389.
[4] H.J. Koh, S.K. Lee, S.H. Park, et al.: Scripta Materialia, 38-5 (1998),
763-768.
[5] P. Jacques, X. Cornet, P. Hartley, et al.: Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions, 29A (1998), 2383-2393.
[6] P. Jacques:Current opinion in Solid State and Materials, 8-3/4 (2004),
259-265.
[7] F.S. LePera: Journal of Metals, 32-3 (1980) 38-39.
[8] I. Tamura, H. Sekine, T. Tanaka T,: Thermomechanical Processing of
High-Strength Low-alloy Steels [M]. London: Butterworths, (1988),
44.
[9] Z. Cui: Beijing: Machinery Industry Press, (2003), 31.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 69
69
Metal Forming
Introduction
In the industrial hot working processes, e.g. at the
roughing stage of hot rolling, material undergoes complex
deformation modes that leads to gradients of both microstructure and properties across the rolled plate thickness.
Therefore, strain path history represent one of the most
important processing parameters that characterise hot
metal forming processes, and is very often underestimated
in the microstructure evolution modelling process. Previous studies have revealed that the deformation mode affects both dynamic and static recrystallisation kinetics[1-3].
It has been found in both C-Mn and Nb-microalloyed
steels that strain path change delays the onset of the dynamic recrystallisation. The effect of strain reversal on the
static recrystallisation was found to be more complex and
depends on the magnitude of the reversal [1]. The kinetics
of the static recrystallisation can be either delayed - when
the strain is not fully reversed, or even accelerated when
the applied strain is fully reversed. It can be explained in
terms of the stored energy that changes based upon the
magnitude of the strain reversal what, in turn, provides
different number of possible nucleation sites for recrystallisation.
Plastic deformation, in principle, can also affect the kinetics of phase transformations in steels via: an increase in
nucleation site density (due to a change in grain shape) and
an increase in the stored energy within the grains (due to
dislocation substructure development)[2-5]. Recent studies
of strain path effect on transformations in C-Mn steels
show that full reversal of strain retards the transformation compared to the monotonic deformation up to the
same total strain but accelerates it compared to the undeformed material [4]. In Nb-microalloyed steel, the delaying effect of the reversal on transformation disappears as a result of the temperature decrease during the test
[3] and transformation products are rather insensitive to
70
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 70
Metal Forming
microalloyed steel with the basic chemical composition
that is summarized in Table 1. In the present work, the
material was received as-hot rolled plate with a thickness
of 19mm. Prior to specimen machining, the plate was
solutionised at 1200 C for 3 hours in an argon protective
atmosphere followed by immediate water quenching to
ensure complete dissolution of existing Nb(C,N). Also,
thanks to that procedure all torsion specimens prior to
deformation, were austenitised at 1200 C for 2 minutes
only what, in turn, prevented extensive surface oxidation.
Solid torsion specimens were machined to a gage length of
20mm and gauge diameter of 10mm, with a thermocouple
inserted offset from the deformation zone for temperature
control purpose. All tests were carried out at an equivalent
constant strain rate of 1 s-1 at the critical radius corresponding to 72.4% of the total gauge radius according to
Barraclough et al [7]. This helped to minimize the complexity of converting the recorded machine torque and
rotation angle data into flow stress and strain. The deformation schedules (Figure 1) were designed in order to
study an effect of different deformation mode on the
strain-induced precipitation process and austenite-ferrite
transformation behaviour.
Table 1. Chemical composition of the investigated steel (in wt.%).
C
Si
Mn
Cr
Cu
0.13
0.49
1.49
0.018
0.004
0.061
0.012
Ni
0.019
Mo
Nb
Ti
Al
0.002
0.035
0.003
0.039
0.071
0.006
<0.001
<0.0005
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 71
71
Metal Forming
The detailed study of the formation of Nb(C,N) in microalloyed steels is very difficult [9]. The transformation
of the austenite to low temperature products removes the
prior dislocation structure that is fundamental to the generation of the refined final microstructure.
Cooling after deformation results in the interphase precipitation during phase transformation and subsequent
precipitation may also occur in the ferrite. As a result, it is
difficult to differentiate precipitates formed in austenite
from those formed subsequently, especially for the smallest ones as those formed during the strain-induced precipitation process, that are the most effective in the recrystallisation retardation. Nevertheless, having in mind all above
mentioned problems, the authors attempted to do the detailed analysis of the precipitates to assess the differences
in their size and distribution (of those formed in the austenite and during cooling) resulting from the different
history of applied strain path. The detailed TEM analysis
of deformed specimens using carbon extraction replicas
revealed the presence of finely dispersed strain-induced
precipitation (Figure 3). EDS analysis confirmed the presence of NbC, TiC as well as more complex Nb,Ti(C) particles. Histograms of the precipitate size distribution can be
seen in Figure 4. Although the extraction replicas do not
reliably remove the precipitates <5nm, it was found that in
72
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 72
Metal Forming
nel 5 software (Table 2) also support this observation. In
terms of grain shape, it can be observed that the strain
reversal leads to more equiaxed microstructure (Figures
6(a) and 7(a)).
Table 2. Results of grain size measurements.
Method
FF
std. dev. FR
std. dev.
EBSD (Channel 5)
14.8 m
11.8
14.1 m
9.6
Linear intercept
19.2 m
7.8
18.5 m
9.2
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 73
73
Metal Forming
State Key Laboratory of Rolling Technology and Automation, Northeastern University, Shenyang / P R China, xuyunbo@mail.neu.edu.cn; 2)
Mechanical Engineering School, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang / P R China
The microstructure modeling during thermo-mechanical processing of high-Nb HSLA steels has been developed to predict austenite
recrystallization, grain size and precipitation. When rolled at higher temperatures with reasonable rolling schedule, high-Nb steels often
display the typical behaviour of dynamic and metadynamic recrystallization (DRX+MRX) followed by strain accumulation again, which can
not only intensely refine austenite grain size but also greatly increase the strain accumulation effect. The transformed microstructures in
high-Nb steel, comprising fine acicular ferrite and quasi-polygonal ferrite in a relatively wide range of cooling rate, are markedly different in
shape, morphology and volume fraction of each phase from those in low-Nb steel.
Keywords: High-Nb steel, Recrystallization, Precipitation, Microstructure Evolution, Modeling
Introduction
A new high-Nb microalloying technology has been
adopted in the development of high strength pipeline steels,
which allows Nb content up to 0.1% in steels and using
high temperature processing (HTP) in rolling [1]. The
high-level addition of Nb strongly inhibits high
-temperature transformation, promotes the formation of
acicular ferrite, and allows using non-Mo alloying and
high-temperature rolling to produce high strength and
toughness pipeline steel [2,3]. This can solve the
bottleneck problems of the traditional pipeline steels
development, greatly reduce production costs and mill
load, improve rolling efficiency, enhance the upgrading of
pipeline steels, and show a good development prospects
and potential. There are, however few reports on
microstructural evolution models of high-Nb HTP steels
and the comparison between this material and traditional
low-Nb steel.
In this work, a new physical metallurgical model was
developed to predict microstructure evolution and
mechanical properties of high-Nb steels during HTP
process. These models can permit the quantitative
description of the recrystallization kinetics, recrystallized
grain size and precipitation behavior for the present steels.
The overall microstructure model was then applied to
examine the effects of several possible modifications to
the current rolling practice for the present steels, and some
significant differences compared to the traditional low-Nb
steel are presented. The aim of performing these
calculations was to explore the potential for refining the
austenite grain size, increasing the retained strain and the
content of solute Nb before transformation in high-Nb
steel.
Physical Metallurgical Model
The recrystallization behavior of austenite, consisting of
dynamic, static and metadynamic recrystallization (DRX,
SRX and MRX), controls the evolution of microstructure
during thermo-mechanically processing of steels,
especially for microalloyed steels. The added
microalloying element, e.g. Nb, play a major role in
74
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 74
Equation
p = Cd 0p Z b , Z = exp(Qd / RT )
c p = 0.8 10.8Nbeff + 64.4Nbeff , Nb = Nb Mn/ 120+ Si / 94
DRX
eff
SRX
Precipitation
Ferrite
grain size
Table 2.
Symbols
d 0 , d SRX , d MRX
d, dF
Q
,Q
rex
t , R , T , t ps
, c , P
, , K acc , k s
X s , t 0 .5 ,
Constants
n
X P = 1 exp ln(0.95) ( t / t ps )
0.5
d F = [b1 + b2
+ b3 (1 exp( 0.015d ))] (1 0.45 )
Metal Forming
the workpiece is in the roll gap. If it occurs, the fraction
and grain size of DRX and MDRX between passes are
calculated, otherwise only the SRX kinetics is calculated
during interpass intervals. The results obtained at the end
of one interpass period are considered as the input for the
next rolling pass. In such a manner, the pass-by-pass
evolution of grain size, fractional softening and retained
strain at each step were analyzed until the calculation for
all of the passes was finished.
Applications of the Model to Hot-strip Rolling Conditions
Table 3 shows the chemical composition of the present
steels. The grain sizes after recrystallization and
coarsening between passes are calculated as initial values
for the next pass. As shown in Tables 4-6, the hot-strip
rolling simulations were provided to calculate the grain
size, fractional softening, and the precipitation of niobium
carbonitride during the schedule, in a pass-by-pass
analysis. Here, the initial grain size of 80m at the
entrance of finishing and the absence of precipitation
before finishing rolling are assumed in the present
calculations.
Table 3.Chemical composition of present steels (mass %).
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 75
T/
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
982
973
959
942
912
893
867
0.17
0.20
0.14
0.15
0.18
0.14
0.15
982
973
959
942
912
893
867
0.17
0.20
0.14
0.15
0.18
0.14
0.15
Steel B
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
0.024%C-1.49%Mn-0.169%Si-0.10%Nb
DRX
/s-1
c
t0.5/s
X
0.14
0.21
0.94
0.53
0.00
0.00
-
0.072%C-1.60%Mn-0.23%Si-0.022%Nb
0.00
0.13
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.28
0.29
10.14
5.09
5.75
8.76
12.70
14.08
17.53
0.90
0.76
0.68
0.66
0.70
0.68
0.71
24.64
5.86
4.24
3.18
3.00
3.01
3.17
0.21
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.33
0.30
-
80.0
64.6
43.2
30.1
21.4
15.7
12.1
4.2
2.8
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.0
-
2.9104
4.6103
82.12
18.65
4.78
3.27
2.21
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
75
Metal Forming
of schedule II, even through the solute Nb after the final
stand is heightened to about 0.047 by lowering the
reductions of finishing passes, the relatively low retained
strain and coarse austenite grain size at the start of
transformation leads to the coarsening of ferrite grain size.
Regardless of rolling schedule, when finishing rolling is
carried out at lowered temperatures, the accelerated
precipitation could stop the recrystallization between
finishing passes and hence the coarse non-recrystallized
grains are kept until to the start of transformation. Thus,
the calculated results suggest that, the high-Nb steel are
not applicable to be rolled at relatively lower temperatures
of finishing passes, because this not only exhausts a great
deal of solute Nb but also causes the coarsening of the
final ferrite grain size.
Table 5. Predictions of grain size, retained strain and precipitation
at low finishing temperature.
Steel A
t0.5/s
0.00
Rolling Schedule I
DRX
c
12.90 0.53
-
18.32
0.25
0.29
0.54
0.86
1.06
1.30
1.45
5.15
8.34
9.93
15.10
14.96
12.68
0.49
0.48
0.60
0.70
1.03
1.74
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
-
55.8
55.8
55.8
55.8
55.8
55.8
Pass
T/
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
978
0.38
963
942
916
886
859
830
0.25
0.32
0.20
0.24
0.14
0.08
Steel A
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
978
963
942
916
886
859
830
/s-1
0.40
0.52
0.65
0.90
1.11
1.37
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
0.00
0.15
0.28
0.42
0.57
0.75
0.88
10.14
5.09
5.75
8.76
12.70
14.08
17.53
0.50
0.44
0.46
0.61
0.84
1.06
1.43
2.95
0.91
0.47
0.25
0.21
0.22
0.096
0.093
0.080
0.056
0.018
0.006
Rolling Schedule II
0.17
0.20
0.14
0.15
0.18
0.14
0.15
2.8
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.0
-
57.71
22.39
17.14
22.56
36.69
65.88
132.60
0.13
0.18
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
-
80.0
68.1
52.5
52.5
52.5
52.5
52.5
4.2
2.8
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.0
-
10.95
4.67
2.25
0.93
0.48
0.36
0.27
0.100
0.099
0.097
0.094
0.084
0.067
0.047
T/
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
1000
982
960
945
934
929
920
0.13
0.18
0.18
0.17
0.40
0.37
0.15
Steel B
76
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 76
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
1000
982
960
945
934
929
920
0.024%C-1.49%Mn-0.169%Si-0.10%Nb
DRX
/s-1
c
t0.5/s
0.00 7.37
0.41
45.86
0.11 3.91
0.36
17.50
0.23 5.34
0.40
yes
0.50
0.03 7.62
0.20
1.13
0.08 16.38 0.31
yes
0.35
0.48 22.12 0.35
yes
0.32
0.85 17.53 0.35
yes
0.41
0.15
0.21
0.94
0.57
0.00
0.00
-
0.19
0.33
0.37
0.39
0.57
0.98
-
80.0
67.5
47.2
31.8
21.8
13.6
10.6
0.072%C-1.60%Mn-0.23%Si-0.022%Nb
0.13
0.18
0.18
0.17
0.40
0.37
0.15
0.00
0.11
0.19
0.23
0.25
0.28
0.01
7.37
3.91
5.34
7.62
16.38
22.12
17.53
0.79
0.71
0.70
0.65
0.65
0.56
0.50
yes
-
29.48
7.04
4.02
2.75
0.88
0.32
7.46
4.2
2.8
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.0
-
9.7106
2.7102
87.46
21.89
5.46
3.83
12.40
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
0.022
Metal Forming
by the non-equiaxed ferrite, which has various size grains
distributed in a random manner and the sizes are greatly
reduced with the substantial increase of the Nb content.
When cooling rate is heightened to 20 C/s, the
transformed microstructure of low-Nb steel consists of
mainly bainitic ferrite and small amounts of
quasi-polygonal ferrite, and prior-austenite grain
boundaries are faintly visible. The packet size of bainitic
ferrite is about 10m and the volume fraction of acicular
ferrite abruptly decreases. With increasing the cooling rate,
the matrix phase in high-Nb steel remains unchanged as
acicular ferrite and a small amount of quasi-polygonal
ferrite, while the average grain size is further decreased,
and bainitic ferrite is scarcely observed.
The difference of transformation products between the
two steels is related to the level of austenite work
-hardening during hot deformation. As the Nb content
increases abruptly, the softening behaviors during hot
deforming such as recovery and recrystallization are
strongly suppressed and the flow stress increases, and so a
heavy deformation in austenite non-recrystallization
region produces a large number of defects such as
dislocations and stacking faults within the deformed
austenite grain, it is likely to be the most effective means
of acicular ferrite formation. Next, the high lever of Nb
content in austenite is capable of suppressing the
coarsening of acicular ferrite grain by solute drag effect
and the pinning effect of precipitation particle.
Additionally, although the average sizes of prior austenite
grain are in the narrow range of 10-13 m in the present
work, the sizes in high-Nb steel are slightly smaller
compared to the low-Nb steel even at the same
austenitization temperature, which also has a definite
effect on the formation of fine acicular ferrite.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Conclusions
A microstructural model describing recrystallization and
precipitation of high-Nb HSLA steels has been developed
to evaluate the effects of modifications to processing
parameters in industrial conditions. The following
conclusions are drawn from this work.
1. High-Nb steels are not suitable for being rolled at
low-temperature and heavy deformation conditions due
to accelerated precipitation kinetics and fairly coarse
non-recrystallization grain size in austenite. By contrast,
when rolled at higher temperatures high-Nb steels often
display the typical behaviour of DRX+MRX followed
by strain accumulation again.
2. The presence of sufficient solute Nb at the end of
schedule, favorable for the forming of acicular ferrite
and precipitation strengthening effect, is the other
significant advantage of high-temperature rolling.
3. The transformed microstructures in high-Nb steel,
comprising fine acicular ferrite and quasi-polygonal
ferrite in a relatively wide range of cooling rate, are
markedly different in shape, morphology and volume
fraction of each phase from those in low-Nb steel.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the Fundamental
Research Funds for the Central Universities (N090407001)
and the National Key Project of Scientific and Technical
Supporting Programs (No.2007BAE51B07). This work
also was supported by Benxi Iron & Steel Corp., China.
References
[1] K. Hulka, P. Bordigon, M. Gray: Microalloy Technol., 6 (2006),
1-14.
[2] M. Suehiro, Z.-K. Liu, J. gren: Acta Mater., 44 (1996), 4241-4251.
[3] M. Suehir: ISIJ Int., 38 (1998), 547-552.
[4] N.D. Ryan, H.J. McQueen: J. Mater. Process. Technol., 8 (1990),
177-199.
[5] E.I. Poliak, J.J. Jonas: Acta Metall. Mater., 44 (1996), 127-136.
[6] A.Manonukul, F. P. E. Dunne: Acta Mater., 47 (1999), 4339-4354.
[7] S.I. Kim, Y.C. Yoo: Mater. Sci. Technol., 18 (2002), 160-164.
[8] F. Siciliano Jr., J.J. Jonas: Metall.Mater.Trans.A, 31 (2000), 511-530.
[9] M. Militzer, E.B. Hawbolt, T.R. Meadowcroft: Metall. Mater.Trans. A,
31 (2000), 1247-1259.
[10] K. Minami, F. Siciliano Jr., T.M. Maccagno, J.J. Jonas: ISIJ Int., 36
(1996), 1507-1515.
[11] C.M. Sellars: Proc. Int. Conf. on Hot Working and Forming
Processes, Met. Soc., London, (1980), 3-15.
[12] C. Roucoules, S. Yue, J.J. Jonas: Proc. Int. Conf. on Modeling of
Metal Rolling Processes, Inst. of Materials, London, (1993),
165-179.
[13] M. Pietrzyk, C. Roucoules, P.D. Hodgson: ISIJ Int., 35 (1995),
531-541.
[14] B. Dutta, C.M. Sellars: Mater. Sci. Technol., 22 (1987), 217-221.
[15] Y.B. Xu, Y.M. Yu, B.L. Xiao, L.Y. Liu, G.D. Wang: J. Mater. Sci., to
be published.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 77
77
Metal Forming
Effects of Rolling and Heat Treatment Conditions on Texture Structure and Formability
of Magnesium Alloy Sheets
Fumio Fujita, Takero Watanabe, Hiromasa Shimoyama, Lili Guo
1
Department of Metallurgy, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai / Japan, f-fujita@material.tohoku.ac.jp
The low formability of magnesium alloy sheets prevents them from being used in a wide range of applications. The hot press processes
generally used in forming of magnesium alloy sheets result in poor size precision and surface roughness. To date, many researchers have
focused on the improving rolling processes to increase the formability of magnesium alloy sheets at low temperature. Hot rolling results in
a hexagonal crystal system with a basal plane mainly parallel to the sheet surface. This basal texture structure makes it difficult to work with
the rolled sheets of magnesium alloys. Besides texture structure, grain size is an important factor in the formability of these alloys. To improve the texture structure and obtain more desirable grain sizes, authors have focused on a variety of techniques, including normal rolling,
differential speed rolling (DSR), and periodical strain rolling (PSR) in combination with heat treatment.
Keywords: Commercial magnesium alloy sheet, Rolling, Formability, Periodical strain, Differential speed rolling
Introduction
The magnesium alloys have low formability because active slip plane is limited to only basal plane at room temperature, and symmetrically rolled sheets have basal texture, basal plane is almost parallel to sheet surface. And
low formability at room temperature narrows the application fields of magnesium alloy sheets [1,2]. To obtain
other texture and microstructure with fine gain size in
rolled sheets, several kinds of rolling and combination
with heat treatments have been examined. It is known that
the shear strain by differential speed rolling (DSR) has
effect to make grain size fine and texture with basal plane
inclined to rolling direction [3]. And combination of small
strain rolling and high temperature heat treatment makes
sheets with relatively uniform texture but large grain size
and larger elongation [4,5]. Large grain size results low
yield stress, and it is not desirable to apply magnesium
alloy sheets to industrial use.
On other hand, bending process called CCWP (Continuous Cross wavy Pressing) can make grain size finer and
random texture [6]. Friction Stir Process (FSP), Severe
Plastic Deformation (SPD) and Equal Channel Angular
Extrusion (ECAE) are accomplish making fine grain size
[7]. But by these ways, it is hard to make large size sheets
which are needed for industrial products.
Rolling is one of the suitable techniques to make large
size sheet. A new way of rolling can be proposed by introducing non-uniform straining to obtain finer grain size
microstructure and texture different from basal plane texture. In the present paper, differential speed rolling and flat
rolling with periodical straining of magnesium alloy sheets
are examined.
Differential Speed Rolling (DSR) and Periodical Straining and Rolling (PSR)
Differential speed rolling (DSR) is a rolling way with
differential circumferential speed between upper and lower
work roll shown in Figure 1. Large shear strain can be
introduced in the rolled sheets by differential rolling. The
merits of DSR are lower rolling force than that of symmetric normal rolling, and fine grain microstructure and different texture from basal plane texture.
78
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 78
Metal Forming
Experimental Conditions
Rolling
Heat treatment
Periodical
Straining
25mm1mm
reduction:15%/pass
Temperature[K]
Differential Speed Rolling (DSR). DSR is realized using work rolls with 5% different diameters. The initial
thickness of AZ31 magnesium alloy sheet is 10 mm, and
the sheet is rolled to 2 mm thickness by several passes of
symmetric normal rolling (NR), and from 2to 1 mm thickness 7 passes DSR is applied. The sheets are heated in a
furnace at 673 K for 5 minutes before each pass. At larger
thickness reduction, the pure shear region ratio decreases
and effect of DSR becomes smaller. So 10% thickness
reduction for each pass is selected to make the pure shear
region ratio about half of roll contact area. Higher larger
roll is set to under side, and one DSR roll condition (DSRuni) is same sheet surface side and same rolling direction,
another condition (DSR-rev) is reversed sheet surface side
at each pass alternately and same rolling direction. By first
DSR condition large same directional shear strain may be
applied, and second condition may make more random
directional shear strain. Micro structure and texture structure are observed by microscope and X-ray diffractometer.
And forming limit diagram (FLD) is obtained by ERICHSEN test with different specimen widths.
Pin diameter:3 mm
Pitch :3 mm
1h
Flat rolling
Reduction:15%/pass
4 pass
673 K
673
573
AZ31B
Starting
material
as cast
Process
PS material
PSR material
Microstructure observation
and
Texture analysis
Experimental Results
DSR Results. After rolling incomplete pole figures are
obtained with X-ray diffractometer as shown in Figure 6.
TD
RD
(c) DSR-uni, lower speed side (d) DSR-uni, higher speed side
AZ31B-O magnesium alloy sheet is prepared for experiments. 25mm thickness sheets are preheated at 473K
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 79
79
Metal Forming
sity than that in NR specimen especially at higher speed
side. DSR-rev specimens (e) and (f) show more weaker
intensity and wide scattered distribution of basal plane to
rolling direction.
peak, and dead metal regions are appeared quarter positions of one period and dimple bottoms. At inner of dimple
bottom relatively large strain occurs.
0.25
0.2
0.15
Initial
thickness
0.1
0
-0.15
DSR-uni-RD
DSR-uni-TD
DSR-rev-RD
DSR-rev-TD
0.05
-0.1
-0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
d=10.5
m
20 m
ND
80
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 80
Figure 12. Equivalent strain distribution after PS and PSR calculated using FEM. (DEFORM-3D)
Metal Forming
position (4) corresponding to position (2) of PS specimen,
basal planes face almost to normal direction.
(d)Position (4)
Figure 13. Pole figures of each position after PS and PSR using
EBSD
Position
y
x
Figure 15. Stress distribution calculated using FEM for rolling
process in PSR
References
Figure 14. Reverse pole figure of position (3) after PSR using
EBSD
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 81
81
Metal Forming
Introduction
In strip production at the wide strip hot rolling mills big
metal losses are caused by surface defects that cover considerable part of finished product and usually occur in a
shape of cracks in the edges [1-3]. For some steel grades
mainly produced of pipe steel (17G1S-U, 10G2FBU,
22GU, X70, etc) the percentage of strips affected by such
defects can even exceed 25-30%.
The origin of the hot rolling defects can be defined
mainly by the quality of the surface of the incoming billet
(Figure 1). Surface and internal defects occur in the continuously cast slabs due to a number of reasons and can
often interact with each other and reinforce this effect.
Some of these originate from the defects in the operation
of the continuous casting machine including wear and
mechanical axis misalignment, inadequate mold taper etc
whereas the others deal with the peculiarities of chemical
composition of various steels (for instance, such microalloying elements as Nb, Mo, Ni, Cu reinforce the tendency
of steel to crack formation), their strength and plastic
properties or thermo physical conditions of the metal consolidation.
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Metal Forming_Japan.indb 82
Metal Forming
s = 1530 u 0.1019 0.1344 exp(0.0025t )
(1)
where u is the strain rate, 1/s, is the reduction and t is
the temperature, 0.
The slab in the roughing group of the wide strip mill
2000 was rolled according to the scheme V1- H1-V2-H2V3-H3 (Table 1), where V1 rolling in the vertical scale
breaker (see Figure 2); H1 rolling in the two-roll stand;
V2-H2 rolling in the universal stand No 1; V3-H3 rolling in the universal stand No 2.
Figure 4. Finite element model of slab with transverse corner
crack.
Parameter
Radius of working
rolls, mm
Reduction, mm
Rolling velocity, m/s
Temperature, 0
V1
H1
Pass No
V2
H2
V3
H3
600
700
500
590
500
590
26.0
1.5
1130
30.0 30.0
1.5
1.5
1100 1090
In the initial sizes of the slab, the thickness was 250 mm,
the width was 1500 mm and the length was 500 mm. The
initial sizes of the transversal corner crack (see Figure 3)
are the following: the length of the crack through the
thickness of the slab l0 =20 mm, the width of the crack in
the direction of rolling w0 =1.5 mm, the depth of the crack
d0 =14.1 mm. Due to symmetry only a of the slab model
was considered. The number of elements was 180845, and
the number of nodes was 40089. The mesh near the crack
was refined with coefficient 0.04 (see Figure 4).
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 83
83
Metal Forming
mm, meanwhile the width of the crack increases to 7.4 mm.
During further rolling in the vertical rolls (V3) of the universal stand No 2 the crack form does not change significantly. Furthermore the edges of the crack join together on
the top facet of the slab during rolling in the horizontal
rolls (H3). Thus, it can be concluded that there is considerable transformation and the defect shifts from the edge to
the middle of the ingot occur during rolling in the horizontal rolls.
Estimate of Crack Propagation During Hot Rolling
(2)
0 max d = C
i
84
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 84
Metal Forming
In Figure 9, the opening of the transverse corner crack
is clearly seen after each deformation pass. After rolling
the crack transforms into a fold on the face. Thus, forming
of the transverse corner crack in rolling calculated trough
the finite element method shows the same trend as that
observed in the laboratory experiment.
Conclusions
Pass No
Thickness
[mm]
Reduction, %
30.0
25.0
21.0
17.5
14.5
10.0
16.7
16.0
16.7
17.1
31.0
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 85
85
Metal Forming
Christian-Doppler-Laboratory of Material Mechanics of High Performance Alloys, Technische Universitt Mnchen, Munich / Germany,
duenckelmeyer@wkm.mw.tum.de; 2) Institute for Materials Science and Mechanics of Materials, Technische Universitt Mnchen, Munich /
Germany; 3) voestalpine Stahl GmbH, Linz / Austria
An analytical model is set up to predict the surface-near thermo-mechanical stresses in work rolls during hot rolling. The quantification of
the temperature distribution and the residual stresses in circumferential direction allow for an optimization of the rolling process in order to
reduce banding. Besides influences of mechanical loading, banding is primarily caused by high temperature differences between the roll's
surface and colder layers underneath the surface. Since a steady-state is not reached in the relevant time domain the model accounts for
the instationary case. Calculated thermally induced residual stresses are related to the mechanical properties of the roll's material. Analytically calculated temperature distributions on the roll surface are predicted by the model and compared with experimental results. The influence of the rolling speed and strip temperature are discussed with respect to plastic strains in circumferential direction of the roll.
Keywords: Residual stress, Banding, Hot rolling, Analytical model, Constitutive law
Introduction
The performance of work rolls for hot rolling depends
on several degradation phenomena, like mechanical fatigue, wear, thermal fatigue, and oxidation. Therefore
much effort had been undertaken in order to describe and
classify thermo-mechanically induced roll damage like
banding [1]. Debarbadillo et al. [2] define banding as the
surface deterioration of early finishing stand work rolls
brought about by the tearing out of very small pieces of
roll material. Walmag et al. [3] described that in a common
rolling mill 0.6 % of coils are rejected due to rolled-in
work roll scale. Erickson et al. [4] summarized that the
thermo-mechanical fatigue of the roll surface due to temperature cycling and the resulting mechanical stresses are
the main cause of wear associated with banding. Reip [5]
showed, that the main reason for banding of work rolls is
the high temperature gradient induced in the rolling gap
and primarily rolls in the first stands are susceptible to
banding. Several models were developed in order to predict the temperature fields and the resulting residual
stresses in work rolls during hot rolling to analyse and
reduce damages like banding [6]. Narita et al. [7] proposed
a simplified mathematical model to estimate the temperature history within the strip and work rolls under transient
heat transfer conditions, dealing with several hundreds of
overrollings. Tseng [8,9] modelled the hot rolling process
with steady state heat transfer equations and the finite
element method. Serjzadeh et al. [10] created a twodimensional finite element model to predict the work roll
temperature during the continuous hot slab rolling process.
Sun et al. [11] studied the thermal behaviour and roll life
of a work roll during strip rolling. These models assume
stationary heat transfer conditions and are based on numerical approaches which are computationally intensive
and hence cannot be used for real-time evaluation of the
rolling process.
This paper introduces an analytical approach to compute
instationary temperature distributions and circumferential
stresses of a work roll surface, which can be used for fast
real-time evaluation and an optimization of the hot rolling
process. An analytical approach seems to be preferable
86
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 86
Metal Forming
resistance between work-roll and strip, no heat flow perpendicular to the contact surface, no slip between strip and
work roll, no geometry change of the strip and no heat
production by plastic deformation of the strip or by friction. Additionally, a constant initial temperature in the
work roll and the strip before the thermal contact is assumed. This is acceptable since the temperature profile of
the roll is nearly constant when re-entering the rolling gap
[5]. The development of the temperature distribution in
depth direction is given by
Troll
K 1 10.5T0
=
K 1 10.5 + K 2 20.5
| x |
erfc
2 2 t
h x + h 2 t
e 2 2 2 erfc | x | + h2 2 t ,
2 t
(1)
where index 1 denotes the strip and 2 the roll, K1 and K2 are
the thermal conductivities, erfc is the complementary error
function, 1 and 2 are the thermal diffusivities, t is the
contact time, x is the distance from the roll surface, T0 is
the initial temperature of the strip, H is the thermal resistance and the quantity h2 is defined as
H ( K110.5 + K 2 20.5 )
(2)
.
h =
2
K1 K 2 20.5
1 TMaxK1,n
T ,n = T ,n
2 ( + + + )
2 ( + + + )
TMaxK2,n
1 .
(3)
TMaxK1,n and TMaxK2,n are extreme temperatures corresponding to the two cooling intervals. In order to simulate the
instationary case the last value of T,n becomes the input
value T,n-1 for the next revolution.
Mechanical Loading of Work Roll Material. For a
rough thermo-mechanical analysis in the thin surface layer
of the roll, the total strain (i.e. the sum of thermal, elastic
and plastic strains) in axial and circumferential directions
as well as the normal stress component in radial direction
can be assumed to be zero.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 87
p0
Metal Forming
emplarily for such a HSS roll. Data for the temperature
dependent compression yield strength are taken from [5],
where t and c denote tension and compression, respectively.
E (GPa)
220
a (1/K)
1.3 x 10-7
C (GPa)
250
b ()
800
Yc (MPa)
1700 (20C)
1100 (500C)
Yt (MPa)
800
Figure 3. Comparison of analytically calculated temperature distribution and measurements of Stevens et al. [16] (roll surface).
Development of Stress-Strain Distribution. The temperature distribution is the input parameter for the calculation of the mechanical loading of work roll material,
whereby stresses and strains (elastic and plastic) can be
determined. The surface heating in the rolling gap leads to
axial and circumferential compressive loads in the roll
material. As the material starts to yield a load reduction
caused by thermal softening with superimposed strain
hardening can be seen. The cooling of the surface leads to
relaxation (the surface becomes cooler than surface near
layers) and by means of this the compressed material is
loaded in tension. In this regard two possible consequences should be mentioned: the material reaches its
tension yield stress or not. Here, the roll material does not
reach its tension yield stress during the first revolution.
Conduction of heat from the roll interior to the surface
after the two cooling zones (Figure 2) causes compressive
stresses again. After each revolution residual stresses with
a certain displacement remain in the roll surface, which is
caused by the thermal boundary conditions. Figure 4
shows the calculated stress-strain hysteresis loop for 50
revolutions. Here, elastic shakedown can be observed after
88
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 88
Figure 4. Strain-stress hysteresis loop of roll surface for 50 revolutions. Slab temperature 1000 C, rolling speed 2 m/s.
Parameter Study. Thermo-mechanically induced plastic deformations of surface near regions of a work roll
correlate with banding [5]. It is coherent to correlate damage with the plastic deformation in circumferential direction. In the following the influence of the rolling speed and
the slab temperature on the plastic deformation of the roll
surface are discussed. Separately, both parameters can be
affected by the rolling schedule in the rolling mill. It is
assumed that the roll is new or refinished. The accumulated plastic strain in circumferential direction is calculated as follows,
Cycles
(9)
~
pl , =
(
1
pl , , t
+ pl , , c .
Influence of Rolling Speed. Figure 5 shows the accumulated plastic strain in circumferential direction in dependency of the rolling speed for a fixed slab temperature
of T0 = 1000 C (a typical value for steel slabs in hot rolling mills when entering the first stand). Here, it can be
seen that a slower rolling speed causes a steeper increase
of the accumulated plastic strain at the beginning of rolling
caused by the higher heat input in the rolling gap due to a
longer contact time. A saturation - elastic shakedown can
be seen for 2, 4 and 10 m/s (Figure 5). The strain-stress
hysteresis loop for 2, 4 and 10 m/s shows plastic flow due
to compression, until the strains become fully elastic, see
Figure 4, exemplarily for 2 m/s. Figure 5 shows an increase of the accumulated plastic strain for 1 m/s plastic
shakedown - which is driven by alternating plastic flow in
tension and compression. If always the first revolution is
considered it seems to be preferable to roll at higher
speeds [5]. This conclusion can be falsified with the following consideration: Although lower rolling speeds may
cause a higher heating of the roll surface and therefore a
higher deformation, it is crucial that it takes a certain time
until a stationary temperature distribution of the work roll
is reached. Until this time is reached an arbitrary point on
the roll surface has undergone several revolutions, where
the number of revolutions depends on the rolling speed.
Although the increment of plastic strain as function of
number of revolutions is lower for faster rolling, the total
plastic strain is higher (more revolutions until stationary
state is reached), as long as the speed is not too slow,
whereby flow by tension is induced. It can be assumed that
an optimal rolling speed can be found.
Metal Forming
Conclusions
An analytical model was set up in order to estimate the
instationary temperature distribution and residual stresses
in circumferential direction on the surface of a work roll.
Due to its fast algorithms it can be used for online evaluation of the rolling process, unlike computationally intensive numerical approaches. The model takes elastic and
plastic strains (including kinematic hardening) into account. As a result, it can be seen as an extension of the
FISCHER approach [12], which estimates purely elastic
strains. According to observations of Debarbadillo et al.
[2] a correlation between thermo-mechanical loads plastic strains in circumferential direction - and banding exists.
This allows the use of the accumulated plastic strain in
circumferential direction as an evaluation criterion for
banding. Many authors calculate stresses and strains
(mainly elastic) via a stationary temperature distribution
[5,8,11,22,23], whereas the instationary temperature development of this model allows a more accurate calculation.
The parameter study presented in this work shows:
1. A high rolling speed can cause higher accumulated
plastic deformations and an optimal rolling speed can
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 89
89
Metal Forming
Slab method analysis of asymmetrical sheet rolling is presented to evaluate the outgoing curvature especially when the horizontal entry
condition is maintained. Considering large bite angle, and assuming linear normal stress and parabolic shear stress distributions through
the thickness direction, equilibrium relations as well as yield criterion are derived as the governing equations. Variations of axial and shear
strains within the roll gap are considered to cause the strip curvature at exit. This model is also able to anticipate deflection of the freely
entered sheet in asymmetrical rolling conditions as free horizontal entry of sheet can only occur in particular conditions. Generally, specific
force and/or moment have to be applied to the ingoing plate to maintain horizontal entry. In present work, various conditions leading to free
or forced horizontal entry of the sheet are investigated, and the resultant outgoing curvatures are studied by varying different rolling
parameters including the inlet thickness, percentage reduction in thickness, friction factor and work rolls radii. The results indicate that the
free and forced horizontal entry conditions lead to different outgoing curvatures. The predicted rolling force and outgoing curvature are in
good agreement with those reported experimentally by previous investigators.
Keywords: Slab method, Free horizontal entry, Outgoing curvature, Asymmetrical rolling
Introduction
Asymmetrical rolling, in which the radius, surface
roughness and surface velocity of the upper and lower
rolls are different, has become one of the remarkable
processes in metal forming industries. Despite many useful
and desirable advantages, asymmetrical sheet rolling
experiences the disadvantage of bending the sheet at entry
to and exit from the roll gap. Based on slab analysis,
Hwang and Tzou [1-4], Hwang and Chen [5], and Hwang
et al. [6] have presented methods to determine the roll
force and torque in asymmetrical rolling. Ghobrial [7]
used photo-elasticity to study the contact stresses in
asymmetrical rolling process. Salimi and Sassani [8]
presented a modified slab method to anticipate the
outgoing curvature of the sheet. Mishke [9] proposed a
model which was able to consider an arbitrary entry angle
of the sheet. Salimi and Kadkhodaei [10] showed that, in a
free asymmetrical rolling, the sheet would be tilted at entry
and studied forced horizontal entry of the sheet into the
roll gap. They [11] also found that free horizontal entry of
the sheet may be maintained by adjusting the process
conditions. Further, Kadkhodaei et al. [12] used a genetic
algorithm to calculate the rotation angle of the ingoing
plate when freely enters the roll gap. However, they [1012] focused on the ingoing plate and did not study the
effect of entry conditions on the outgoing curvature.
In the present work, slab method is used to calculate and
compare the outgoing curvature of the sheet in free and
forced horizontal entry conditions. The anticipated rolling
1
(hi ho)(2Ru + ho hi)
2(Ru + Rl + ho hi)
(1)
hu =
ho +
Ru Ru x
(2)
hl =
ho + 2 2
Rl Rl x
(3)
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1 (a). Geometry of the asymmetrical rolling and (b) stress field of each vertical element and (c) geometry of each slab.
90
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 90
Metal Forming
Fx = 0 (
Pu
x
2
Ru2 x
x
2
+ Pl
F y = 0 (
x
2
2
Rl x
Mo
2
2
Ru x
x
2
Rl2 x
x
2
2
Ru x
x
2
2
Rl x
h
5l) + (u +l)
2
(5)
) +h
d
+ (Pl Pu) +
dx
(6)
=0
2
d d h
=0h ( u l) (
12 dx
h d d
)(u l) ( u + l ) +
2 dx dx
( u + l) = 0
2
2
Ru x
x
2
2
Rl x
dx
x
2
2
Ru x
12
x
2
Ru x
h
+h + (Pl
2
x
2
Rl x
x
2 2
Rl x
Pu
)(u +
x
2
2
Ru x
)+
(7)
h
( u l) = 0
2
hu dy = h
hl xy
@ y = h : = S
u xy
u
@ y = hl : xy = Sl
where
(10)
S u = u + ( u P u ) tan u
and
S l = l + ( l P l ) tan l .
(11)
d xy = xy
dy
d x = x
dy
(12)
(8)
(9)
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 91
r1 r2
K=
ho
2
+ ho
(13)
(14)
Metal Forming
(b)
Speed Ratio
1.2
1.16
1.12
2.2
(a)
2
1.8
1.6
1.06
1.04
1.02
25
30
35
Reduction (%)
Present Model
Experiment [13]
FEM [14]
Modified Slab Method [8]
(b)
-500
-600
105 120
150
175
Rolls Radii (mm)
200
0.98
0.94
0.96
0.98
1
Speed Ratio (Vu/Vl)
(a)
m=0.35
m=0.45
m=0.6
1.14
1.12
1.1
0
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 92
-400
1.2
0.96
92
-300
0.94
m=0.35 (b)
m=0.45
m=0.6
-200
Curvature Index
Present Model
Experiment[4]
-100
Speed Ratio
(a)
1.14
1.1
m=0.35
m=0.45
m=0.6
1.18
2
4
6
Input Thickness (mm)
(b)
-100
-200
-300
-400
m=0.35
m=0.45
m=0.6
2
3
4
5
6
Input Thickness (mm)
(a)
0.9
0.85
m=0.35
m=0.45
0.75
105 120
150
175
200
Lower roll Radius (mm)
0
m=0.35 (b)
m=0.45
-20
-40
-60
-80
105 120
150
175
200
Lower Roll Radius (mm)
Figure 7 (a). Variation of work rolls radii ratio for freely horizontal
entry of the sheet into the roll gap and (b) corresponding variation
of radius of curvature of the sheet in (a) condition (hi=2 mm,
k=98.1 MPa, r=30%).
-200
-400
0
-200
-400
m=0.35
m=0.45
m=0.6
m=0.35 free
m=0.45 free
m=0.6 free
-600
-800
-1000
1.1
1.14
1.18
Speed Ratio
Conclusion
0.8
Metal Forming
m=0.35
m=0.45
m=0.6
m=0.35 free
m=0.45 free
m=0.6 free
-600
-800
-1000
1.1
1.14
1.18
Speed Ratio
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 93
93
Metal Forming
Reduction of Impact Force in Threading of Strip Front End and Stabilization of Mill
Vibration by Mill Stabilizer Device in Hot Rolling
Shinya Kanemori1), Hideaki Furumoto2), Kanji Hayashi2), Takao Owada2)
1)
Technical Headquarters Hiroshima R&D Center, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan;
M-Hmm.co.jp
2)
The larger reduction in thickness is needed to obtain harder and thinner strips, and as the rolling force increases, the strip-crown and shape
control mills have been developed. When the rolling force becomes larger, the impact force in the threading of strip front end becomes
larger and mill vibration tends to occur. In order to solve these issues, Mill Stabilizer Device which consists of the hydraulic cylinder with
orifices has been developed. The hydraulic cylinders are installed between the work roll chock and entry side of housing to eliminate the
clearance between the work roll chock and housing. The hydraulic cylinders with orifices have also the damping effect. The test was carried
out by a test mill and production line, and it was found that the impact force in the threading and the amplitude of mill vibration can be
reduced. Calculated results of the impact force agree well with the experimental ones. Mill Stabilizer Device can be installed not only newlybuilt plant but also revamped plant.
Keywords: Impact force, Mill vibration, Acceleration, Mill Stabilizer Device, Hot rolling
Introduction
2.
3.
94
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 94
motor
work side
housing
drive side
rolling
direction
M SD
work side
drive side
cross head
skrew
worm gear
Metal Forming
Table 1.
252610
580610
702
50130
Test material
Al1050
6.0 , 3.9
200400
50100
15
Experiment
Calculated
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
:Mill Stabilizer : ON
:Mill Stabilizer : OFF
10
0
0
0.5
1.5
I total C I K I Tin
(2)
Mx 2C R x 2 K R x Fin F
15
15
rigidity ,and Tin is torque on the work roll from the rolled
strip. The torque at spindle shaft is obtained by solving the
Eq. (1). The horizontal force from the back-up roll to the
work roll is obtained by using the spindle torque and the
torque acting on the work roll from the rolled strip.
Figure 5 shows the analytical model of the impact
force.The differential equation of horizontal motion is
10
10
0
0.00
Experiment
Calculated
0.05
0.10
0.15
BUR
Motor
WR
0.20
Strip
Torsion angle
Figure 4. Analytical model of torsion vibration.
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 95
95
Metal Forming
influenced by the dynamic rigidity of mill housing in the
horizontal direction. When the dynamic rigidity becomes
larger, the area spreads where the mill vibration is
stabilized.
Hydraulic cylinder
Fin
2CR
Rolling direction (x)
Orifice
Delivery housing
Entry housing
rigidity 2KR
rigidity 2KR
Time
Mill StabilizerON
50msec
Kd=60 Tonf/mm
(Dynamic rigidity with
Mill Stabilizer Device)
1.0
Region without
mill vibration
0
200
Kd=30 Tonf/mm
(Dynamic rigidity without
Mill Stabilizer Device)
400
Rolling Speed
Rolling
speed(mpm)
(mpm)
Figure 7. Relationship between rolling speed and (rolling force per
unit width) (reduction in thickness)
Mill Stabilizer ON
4g
4g
50msec
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 96
Expansion of region
without mill vibration
4g
96
Entry
Deliver
2.0
Acceleration of
work roll chock
2CR
5sec
at orifice is
Qor c o Aor
(3)
Kd
2 F0
2x
(4)
810 mm
1600 mm
23.3 ton
244 tonf/mm/post
240 / 190
88 mm
100
80
60
40
Cumulative
number
of mill
device
Cumulative
Number
of stabilizer
Mill Stabilizer
installed in PC mill
Device installed in PC Mill
Metal Forming
120
()
Backup
Backup Roll
roll (Newly-built)
(Newly-built)
100
Backup roll
Backup
Roll(Revamped)
(Revamped)
()
80
Work
()
WorkRoll
roll (Newly-built)
(Newly-built)
60
WorkRoll
roll (Revamped)
Work
(Revamped)
()
40
20
0
2000
2005
2010
20
0
Mill Stabilizer Device OFF
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 97
97
Metal Forming
Introduction
Experimental
Scrap recycling is a useful process from an environmental perspective. However, the recycling of steel scraps
accumulates copper within such steel resources, which is
subsequently difficult to remove during steel production
processes and can cause the problem of hot shortness
during hot-rolling. When steel slabs are reheated in furnaces, copper is enriched at the scale/steel interface and
precipitated as liquid metal. Following the hot-rolling
process, liquid copper penetrates into the steel grain
boundaries and causes cracks at the steel surface. However,
it is reported that the addition of certain elements, such as
nickel, silicon, boron, carbon, and phosphorus, is effective
in controlling this problem [1-6]. Furthermore, controlling
the reheating conditions, such as temperature and the atmospheric water vapor concentration, have also yielded
benefits in resolving this problem [7,8]. Therefore, it is
important to understand how copper is distributed when
steel is oxidized. The author has previously reported that
copper is distributed in the magnetite layer and precipitates along wustite grain boundaries during scale formation [9]. Hot shortness is suppressed if more copper is
distributed inside a scale, while scale structure formed at
high temperature is influenced by atmospheric conditions.
During this study, two methods were employed in an attempt to suppress surface hot shortness utilizing copper
behaviour during oxidation.
Oxidation test
Oxidation-tensile test
No.
A
B
Name
Base
Scale removal
C
D
Air atmosphere
Air retention
No.
E
F
Name
Base
Method 1
Method 2
98
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 98
C
0.0020
0.0033
Al
0.039
0.033
Ti
0.037
0.035
N
0.0020
0.0011
Metal Forming
0.4
0.2
0
0
(b)
2500
O intensity
[arb. unit]
1000
2000
Distance [m ]
1000
2000
Distance [m]
3000
1.5
1
0.5
0
(b)
Cu concentration [mass %]
Cu concentration [mass %]
Enriched Cu
0.11mg cm-2
25
50
Distance [m]
3
Enriched Cu
0.02mg cm-2
2.5
6000
4000
2000
500
1000
Distance [m]
1500
Enriched Cu
0.11mg cm-2
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
Enriched Cu
0.10mg cm-2
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
25
50
Distance [m]
0
0
25
50
Distance [m]
ScaleSteel
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
25
50
Distance [m]
ScaleSteel
(b) 3
ScaleSteel
Metal Forming_Japan.indb 99
Steel
(a)
1500
500
2.5
500
1000
Distance [m]
Scale and resin
8000
Steel
1000
1500
(a)
0.2
10000
(b)
3000
2000
0.4
Precipitated
Cu at the
scale/steel
interf ace
Steel
Precipitated Cu at the
scale/steel interf ace
0.6
Steel
Fe3 O4 layer
0.6
0.8
Cu concentration [mass %]
Cu concentration
[mass %]
0.8
O intensity
[arb. unit]
Cu concentration [mass %]
(a)
(a)
Cuconcentration
[mass %]
99
Metal Forming
(a)
1cm
(b)
1cm
(c)
1cm
Figure 5. Surface appearance after oxidation-tensile tests. (a)
Base condition (Condition E), (b) Method 1 (Condition F) and (c)
Method 2 (Condition G).
2 O 3
3 O4
(a)
400m
(b)
phase
boundary
1cm
3
400m
(c)
2m
400m
Discussion
Transmission Electron Microscope analysis was performed on the cross section of the scale at the Fe2O3/F3O4
interface in condition A. The Transmission Electron Microscope image shown in Figure 7 reveals two layers in
the scale, while energy dispersive spectrometry and electron diffraction analysis results are shown in Table 4. The
energy dispersive spectrometry results reveal that copper
exists in Fe3O4 as a solid solution. It is well known that
Fe3O4 has a spinel structure, and the spinel oxide of FeCu-O has a complete solid solution system between
Fe2CuO4 and Fe2FeO4. This explains why copper may
exist as a solid solution in the upper part of the Fe3O4 layer.
In order to find a path of copper migration through the
scale, a detailed Electron Probe Micro-Analysis mapping
was performed on the FeO layer prior to a Transmission
100
Metal Forming
100nm
Grain boundary
(0t7200s) (1)
w k pt
Oxidation rate
dw
0
dt
Oxidation rate
Copper diffusion:
Basic equation
Initial condition
(t>7200s)
C
2C
D 2 , C C max
t
x
C C i
and
X 0
Boundary condition C D C M Fe dw C
2
2
Interface movement X
(at 1473K)
M O dt
M Fe
Fe M O
(2)
(4)
(t>0)
(5)
per concentration in -Fe, Ci is the initial copper concentration in the steel, D is the diffusion coefficient of copper,
MFe is the atomic weight of iron and Mo is the atomic
weight of oxygen.
The calculation results are shown in Figure 9. Copper is
distributed near the scale/steel interface with a sharp peak
because the scale/steel interface movement is faster than
the diffusion rate of the copper movement into the steel
during oxidation in a wet atmosphere. The concentration at
the scale/steel interface reaches 10% of the maximum
copper concentration in -Fe, even after only 10-minute
oxidation. Once the oxidation stops, this simulates dry
atmosphere oxidation, the interface movement does the
same, and the copper diffuses inward toward the steel,
whereupon the copper peak becomes broad. This result
serves to positively explain the copper concentration profile (Figure 4).
10
8
Cu concentration
[mass%]
6
C
4
A
0
0
5
10
15
Distance f rom scale/steel interf ace [m]
Conclusions
This study examines copper distribution during the oxidation of steel that contains copper. The following conclusions are drawn:
1. Precipitated copper at the scale/steel interface is absorbed into the scale magnetite layer or diffused inward
into the steel.
2. Two methods designed to suppress hot shortness using
the above techniques are tried and proven to be effective.
References
[1] A. Nicholson, J. D. Murray: J. Iron and Steel Inst., 203 (1965), 1007.
[2] S. Akamatsu, T. Senuma, Y. Takada, M. Hasebe: Materials Science
and Technology, 15 (1999), 1301.
[3] N. Imai, N, Komatsubara, K. Kunishige: ISIJ Int., 37 (1997), 217.
[4] T. Kajitani, M. Wakou, N. Tokumitsu, S. Ogibayashi, S. Mizoguchi:
Tetsu-to-Hagane, 81 (1995), 185.
[5] K. Shibata, S. Seo, M. Kaga, H. Uchino: Materials Trans., 43 (2002),
292.
[6] C. Nagasaki, H. Uchino, K. Shibata, K. Asakura, M. Hatano: Tetsu-to
Hagane, 89 (2003), 332.
[7] S. Seo, K. Asakura, K. Shibata: ISIJ Int., 37 (1997), 240.
[8] M. Hatano, K. Kunishige: Tetsu-to Hagane, 89 (2003), 659.
[9] Y. Kondo : ISIJ Int., 44 (2004), 1576.
[10] T. Tanaka, N. Takahira, S. Hara: CAMP-ISIJ, 6 (2003), 1376.
[11] J. Baud, A. Ferrier, J. Manenc, J. Benard: Oxidation of Metals, 9
(1975), 69
[12] C.W. Tuck, M.Odgers, K. Sachs: Corrosion Sci., 9 (1969), 271.
101
Metal Forming
School of Mechanical, Materials and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong / Australia, dwei@uow.edu.au; 2)
Research Institute (R&D Center), Baoshan Iron & Steel Co., LTD., Shanghai / China; 3) Research Institute (R&D Center), Tangshan Iron &
Steel Co., LTD., Tangshan / China
The deformation of oxide scale affects roll-strip interface characteristics in hot rolling. Few studies have been carried out on the deformation
behavior of oxide scale in hot rolling of stainless steels. In this paper, the thickness, morphology of the oxide scale and the surface roughness of workpiece in hot rolling of stainless steel 304 under the condition of a single pass were investigated, and the friction coefficients
were calculated. The effect of humidity on the growth of oxide scale of stainless steel 304 has been identified. Outer and inner oxide layers
can be found when the water vapor content is over 7 vol.%. An incomplete oxide layer which is a transition layer between the inner oxide
layer and steel substrate can be distinguished in thick oxide scale when the water vapour content is over 12 vol.%. The oxide scale thickness decreases linearly with an increase of reduction. Surface roughness also decreases with an increase of reduction. After experiencing
20 and 30 % reduction, the surface roughness asperities are flattened, so the outmost surface of oxide scale after rolling is much smoother
than that before rolling. Generally, friction coefficients decrease with an increase of reduction.
Keywords: 304 stainless steel, Hot rolling, Oxide scale, Deformation, Surface roughness, Friction
102
Cr
Ni
Si
Ti
0.004
Mo
Mn
0.15 1.09
Cu
Fe
0.026
0.19
71.6
A
1mm
Introduction
80mm
Metal Forming
Hot rolling tests were conducted on a 2-high Hille 100
experimental rolling mill and the roll diameter was 225
mm. The reheating temperature was 1100 C and the entry
temperature was 1050 C. The maxium reduction was 40%
and the rolling speed was 0.72 m/s. The specimens were
put in a cooling box full of nitrogen gas immediately after
rolling or reheating for preventing further oxidation. 304
steel displays high sensitivity to the humidity in the
furnace. A humid air generator was connected to the
furnace for adjusting the thickness of oxide scale formed
on the surface of specimens during reheating by changing
the water vapor content [10].
Observation and Measurement. The oxide scales of
austenitic stainless steels split away in the process of cooling, which may cause false observation results. An effective experimental method has been developed to obtain the
cross section of the oxide scale. Each specimen was immediately covered by a stainless steel block with smooth
and clean surface after hot rolling or reheating. It was
uncovered after cooling to ambient temperature then the
scale in the uncovered area was sealed in resin. The cross
section of oxide scale can be obtained by sectioning the
sealed area. The surface morphology of some rolled
specimens was photographed using an industrial digital
camera. The cross section of oxide scale before and after
rolling was observed and the thickness was measured
under Optical Microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy. The surface roughness after hot rolling test was
measured using Hommel Tester T1000 wave and the vertical resolution is 0.01 m.
50m
50m
50m
Steel
substrate
50m
Incomplete
oxide layer
Inner
oxide
layer
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Outer
oxide
layer
As similar as above, there are at least two layers of oxide scale and the resin separates the outer scale from inner
scale not only in the case of oxide scale before rolling but
also after rolling under the reduction of 10%. The bond
strength between the outer and inner scales is still too low
to resist the impact and buoyancy generated by resin flow
during cold mounting even after 10% reduction. This
situation is improved with an increase of reduction. When
the reduction reaches 20%, the outer scale does not detach
103
Metal Forming
from the inner scale. However, there exist some gaps between the outer and inner scales. When the reduction
reaches 30%, the gaps tend to disappear and the boundary
between the outer and inner scales becomes vague in the
case of thin oxide scale when reheating time is 25 min.
After experiencing 20 and 30% reduction, the surface
roughness asperities are flattened, so the outmost surface
after rolling is much smoother than that before rolling.
Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy was adopted to
determine the presence of four important elements Cr, Ni,
Fe and O in the oxide scales. Line scan was carried out for
obtaining the concentration gradients of these four elements at steel substrate-oxide scale interface. The result is
one of the most important references for distinguishing
oxide scale layers, based on which the thickness of each
oxide scale layer can be measured. The oxide scale did not
distribute on the surface of each specimen uniformly after
reheating in some cases. Because in-situ observation could
not be carried out, it was impossible to measure the thickness of oxide scale at a certain position before rolling then
measure again after rolling at the same position. Measurement of the thickness of oxide scale before and after
rolling had to be dependent on different specimens.
90
80
70
60
40
30
10
20
Reduction, %
30
0%
50mm
(a)
0.0
m
-10.0 Pick-up TKU Lt = 15.00 mm
10.0
(b)
0.0
m
m
-10.0 Pick-up TKU Lt = 15.00 mm
10.0
(c)
0.0
m
m
-10.0 Pick-up TKU Lt = 15.00 mm
20.0
0
104
40%
50
20
there are few macro cracks in the scale and oxide scales
remain intact, which is consistent with the results shown in
Figures 3 and 4.
(a)
0.0
m
-20.0 Pick-up TKU Lt = 15.00 mm
20.0
(b)
0.0
m
-20.0 Pick-up TKU Lt = 15.00 mm
20.0
(c)
0.0
m
-20.0 Pick-up TKU Lt = 15.00 mm
The previous study [12] investigated the surface roughness of oxide scale in hot rolling of plain carbon steel. The
situation of 304 steel is more complicated. The surface
roughness of oxide scale of 304 steel immediately before
hot rolling could not be acquired because the oxide scale
of austenitic stainless steel always breaks up during cooling process, which changes the surface roughness significantly. Only the surface roughness after hot rolling was
measured and shown here. The surface morphology does
not keep constant at all positions on each sample because
of the non-uniform distribution of oxide scale. It was
found that some surface area was relatively rougher than
other area especially when the reduction was 10 and 20%,
and the rougher area usually appeared dark red. This may
be because the outmost Fe2O3 oxide scale layer does not
experience enough compression, and still break up during
cooling. In order to compare the surface morphology under different reductions, the relatively smooth surface area
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
Ra, m
10
15
20
25
Reduction, %
30
0.55
Friction coefficient
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
10
15
20
25
Reduction, %
30
Inverse Calculation of Friction Coefficient. A calculation code developed by Alexander on the basis of
Orowans model [13] has been adopted for inversely determining the coefficient of friction in the above processes
of hot rolling. The friction coefficients were varied until
the calculated rolling force has less than 1% error with the
measured one in each case. The relationship between the
reduction and calculated friction coefficient during the
process of hot rolling is shown in Figure 10. Generally,
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
105
Metal Forming
Introduction
Forging and hot shape rolling are high temperature metalworking process that supplies the raw material as billets
or bars for subsequent forging, cold drawing and other
manufacturing processes. Among the quality problems
associated with ingot conversion and hot rolling are unconsolidated porosity, surface defects, coarse grain and
unrecrystallized grains. Very often, the quality problems
are discovered until the inspection stage, and not during
the forming processes. In some instances, some quality
problems, unlike metallurgical problems, tend to be discontinuous. Therefore sampling based inspection might
not be robust enough to assure the quality of the material
to be supplied. Thus, many researchers have been investigating the cause of such defects using different approaches
[1,2].
The main objective of this work is to present the applicability of process numerical modeling in the primary
metalworking industry to understand the cause of quality
problems and then how to implement the results in the
design of more robust processes. Continuous hot bar rolling process is the metalworking process chosen to study
porosity consolidation and surface cracks problems. Moreover, grain size evolution modeling is applied in ingot
conversion.
Experimental
Flow Stress and Recrystallization Behaviour. Efficient
plastic deformation of a given material requires a through
understanding of its mechanical and microstructural behavior during the metal forming process. Besides thermal
properties, flow stress data at a given testing matrix is
needed. The Carpenter Technology Corporation PYROMET alloy 718 was chosen for this work, which is a
precipitation hardenable nickel-chromium alloy. Flow
stress data was obtained from two sources: JMatPro [3]
and hot compression testing, which was conducted under
isothermal conditions at constant true strain rates from
0.001 to 20/s, and at temperatures from 850C to 1150C.
106
Metal Forming
the model used in JMatPro to predict flow stress data is
not perfect, it is considered that the approximations are
realistic and avoid some incoherencies observed in experimental data. Based on this, it was decided to use
JMatPro data in the calculations presented in this work.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. True stress-true strain curves from JMatPro and compression of PYROMET alloy 718.
C1 = ( , , T )d
(1)
(2)
= K P
if p < 0
t
t
107
Metal Forming
In Eq. (2), is the relative porosity volume (initial values
is 1), p is pressure, is the effective stress, is the strain
rate. The parameter Kc and Kt in the model are for compression and tension, respectively. These values were
obtained through numerical trials. A cylindrical billet
with small spherical porosity was meshed and then a series
(b) Strain 2
(c) Strain 3
(a) Strain 0.8
Figure 2. Instability map in terms of specific plastic work for PYROMET alloy 718.
Figure 3. Calculated average grain size distribution and final microstructure close to the surface.
108
Metal Forming
gap. Figure 5 shows the simulation results for pass 8 to 10
of a modified schedule; note that pass 9 is empty. It is
observed that there was a reduction of instability for the
improved roll pass design compared to the original roll
design. However, this reduction of instability was not to a
great extent.
Figure 6 shows comparison between the simulated and
actual geometry of the final upper vertical corner. For the
original pass schedule, Figure 6(a), the simulation accurately predicts that the roll groove remains unfilled, and
that the maximum plastic specific work corresponds with
the location of wrinkles and cracks. On the other hand,
Figure 6(b) shows that the modified pass schedule leads to
a complete filled roll groove and that cracking is much
less, which corresponds to a lower specific plastic work.
Pass 8
Pass 9
Pass 10
(c) Porosity evolution at centre
(d) Modified pass schedule
Figure 7 Actual initial and final porosity obtained for original and
modified pass schedules.
Conclusions
Figure 4 Accumulated specific plastic work of the original PYROMET alloy 718 rolling schedule.
Pass 8
Pass 9
Pass 10
Figure 5 Accumulated specific plastic work of the modified PYROMET alloy 718 rolling schedule.
109
Metal Forming
State Key Laboratory of Rolling and Automation, Northeastern University, 3-11 Wenhua Road, Shenyang / China, zhufuxian@163.com; 2)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo / Japan; 3) Department of Production, Medium
and Heavy Plate Plant, Jigang Group Co., Ltd, 21 Gongyebeilu Road, Jinan / China
To study the effect of thermomechanical processing on ferrite grain size and retained austenite morphology in low carbon Si-Mn TRIP steel,
the hot rolling process followed by a four-stages cooling process (Laminar Cooling-Air Cooling-Ultra-Fast Cooling-Asbestos-HeatPreservation) was carried out using Fe-0.2C-1.44Si-1.32Mn steel. The steel microstructure possessing fine and uniform equiaxed ferrite
grain with a size of 5m in diameter as well as a high retained austenite volume fraction of more than 13.5% was obtained. The steel also
exhibited a good balance of tensile strength with total elongation, e.g. 665 MPa and 41%. As a result, the lower finish rolling temperature,
laminar cooling finish temperature and shorter air cooling time was found to lead to the refining of ferrite grain and changing of retained
austenite morphology from film-like to granular shape. The latter was proved favourable to the plasticity of the steel.
Keywords: Thermomechanical processing, TRIP steel, Retained austenite morphology, Si-Mn TRIP Steel, Ferrite grain
Introduction
In recent years, the transformation induced plasticity
(TRIP) steels have been receiving increasing attentions for
their good balance of tensile strength and total elongation
as well as good formability. As we know, the TRIP steels
possess a multiphase microstructure consisting of ferrite,
bainite, and retained austenite. The so called TRIP effect,
which can result in the increase of uniform elongation of
these steels, arises from the martensitic transformation of
the metastable retained austenite phase induced by external stress [1-4]. Based on this, most of researchers have
carried out their work on the relationships between the
mechanical properties and the volume fraction as well as
the stability of retained austenite [5-8]. Moreover, the lowcarbon Si-Mn TRIP steels have been studied in most of
researches with relatively coarse ferrite microstructure
bearing a considerable amount of bainite with coarse bainitic ferrite [9,10]. The morphology and distribution of
retained austenite as well as the ferrite grain size and its
volume fraction have been expected to be optimized. The
manufacturing technique should be improved to produce
the TRIP steels with better microstructure. In this study, to
investigate the effect of thermomechanical processing
(TMP) on the ferrite grain size and retained austenite morphology of Fe-0.2C-1.44Si-1.32Mn TRIP steel, the hot
rolling process followed by four-stages cooling process
was carried out. As a result, the optimized TMP and the
TRIP steel with an excellent tensile strength-total elongation balance of 663 MPa-41% were obtained.
Experimental Procedure and Material
The chemical composition and transformation temperature of the steel used in this study are given in Table 1.
The samples with a thickness of 80 mm were austenitized
at 1150 C for 2h in a KO10 electrical resistance furnace.
It was followed by three-pass deformation in the recrystallized austenite region and six-pass deformation in the nonrecrystallized austenite region and high temperature sec-
110
Si
Mn
0.20
1.44
1.32
0.0079 0.012
Al
Ac1 (C)
Ac3 (C)
0.093
680
820
Metal Forming
Table 2. Temperature control schemes.
Sample
Finish temperature of
LC, C
AC duration time,
s
Temperature after
AC, C
Finish temperature of
UFC, C
770
710
58
680
420
800
740
85
680
420
Experimental Results
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of both
Samples after TMP. The microstructure of both samples
formed after laboratory rolling are similar, consisting of
polygonal ferrite, carbide-free bainitie, retained austenite
and a little martensite as shown in Figure 2. The volume
fractions of ferrite in both samples are also similar, about
60%. The ferrite grain in the microstructure of sample A is
uniform and fine, about 5 m in diameter. Granular bainite
is also very uniform, and its volume fraction is low. Most
retained austenites are granular shape distributing in the
triple junction of fine ferrite grain boundaries and between
the bainitic ferrite grains in granular bainite (Figure 4).
However, ferrite grain in sample B is not so uniform also
with a bigger size, about 8 m in diameter. Granular bainite is characterized by the absence of carbide. And retained
austenite and martensite distributed between coarse, long,
parallel bainitic ferrite lathes (Figure 4). Figure 3 shows
the SEM micrographs of the samples. The bainite content
of sample A is lower than that of sample B and the distribution of bainite in former shows more uniform.
(a) Sample A
(a) Sample B
Figure 3. SEM micrographs of sample A and B after TMP.
F
RA
M
F
RA
(a) Sample A
(1 11)
(331)
(a) Sample A
PF
(b) Sample B
Figure 2. Optical micrographs of sample A and B after TMP.
B = [1 2 3]
RA
BF
(642)
B
(422)
[1 5 7]
(b) Sample B
Figure 4. TEM micrographs of sample A and B after TMP (Fferrite , PF - polygonal ferrite, BF - bainitic ferrite, RA - retained
austenite, M martensite).
111
Metal Forming
observed mainly as blocky islands between polygonal
ferrite grains and islands at the interface of polygonal
ferrite and bainite. While, retained austenite in sample B is
observed mainly layers between acicular ferrite laths and
very small islands in granular bainite. The volume fractions of retained austenite of both samples are more than
13.5% confirmed by X-ray diffraction, as Table 3 shows.
The carbon contents of the retained austenite in both samples are about 1.2%.
The mechanical properties of both samples are listed in
Table 3. Although the volume fractions of retained austenite in the microstructure of both samples are similar, sample A exhibits better mechanical properties. Sample A has
a bit lower ultimate tensile strength (UTS) as well as yield
strength (YS) and higher total elongation (EL) than that of
sample B. The dissimilarity of microstructure such as the
ferrite grain size and retained austenite morphology in
both samples results in the different mechanical properties.
(a) Sample A
(a)Sample B
Figure 5. SEM micrographs of both samples after tensile test.
Table 3. Mechanical properties and volume fraction of retained austenite (VRA) of both samples after TMP.
EL,
(%)
UTSEL,
(MPa%)
VRA Before
Testing, (%)
Carbon Content
of RA, (Wt%)
VRA after
Testing, (%)
Sample
UTS,
(MPa)
YS,
(MPa)
660
465
41
27,060
13.53
1.21
4.15
680
480
39
26,520
14.72
1.18
3.20
Discussions
Effect of TMP on Ferrite Grain Size. After being austenized at 1150 C for 2 h, the microstructure of the samples mainly was austenite. Then, three-pass rolling was
carried out in the austenite recrystallization region. The
reduction of per pass was set to be about 19%, which was
more than the critical reduction of static recrystallization,
to obtain the fully refined austenite grains. Then the sample was cooled in the air to the austenite nonrecrystallization region, the deformation with total reduction of 58% was exerted to obtain as much deformation
bands as possible, which could provide more ferrite nucleation sites. Simultaneously, the driving force of /
transformation can be also increased. This is one of important factors for subsequent refinement of ferrite grains.
It is generally accepted that the increase of nucleation
rate of ferrite grain is one of vital factors for refining the
ferrite grains during hot rolling process. The increase of
nucleation site is one effective way to improve the nucleation rates. In the two-phase region, for the undeformed
austenite grains, the ferrite nucleation sites only formed in
austenite grain boundaries. However, for the deformed
austenite, the ferrite nucleation sites formed not only in
austenite grain boundaries but also the internal of austenite
grains since a large number of deformation bands and twin
boundaries were produced during hot rolling process
112
Metal Forming
Effect of TMP on Retained Austenite Morphology.
The pancake austenite was obtained after the rolling process in the non-recrystallization region. This pancake austenite characterized by the increase of dislocation density,
deformation bands and destroyed annealing twins at the
junction matrix. These characteristics had a significant
influence on diffusion/non-diffusion phase transformation
of steel which determined the final retained austenite morphology.
Since the deformation temperature of sample A is low,
more deformation bands formed after TMP, which can not
only lead to the ferrite grains refining but also results in
the final retained austenite refining. With lower finish
rolling temperature, LC finish temperature and shorter AC
duration time, the bainite lath sizes became smaller and
volume fraction decreased, as Figure 4 shows. With the
finish rolling temperature decrease, the retained austenite
morphology was changed from film-like between coarse,
long and parallel bainitic ferrite laths to granular shape at
the triple junction of the fine ferrite grain boundaries and
between the refined bainitic ferrite grains in the granular
bainite, as Figure 4 shows. Because the retained austenite
grain at the ferrite grain boundaries is spherical, it has
been speculated that the stress relaxation around the austenite grain would easily occur. So, the retained austenite
shows high stability during the deformation. This is a
reason why sample A exhibits a higher elongation than that
of sample B. However, the thin austenite film between
bainite laths as in sample B would transform to martensite
by a lower stress due to the assistance of local stress concentration caused by slip deformation. The martensites
formed at low stress results in the premature local hardening, and finally lead to the premature finish of the transformation process of retained austenite to martensite.
Therefore, the work hardening started at very early stage
of the deformation since a amount of prematurely formed
martensite. Ultimately, the tensile strength increased and
total elongation decreased. These are similar to the investigation results in reference [11].
The effect of the TMP on the retained austenite morphology can also be analyzed by the martensite morphology after tensile test. The martensite laths in the microstructure of sample A, which transformed from granular
refined retained austenite, are small and uniform as Figure
5 shows. However, the martensite laths in sample B transformed from film-like retained austenite distributed in the
coarse bainites are coarse and also show an uneven distribution.
Effect of Ferrite Grain Size and Retained Austenite
Morphology on Mechanical Properties. The mechanical
properties of the samples were determined by the multiphase microstructure formed after TMP. The presence of
martensite increases the strength of the sample, while a
significant amount of polygonal ferrite and retained austenite results in the high total elongation value. Generally,
a high volume fraction of retained austenite leads to the
high total elongation due to the strain-induced transformation during deformation. In this study, the volume fraction
113
Metal Forming
Introduction
114
Vacuum
pump
Rolling
zone
Heating
zone
Cooling
zone
0.5m
Figure 1. External appearance of vacuum hot rolling mill.
Metal Forming
Because the degree of vacuum is 0.133Pa in this
experiment conditions, the dissociation pressure is more
than oxygen pressure is Fe2O3.
2high mill:165150L
2high mill:
Roll material
roll:SKD61, SiAlON
Roll speed
Mill type
Degree of vacuum
Work roll
Rolling load
max. 390 kN
Heating temperature
max. 1373K
Cross rolling
Functions
Specimen
Grooved rolling
/mmin-1
/%
/K
/hour
Rolling speed
Reduction in thickness
Heating temperature
Aging time
Dissociation
6t50w200l
6t50w200l
Push
bar
Oxygen
Si
Mn
Fe
0.05
0.006
0.18
0.012
0.004
Bal.
0.05
0.01
0.14
0.014
0.006
Bal.
The rolling and experiment conditions are shown in Table 3 and Table 4. The heating temperature is 1273K near
the sheet temperature before rolling in the actual hot rolling process, production the oxide scale is controlled by
changing heating time and aging time, number of hot
rolled sheets. A hot rolled sheet before experiment which
differentiate thick scale and from thin scale, was used.
In this method, the dissociation pressure (as shown in
Table 5) [7] of the oxide scale is regarded as an important
index. It will dissociate, if dissociation pressure is more
than oxidization
pressure, and it will oxidize, if
dissociation pressure is less than oxidization pressure.
4
8
20
20
20 *
20 *
Scale thickness
(Hot rolled sheet) /m
356
356
356
356
/%
40
25
40
25
SPHC
(pickling)
SPHC
(hot rolled)
Reduction in
Thickness
Hot rolled
sheet
/mm
Aging time
/hours
Mother
sheet
2 high
SKD61
165
0.35
1.4
25,40
1273
0-2
Material
Diameter
/mm
Surface roughness Ra /m
(1)
2Fe3O4=6FeO+O2
(2)
115
Metal Forming
Deformation Characteristics of Oxide Scale in Hot
Rolling
Cross-Section Analysis. The microstructure of crosssection of sheet before rolling and after rolling was
observed using an optical microscope, with stopping in
roll bite during rolling. The observation points after
experiment are shown in Figure 3.
after rolling
10
100
30
before rolling
[mm]
10
Scale thickness of
section A /m
3.731
4.193
6.864
8.076
Scale thickness of
section B /m
3.956
4.134
6.770
7.491
Scale thickness of
section C /m
2.809
3.299
3.446
5.164
Scale thickness of
section D /m
3.339
3.599
3.155
4.619
20
60
Rolling direction
5m
Rolling direction
5m
6000
Fe
FeO
Fe3O4
Fe2O3
5000
4000
Rolling direction
5m
Rolling direction
5m
Rolling direction
5m
Rolling direction
5m
3000
2000
1000
0
20
B
40
60
80
100
2 /deg.
Figure 4. Example result of X-ray diffraction analysis.
116
Metal Forming
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
5m
5m
Rolling direction
5m
Rolling direction
Scale pit
20m
Rolling direction
Scale pit
20m
Rolling direction
5m
Rolling direction
5m
Rolling direction
5m
Conclusions
The scale transfer method using a vacuum hot rolling
mill was proposed in order to investigate the deformation
characteristics of the oxide scale in hot rolling process.
This method makes rolling possible immediately, with a
state which that oxide scale formed in a vacuum heating
furnace, kept. It is the most advantage to observe deformation of the oxide scale. Modeling of the secondary scale
was performed and the following results were obtained
from the observation during rolling:
1. Modeling of the secondary scale formed after descaling
was successful, and the thickness control of the oxide
scale formed is possible.
2. Before rolling, although unevenness existed in the
formed oxide scale surface, after rolling, scale was extended and the surface was made flat.
3. Extension of a scale was affected to scale thickness and
rolling conditions.
4. The oxide scale during rolling was pushed into the
sheet-steel surface as a scale pit, and constituted a surface defect.
References
[1] H. Okada: Journal of Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity, 44505 (2003), 94-99.
[2] H. Okada, T. Fukagawa, H. Ishihara, A. Okamoto, M. Azuma, Y.
Matsuda: Journal of The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, 80-11
(1994), 849-854.
[3] H.Okada: Proc. 185th plastic processing symposium, (1999), 7.
[4] H. Hidaka, T. Nagagawa, T. Anraku, O. Otsuka: Journal of Japan
Institute of Metals, 64-5 (2000), 291.
[5] A. Segawa, T. Kawanami, T. Taguchi: Current Advances in Materials
and Processes, 20-2( 2007), 350.
[6] T. Kawanami, A. Segawa: The Iron & Steel Society 44th Mechanical
Working and Steel Processing Conf. (8th Int. Rolling Conf.) Proc.,
Vol.XL (2002), 761-768.
[7] Japan Society of Corrosion Engineering: The High temperature
oxidation and high temperature corrosion of metal material,
Maruzen, (1982), 21-23.
[8] Y. Saito, T. Atake, T. Maruyama: The high temperature oxidation of
Metals, Uchida-roukakuho, (2003), 3-17.
117
Metal Forming
Introduction
Over the past years, noticeable progress has been made
in developing a frame for modeling strength and workhardening of aluminum alloy. It is generally accepted that
strength reflects dislocationdislocation interactions and
work hardening represents a competition between storage
of dislocations [1,2]. The studies of work-hardening have
been focused on a prediction and an explanation of mechanical properties. The work-hardening behavior is related to the evolution of microstructure, especially dislocation substructures.
A one-parameter model introduced by Kocks [3], was
further improved by Mecking and Estrin and Kocks [4,5].
However, this model took only the general dislocation
density of the material into account. Thus, the models
involving more detailed dislocation parameters have been
proposed by other authors [6-9]. Humphrey et al. [10]
carried out an experimental work to examine the development of dislocation substructures in a cold rolled singlephase aluminum with various reductions. Duckham et al.
[11] described the formation of copper-type or grain-scale
shear bands in Al-1Mg during plane strain compression
(PSC) as a function or strain, strain rate and deformation
temperature. Liu [12] investigated the development of
dislocation substructures and its influence on mechanical
properties in a cold rolled aluminum alloy 3004. He described the development of deformation substructures in
terms of a "two-phase" model.
Meanwhile, the variation of deformation temperature
would cause the changes in the relation between the evolution of microstructures and mechanical properties during
plastic deformation. Especially, the authors [13] found that
the combination of cryogenic and warm rolling would
result in the notable increase of strength in Al 5052 alloy,
compared with cryogenic rolling. This increase of strength
would be attributed to the formation of fine precipitates
during warm rolling at 448K. Accordingly, we expected
that dislocation substructures and mechanical properties in
a warm deformed Al 5052 alloy significantly differed from
those deformed at room temperature. Thus, it is necessary
to understand the evolution of the microstructure during
118
warm rolling and its influence on strength and workhardening behavior of an Al 5052 alloy.
The purpose of the present work was to investigate the
evolution of microstructures and its related strength and
work-hardening behavior in Al 5052 alloys deformed at
different temperatures. Dislocation substructures were also
characterized with different deformation temperatures, in
order to understand deeply on the behaviors of strength
and work-hardening.
Experimental Procedure
A commercial 5052 Al alloy used for structural applications was chosen for the present work. The chemical
compositions of Al alloy are 2.50 mass% Mg, 0.40 mass%
Fe, 0.25 mass% Si, 0.25 mass% Cr, 0.10 mass% Cu, 0.01
mass% Zn and 0.10 mass% Mn. The material was annealed at 813K for 2 hours and then quenched in water
resulting in a grain size of 65m.
The plates, 8mm in thickness, were deformed at the different reductions of 20% ~ 90% by cold rolling and warm
rolling. Warm rolling was performed at 448K by dipping
the plate into silicon oil for 10min and then water
quenched before each rolling pass.
The micro hardness was measured on the rolling planes
of the sheets using a Vickers micro hardness tester. Fifteen
measurements were made on each sheet. For tensile tests,
the sheets rolled at various temperatures were machined
into the ASTM subsize specimen of the 25mm gauge
length. Uniaxial tensile tests were conducted with the
initial strain rate on an INSTRON machine operating at a
constant crosshead speed.
For a detailed understanding of the microstructural evolution, a transmission electron microscope (TEM) was
used. Thin foils parallel to the transverse cross section of
the transverse cross section of the sheets were prepared by
utilizing a conventional jet polishing technique in a mixture of 70% Methanol and 30% HNO3 at the temperature
of 243K.
Metal Forming
Warm rolling
Cold rolling
130
150
120
110
100
100
90
50
80
70
60
50
40
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
-50
200
140
Deformation Strain ()
rolled Al 5052 alloy would be closely related to the formation of fine precipitates and change of substructures.
Strength(MPa)
300
250
200
150
100
0.00
0.22
0.44
0.66
0.88
1.10
1.32
1.54
1.76
Deformation Strain ()
Figure 3. Variations of mechanical properties as function of deformation strain under different deformation temperatures in Al
5052 alloys.
119
Metal Forming
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00
0.22
0.44
0.66
0.88
1.10
1.32
1.54
1.76
Deformation Strain ()
120
Metal Forming
rolling at 448 K led to the formation of parallel bands of
severely elongated substructures, 100-200 nm in width,
containing the high density of dislocations.
Conclusions
The evolution of microstructure and mechanical properties in an Al 5052 alloy deformed at different temperatures
were investigated. As a consequence, the following conclusion could be drawn:
1. A warm rolled Al 5052 alloy showed the higher strength
and higher work-hardening rate than a cold rolled Al
5052 alloy. The increased strength and work-hardening
rate in a warm rolled Al 5052 alloy would be attributed
to the presence of fine precipitates and the higher
amount of microbands.
2. The microstructure in a warm rolled Al 5052 alloy
showed the similar characteristics to that in a cold rolled
Al 5052 alloy, consisting of parallel cell band walls and
121
Metal Forming
Simulation System for Fast Analysis of Multistage Hot Rolling Processes Strip and
Rod/Wire
Marcel Graf, Rudolf Kawalla
Institute for Metal Forming, Department of Material Science and Technology, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg / Germany, office
@imf.tu-freiberg.de
The fast process simulation can forecast the global and local properties of the material after each deformation step. To derive the material
specifications the process chain must be seen as whole, that means beginning from the cast over the individual processing steps up to the
final product. The effects and parameters of the individual stages are so complex that the employment of numeric procedures makes sense.
Experiments over the whole process are too expensive. The objective is to calculate the process in real time, so that an In-Line-simulation
is possible. That results in a program which controls, manages and regulates the technical processes. Therefore the fast simulation systems must be developed. The program is configured in modular segments with individual and independent calculation algorithms, which
makes it possible to display and calculate many technical hot rolling configurations. Empirical or physical models worked satisfactorily, so
that a forecast about the material and property development can be provided for the cross section of the profile and in combination of successive metal forming steps. In particular, new simulation methods allow to plan the future process and processing steps along the process
chain ahead - forward or backward - and to coordinate the technology. There is a great need of fast simulation systems which consider and
appraise the effects of the technology at the material development, material properties and at the machines and plants, in order to design
new materials and technologies with the main aim to protect the environment and the resources.
Keywords: Simulation system, Hot rolling, Flat products, Rod, Wire, Microstructure, Modelling
Introduction
The properties of each deformed product are essentially
influenced by their production process. With the directed
control of the various steps of the process it is possible to
obtain the wanted properties. In order to reach this purpose
and to estimate the properties of the final product the complete process chain must be presented as a whole set. This
integrated approach starts with the solidified melt and
covers each production stage including the transport and
deformation phase up to the end-product.
In order to constantly increase quality and quantity demands already on the stage of planning and also during the
production, the models with appropriate software can be
used, which allows to predict the local and global processes in interactive connection. For this reason it is necessary to develop a tool which is sufficiently precise and
reliable for a variety of materials (steel, non iron and other
alloyed materials) as they are being deformed at the various stages. In addition, this instrument must offer an opportunity to calculate the processes approximately in real
time.
Aims of Development of Simulation Systems for Production of Semi-Finished Products
The developed system is designed to serve as a tool to
be used by the technicians and scientists for designing new
technologies and concepts of devices as well as for the
testing of new materials. The application of simulation
systems allows to achieve optimization which is important
for the reduction of the duration of the process stages. The
system also improves productivity by raising the efficiency at the same time; this contributes significantly to
the protection of the environment. The objective of the
models is to consider the individual steps or phenomena in
their interaction, not independently from each other. By
122
Metal Forming
sulting properties. Every part of the process consists of a
multitude of segments, in which changes in the state of
material, geometry, structure and properties take place.
These can be used for example in rod and wire production
with a variety of forming stages along with the reduction
of cross section, amongst other cyclic alterations of strain
hardening and strain softening processes. With the proper
alloys these processes will be accompanied by precipitation processes, which are induced by the deformation. The
alteration and change of the strain hardening and strain
softening processes influences the transformation processes which in turn change the microstructure. In this way
the mechanical properties und their dependence on the
direction are changed.
Figure 1 shows an example of the process chain for
strip production with all separate process steps, subprocesses and the resulting alteration of the deformed
product beginning from the continuous casting over the
successive forming and up to the finish rolled product.
Each of these separate steps influences the specific product properties as geometry, structure, texture and the quality of surface. It is clear that it is not possible to observe
the properties, dimensions of geometry and other parameters only in the last production step, which have influence
on the finish product.
123
Metal Forming
temperature in C
tion over the cross section, D-CCT diagrams for the characteristic point of the cross section must be prepared in
order to interpolate the data across the profile [5,6]. In this
way it is possible to calculate the phase composition at the
end of the production process (Figure 2 and 3).
800
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
0,1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
P_start
P_end
Bainit
phase fractions X i in %
100
80
60
40
20
0
0,1
10
100
1000
10000
X Martensit
X Bainit
100000
X Perlit
The modeling can be carried out by means of semiempirical models (options are presented by Kuziak, Campbell and Umemoto) and on the basis of the completely
recrystallized structure in order to decrease the complexity
of the calculations.
In order to be able to characterize all properties of the
semi-finished products - not only after deformation but
also at the end of the cooling line - information about the
tension conditions in the strip and also the scale growth is
obtained. Both characteristics are important for the further
processing of the flat profile.
The scale development is an important part in the description of the surface roughness. In order to be able to
assess the surface quality of the hot rolled product the
scale development must be controlled along the whole
process chain, beginning from the furnace up to the cooling line, because the scale can seriously damage the surface quality. The scale layer will be deformed plastically
during the deformation process but it can be limited due to
the insignificant ductility of the oxide. That is why the
scale layer breaks up after every processing step in various
places, for the reason that the hot core material emerges
towards the surface and gets in contact with the relatively
cold rolls (Figure 4). At the free surface of the material the
scale grows faster than the original iron oxide [8].
Metal Forming
pressed as a sine wave form an in-the-width-direction as
the third-power spline-curve function. After that, the problem is solved by the minimum potential energy principle
of elastic systems. The consequence from this information
is to change the process parameters or to subsequently
interlink the heat treatment for the decrease of the stresses.
With this software and edge masking device the cooling
process can be optimized. The residual stress produces the
formation of the waves in the middle or at the edge of the
strip [12,13].
At the end of every hot rolling process the cooling of
material is usual. The results from the calculation of the
cooling line are transfered to modules for stress and temperature estimation during the cooling of the coil. The
temperature field transfer to the coil is based on Archimedes spiral and is used as input for the calculation of
precipitations, too [14].
Conclusion
The simulation system does not consider the influence
of longitudinal tensile stresses, but this phenomenon
changes the microstructure and consequently the mechanical properties [15].
The simulation model considering the stages of the process is a very important tool in the area of deformation
technology which serves for creating new products with
significant potential.
By means of the presented rapid simulation system one
must gather a comprehensive understanding of all process
stages along the processing line itself. The gained knowledge will be used for the optimization of the production
steps and technology.
Due to the variable arrangement of various segments,
the system can be applied for different deformation technologies in the processing of rolled products.
125
Metal Forming
Research & Development Laboratory, Kobe Steel Ltd., Kakogawa / Japan, kobayashi.masanori@kobelco.com; 2) Kakogawa Works, Kobe
Steel Ltd., Kakogawa / Japan; 3) Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya / Japan
The universal gap rolling system to the hot finishing mill which consists of 7 stands was applied. In the universal gap rolling, the crown of
the work rolls is controlled by shifting the work rolls. In actual operations of the universal gap rolling, perforation of the sheet appears. From
observation of this phenomenon, the rolled sheet tends to be perforated under three conditions: a wet surface of the work roll, a large reduction in sheet crown ratio and high rolling speed. The centre-buckle formed in the rolled material at the entry side of roll bite is filled with
the roll cooling water. The centre-buckle pool trapped between the rolled material and the work roll causes the friction change in the sheet
width direction. The rolled material is perforated according to the tensile stress occurred by this friction change. In order to prevent the
sheet perforation and reduce the sheet crown, it is necessary to wipe out the water in the centre-buckle pool. Slower rolling speed in the
first and second stands than the third one leads to a good performance to wipe out the water in the centre-buckle pool, and the large
change of the sheet crown ratio is required in these stands.
Keywords: Sheet perforation, Universal gap rolling, Hot rolling
Introduction
The demands for dimensional accuracy of the steel sheet
have increased, and the steel sheet crown tolerances have
become severe. We had installed the sheet crown control
equipments to the hot strip mill at Kakogawa Works, and
developed the sheet crown and shape control technologies.
The Universal Gap Rolling (UGR) system is one of the
technologies to control sheet crown based on the similar
concept of the CVC rolling mill [1-3].
To apply the UGR system to the actual rolling operations, we had the sheet perforation problem [4]. This report presents the mechanism of the sheet perforation in the
actual rolling operations and a solution to prevent the
phenomenon.
Sheet Perforation in Actual Rolling
UGR System. The UGR system consists of a set of
work roll shifting equipments and a pair of work rolls
formed special shapes. In the axial direction, one side of a
work roll is shaped a convex crown, and the other side is
shaped a concave crown. Upper and lower work rolls are
set in a rolling mill to be point symmetry as shown in
Figure 1. The upper and lower work rolls are shifted in the
reverse directions each other according to the rolling condition. In the UGR system, the roll gap profile is changed
according to the work roll shift position.
Work
Roll
Shift
Back-up Roll
Work Roll
Rolled
Material
Work Roll
Back-up Roll
Figure 1. Universal gap rolling system.
126
Work
Roll
Shift
Tail End
Sheet
Width
Sheet
Rolling direction
Perforation
10mm
Figure 2. Steel sheet perforation.
Metal Forming
2. When the sheet perforations occurred, the centrebuckled sheet shapes were also recognized, as results
of reduction of the sheet crown by the UGR setting.
3. Parabola-shaped dents were often seen in front of the
sheet perforation, and thicknesses of the sheet at the
dents were thinner than around as shown in Figure 3.
4. In many cases, before sheet perforations occurred,
water and steam splashed out from the roll bite to the
entry side of the rolling mill.
Dents
Perfotations
Tail End
Sheet
Width
Rolling
Direction
A
Sheet
2.8
2.7
A
B
2.6
2.5
2.4
-500
0
Width /mm
500
Rolling Direction
Work Roll
Projection
t
Test Piece
t
350mm
Perforation
Sheet
Width
800 900mm
Rolling
Direction
A'
B'
a)A-A'
b)B-B'
100mm
127
Metal Forming
mill, and the spray conditions of the roll coolant water
were jet, film, drop, and dry. The rolling velocities were
set 100, 50 and 20 m/min.
Discussion
Figure 6. Perforation of workpiece.
2.0
1.5
1.0
Spray condition
of roll coolant
water
Dry
Jet
Film
Wet
Drop
Jet
Jet
Dry
Wet
Jet
Wet
Jet
Rolling
velocity
(m/min)
100
50
20
100
100
100
Sheet
perforation
Not occurred
Occurred
Occurred
Not occurred
Occurred
Not occurred
Not occurred
Occurred
Not occurred
To observe the fracture and deformation, the rolling operation was stopped while the workpiece was between the
roll bite, and a sample of the workpiece was obtained.
Figure 7 shows that a parabola-shaped dent was found
at the entry side of the roll bite.
xn
128
(1)
Metal Forming
Work Roll
R
Neutral
Point
Material
x
xn
l
All the left hand terms of Eq. (1) represent the force
which draws the rolled material into the roll bite from the
entry side, and all the right hand terms represent the force
which draws the rolled material into the roll bite from the
delivery side. When the water trapped between the roll bite
splashes out to the entry side, the coefficient of friction
becomes small and the force represented by the first term
of the left hand of Eq. (1) is lost. The force which draws
the rolled material into the roll bite from entry side is lost
at sheet centre, and the material does not go out to the
delivery side of the roll bite. As a result, a too large tensile
stress is applied to the rolled material at the sheet centre,
and the part thinner than around which trapped the water
fractures by this tensile stress (Figure 10).
Water
Steam
Roll
Hydrodymanic
Lubrication
Boundary / Mixed
Lubrication
Material
Speed / Low
Dent
Speed / High
Tensile Stress
Consider the case that the rolled material is thin and the
contact length l is small. The third term of the right hand
of Eq. (1) is also small, and rolled material can go through
the roll bite if the first term of the left hand of Eq. (1) is
small. As a result, sheet perforation does not occur.
We have discussed based on the two-dimensional rolling
theory, now, consider the three-dimensional force applied
to the rolled material when a perforation occurs.
When the sheet crown ratio is reduced by a rolling
operation, a compressive stress is applied to the rolled
sheet at the sheet centre. But the effect of compressive
stress is small when a centre-buckled shape appeares.
129
Metal Forming
Department of Material and Production Technology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkuts University of Technology North
Bangkok, Bangkok / Thailand, sca@kmutnb.ac.th; 2) Science et Ingnierie des Matriaux et Procds, CNRS/INP-Grenoble/UJF, F-38402,
Saint Martin dHres Cedex / France
The objective of this work was to investigate oxidation kinetics, oxide scale mechanical adhesion and pickling for hot-rolled low carbon steel
strips produced from slab elaborated by the blast-furnace route (conventional steel) and by the electric-arc-furnace route (recycled steel).
Thermogravimetric measurements were conducted for both steels in 20%H2O/Ar between 600 and 900C. Parabolic oxidation kinetics was
observed. The measured activation energies were 147 and 131 kJ.mol1 for the conventional and the recycled steels respectively. Scale
thicknesses on the hot-rolled conventional and recycled steels were 8 and 11 m. The room temperature in-situ tensile test was performed
to investigate the mechanical adhesion of these scales on steel substrates. Mechanical adhesion energies of scale actually formed on the
hot-rolled conventional and recycled steels were 1850 and 2530 J.m2, respectively. Picklability was examined using immersion in a
10 %v/v HCl solution at 80C. The scale dissolution rate on the as-received recycled steel was slower than that of the scale on the asreceived conventional steel. The period of time for the complete pickling on the former steel was also longer than that on the latter one. The
inferior picklability of scale on the hot-rolled recycled steel might relate to the higher thickness, less initial crack density, and superior mechanical adhesion of scale on this steel substrate. The better mechanical adhesion of scale on this steel was possibly due to the existence
of silicon-containing oxide at the internal scale-steel interface.
Keywords: Thermal oxide scale, Low carbon steel, Recycled steel, Oxidation, Mechanical adhesion, Pickling behaviour
Introduction
In a hot rolling process, a raw material is a slab which
can be produced by different routes [1,2]. It can be produced by a blast-furnace route starting from converting
iron ores to be pig iron using blast furnace. The pig iron is
further refined in a steelmaking process resulting in the
slab called in the present paper conventional slab. The slab
can also be produced by an electric-arc-furnace route. In
this path, the slab is made of recycled steels, or scraps,
using an electric arc furnace and secondary refining process. The slab obtained can be further classified by its
thickness: the medium slab in case that its thickness is ca.
80-100 cm, and the thin slab in case that its thickness is ca.
50 cm [1]. Since scraps are used as raw material in the
electric-arc-furnace route, some elements exist in steel
made from this route with the higher content than the one
produced using the blast-furnace route, e.g. Si, Cu, Sn, Pb
or As [1,3].
Due to the process temperature in the hot rolling line of
ca. 600-1250 C, thermal oxide scale forms on steel surface. It is de-scaled by high pressure water jet firstly before the entry of slab into the roughing mill and secondly
before the entry of steel bar into the finishing mill. After
the second de-scaling, thermal oxide scale still rapidly
grows during the steel strip coiling and storage, until the
temperature has fallen under ~ 400 C. Existence of this
scale plays a critical role on the quality of the product. In
case that the product is delivered as hot-rolled coil for the
application in this form, good mechanical adhesion of
scale on steel substrate is preferred. In contrast, in case
that a clean steel surface is required, e.g. for further cold
rolling, scale must be completely removed by mechanical
and chemical means. In this case, poor mechanical adhesion and good pickling ability of scale on the steel substrate are favoured. These two properties can be controlled
by chemical composition of steel [4-8] or by process pa130
Metal Forming
Table 1. Chemical composition of studied hot-rolled steels (wt%).
steel
C
Si
Cu
Mn
Al
P
S
0.033
0.013
0.059
0.232
0.043
0.006
0.009
A
0.058
0.267
0.168
0.347
0.020
0.013
0.004
B
Recycled steel
=3.00%
100 m
100 m
=4.15%
=4.39%
=4.73%
=5.20%
(1)
(2)
ln kp / kp in mg2.cm4.h1
conventional steel
recycled steel
4
2
0
-2
8.52
(900C)
9.32
(800C)
10.28
(700C)
10 000.T1 / T in K
11.45
(600C)
=6.06%
=6.12%
Metal Forming
6
9
12
Imposed strain / %
15
40
0
0
6
9
Imposed strain / %
12
132
6
9
Imposed strain / %
12
conventional steel
recycled steel
0
conventional steel
recycled steel
0
5
4
3
2
conventional steel
recycled steel
1
0
0
10
20
30 40
50
Pickling time / s
60
70
From Figure 7, the dissolution rate of scale on the conventional steel was faster than that of scale on the recycled
steel. This might be due to the higher crack boundary
observed on scale on the conventional steel. From Figure
6, it was also observed that the period of time for the complete pickling of scale on the conventional steel was ca.
20-25 seconds. It was faster than that of the recycled steel,
which was ca. 30-40 seconds. The longer period of time
for the complete pickling the hot-rolled recycled steel
might relate to the thicker scale with less initial crack
density of this steel. It might also relate to the superior
mechanical adhesion of scale on this steel.
Dissolution rate of scale /
g.cm2.s1
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Spallation ratio / %
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Conventional
steel
Recycled
steel
Figure 7. Dissolution rate of scale on as-received hot-rolled conventional and recycled steels in 10%v/v HCl solution at 80 C.
Metal Forming
Figure 8 depicts the scale on the hot-rolled recycled
steel after the tensile test. A spectrum from an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) of the white zone in Figure 8
corresponding to the scale-steel interface is shown in
Figure 9. On that area, the EDS spectrum included the
peaks of Fe, O, C as well as Si and Al. It was found in our
work [18,19] that there existed oxide containing Si, Al and
Cu at the internal interface between scale and the hotrolled recycled steel. It has been widely reported that the
oxide containing Si, i.e. fayalite, existing at the scale-steel
interface, promoted mechanical adhesion of scales on steel
substrates [4-6] and worsened the picklability of scale [6].
One significant factor resulting in the superior mechanical
adhesion and poorer picklability of scale on the recycled
steel might be from the existence of Si in this steel, even in
the amount of 0.267 wt%.
100 m
Figure 8. Scale on the steel subjected to the strain of 12.62%.
Count
References
Energy / keV
Figure 9. EDS pattern of internal interface between scale and
substrate (White area in Figure 8) focusing on range of energy
where Al and Si peaks were observed.
Conclusions
Hot-rolled steel strips produced from slabs elaborated by
the blast-furnace route (conventional steel), and electricarc-furnace route (recycled steel) were studied. The
following conclusions can be drawn.
1. Thicknesses of scale actually formed on hot-rolled
conventional and recycled steels were 8 and 11 m
respectively. Oxidation kinetics of the two steels in
20%H2O/Ar was studied. At 700-900C, oxidation rate
of the two steels was rather identical. At 600C, oxidation rate of the conventional steel was lower than that
of the recycled steel.
2. Mechanical adhesion of scale on steel substrate was
investigated by micro-tensile test. Strains provoking
the first spallation of scale actually formed on the hotrolled conventional and recycled steel were 4.15% and
4.35 % respectively. Mechanical adhesion energies of
scale on the former and latter steels were 1850 and
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
133
Metal Forming
Introduction
Experimental
134
M2C
MC
M7C3
In-Situ Observation of Oxidation. The in-situ observation of oxidation was carried out in a High Temperature
Microscope with a CCD camera as a detector in order to
investigate the mechanics of oxidation formation and
growth of the high-speed steel. The cubic samples with
dimension 2.72.72 mm3 were cut from the as-received
material and one of the broad faces on the samples was
polished and finished with 1-m diamond polishing suspension. Figure 2 shows a schematic illustration of the
setup of the experimental facility. The sample was put into
a 4-mm diameter alumina crucible with the polished surface facing upward in the gold-plated ellipsoidal infrared
heating furnace. One end of the gas entry tube was placed
Metal Forming
just above the crucible, in order to apply the oxidizing gas
(dry air or water vapour) directly onto the sample surface.
Except introducing the oxidizing gas, heating and cooling
were conducted in an inert atmosphere of high-purity
argon gas (Ar, 99.999% pure). The flow rate of the oxidizing gas was set at 96 cm-3.min-1. The in-situ observation of
oxidation tests were carried out in two different atmospheres (dry and 12.5% water moisture) at 700 oC for 30
min. The heating and cooling rate were 100 oC per minute.
A compressed industrial air was used as the dry oxidizing
gas, and the moist atmospheres were obtained by passing
industrial air through distilled water by means of a temperature controlled bath. By adjusting the bath temperatures, moistures with different humidity can be obtained.
Figure 3. Snapshots from an in-situ recorded video indicating
formation and growth of oxide scale on sample surface in dry air at
700 oC. Time indicated in figures is program proceeding time
rather than oxidizing time. (a) 0 s, (b) 5s, (c) 10 s and (d) 15 s.
Computer
CCD camera
Objective lens
?
Gas exist
Gas entry
Sample
Infrared lamp
Metal Forming
V-rich MC carbides are oxidized severely with the morphology of oxidized MC carbides elongated to lager
shapes. The presence of water vapour accelerates the oxidation of high-speed steel. Menterio [3] mentioned that a
protective chromium oxide layer can be formed on the
scale/matrix interface in dry air, which prevents highspeed steel being oxidized; while water vapour breaks this
layer increasing the oxidation of high-speed steel. Pujilaksono et al. [15] suggested that the water vapour will affect
scale microstructure and morphology, as well as increase
the oxidation rate at 500 and 600oC. Figure 5 shows the
cross-sections of oxide scale after oxidation both in dry
and moist atmospheres. The oxide scale formed in dry air
has a compact structure as shown in Figure 5(a), while in
the case of 12.5% water moisture it has a porous structure
as shown in Figure 5(b). It can be seen that there is a clear
scale/substrate interface appearing after oxidation in dry
air, however it disappears in the case of moist atmosphere.
This implies that the presence of water vapour not only
affects the morphology of oxide scale, but also affects the
bond behaviour between the scale and the substrate.
Oxide scale
Interface
Resin
Substrate
Oxide scale
R esin
Substrate
Oxidation Test in Gleeble. Figure 6 shows the topographies of oxidized high-speed steel sample surfaces after
oxidation at 700 oC for 120 min in dry air, 12.5% and
46.5% moisture respectively. The oxide scale formed in
different atmospheres shows a significant difference in
morphology. The oxide scale formed in dry air is compact
and iron oxide grains grow well. The oxidized V-rich MC
carbides also can be found on the top of oxide scale as
shown in Figure 6(a). Because water vapour exists in the
136
Figure 7 shows the X-ray diffraction patterns of oxidized high-speed steel sample surfaces after oxidation at
700 oC for 120 min in different atmospheres. The results
indicate that the main phases found in oxide scale are
Fe3O4 and Fe2O3. Because the X-ray diffraction tests were
conducted directly on the oxidized surface, the Fe phase
appearing in the X-ray diffraction pattern indicates that the
oxide scale formed in dry air after oxidation is not thick
enough to prevent the X-ray transferring through the oxide
scale and detecting the metallic part underneath. It is nosteel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
ticed that with increasing water vapour constitution in the
oxidizing atmosphere, Fe3O4 phase decreases while Fe2O3
phase increases in the oxide scale. This phenomenon can
be explained as following: as discussed above, the microstructure of the oxide scale is getting more porous with
increasing water vapour in the oxidizing atmosphere; and
it is much easier for oxygen to diffuse inward through
more porous oxide scale and reacting with Fe3O4 further to
form Fe2O3.
Fe2O3
Fe3O4
Fe
30
in dry air
40
50
60
70
80
90
2 Theta / degree
Figure 7. X-ray diffraction patterns of oxidized surfaces of highspeed steel samples at 700 oC for 120 min in different atmospheres.
10
in 46.5% H2O moisture
in 12.5% H2O moisture
in dry air
Thickness / m
7
6
10
12
1/2
The oxidation behaviour of a high-speed steel roll material at high temperature was investigated by means of insitu observation and Gleeble 3500 Thermal-Mechanical
Simulator. The following conclusions were obtained:
1. The in-situ observation by a High Temperature Microscope indicates that the oxidation is initiated at the carbides/matrix interfaces, and then rapidly spread to
cover over the carbides and followed by continuous
growth over the whole surface in both dry and 12.5%
water moist atmosphere.
2. V-rich MC carbides are oxidized as well as the matrix.
In dry air, V-rich MC carbides are oxidized to form
parallelepiped grains; while in 12.5% water moisture
V-rich MC carbides are oxidized more severely.
3. The oxidation tests on the Gleeble indicate that the
water vapour in oxidizing atmosphere has a great influence on the morphology and phase composition of
the oxide scale. With increasing water vapour in atmosphere, more porous oxide scale forms, and more
Fe2O3 formed in oxide scale.
4. The oxidation rate of high-speed steel sample in 12.5%
water moisture is higher than those in dry air and
46.5% water moisture. The water moisture has a significant effect on the oxidation rate of high-speed steel
material, but higher water vapour constitution at a long
experiment time decrease the oxidation rate.
References
Conclusions
137
Metal Forming
State Key Laboratory of Rolling and Automation, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110004 / China; 2) School of Mechanical, Materials
and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong NSW 2522 / Australia, jiang@uow.edu.au
In twin-roll thin strip casting, the temperature of a casting roll affects the roll thermal stress, and influences the thermal deformation, the
generation of roll surface cracks, the strip shape and the service life of the casting roll. In this paper, the features of the clad materials of the
casting roll have been analysed, the effect of the clad thickness on the temperature field and thermal stress of casting roll has been simulated and discussed. The results show that the thick clad results in the increase of thermal resistance and then causes higher surface
temperature of the clad layer, but lower temperature of copper roll sleeve. The heat expansion of the clad layer increases when the clad
thickness decreases. The developed temperature model of the casting roll is helpful in optimising the design of the casting roll during twinroll thin strip casting.
Keywords: Twin-roll strip casting, Casting roll, Thermal stress, Modelling
Introduction
The technology of twin-roll casting of thin strip has developed greatly in recent years, and its importance has
been recognised broadly. Its application will have significant effect on steel manufacturing industry. However,
many topics still need to be further investigated, which
include optimal design of casting roll structure and cooling
method for obtaining homogenous microstructure, mechanical property and good strip shape, determining optimal roll profiles, roll sleeve materials and surface state,
establishment of high precision mathematical model, investigation of the effects of roll casting process parameters
on the quality of strip and the process stability, pouring
technology, surface status of the molten pool and control
of impurity etc. Previous research on casting roll covered
the topics including heat transfer and distortion of casting
roll, fatigue and life-expectance analysis, and structure
design and materials choice etc. However, little research
has been conducted on numerical simulation of casting roll.
Kopp et al. [1] conducted research on casting roll profile.
They found the size of casting roll affects the roll crown.
The study on the twin-roll casting of 4.5 % silicon steel
shows that the service life of casting roll can be significantly increased by employing Ni-Cr clad on the roll surface, increasing cooling strength and applying copper
alloy roll sleeve etc. Miyake et al. [2] studied the shape of
roll sleeve influences the roll crown, and then strip crown.
Kang et al. [3-5] analysed the temperature distribution
using 2D finite element method (FEM), studied the heat
distortion of casting roll and predicted the service life of
casting roll. Park et al. [6] established a 2D coupling
mathematical model to analyse the heat conductivity and
distortion of casting roll, and calculated the thermal stress
and displacement using FEM. Vogt et al. [7] studied the
distributions of temperature and stress using implicit finite
difference and 2D FEM. Yogeshwar and Amit [8, 9] simulated the heat conductivity and liquid flow in the molten
pool by employing commercial software FIDAP. The obtained temperature field has been input into the system as
a thermal load to study the influences of pouring speed
and contact conductivity coefficient between the roll and
strip on stress field.
138
Metal Forming
Due to the symmetry of casting rolls, only half roll is involved in the calculation. FEM software package ANSYS/Multiphisics was employed and SOLID70 elements
were adopted. Figure 1 shows the finite element mesh of
the model.
40
pool and casting roll,
Number of cooling water holes
N
36
Diameter of cooling water hole, mm
Dh
10
Clad thickness, mm
(a)
Clad
Roll mandrel
Roll sleeve
(b)
Figure 1. FEM mesh of casting roll (a) 3D model and (b) local
mesh.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Temperature distributions of caster roll under different
coating layer (a) nickel-base alloy clad and (b) nickel clad.
139
Metal Forming
Effects of Clad Thickness on Temperature and Thermal Stress Distribution of Casting Roll. Figure 3 shows
the temperature distribution along the radial direction in
the case of nickel-base alloy clad. The heat conductivity of
nickel-base alloy clad is lower than that of the copper roll
sleeve, and the thicker clad results in higher thermal resistance, so the surface temperature of casting roll increases
with an increase of clad thickness. The temperature difference between the clad layer and copper roll sleeve depends
on the clad thickness. The temperature of the copper roll
sleeve becomes low with an increase of the clad thickness.
However, the clad thickness does not affect the temperature of the roll mandrel very much.
150
50
0
0
10
20
30
Time,s
40
50
60
0.2mm
500
Temperature,
1-0.2mm
2-0.5mm
3-1.0mm
4-2.0mm
100
600
0.5mm
400
1mm
300
2.0mm
200
100
0
a1
400
0.2mm
0.5mm
1.0mm
2.0mm
100
50
0
0
10
Time,s
15
20
140
Position, -
Temperature,
1
2
3
4
200
Temperature,
0.2mm
350
0.5mm
300
1.0mm
250
2.0mm
200
150
100
a1
c
d
Position, -
Figure 6. von Mises stress distribution of casting roll under conditions of different clad thickness.
Metal Forming
increase of the clad thickness that results in the increase of
thermal resistance causes higher surface temperature of
clad but lower temperature of copper roll sleeve. The heat
expansion of the clad layer decreases when the clad thickness increases. As a result, the total heat expansion decreases. The total heat expansion is low when the clad
thickness is 1-2 mm.
Heat expansion, mm
0.33
0.325
0.32
0.315
0.31
0.305
0.3
0.295
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Coating thickness, mm
Conclusions
The thermal mechanical coupled simulation has been
conducted using ANSYS to investigate the distribution of
temperature and stress of casting roll during twin-roll
casting of thin strip. The results show that the thick clad
results in an increase of thermal resistance, and then
causes higher surface temperature of the clad layer but
lower temperature of copper roll sleeve. The heat expansion of the clad layer increases when the clad thickness
decreases. As a result, the total heat expansion decreases.
Very thin clad will result in overcooling of the skull contacting with the roll, which decreases the surface quality.
The use of nickel-base alloy clad can increase the service
life of the roll sleeve. The thickness of the roll sleeve
should not be less than 30 mm for repeat use, and the total
heat expansion is low when the clad thickness is 1-2 mm.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Project No.: 50734001) and National Key Fundamental Research Development 973 Plan
(Project No.: 2006CB605208).
References
[1] R. Kopp, U. Albrecht-Fruh, L. Hentschel, U. Rudolphi, J.W. Schmitz,
D. Senk, F. Simon: Proceedings of the International Conference on
Thermomechanical Processing of Steels and Other Materials, THERMEC97 (1997), 2201-2208.
[2] S. Miyake, H. Yamane, M. Yukumoto, M. Ozawa: ISIJ Int., 31-7
(1991), 689-695.
[3] C.G. Kang, Y.D. Kim, S.W. Lee: The Minerals, Metals & Materials
Soc, (1996), 65-86.
[4] C.G. Kang, Y.D. Kim: Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B,
28B (1997), 1213-1225.
[5] C.G. Kang, Y.D. Kim, Y.J. Chung: Proceedings of the International
Conference on Thermomechanical Processing of Steels and Other
Materials, THERMEC97 (2007), 2193-2199.
[6] C.M. Park, W.S. Kim, G.J. Park: Mechanics Research Communication, 30 (2003), 297-310.
[7] E. Vogt, H. Schenk, H. Gellenbeck: Materials Science & Engineering A, 133 (1991), 653-656.
[8] S. Yogeshwar, S. Amit: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society,
(2002), 643-650.
[9] S. Amit, S. Yogeshwar: Materials Transactions, 43-2 (2002), 214221.
[10] X.M. Zhang, Z.Y. Jiang, X.H. Liu, G.D. Wang, A.K. Tieu: Materials
Science Forum, 505-507 (2002), 1315-1320.
[11] X.M. Zhang, Z.Y. Jiang, L.M. Yang, X.H. Liu, G.D. Wang: Journal
of Materials Processing Technology, 187-188 (2007), 339-343.
[12] C.G. Kang, Y.D. Kim, S.W. Lee: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 66 (1997), 277-286.
[13] W.D. Bennon, F.P. Incropera: International Journal of Heat Mass
Transfer, 30-10 (1987), 2161-2170.
[14] X.M. Zhang, Z.Y. Jiang, H. Li, Z. Fan, X.H. Liu, G.D. Wang: Advanced Materials Research, 32 (2008), 169-172.
[15] X.M. Zhang, Z.Y. Jiang, H. Xie, D.B. Wei, X.H. Liu, G.D. Wang:
Steel Research International, 2 (2008), 772-779.
141
Metal Forming
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran / Iran, d.mirahmadi@gmail.com; 2) Department
of Metallurgy, Shahid Rajaee University, Tehran / Iran; 3) Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tehran University, Tehran / Iran
Microalloyed steels can be defined as carbon-manganese steels containing deliberately added small amounts of vanadium, niobium and/or
titanium generally less than 0.10% for modifying steel properties. Hot rolling of microalloyed steels is a thermomechanical process that
converts cast metal ingots into a plate, sheet, rod, etc. The main goal is to achieve required shape specifications, but careful control of
deformation conditions at high temperatures can also have beneficial results in terms of microstructure and hence the mechanical properties. Thermomechanical processing and controlled rolling of microalloyed steel sheets are affected by several factors. In this investigation,
coiling temperature which is considered one of the most effective parameters on the final formability of hot rolled products was examined.
For this purpose, four different coiling temperatures 550, 600, 650 and 700 C were chosen and then the stretchability was studied. It was
observed that decreasing the coiling temperature caused an increase of mechanical properties and a decrease of total elongation. It also
reduced the ratio of tensile strength to yield strength and n-value. Since the Erichsen test makes a better analogy of forming treatments, it
is used as a complementary test. Test results indicated that with increasing coiling temperature, the dome height as the stretchability criteria
increases. These results confirmed information related to ultimate tensile to yield strength ratio and n-value. Furthermore, decreasing coiling temperature resulted in more grain refinement and the morphology was changed from polygonal ferrite to acicular one. Findings of this
research provide suitable connection among microstructural features, mechanical properties and formability of steel sheets.
Keywords: Thermomechanical processing, Hot rolling, Nb-microalloyed steel, Formability, Coiling temperature.
Introduction
Controlled hot rolling is considered as a thermomechanical process for rolling of microalloyed steel sheets at
non-recrystallization temperature (Tnr) region. Deformation at temperature above Tnr leads to the structural homogeneity and refining of austenite grains through continuous recrystallization. But more deformation at temperatures below recrystallization temperature causes to pancake austenite grains, as well as to increase substructures
propagation and dislocations density. These two parameters increase efficient nucleation surface for the next
phases when transformation occurs, and as a result cause
more refinement in the final microstructures [1-3].
In most industrial applications of hot rolled microalloyed sheets, especially in automotive industry, formability of sheets is one of the significant characteristics. In this
case, a common forming method includes press forming.
This process often is performed by two basic techniques;
namely deep drawing and stretching. Since industrial parts
have often complex forms, therefore forming process is
implemented by a combination of both methods [4,5].
Stretchability of metals depends on material resistance
against localized necking. Here, metal is under uniform
deformation and resists against non-uniform changes. This
property of metal is basically related to strain hardening
factor or n-value. In practice, it has been indicated that
stretchability control often correlates with controlling
grain size. Larger grain sizes is preferred, But there is a
limit degree for grains being big. Large grain sizes more
than ASTM 6 cause flaws and create poor finished surface.
Material and Experimental Procedure
In this investigation, a microalloyed steel containing
Niobium with chemical composition shown in Table 1
was used.
142
Mn
Si
Cu
Ni
Nb
N
ppm
0.05
0.5
0.2
0.01
0.02
0.002
0.006
0.04
80
Metal Forming
recrystallization temperature (Tnr) of austenite. The cooling rate (water spray cooling) of the specimens between
the finishing temperature and the coiling temperature was
about 15 C/S. After cooling of specimens to the coiling
temperatures, specimens were cooled down slowly in
furnace at the medium cooling rate from the coiling temperature to the room temperature. The total transmission
time from the coiling temperature to the room temperature
was approximately 20 hrs.
The various critical transformation temperatures, i.e. the
start and finish of the austenite transformation (Ar3, Ar1)
and the non-recrystallization temperature (Tnr), were determined by continuous cooling compression testing.
Tensile tests were performed on the sub-sized samples
according to standard ASTM-E8M. Tests were carried out
by an INSTRON machine. Work hardening exponents
were calculated from the strain-stress curves obtained
according to ASTM-E646-93.
The microstructures of hot rolled specimens were subjected to metallographic examination and studied by an
optical microscope model OLYMPUS. In order to investigate the microstructures, the samples were chemically
etched just after grinding and polishing.
To conduct the Erichsen test, specimens were prepared
with dimension 100 X 100 mm by cutting from hot rolled
sheets with 3mm thickness according to standard ASTM
E643-84 and Din-5010. In this research, the Erichsen test
was carried out by Folad-e-Mobarake instrument having a
spherical end of penetration.
Figure 2. Microstructures of hot rolled sheets at coiling temperatures; a=550 C, b= 600 C, C=650 C, d= 700 C.
Ave.
Y.P. (0.2%)
Ave.
U.T.S.
538.9
510.7
MPa
U.T.S./ Y.S.
28.1
1.34
403.1
MPa
600 C
350.1
MPa
30
1.46
650 C
329.3 MPa
489.9 MPa
30.6
1.49
700 C
278.1 MPa
431.2 MPa
32.9
1.55
550 C
MPa
Ave.
Total El. (%)
143
Metal Forming
It can be concluded that increased coiling temperature
causes decrease yield strength, as well as ultimate tensile
strength and increase overall elongation. Also it is observed the yield strength changes are significantly more
severe than ultimate tensile strength. It means that yield
strength change is more sensitive to coiling temperature.
As it is discussed in previous section, increasing coiling
temperature causes the grain sizes being larger and
changes ferrite morphology. Furthermore, high coiling
temperature results in amount of diffusion phenomena in
proportion to shear phenomena becomes more. So, these
factors decreases material strength and improve flexibility.
Ultimate Tensile Strength to Yield Strength Ratio
(U.T.S/Y.S). Ultimate tensile strength to yield strength
ratio is usually described as the sheet formability factor. In
other words, it shows the strain hardening exponent.
Whenever yield strength decreases and ultimate tensile
strength increases, this ratio showing the material deformation range develops and the sheets formability improves
[7]. The relationship between ultimate tensile strength to
yield strength ratio at different rolling conditions has been
illustrated in Figure 4.
It is observed that mentioned ratio has a direct relationship with coiling temperature; increased coiling temperature leads to increase ultimate tensile strength to yield
strength ratio.
Micro-structural analysis was used to investigate the results. As coiling temperature increases, ferrite grains get
larger and more uniaxial. This grain growth causes to
increase fracture strain, as well as percentage of overall
elongation. Mr. Qin, in his researches, showed parameters
affecting on elongation percentage include size and morphology of ferrite grain and size and shape of precipitations. Overall elongation often includes two parts; uniform
strain and localized strain after necking (El.= u+t) [9].
The model below was obtained from theoretical studies by
Morrison [10];
u = n = 5 /(10 + d 0.5 )
Figure 5. Effect of coiling temperature on yield strength and ultimate tensile strength.
(1)
Metal Forming
Conclusions
Stretch Formability. Sheet stretch formability test (biaxial stretching) was conducted through the Erichsen test.
Since this test is a better simulation of press forming, it
was used here as a complementary test [5]. Figure 7 illustrates dome height changes under different coiling temperatures.
145
Metal Forming
Effect of Cold Rolling and Annealing on Texture Evolution and Mechanical Properties
of IF Steel Sheet
Yongfeng Shen1), Wenying Xue2), Yanhui Guo3)
1)
Key Laboratory for Anisotropy and Texture of Materials (Ministry of Education), Northeastern University, Shenyang 110004 / P.R.
China,shenyf@smm.neu.edu.cn;2) The State Key Lab of Rolling & Automation, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110004 / P.R. China, 3)
Shanghai Institute of Technology, 200235 / P.R. China
The dependence of textural evolution, deformation microstructure and flow stress on cold-rolling reductions of an interstitial-free (IF) steel
sheet has been investigated using the X-ray diffraction and the transmission electron microscopy techniques as well as tensile tests. The
development of both - and -fiber orientations is observed during cold-rolling to reductions of 13% to 75%. It is also noted that deformation
microstructures consist of geometrically necessary boundaries and incidental dislocation boundaries. Dislocation and grain boundary
hardening leads to increase in flow stress with the rolling reduction. A fall in ductility seen between rolling reductions of 13% to 46% is
attributed to the onset of localized shearing. The re-gaining ductility is concerned with the more uniform size of cell blocks in two dimensions
with an increase of rolling reduction to 57%. Further annealing tests were carried out for the sample with 75% of rolling reduction to obtain an
improved ductility. However, the sample exhibited a very small increment in ductility (~3%) and an obvious decrease in strength under an
annealed temperature of 500oC. With an increase in annealing temperature to 750oC, the ductility impressively increased to 29% at the
expense of strength, decreasing from 710 MPa to 210 MPa due to the process of recovery and recrystallization. These results clearly
demonstrate that, without geometrically necessary boundaries and incidental dislocation boundaries, the lack of strain hardening at room
temperature is related to dynamic recovery.
Keywords: IF steel, Texture, Cold rolling rate, Annealing, Strength
Introduction
One of the promising ways to produce ultrafine-grained
materials with bulky shape is the severe plastic
deformation processes. The obtained ultrafine-grained
materials generally performed a very high strength
compared with the materials having conventional grain
sizes larger than several tens micrometers [1,2]. Among
them, the accumulative roll-bonding has a potential to be
applied to continuous production of large bulky materials
[3]. In recent years, with the development of the
automobile industry, both the designed shape and
successful punch in one time of car panel parts attract
more attentions of researchers and car manufacturers to
develop new technology for improving properties of steel
[4]. In order to optimize the formability of steel sheets,
control of the crystallographic texture is essential so that a
pronounced texture can be formed during the
thermo-mechanical processing [5,6].
It is well known that, by traditional processing, the
equiaxed grains in steel sheet were elongated along the
rolling direction to form a typical texture mainly
comprised by -fiber structure during cold-rolling [7,8]. In
low carbon steels, rolling deformation usually leads to a
texture including the fiber which comprises the
orientations with a common <110> direction parallel to the
rolling direction, and the -fiber comprising the
orientations with {111} parallel to the sheet normal
direction [9]. Furthermore, the -fiber increases at the
expense of the -fiber orientations during the subsequent
recrystallization annealing, which gives rise to the desired
high-planar-anisotropy resulting in good-deep-drawability
of low carbon steel sheets [10]. On the other hand, IF
steels have been widely used in automotive industry and it
is believed that, the excellent deep drawability is due to
the existence of a strong -{111}//ND fiber texture [11].
146
Metal Forming
necessary boundaries lying parallel to the rolling plane
cross-linked by the incidental dislocation boundaries [14,
10
2
2
4
(b)
(a)
10
10
7
6
5
1
2
2
2
3
5
1
(e)
{110}<001>
{554}<225>
{332}<113>
{111}<112>
{112}<111>
{113}<332>
(d)
{114}<221>
{001}<110>
(c)
18
13
25
47
56
75
16
14
12
%
%
%
%
%
f(g)
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
(deg.)
10
9
14
12
10
6
f(g)
16
-2
10
20
30
40
50
(deg.)
(g)
60
70
80
90
{111}<112>
{112}<110>
{110}<110>
{331}<110>
{332}<110>
{111}<110>
{223}<110>
18
{112}<110>
{114}<110>
{113}<110>
{001}<110>
(f)
f(g)
Results
Texture Evolution. According to the convention, only
the 2 =45 ODF sections are presented here. Figure 1(a)
-1(e) shows the 2 = 45o ODF sections of texture in center
of IF sheets cold-rolled with a reduction of 13%, 25%,
47%, 56% and 75%, respectively. One can see that, at low
reduction of 13%, the texture mainly consisted of and
fiber. The intensity of {001}<110> texture increases
with increasing cold-rolling reduction while that of
{110}<110> goes along with a reverse trend. Figure (f)-(h)
summarize the relative texture evolution of the steel for
different thickness reduction. Impressively, the {111}//ND
texture decreases with an increasing rolling reduction and
disappears while the reduction is up to 47%. The
{001}<110> texture initially decreases from f(g)max 12.5
to 10 as rolling reduction increases to 25%, and then it
becomes more intense with the increasing reduction,
sharply increases to f(g)max 17. Choi and Jin [16]
recently reported the texture for a low carbon steel sample
with a cold-rolling reduction of 50%. The recrystallized
texture (samples annealed 1 hr at 750 oC) is characterized
by the -fibre with a reinforcement for the {111}<110>
component f(g)max = 16, f(g) = 5 for the {111}<112>
component. Very interestingly, the same texture was also
observed by Etter and his co-workers in a cold-rolled and
fully recrystallized IF steel [17].
10
0
60 70 80 90
(deg.)
(h)
147
Metal Forming
15]. The average spacing between the geometrically
necessary boundaries or the incidental dislocation
boundaries can be determined from the TEM pictures
along line scans perpendicular to each set of boundaries. It
is found that the average lamellar spacing and cell size
decrease from ~ 700 nm and 1 m to 300 nm and 400 nm,
respectively, with increasing rolling reduction from 13%
to 75%.
After 600 s min annealing at 500 oC, nuclei begin to
grow at the expense of neighboring lamellar bands. Thus,
large recovered lamellar bands, namely intra-granularly
lamellar sub-grains are widely observed. Dislocation
clearing is firstly observed inside the lamellar band cells.
In addition, many sub-boundaries between cells are
vanishing (Figure 2(b)). The microstructure for the 75%
pre-strained specimen developed at 500 oC is partially
recrystallized. Following heating at 750 C for 600 s, the
recrystallization process has been enhanced, local
orientation of partially recrystallized samples shows cells
separated by a vanishing wall or dense dislocation walls.
The large sub-grains (equiaxed dislocation cells) are
growing at the expense of their first neighbors whose size
is smaller. Dislocations inside the grains can still be
discerned (Figure 2(c)). Simultaneously, the densities of
geometrically necessary boundaries and incidental
dislocation boundaries significantly decrease after the
current annealing process. The parallel lamella structure
can rarely be observed. However, the obtained image
indicates that the specimen is still not fully recrystallized
due to the limited annealing time, though the average
grain size of the specimen subsequently decreases. The
reason that annealing for short time does not promote
continuous recrystallization is that the rearrangement of
dislocation at these temperatures is slow, resulting in less
efficient formation of sub-boundaries. Indeed, the results
reported from another group have well documented the
processes observed during recovery in an IF-steel [b].
Independent of cell morphology, the microstructures
(a)
1 m
(b)
1 m
(c)
1 m
148
Metal Forming
800
(a)
work hardening
work softening
r =75%
r =56%
r =47%
600
r =25%
r =13%
400
200
10
15
20
True strain / %
r =75%
(b)
750
600
450
300
150
10
15
20
25
True strain / %
800
y
UTS
Stress /MPa
700
600
500
References:
400
300
200
10
20
30
40
-1/2
/mm
50
60
70
-1/2
(b)
800
y
UTS
600
400
200
200
400
600
800
Temperature / C
900
Stress /MPa
[1] R.Z. Valiev, A.V. Korznikov, R.R. Mulyukov: Mater. Sci. Eng., A
168 (1993), 141.
[2] N. Tsuji, Y. Saito, H. Utsunomiya, S. Tanigawa: Scripta Mater., 40
(1999), 795.
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893.
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[6] R.K. Ray, J.J. Jonas, R.E. Hook: Int. Mater. Rev., 39 (1994), 129.
[7] S. H. Lee, D. N. Lee: Mater. Sci. Eng. A249 (1998), 84.
[8] F. Emren, U. Von Schlenbach, K. Lucke: Acta metal, 34 (1986)
1205.
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(1990), 2985.
[10] D. Raabe, K. Lucke: Scripta Metall 27 (1992) 1533.
[11] I. Samajdar, B. Verlinden, L. Kesten, P. Van Houtte: Acta Mater., 47
(1999), 55.
[12] B. Peeters, B. Bacroix, C. Teodosiu, P. V. Houtte: Acta Mater., 49
(2001), 1621.
[13] R. J. Roe: J. Appl Phys, 36 (1965), 2024.
[14] D.A. Hughes, N. Hansen. Acta Mater., 48 (2000), 2985.
[15] Q. Liu, X. Huang, N. Hansen: Acta Mater., 50 (2002), 3789.
[16] S.H. Choi, Y.S. Jin: Mater. Sci. Eng., A 371 (1-2) (2004), 149.
[17] A. Samet-Meziou, A.L. Etter, T. Baudin, R. Penelle: Mater. Sci. Eng.,
473 (2008), 342.
[18] E. W. Hart: Acta Metall Mater., 15 (1967), 351.
[19] Y.F. Shen, W.Y. Xue, Y.D. Wang, Y.D. Liu, L. Zuo: Mater. Sci. Eng.,
A 496 (2008), 383.
[20] Y.C. Lin, M. Chen, J. Zhong: J. Mater. Proc. Tech., 209 (2009),
2477.
149
Metal Forming
Analysis of Edge Cracks Initiation and Propagation during Cold Rolling of Thin Strip
1)
1)
2)
Haibo Xie , Zhengyi Jiang , Daniel Yuen
1)
2)
School of Mechanical, Materials and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong / Australia, hx899@uow.edu.au;
BlueScope Steel Research, BlueScope Steel Limited, Port Kembla / Australia
Cracks in metal product decrease the strength, rigidity, toughness, plasticity and residual life, which affect the thin strip quality and productivity significantly. An experimental investigation was performed on the mechanics of edge crack initiation and propagation for thin strip
during cold rolling. The effects of key rolling parameters on edge crack evolution were examined with data obtained from experiments. The
high resolution scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique provides an effective tool for observation and analysis of the edge crack
initiation and growth. The proposed method for predicting edge crack contributes to the production of defect-free products in rolling, and
provides insights into the mechanics of edge crack growth that has been occasionally encountered in thin strip rolling. The results show that
the cracks of the cold rolled strip are generated due to metallurgical defects and the accumulation of work hardening during rolling. The
maximum total reduction before the occurrence of edge cracking is discussed.
Keywords: Edge crack, Crack initiation, Thin strip, Rolling parameters, Mechanics, Experimental analysis
Introduction
Cold rolling is one of the essential elements in the
manufacturing of plate, and sheet products of steel and its
alloys. One of the important aspects in improving the
quality of rolled strips is to ensure that the surface of the
cold rolled product is free of defects. Edge crack which
forms mainly at the edges of a rolled product is thought to
be due in part to local tensile stresses occurring in the
rolled products. This defect occurs with increasing frequency in the cold rolling of thin strip. Edge-crack induced mill crashes and non-prime products lead to significant productivity losses, and a method of dealing with
these defects is of considerable interest. The evolution of
edge cracking during rolling is complicated, depending on
rolling conditions and mechanical properties of the rolled
strip. It is necessary to provide sufficient information
about the edge crack mechanisms relevant to the rolling
process. Limited ductility, variation of stresses across the
width of the rolled material and uneven deformation at the
edges are some of the main reasons for such defects. There
are numerous publications in the literature on cracks research. The physical defects in the metal forming processes were reported in Refs [1, 2]. Oyane et al. [3] presented criteria for ductile fracture and their application,
Jenner and Dodd [4] reported cold upsetting and free surface ductility. An experimental investigation of crack initiation was reported by Daly et al. [5]. The analysis and
prevention of cracking phenomena during bending and
cold forging were proposed in Refs [6, 7]. Le et al. [8]
carried out the research on surface oxide fracture in cold
aluminium rolling. Refs [9-12] conducted study on edge
cracks during metal forming. In situ SEM application on
crack research was presented in Refs [13-15]. However,
very few publications reported a systematic research on
edge cracking during thin strip rolling.
In this study, the mechanisms of edge cracking are investigated using optical and scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) on edge-cracked samples prepared from a laboratory rolling mill. The progressive nature of edge crack and
the influence of rolling parameters etc. on the initiation
and growth of edge cracks have been studied. The mecha-
150
nism of the crack initiation has been observed by metallographic and scanning microscopy analysis. By understanding the evolution of the edge crack through the rolling schedule, the optimum rolling parameters can be found
to reduce the occurrence of edge cracks for thin-gauge
products.
Material and Experiment
Experiments were conducted to determine the crack initiation, crack location and crack orientation along the thin
strip edge. The experimental material was low-carbon steel.
Edge-trimmed hot-rolled samples of 2 mm thick were
collected from a commercial production line and cut to
100mm wide (with the side-trimmed edges preserved) for
cold rolling on a Hille 100 laboratory rolling mill. In order
to examine the evolution of different features of the
trimmed edges and to identify the point of initiation of the
edge cracks, a total of 9 passes have been employed to
achieve an overall thickness reduction of 90% for the strip.
Rolling was performed on two-high mill configuration
with the diameter of 250mm and pass reductions of around
30%. After each pass, a sample was collected for further
analysis. The microscopic analysis of the cold-rolled samples was conducted on Optical Microscope and SEM.
Results and Discussion
Micro Hardness across Rolled Strip Width. The micro-hardness HV5 across the strip width is shown in Figure 1 after various rolling passes. It is observed that the
micro-hardness decreases with the distance from the edge.
At the same time, it can be seen that the micro-hardness
increases with rolling passes. Work hardening was significant from pass 4 to pass 5 during the laboratory rolling
with hardness increasing from 250 HV5 to 278 HV5.
Work hardening will affect the formation of edge cracks in
the subsequent passes. It is noted that the hot-rolled sample, the micro-hardness distribution is rather uniform
across the width as indicated in Figure 1.
Initiation and Propagation of Edge Crack. Figure 2
shows the SEM micrograph of the rolled strip edge after
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
pass 4. It can be seen that there is no evident changes at
the strip edges and the cross section of normal direction
and transverse direction looks very tight, as shown in
Figure 2(a) and (b). No edge cracks occurred in pass 4.
aligned almost in a straight line perpendicular to the rolling direction, and coincide with the orientation of the edge
cracks.
(a)
(b)
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Figure 3. SEM micrograph after pass 5: (a) magnification 30, (b)
magnification 100, (c) magnification 200 and (d) magnification 500.
(c)
Figure 2. SEM micrograph after pass 4 (RD: Rolling direction; ND:
Normal (thickness) direction; TD: Transverse direction): (a) section
of TD and RD magnification 50, (b) section of ND and RD and (c)
section of TD and RD, magnification 500.
The SEM micrograph of the surface of the strip edge reveals the presence of a large number of pores near the strip
edge, as shown in Figure 2(c). Some of the pores are
151
Metal Forming
component increases. This leads to open up the crack.
Combined with Figure 1, it can be seen that the effect of
micro-hardness is significant on the occurrence of edge
cracks. The large drop in micro-hardness of the rolled strip
across the width decreases the deformation of the rolled
strip, and increases the variation of stresses across the
width of the rolled strip.
The SEM micrograph after pass 6 is shown in Figure 4.
In the transverse direction, the edge cracks extend to the
bulk of the strip from the edge.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4. SEM micrograph after pass 6: (a) magnification 30, (b)
magnification 200 and (c) magnification 900.
(b)
Figure 5. Edge profile change during cold rolling: (a) before rolling
(b) after rolling.
152
Metal Forming
and the ductility of the rolled strip. Tensile stress provides
the driving force for edge cracking, resulting directly from
the deformation process or induced by the effect of bulk
deformation on unsupported edges. The induced
longitudinal tensile stresses at the edges are responsible
for edge cracking. The outermost material at the edge is
partly uninfluenced by the compressive forces transmitted
by the rolls to the bulk of the strip. Deformation of this
strip edge results from the stresses transmitted with the
strip. As the strip is extended in the rolling direction,
longitudinal tensile stresses would be induced at the edges
which would eventually cause edge cracks.
Conclusion
Edge cracking in rolling has been attributed to
secondary tensile stresses induced at the rolled strip
surfaces by inhomogeneous deformation. Work hardening
reduces the ductility of the rolled strip, and accelerates the
edge cracking. The large drop in micro-hardness of the
rolled strip across the width decreases the deformation of
the rolled strip, and increases the variation of stresses
across the width of the rolled strip. The edge cracks are
located at an angle of approximately 45 with respect to
the rolling direction where shear stress has its maximum
value. As the thickness of the strip decreased, the cracks
were found to curve around and be opposite to the rolling
direction. In this study, the critical total reduction for edge
153
Metal Forming
Introduction
In recent years, as the requirements have greatly
increased with regards to the dimensional accuracy along
the length as well as the width, crown and shape control
has become one of the most important factors affecting the
strip quality. Setup control on continuous strip mills must
establish the actual numerical values for the desired strip
crown, strip flatness, exit thickness. These controls are not
independent and performed in accordance with a complex
mathematical model. This has led to the accomplishment
of automation solution for all the most important processes
and optimization of different process parameters to
improve the quality of product.
Many different methods have been developed to control
profile and flatness of the strip. The most common method
is roll bending. In this method the strip profile is modified
by elastic bending of the work rolls. Roll bending is
achieved via a set of hydraulic jacks acting on the work
rolls and or backup rolls chocks located at the rolls end. To
modify the wear crown this method is usually combined
with axially roll shifting methods. A detailed description
of different method and tooling is presented by Ginzburg
[1].
(1)
L
H
5
I=
105 =
10
L
2L
(2)
1.86
C
C
h
h
(3)
80 o
< i o < 40 o
W
h
h
W
o
i
where indices i and o refer to stand input and output strip.
Mill performance depends on not only the selected
control devices, but also the control concept and algorithm.
Most of the models developed for prediction of flatness
are based on iterative approaches involving large
computational costs [3].
The strip profile is determined by the roll deformation
caused by the rolling load as well as the initial crown
camber, thermal camber and wear contour of the work
rolls and the backup rolls. Many different mathematical
Metal Forming
models have been developed to simulate the rolling mill.
Such deformation models are basically divided into three
groups; Simple Beam Methods, Slit Beam Method and
Finite Element Method. The simple beam method in which
the work rolls are considered as straight elastic beams is
not accurate enough as it does not take into account
important parameters such as initial strip crown, roll wear
etc. The slit beam method that first proposed by Shohet
and Townsend [4] is an effective method with satisfactory
accuracy. The required time is very low making it suitable
for online application. However, this approach has limited
accuracy.
The FEM is more accurate than the two obove
mentioned methods. The prediction accuracy of a precisely
formulated FE process model is excellent. However a FE
process model requires a large CPU time and not suitable
for online applications [1].
In recent years, models based on a combination of
artificial neural network (ANN) and genetic algorithms
(GA) are developed. With the use of such advance process
models the required setting of the roll gap actuators can
be accurately calculated to optimise the roll gap profile
very quickly. GA is meant for the optimsation of few
selected process parameters afecting the flatness of the
strip and forms a closed loop with ANN [5].
Modeling
The aim of this work is to present a model for accurate
and quick prediction of strip thickness profile and flatness
index. The main parameters affecting strip shape are a
combination of roll camber, roll deflection, rolls flattening,
friction condition, strain-hardening of strip and interaction
of rolls which make the analysis very complicated. Hence,
nonlinear mapping is utilized rather than complicated
mathematical models. However, the training data is the
first step in developing a neural network.
Elastic Deformation of Rolls and Stands. Slit beam
method (SBM) is employed for computation of elastic
deformation of rolls and stands during successive steps.
The result of this validated model [4] includes the strip
profile and roll bending force.
The continuous variation of the unloaded roll gap profile
results from mechanical, thermal and wear camber effects.
Even though this method has its own limitations such as
simple bending assumptions, it is still the most convenient
one due to its acceptable accuracy and computation time in
determining the elastic deformations during the rolling
process. In the deflection analysis, symmetry is assumed
about the vertical centre line as well as the mid-thickness
of the strip. The work roll and back up rolls are divided
into a suitable number of m elements while the strip is
divided to n elements. Updated work roll gap profile is
obtained from the computation.
Neural Network Model. Artificial neural networks are
interconnected networks of a number of neurons or nodes.
A neuron is called a small processing unit that takes input
and gives output. A multi-layered perceptron (MLP) is a
feed-forward neural network consisting of one input layer,
one output layer and one or more hidden layers in between.
155
Metal Forming
usually
equations
like
F = (x x 0 )
which
are
Strip Number
1
33.5
34
33.6
36.3
35.9
3.2
2.8
1.9
2.5
2.5
15.8
13.3
16.4
12.6
10.4
6.6
5.6
6.9
5.3
4.4
1125
1050
1000
950
778
88
102
115
125
138
1
1+
I (x ) + C
i
i =1
aim
C (x )
(4)
Function [5]
=
1
1 + (Fo Ft ) 10 3
(5)
i =1
(h (i )
2
H (i )(1 r ))
0 .5
(6)
F =
(C C t )2 + C in
hin
C out
hout
(7)
Function [7]
=
Metal Forming
Table 3. Strip flatness Index (IU).
Strip
Number
Function (4)
Function (5)
Function (7)
151
167
155
144
-71
-36
269
125
117
482
94
54
-297
102
88
Conclusions
Function (4)
Function (5)
Function (7)
1.4
1.1
2.4
2
3
4
5
4.5
1.8
3.3
2.9
2.2
1.3
0.7
3.4
0.9
1.6
1.1
2.9
157
Metal Forming
Division of Materials and Manufacturing Science, Osaka University, Suita / Japan, uts@mat.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp; 2) Institute of Scientific and
Industrial Research, Osaka University, Ibaraki / Japan; 3) Present: Toyo Aluminium K.K., Osaka / Japan; 4) Present: Waseda Institute for
Advanced Study, Waseda University, Tokyo / Japan
Although forming processes of porous metals are demanded for industrial applications, the deformation characteristics have not been
understood sufficiently. It is important to suppress pore closure during forming. In this study, lotus-type porous copper plates with onedimensional pores were processed by multi-pass cold rolling. At the early stage of rolling, elongation in the rolling direction is small. The
porosity decreases almost linearly with increasing total reduction in thickness. It is found that the pass schedule with small draught on small
rolls is effective to suppress pore closure. It is also found that the internal deformation of the porous metal is not uniform. Some pores are
closed apparently, while others change little. The hardness increases almost linearly with the total reduction. If the effective total reduction
excluding volume change is considered, the hardness change is similar to that of a nonporous copper.
Keywords: Lotus copper, Densification, Contact length, Pass schedule, Effective strain, Vickers hardness, Plastic Instability
Introduction
Experiment
158
hm = (hi 1 + 2hi ) / 3
(1)
Metal Forming
where hi 1 and hi are the thickness before and after the i-th
rolling pass, respectively. The aspect ratio L/hm calculated
is 2.3-6.4 for the schedule A, while 0.8-2.3 for the
schedule B. The nonporous cast copper was also rolled
with the schedule A for comparison.
The changes in thickness, width and length were
measured. The small specimens were sampled from the
rolled plates when the total reduction in thickness was 36,
60, 80 and 90%. The weight and the volume of the
specimens were measured to calculate the density. The
specimens were also subjected to optical microscopy and
hardness test. Vickers hardness was measured on cross
section with an indentation load of 500 gf (4.9 N) at
positions sufficiently away from pores.
Results
Changes in (a) elongation, (b) porosity and (c) hardness
are shown in Figure 3. The elongation (nominal strain in
the rolling direction) of the nonporous copper is close to
(a) Elongation
(b) Porosity
(c) Hardness
Figure 3. (a) elongation, (b) porosity and (c) hardness as a function of total reduction in thickness.
159
Metal Forming
Figure 5. Deformation during the second pass of the schedule A. Thickness 7.9mm is reduced to 6.4mm.
160
gdeformation
r zone is shown
e with 45 de e inclined
dashed lines in the figure. Elongated pores are subjected to
shear deformation at the entrance. It is notable that not all
pores but some selected pores are closed severely. The
selected pores are arranged along the bands almost parallel
to the entrance. These bands are macroscopic shear bands.
It is also notable that this shear deformation is not
continuous but intermittent. Shear bands can be found
periodically as indicated by arrows. Slope of shear bands
becomes shallower with thickness reduction in the roll
bite. Therefore, the pore closure is an example of plastic
instability phenomena. This phenomenon is similar to
waviness of layer after rolling of multi-layered clad sheets
[9], so called sausaging, though more remarkable. After
passing the entrance, the deformation in the roll bite is
relatively uniform. As the thickness decreases gradually,
the shape pores changes from circles to ovals accordingly.
Discussion
In order to discuss the deformation characteristics
quantitatively, the total reduction in thickness r is
P
subdivided into the total reduction in pore rt and that in
Cu
copper rt . If the porous copper is regarded as a binary
alloy of pore and copper, the total reductions in pore
rt P can be defined as,
rt P =
0 (1 r )
0
(2)
Metal Forming
(a) schedule A
(b) schedule B
Figure 6. Reductions in pore and that in copper.
rtCu =
(1 0 ) (1 r )(1 )
1 0
(3)
161
Metal Forming
Chattering Control Based Algorithm for Nonlinear Optimization of 5-Stands Cold Strip
Rolling Process Parameters
Mohammad Reza Niroomand, Mohammad Reza Forouzan, Mohammad Fasihfar, Mahmoud Salimi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan / mr_niroomand@me.iut.ac.ir
Chatter is usually one of the most difficult tasks to overcome in a rolling mill. Chatter is often associated with high rolling speeds and high
reductions, conditions that are generally desirable in order to increase mill productivity. This paper presents the combination of various
methods to optimize the 5-stands rolling process parameters in order to increase the rolling speed, preventing chatter to occur. This study is
done in four stages: Dynamic modeling of rolling process, fractional factorial designing in order to address the response, developing a
statistical model to relate response and independent variables, and finally optimizing the process by simulated annealing algorithm. In the
first stage, a chatter model of 5-stands rolling process is presented. Every stand has two sub models for rolling process and structure. In
the second stage, fractional factorial design is carried out in order to compute the System Equivalent Damping (SED) parameter for various
conditions. SED is a parameter that can be used as a criterion to find safety margin to chatter. Selected design factors are friction coefficient and reduction of 5-stands and speed of strip. In this study a 2 11 5 design has been selected. In the third stage, a model has been
developed for SED using statistical analysis. In the last stage, an optimization algorithm called simulated annealing is applied to response
surface to optimize the rolling process parameters. In the optimization problem the rolling speed was defined as the objective function
which should be maximized. Various constraints exist in this problem: bounds that present the minimum and maximum values of each
variable, nonlinear constraint according to SED (response surface created by regression) and equality constraint according to total reduction of 50%. By using this combination method, significant improvement achieved in rolling speed.
Keywords: Chatter, Optimization, Strip rolling, Design of experiment, Statistical analysis, simulated annealing
Introduction
Chatter has been recognized as a major restriction to increase productivity of cold rolling processes. Particularly,
chattering limits the rolling speed, which is recognized as
one of the important factors in developing cold rolling
technology for thin steel strips with high strength. In order
to control and suppress chatter in cold rolling operations, a
comprehensive understanding of the dynamic nature of
plastic deformation of the strip and vibration in the mill
are required.
Chatter is a particular case of self-excited vibrations
which are believed to arise in rolling operations as a consequence of the interaction between the structural dynamics of the mill stand and the dynamics of the rolling operation itself [1]. So far Mathematical models for the plastic
deformation during rolling process have been established
with various degrees of simplification or limitation. Conventional models such as Alexander [2], Christensen et al.
[3], Gunasekera [4], and Lalli [5] offer fairly accurate
estimations of the rolling parameters, but are not suitably
applicable in dynamic analysis.
Tlusty [6] explained the dynamic behaviour of chatter.
They undertook the change in the contact length between
rolls and the strip during vibration and calculated the resulting roll force change. They also established a criterion
for system instability. Hu [7] further extended the analysis
of rolling chatter by using an enhanced rolling process
model.
A linear dynamic rolling process model has been proposed by Hu and Ehmann [8] that relaxes many of the
assumptions of the rolling process models reported in the
literature.
162
x(t ) = X 0 e nt (t )
(2)
Metal Forming
Dynamic Modeling of Chatter
The chatter model for a single stand can be formulated
by combining the rolling process model with an appropriate structural model. Block diagram of a single-stand chatter model is presented in Figure 1. Both of the sub-models
are linearized around the steady state working point and
their interaction is simulated using the SIMULINK tool of
the MATLAB software.
been selected. Resolution of this design allows us to estimate all the main effects; also all main effects and two
factor interaction effects are unconfounded. This means
the effect of main factors and two factor interactions are
recognizable from each other. Thus, 64 executions were
conducted at parameter levels shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Process parameters and their levels.
1
0.045
7%
11.5
Figure 2. Chatter model of 5-stands rolling.
Level
2
0.095
21%
15.5
Factor
163
Metal Forming
The interaction plot for the SED can be observed in Figure 7. As has been stated, some interactions (F1* F2,
R4*R5, R1*V, R5*V,) are more significant.
Regression analysis is performed to find out the relationship between factors and SED. A value of 0.783 was
obtained for the R 2 statistic, which signifies that the model
explains 78.3% of the variability of SED, whereas the
adjusted R 2 -statistic ( R 2 adj ) is 0.910.
Figure 6 depicts the plot of factor effects on SED. This
plot can be used to graphically assess the effects of factors
on response and also to compare the relative strength of
the effects across factors. Figure 6 indicates that all reductions and speed have significant effect on SED. Furthermore, it is seen from Figure 6 that all friction coefficient
are inversely proportional to SED. Of course unless in last
stand, they present little effect on SED.
164
Metal Forming
Optimization by Simulated Annealing
In this stage, an optimization algorithm called simulated
annealing is applied to response surface to optimize the
rolling process parameters. It has been shown that the
simulated annealing algorithm possesses several advantages in comparison with traditional search algorithms.
First, the simulated annealing algorithm does not need to
calculate the gradient descent that is required for most
traditional search algorithms. This means that the simulated annealing algorithm can be applied to all kinds of
objective and constraint functions. Next, the simulated
annealing algorithm with probabilistic hill-climbing characteristics can find the global minimum more efficiently
instead of becoming trapped in a local minimum where the
objective function has surrounding barriers. Furthermore,
the simulated annealing search is independent of initial
conditions. As a result, the simulated annealing algorithm
has emerged as a general optimization tool and has been
successfully applied in many manufacturing tasks [1214].
As mentioned previous the objective function for optimization is rolling speed. Various constraints exist in this
problem: bounds that present the minimum and maximum
values of each variable, nonlinear constraint according to
SED (response surface created by regression) and nonlinear equality constraint according to total reduction of 50%.
The optimization problem according to above constraints carried out by simulated annealing and optimum
values achieved. Table 2 presents the optimum values of
the parameters.
0.05
Friction (stand2)
0.07
Friction (stand3)
0.07
Friction (stand4)
0.09
Friction (stand5)
0.09
Reduction (stand 1)
0.08
Reduction (stand 2)
0.16
Reduction (stand 3)
0.11
Reduction (stand 4)
0.08
Reduction (stand 5)
0.21
16.6
References
[1] I. Yun: Ph.D. thesis, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois,
(1995).
[2] J. M. Alexander: Proc. R. Soc. London, (1972), 535-555.
[3] P. Christensen, H. Everfelt, N. Bay: Annals of CIRP, 35 (1986) 141146.
[4] J.S. Gunasekera, J.M. Alexander: Annals of CIRP, 36 (1987), 203-206.
[5] L.A. Lalli: ASME Journal of Engineering Materials & Technology,
106 (1984), 1-8.
[6] J. Tlusty, S. Critchley, D. Paton: Annals of CIRP, 31 (1982), 195-199.
[7] P.R. Hu: Ph.D. Thesis, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois,
(1998).
[8] P.R. Hu, K.F. Ehmann: International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture, 40 (2000), 1-19.
[9] M.R. Forouzan, I. Kiyani, M. Salimi, A.R. Ghasemi, Steel Research
International, Special Edition 79 (2008), 475-482
[10] M.R. Forouzan, I. Kiyani, M.R. Niroomand, M. Salimi: Steel Research International, Special Edition 79 (2008), 483-489
[11] D.C. Montgomery: Design and Analysis of Experiments, John Willy
& Sons Inc, (2000).
[12] R.A. Rutenbar: IEEE Circuits Devices Mag. 5-1 (1989), 1926.
[13] B.W. Lee, B.J. Sheu: Kluwer Academic Publishers, London, (1991).
[14] Y.S. Tarng, S.C. Ma, L.K. Chung: International Journal of Machine
Tools Manufacturing 35-12 (1995), 16931701.
Optimization of rolling process parameters base on chatter phenomena was achieved successfully using a new
combined method. Selected design factors are friction
coefficient and reduction of 5 stands and speed of strip.
165
Metal Forming
Experimental and Numerical Studies of Edge Cracks of a Silicon Steel Strip in Cold
Rolling
Sang Min Byon1), Jae Hyeon Lee1), Youngseog Lee2)
1)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dong-A University, Busan / Korea;
sity, Seoul / Korea, ysl@cau.ac.kr
2)
We examined the edge cracking behavior in a silicon steel strip, caused by waviness using a pilot rolling test. The specific results of this
waviness are that the edge (or side) portions of the strip are stretched, and the center is compressed in the rolling direction due to different
deformation conditions. We designed roll grooves shaped to reflect the role of roll bending, which generates waviness in the strip in an
actual cold rolling process, into the pilot rolling test. The material used in the rolling test was high-silicon steel (about 3%). A series of threedimensional finite element analyses was also performed to quantitatively investigate the stress distribution in the strip specimen when
subjected to different deformation conditions during rolling. Results showed that fracture in the strip specimen initiated and propagated
when waviness occurred at its center. The tensile stress created on the strip edge by the center waviness toward the rolling direction is a
crucial factor that produces the edge cracking.
Keywords: Edge cracking, Silicon steel, Roll groove, Waviness, Finite element analysis
Introduction
A steel that contains a silicon component for example,
about 0.5-5 wt % is called a silicon steel. It has been
commonly used as a core material in all types of electric
transformers and motors because it has a highly efficient
magnetic field when it is charged with electricity. In general, the magnetic quality of silicon steel is proportional to
the amount of silicon component present. Therefore, highsilicon steel has been in great demand for energy-efficient
equipment.
Two problems occur when high-silicon steel in strip
form is manufactured through the rolling process. First, in
comparison with common carbon and stainless steels, the
deformation behavior of high-silicon steel has limited
ductility, even at room temperature, due to the high silicon
content. As a result, we have to consider the local failure
of material during rolling. Second, there is an aspect to the
shape problem of the strip during rolling. The ratio of
width to thickness of the silicon steel strip is very large in
an actual cold rolling. The width is about 1000 mm, and
the thickness is about 2.3 mm, even at the first pass of cold
rolling [1,2]. Hence, the work rolls bend elastically at its
middle and it causes waviness (lack of flatness) in the
thin-gage strip, depending upon the shape of incoming
strip, reduction ratios in a give pass, setup of roll bender
and the speed of forward and backward tension reels, and,
etc.
The results of this waviness are that the edge (or side)
portions of the strip are stretched in tension, and the center
is compressed in the rolling direction, and vice versa [3].
Hence, along the rolling direction, tensile stress is generated at the edge of the strip, while compressive stress is
generated at its center. Subsequently, the silicon steel strip
might fracture locally on the sides (or edges) during cold
rolling if the tensile stress exceeds the failure stress of the
silicon steel strip. In a cold rolling mill yard, the local
failure of the strip is called edge cracking [4].
High-silicon steel inevitably has many defects through
hot rolling due to its material characteristics. The defects
are apparent with the naked eye. If the strip is rolled again
166
Metal Forming
rolled a low-carbon steel (0.1 %C) to investigate the effect
of material characteristics on edge cracking. To analyze
the edge cracking from the perspective of mechanics, we
have also performed finite element analysis and examined
the stress distributions in the regions in which the waviness is significant.
RA=396
RB=396
Flat
roll
Unit : mm
Upper roll
200
760
120
Lower roll
Specimen
Roll gap gage
Unit : mm
Figure 1. Pilot rolling mill to test edge cracking of strip specimen
with narrow width.
Experiment
Pilot Cold Rolling Mill and Roll Groove. Figure 1
shows the pilot cold rolling mill with a single stand, driven
by an 11 kW constant torque DC motor. A ductile casting
iron (DCI) work roll was used, with a maximum diameter
of 120 mm and a face width of 200 mm. Upper and lower
rolls rotate in the opposite direction and bite a strip specimen.
Initial shape of strip
R
RA
RB Upper roll
Upper roll
RB
R A Lower roll
Roll center line
(a) Concave roll groove
Lower roll
Rolling direction
2
25 Unit : mm
6
300
Concave roll
r
(b) Convex roll groove
0.2
n=t=0
RA
Symmetric
plane
un=t=0
RB Convex roll
r
n=t=0
Symmetric
plane
un=t=0
167
Metal Forming
good capability to analyze the non-linear behavior of severe elastic-plastic deformation.
Table 1. Description of parameters for FE analysis.
Symbols
un
ut
n
t
r
RA
RB
Meanings
Normal displacement
Tangential displacement
Normal surface traction
Tangential surface traction
Angular speed of roll
Radius of concave curvature
Radius of convex curvature
Specimen
Specimen
Specimen
2 mm
2 mm
Specimen
Specimen
Specimen
(a)
Specimen
(b)
Specimen
(c)
Figure 7(b) shows the strip specimens rolled by the concave groove roll. We can see that the notch closed during
168
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 8. Rolling test for edge cracking of low carbon steel
(0.1%C) strip by a groove roll.
To examine the dependency of the edge cracking on material characteristics, we have performed a pilot rolling test,
using a low-carbon steel (0.1 %C) specimen, as shown in
Figure 8. We used the same roll grooves and the reduction
ratio mentioned above. Even though the waviness was
created at the edge and center portions of the specimen, no
fracture at the notch tips was observed. We can reason that
the edge cracking of a material during cold rolling is
closely related to material characteristics, i.e., its low ductility.
Finite Element Analysis. We have performed finite
element analysis to better understand the edge cracking
behavior. Rolling conditions are summarized in Table 2.
We have performed FE analysis for the cases with a radius
of curvature of 200, 400, 600 mm and infinity (i.e., flat).
Figure 9 shows the rolling direction stresses across the
strip width during rolling. Positive stress represents tensile,
while negative stress is compressive. In the case of the
concave groove, the variations in the rolling direction
stresses along the strip width are shown in Figure 9(a).
Since the roll diameter at the edge portion is greater than
that at the center, compressive stresses prevail at the edge
Metal Forming
portion, and very weak tensile stresses are generated at the
center. As the radius of curvature (RA) of the concave
groove decreases, the deformation gradient between the
center and edge regions increases. This causes the slope of
stress distribution to increase along the strip width. The
simulation results also indicate that the concave grooves
have no effect on the occurrence of the edge cracking,
since the compressive stress acts at the edge part of the
strip.
Table 2. Rolling conditions used in FE analysis.
Initial thickness of strip
Thickness reduction ratio
Width of strip
2.3 mm
42%
25 mm
120 mm
21 rpm
[MPa]
500
250
Edg
e
[MPa]
Center
RA
line
(a) Concave roll groove
1000
500
0
-500
-1000
-1500
Center
Acknowledgements
References
-250
Center
This study has performed a pilot cold rolling test to realize the waviness in the high-silicon steel strip occurring in
an actual operating situation of a cold rolling mill and to
observe edge cracking initiated by failure at the side of the
strip. For this purpose, we designed concave and convex
roll grooves. The strip specimen (300 mm long, 25 mm
wide and 2.3 mm thick) for the rolling test has notches on
the sides. With these specimens, we conducted a series of
rolling tests to find a condition that does not initiate failure
at the notches.
If we can set up a rolling condition that leads to waviness at the edge (or side) of the strip specimen; then, edge
cracking would not occur. This is because the rolling direction compressive stresses created during rolling inhibit
failure initiation at the notches. Hence, operators in a cold
rolling mill should control the roll bender to give some
waviness at the edge of the strip if keeping the strip flat
(uniform thickness along its width) during rolling is difficult. Meanwhile, in cases where waviness occurs at the
center of the strip, the edge cracking is significant due to
the rolling direction tensile stress acting near the tips of
the notches. Therefore, we must avoid situations where the
center of the strip has waviness during rolling.
RA=200mm
RA=400mm
RA=600mm
-500
Concluding Remarks
RB=200mm
RB=400mm
RB=600mm
Flat roll
RB
[1] H.G. Hilbert, H.J. Roemmen, K.E. Boucke: Iron and Steel Engineer,
(1976), 25-31.
[2] M. Espenhahn, G. Giermann: Metallurgical Plant Technology, 11-5
(1988), 70-76.
[3] G.E. Dieter: Mechanical Metallurgy, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill Inc,
(1986).
[4] N. Nishiura: Proceedings of Current Advances in Materials and
Processes, Proc. 136th ISIJ Meeting, September (1998), 1000.
[5] S.M. Byon, W.H. Lee, S.G. Choi: POSCO Technical Report, 8-1
(2003), 151-156.
[6] S.M. Byon, U.K. Yoo, Y. Lee: International Journal of Modern Physics B, 22-31-32 (2008), 5400-5405.
Edg
e
Center
line
(b) Convex roll groove
Figure 9. FE analysis of rolling direction stress (xx) across strip
width during rolling.
169
Metal Forming
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo / Finland, jari.larkiola@vtt.fi; 2) Rautaruukki Oyj, Hmeenlinna / Finland
A prototype of virtual rolling quality system for a 4 stands cold rolling process is created. In this system, virtual sensors and models are
used to calculate quality features based on process information and analyzed history data. The virtual-sensor technology is developed for
estimating of hard-to-measure variables and further on to define methods to automatically detect and hierarchically classify deviations in
rolling values and strip quality related to thickness, flatness, profile, etc. The analysis of the process data is done by means of classical
rolling theories, statistical methods and databased methods such as artificial neural networks to identify and quantify the main effects on
strip quality. The flatness and hot strip thickness profiles are decomposed into independent components by means of Chebyshev polynomia
coefficients. The strip quality related measurements are also collected to the appropriate extent from up- and downstream processing lines.
Keywords: Cold rolling, Modelling, Friction, Monitoring, Setup calculations, Classification
Introduction
Instead of using average data of the coil, the advanced
process data acquisition system enables the exploitation of
the on-line data. These continuous measurements make it
possible to see variations of the process and setup models
can be then developed to be more accurate by using information from rolling conditions. In addition, different
velocity phases including threading in, low speed, acceleration, run speed and deceleration are taken into account
during analyzing process.
A processibility of the new steel grades and dimensions
can be predicted more accurate by utilizing up to date
results of analyzed process data e.g. the material flow
stress curves. This speeds up the development work of the
new steel product and shortens the time from enquiry to
trial and further on to the customer delivery. As well the
dimensional ranges can be extended using more exact
process parameters and constraints defined by analyzing
system
Monitoring System
Monitoring system for 4 stand tandem cold mill process
reads strip related data from the automation system after
the coil has finished and data stored into the database. This
time series input data is analysed by taking different velocity phases into account. Average parameter values describing strip properties, process parameters and rolling conditions like thickness, speed, strength, force and friction, are
calculated for each velocity phase. This averaged time
series data along with other coil and process characteristics is stored in the database.
The monitoring system software was implemented to
keep it flexible and user extendible. All the database interfaces are defined in external tables which the user can
easily define and modify. This covers the coil related process data read from the production database and the data
calculated by the monitoring system itself and stored in a
separate analysis database. If the user wants to add new
source data tables or new variables from existing tables,
there is typically no need to recompile the software. It is
enough just to add some new entries into the definition
tables.
170
h
P = 2k R' 1 2 e H d + 1 1 e ( H1 H ) d (1)
2k
0 h2 2k
n h1
and
Metal Forming
,
r
= 0,4ret + 0,6ret
km
in
out
(2)
171
Metal Forming
shape (quarter buckles or center and edge loose on both
sides of the strip) and x is the unitless widthvector [-1..1].
Coefficients of the polynom are solved by matrix calculation using the least square method.
Special solver is created to calculate 4x4 matrix and this
is done already in data acquisition server. Average and
standard deviation values of Chebyshev coefficients are
calculated from 3 rolling phases (thread-in, run and tailout). Quality indicators are calculated for flatness and
transversal thickness profile to be able to validate and
detect good and bad coils from large amount of data.
Flatness index is created for flatness classification using
Eq. 4. An example of flatness report is shown in Figure 3.
Flat _ idx = {(| T1 _ avg | + | T 2 _ avg | + | T 3 _ avg | + | T 4 _ avg | + (4)
| T1 _ dev | + | T 2 _ dev | + | T 3 _ dev | + | T 4 _ dev |) / sfac}* H _ comp)
Figure 3. Flatness rsults of coil and calculated average Chebyshev coefficients T1-T4 and correlation R.
172
Metal Forming
next line info, work roll wear and exit speed. Material data,
mill constraints and rolling directive values (reductions
and tensions etc.) are updated from tandem mill rolling
strategy.
The off- line prediction module can use input set which
consist of thousands of strips and is used to determine
dimensional ranges or to optimize rolling efficiency by
varying process variables like reductions and tensions.
Before simulation calculations, model parameters are
adjusted using measured data from earlier rolled similar
coils which have been analysed using monitoring system.
Output values are verified against constraints and special
rollability factors. These so-called decision variables include typical roll force, tensions, roll torque and work roll
bending limitations. Special effort is put to calculate practical limitations to factors which describe friction conditions and its influence to rollability in thread-in and run
states. Maximum possible reduction is achieved when the
neutral plane is close to the exit side. Also forward slip
and work roll flattening is checked using backward calculated values from measured coils. Flattening in the last
stand is difficult to predict when rolling hard and thin
material. Classical Hitchcocks formula is usable to some
extent but limit values are difficult to define. Better formula is needed for roll flattening calculations. Also pickling line and tandem mill coiler limitations are estimated.
All above described decision variables are checked against
violations and finally all restrictions are validated and
summarized to one result variable. If any of the constraints
are exceeded then result is 1 and the case is failed.
Conclusions and summary
173
Metal Forming
Introduction
In shape rolling, the deformation of material in each
pass is made by transmitting the ingoing billet through roll
grooves named caliber. In rolling of shape and profiled
bars, problems usually arise in achieving the full section in
a low number of passes. The design and adjustments of
multi-pass calibers are usually performed based on empirical methods and some trial and error that make such a
design expensive and time consuming.
Owing to the large CPU time required for simulating the
metal forming processes analytically, until 1980 most of
the studies on shape rolling were based on practical information [1-3]. The most famous investigator in this area is
Wusatowski who collected some experimental information
for sheet and shape rolling [1].
From the late 90th, finite element method was used for
modeling and analyzing of metal forming processes. The
first 3D finite element analysis on shape rolling was done
by Kobayashi and Chen [4], and then Lapovok and Thomson [5] used finite element method in caliber design. They
reached an optimized design for simple shape rolling according to the results of FE analysis.
In hot rolling processes, thermal conditions may be important. Kim and Im [6] studied the effect of heat transfer
on shape rolling and found out that this factor has a little
effect on geometry and force results due to the fact that the
contact length between rolling material and the rolls is
very short. Moreover, the oxide layer on the surface of
metals decreases the heat transfer between the two surfaces.
The spread of width of sheets is one of the most important factors in roll pass design in shape rolling. Spreading
in rolling processes is mostly based on independent factors
among which the most effective ones are the ratio of cross
section dimensions, reduction in height, friction between
metal and rolls, and the ratio of rolls radii to half of the
height of the ingoing bar. Some studies have been carried
out on the effect of these parameters on the lateral spread
in sheet and shape rolling, among which some have presented analytical solutions [7-9] and some have used numerical tools especially the finite element method [11,12].
In this article 3D finite element simulations were used to
find the relation between spread and reduction in different
174
(a) w 0 h 0 = 1.2
(b) w 0 h 0 = 2
(c) w 0 h 0 = 3
Figure 1. Different ingoing billets for different ratios of cross section dimensions.
Metal Forming
piece, in simulating the different frictional conditions
expressed by Eq. (1), a VFRIC subroutine [10] is used for
ABAQUS/Explicit. According to equation 1, the amount
of shear stress in contact surfaces is defined with a constant factor m. In this subroutine the value of m is considered to be 0.2, 0.5 and 0.75 in different simulations. Thus,
it is possible to model different frictional conditions.
According to Kim [6], the heat conduction to rolls in
each pass is considered to be negligible so that the temperature during each pass is assumed to be constant. The
temperature of material in these simulations is assumed to
be 1285C that is a prevalent temperature in hot shape
rolling.
Well characterization of material behavior in FE simulations can guarantee the accuracy of results in finite element modeling. The material to be used in FE modeling of
the work-piece is AISI 1018 steel. Figure 2 shows the
stress strain curve of AISI 1018 steel in the temperature
of 1285 C.
initial cross section and then rectangle calibers are designed to make a reduction in cross section in 3 stages.
The designs are based on checking the spread of metal in
each caliber. Using a 3D finite element method, the new
multi pass design is simulated. Then the roll forces, working power, plastic strain and exit cross section in each
stage are explored from the finite element analysis.
Figure 3 illustrates the finite element model in which
the angular velocities of the rolls are and the velocity of
the workpiece prior to contacting the rolls surfaces is V0.
After that the rolling is sustained, the work-piece speed at
each point is related to the rolls surface speed and the
geometrical conditions within the roll gap.
Results and Discussions
In roll pass design, the amount of spread is an important
factor; as a result, before starting the roll pass design, it is
necessary to find the relation between spread and other
rolling parameters. Consequently, the effect of different
rolling parameteres such as w 0 h 0 , R h 0 , m and reduction
on lateral spread are investigated via finite element
simulations. Figures 4 to 6 show the amount of spread for
aspect ratios of 1.2, 2 and 3.
In Figure 4, the value of spread is given for different aspect ratios where m=0.5 and R h 0 = 176.6 . In Figure 5, the
amount of friction coefficient is considered to be 0.75 and
0.2 while R h 0 = 80 . As shown in Figures 4 and 5, the
amount of spread has an inverse relation with the shape
175
Metal Forming
factor of the cross section ( w 0 h 0 ) and a direct relation
with the reduction in height of the section.
For exhibiting the effect of friction on spread, different
simulations with different friction factors are performed.
The results are shown in Figures 6 and 7. As illustrated in
these figures, the amount of spread increases by increasing
the friction coefficient. Therefore, in same conditions in
rolling line, smoother surface rolls produce less spread
than rough surface rolls.
To study the validity of results in this research, the results of finite element simulations are compared with those
obtained by other researchers. Figures 9 and 10 show
comparison between the results from the finite element
simulations and predicted results by Hill [9] and available
experimental results. The FE simulation results are in good
agreement with experimental results.
176
Metal Forming
It is considered that the ingoing billet is made of St37
steel (according to the material that is used in Zob-Ahan
Esfahan Company production line). The temperature of
entering billet is assumed to be 1120 C and the temperature of the exit cross section is 1085 C. The mechanical
behavior of St37 steel depends on variables such as, the
plastic strain, strain rate and temperature [14].
The design of caliber geometry and the roll gap dimensions are based on checking the value of spread in each
caliber. In this step, with the use of finite element method,
each new pass design is simulated. The results of the new
design are shown in Table 1.
Table1. Dimension of new caliber design in 3 calibers.
Caliber 1
Caliber 2
Caliber 3
Bb(mm)
204
150
154
Bp(mm) H1(mm)
214
146
158
140
164
96
r(mm)
14
15
12
r1(mm)
14
12
8
S(mm)
26
20
16
Conclusions
In present investigation, a 3-D finite element simulation
is used to study the spread in hot shape rolling processes.
A comparison between the results of these simulations and
available experimental results shows the accuracy of this
method in predicting the lateral spread.
There are number of factors affecting the calibre design
in shape rolling. As a result, practical designs based on
trial and error method is more common in industry. In this
research, a new approach for the roll pass calibre design is
presented that is based on checking the main rolling parameters such as, spread, roll separating forces, the roll
torques, and the geometry of product.
It is shown that by using this technique, it is possible to
modify the caliber and optimize the number of passes
comparing to a conventional caliber design which can lead
to a more economical design in forming a billet.
References
[1] Z. Wusatowski: Fundamental of Rolling. Pergamon Press, (1969).
[2] P. Polukhin: Rolling Mill Practice. Peace Publishers, (1963).
[3] W.L. Roberts: Hot Rolling of Steel. CRC Press, (1983).
[4] F.-K. Chen, S. Kobayashi: ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry,
107 (1990), 249-263.
[5] R. Lapovok, P.F. Thomson: International Journal Machine Tools and
Manufacture, 32-8 (1997), 1143-1154.
[6] S.Y. Kim, Y.T. Im: Journal of Material Processing Technology, 127
(2002), 57-63.
[7] T.L. Zaharoff, R.E. Johnson, M.K. Karabin: International Journal of
Mechanical Science, 34 (1992), 435-442.
[8] K.F. Kennedy:ASME Journal of Engineering, 11 (1987) 305.
[9] M. Salimi, S.R. Yassini: Amir Kabir Journal, 39 (2000) 187-202.
[10] ABAQUS Reference Manuals Version 6.7., ABAQUS, Inc.
[11] L. Steban, M.R. Elizalde, L. Ocana: Journal of Material Processing
Technology, 14 -2-3 (2007) 390-398.
[12] S. Liao, L. Zhang, S. Yuan, Y. Zhen, S. Gou: Journal of University of
Science and Technology Beijing, Mineral, Metallurgy, Material, 15-4
(2008) 412-419.
[13] MSC. Super Forge 2002, Material Library.
[14] A.H. Sakhaei, M.Salimi, M.Kadkhodaei: Proc. 18th Annual International Conference on Mechanical Engineering-Tehran, Iran-ISME,
(2010).
177
Metal Forming
Introduction
Current forecasts assume, that the global air traffic will
grow about 4 to 5 % per annum in the coming years. Furthermore the Advisory Council on Aeronautics Research in
Europe (ACARE) has decided to halve the fuel consumption and CO2 exhaust by 2020 [1].
Hence one main challenge of the aviation industry will
be to increase the already high efficiency of turbo aircraft
engines. One possibility is the further reduction of profile
loss of the compressor blades. Profile loss, also called
friction loss, belongs to the primary flow losses in an axial
compressor of turbo aircraft engines [2,3]. A promising
possibility demonstrates the application of riblets to the
blade surface. Riblets, consisting of tiny grooves aligned
in the main flow direction, are known to reduce skin friction in turbulent flows [4,5]. In contrast to laminar flows,
turbulent flows exhibit additional shear stresses, which are
produced by a movement perpendicular to the wall and
which are coupled with a lateral movement closely along
the wall, see Figure 1 [4,6].
178
These lateral movements close to the wall can be eliminated by riblets which finally lead to a reduction of wall
friction. Furthermore Klumpp et al. confirmed that riblets
effect a delay of transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
This leads to a greater ratio of laminar flow along the
blades surface and thus to a reduction of profile loss as
well [7].
Thereby it has to be considered that the riblet geometry
is only effective, if its dimensions are designed in correspondence to the respective application. For this purpose
the riblet height h has to be less than the thickness of the
viscous sublayer. For a controlled diffusion airfoil (CDA)
at Reynolds number Re = 860,000 according to the data of
Schreiber et al. [8] at typical flight conditions the riblet
height has to be in the range of h = 35 m.
A promising technology for structuring fan and compressor blades with defined riblet structures has been developed at the Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering WZL of RWTH Aachen University [912].
Rolling Technique
When developing a manufacturing process to generate
defined riblet structures on compressor blades, the predominant type of load, which occurs on the blades during
operation, has to be taken into account. Compressor blades
are parts of high tech turbo aircraft engines and thus, particularly relevant to product safety. Especially during take
off and landing compressor blades are loaded by various
mechanical stresses. These are tensile stresses, mainly
caused by the centrifugal forces, and high dynamic
stresses in form of vibrations. Cumpsty differentiates between two types of vibration, forced vibration and flutter
[13]. Whether in forced vibration or flutter the blades
vibrate in their natural modes at their natural frequencies.
The earliest studies of blade vibration considered axial
Metal Forming
blades in terms of beam theory and this has given rise to
the method of classifying the simpler modes [13]. These
are bending, torsional and edgewise modes, see Figure 2
[13,14].
Figure 4. Force controlled two-sided acting rolling tool and principle of the incremental rolling process.
The notch effect is primarily affected by two geometrical factors, the notch depth and the notch radius. An increasing notch depth leads to a linear increase of the stress
Beneficial effects which result form the incremental rolling process are the favourable grain flow [10], the inducement of compressive residual stresses below the riblet
structure, and the strain hardening of the rim zone. These
effects further help to counter the arising notch effect. On
the one hand the strain hardening of the rim zone in combination with a clean surface leads to a delay of crack
initiation [17]. On the other hand the compressive residual
stresses below the riblet structure reduce the occurring
tensile stresses and lead in the case of an incipient crack to
a slowing of the crack extension [15,17]. Figure 5 demonstrates the creation of compressive residual stresses below
the riblet structure by the rolling process. For this purpose
a 3D-FEA-model with an elastic-plastic material behaviour, a kinematic strain hardening, the v. Mises yield criterion, and a flow curve which is defined as
kf = 967 MPa + 260 0.93 for Ti6Al4V has been developed.
179
Metal Forming
The simulation software DEFORM 3D was used and the
FE-rolling model is able to simulate one rolling path. The
dimensions of the riblet structure in simulation and experimental tests correspond to the effective riblet dimensions of the previously described CDA with a riblet height
of h = 35 m and a riblet angle = 55 To verify the
FEA-model the form filling FF obtained by simulations at
different rolling forces is compared with experimental
results. The form filling is defined as the ratio between the
actual riblet height h and the maximal achievable riblet
height H:
FF =
h
100%
H
(1)
The comparison shows a good agreement between simulation and experiment. Compressive residual stresses up to
500 MPa can be expected below the riblet valleys. The
value of the compressive residual stresses below the riblet
structure allows the assumption that the notch effect will
be presumably reduced.
180
Metal Forming
max = 1167 MPa, which are 2.45 times higher tensile
stresses that the structured test specimens can bear in contrast to the unstructured test specimens. Figure 8 (right)
demonstrates the stress distribusion diagram of the structured and unstructured bending test specimens. The relationship between the bending moment Mb and the maximum surface stresses max is linear. The difference of both
graphs is caused by the stress concentration factor k of the
tested riblet structure. Due to the fact that an unstructured
test specimen has a 50 % probability of fracture at a
maximum stress of max = 475 MPa it can be assumed, that
a structured test specimen would also fracture at the same
stress state but at a much lower bending moment of
Mb = 1.03 Nm. Consequently the effects induced by the
rolling technique reduce the notch effect thus far that the
rolled test specimen can bear a bending moment of
Mb = 2.57 Nm at a maximum stress of max = 1167 MPa.
Figure 8. Long life fatigue strength and stress distribution of structured and unstructured LLF-test specimens.
Conclusions
The LLF-tests have shown that the rolling technique is
able to produce a riblet structure whose notch effect is
significantly reduced. Furthermore LE-simulations with
the rolled riblet geometry demonstrated a drag reduction
of approx. 5.6 %. Hence, it seems that a capable manufacturing technology for the production of defined riblet
structrures on compressor blades of Ti6Al4V could be
developed in form of the incremental rolling technique.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for the ongoing project RibletSkin by the VolkswagenStiftung, Hannover, Germany.
References
[1] Advisory Council on Aeronautics Research in Europe ACARE, 2008
Addendum to the Strategic Research Agenda.
[2] W.J.G. Brunling: Flugzeugtriebwerke, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg New York, 2001
[3] H. Grieb: Verdichter fr Turbo-Flugtriebwerke; Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg, 2009
[4] D.W. Bechert, M. Bruse, W. Hage, J.G.T. van der Hoeven, G. Hoppe:
J. Fluid Mech., 338, May1997, pp. 5987.
[5] H. Choi, P. Moin, J. Kim: J. Fluid Mech., 255, 1993, pp. 503539.
[6] M. Bruse: Zur Strmungsmechanik wandreibungsvermindernder
riblet-oberflchen, Dissertation, Technische Universitt Berlin, 1999
[7] S. Klumpp, M. Meinke, W. Schrder: Proc. Turbulence and Shear
Flow Phenomena 6, June 2009, Seoul, Korea
[8] H.-A. Schreiber, W. Steinert, T. Sonoda, T. Arima: J. Turbomachinery. 2004, Nr. 126, pp. 482-492
[9] S. Klumpp, M. Meinke, W. Schrder, B. Feldhaus, F. Klocke: Proc.
GT2009, ASME Turbo Expo 2009. Orlando, Florida, USA, 8.-12.
Juli 2009.
[10] F. Klocke, B. Feldhaus, S. Mader: Development of an Incremental
Rolling Process for the Production of Defined Riblet Surface Structures, In: Production Engineering. Research and Development
(Online). 1. Jg., 2007, Nr. 3, S. 233-237
[11] F. Klocke, B. Feldhaus, G. Hirt, M. Thome, S. Klumpp, W. Schrder:
Proc. 2nd International Conference on New Forming Technology.
Bremen, 20.-21. September 2007. Bremen: BIAS, 2007, S. 185-194
[12] F. Klocke, F. Schongen, B. Feldhaus: Herstellung mikrostrukturierter
Prgewalzen; wt-online 1/2-2010, pp. 067-073
[13] N.A. Cumpsty: Compressor aerodynamics, Longman Group Ltd,
Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, Essex, U. K., 1998
[14] E.K. Armstrong, M.A. Stevenson: J. Royal Aeronautical Society, Nr.
64, pp. 117-30
[15] S. Mader: Festwalzen von Fan- und Verdichterschaufeln,
Dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 2006
[16] D. Radaj, M. Vormwald: Ermdungsfestigkeit, Grundlagen fr
Ingenieure 3, Springer Verlag, 2007
[17] M. Peters, C. Leyens: Titan und Titanlegierungen. Weinheim:
WILEY-VCH Verlag, 2002
181
Metal Forming
Products formed by a conventional cold-roll forming machine are those with cross-sectional profiles constrained to a single width along the
longitudinal axis. Products with cross-sectional profiles varying in width in the longitudinal direction, namely, flexible cross sections, cannot
be formed by a conventional cold-roll forming machine. In recent years, Research and development of a flexible cold roll forming machine
controlled by PLC (Progressive Logic Controller) Unit to form products with flexible cross sections has been carried out in Japan and Europe.
In this paper, a newly developed flexible cold-roll forming machine is introduced and shape defects such as swell distortion and edge
buckling occurred in forming with this machine are investigated.
Keywords: Conventional cold roll forming, Flexible machine, Swell distortion, Edge buckling
Introduction
(M3)
(a)
(M4)
(b)
( )
( )
f
(M2)
182
(M1)
()
d
( )
( )
Servo motors (M1) for light rolling, (M2) for driving rolls, (M3) for
rotating turn table and (M4) for translating base table, (a) Turn
table, (b) Base table, (c) Guide actuator, (d) Rotary encoder, (e)
Linear encoder, (f) Blank sheet, (g) Controller
Figure 1. Layout of unit of pilot flexible cold roll forming machine.
Metal Forming
Experiments and Measurement
1 5 .0 0
N O .1
N O .2
N O .3
N O .4
Swell S /mm
= 20
15
15
10
5
10
5
0
20
40
60
80
5,
Slope angle
/degree
10, 15,
20
Flange width
F /mm
6.5, 10, 13.5, 17
Maximum width of
blank sheet W /mm
95 + F+126tan
Metal Forming
flawless. In this sense, the S < 5 is the criterion for us to be
able to neglect the swell deformation.
Figure 6 shows the maximum values of the swell
distortion as the function of the flange width for the four
values of the slope angle, where the same blank sheets as
those in Fig. 5 are used but they have four different flange
widths, F = 6.5, 10, 13.5 and 17 mm. The maximum value
means the highest depth value in Fig 4. It is seen from the
result that the magnitude of the swell distortion increases
with increasing width of the flange for each slope angle .
Applying the criterion S < 5 to the result in this figure, the
products with no swell distortion may be obtained for the
flange width of F < 10 mm for the case of = 5 degrees,
and for F < 5 mm for the case of = 10.
In order to investigate the influence of the thickness on
the occurrence of swell distortion, the forming was carried
out for the blank sheet with the thickness t = 0.8 mm and
= 10 degrees. It was confirmed in the experiment that the
magnitude of the swell distortion is the same as that of the
blank sheet with t = 0.5 mm and = 5 degrees.
As for the mechanism of the occurrence of the swell
deformation, lets consider, first, a paper model shown in
Figure 7(a). When the concave-shaped paper strip is bent
Swell S / mm
20
=5
15
20
15
10
10
Theoretical Membrane
strain shown in Fig.7
5
0
6.5
10
13.5
17
Flange width F / mm
l =In
a)
R2
R1
R2
R
R2
R1
b)
l =In
R2
R
184
Metal Forming
Solutions for Swell Deformation and Buckling. It is
sure that the lack of elongation or compression capabilities
of the material is primarily responsible for the occurrence
of swell deformation or buckling, respectively. Then, it is
considered that if the material has the enhanced
capabilities in elongation and compression, it might be
possible to eliminate these shape defects.
If additional strain is produced to make up for the lack
of strain at the concave part, the swell distortion may be
eliminated. First, the idea was put into practice by rolling
the flange near the concave part using the rolls mounted
on No.1 and No.3 forming stands. But, this was not as
effective as we expected, because the combination of the
overhung-spindle type stand and the fine roll shaft of 20
mm in diameter could not provide enough rolling effects.
So, the experiment was carried out by replacing with the
stands of outboard support type with the roll shafts of 30
mm diam.. Figure 9 shows the results, where the flexible
channel sections with thickness 0.5 and 0.8 mm are
formed under the condition of 0 and 5% rolling conditions.
It is seen that the swell distortions are reduced to about 50
to 65 % in comparison with the no-rolling forming.
Figure 10 shows the results, where the blank steel sheets
with thickness 0.5 and 0.8 mm are formed into flexible
channel sections with four different flange widths F = 6.5,
10, 13.5 and 17 mm, respectively. It is seen from the result
that those sections having less than 10 mm flange width
have no buckling. This means that the buckling in forming
of the flexible channel section is possible to avoid for the
blank sheet with less than about F/t = 12.5-20 for flange
width F and thickness t.
t = 0.5 mm
14.00
Swell S/mm
12.00
References
5%
10.00
5%
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.8mm
20
40
60
80
Buckling B / mm
0.4
0.3
t = 0.5mm
0.2
t = 0.8mm
0.1
0
6.5
10
13.5
17
Flange width F / mm
Figure 10. Edge buckling appearing on flange edge when forming
blank sheets with slope angle = 15 degree into flexible channel
sections with flange width F = 6.5, 10, 13.5 mm and 17 mm.
185
Metal Forming
Technical Development Bureau, Nippon Steel Corporation, Tokai 476-8686/ Japan, 2)Department of Energy Science and Technology, Kyoto
University, Kyoto 606-8501/ Japan
The formability of the electric resistance welded pipes depends on the amount of work-hardening, i.e. the strain of the material during the roll
forming process where a flat strip is deformed to a cylindrical form. In this paper, the strain evolution during the roll forming process is
investigated focusing on that just under the vertical forming rolls which are generally used for the initial bending. The strain evolutions for two
kinds of vertical rolls are examined by finite element analysis and experiment. One (type A) is the vertical roll stand that pinches the strip
entirely in circumferential direction by top and bottom rolls. Another one (type B) is the roll stand that pinches the strip only in the edge part of
the strip. In the case of type A, due to the pinch by the rolls, the longitudinal profile of the top roll is impressed to the strip just under the roll,
and the longitudinal strain and the influence of the roll diameter become large. In the case of type B, such a transfer of the longitudinal profile
of the top roll does not occur in the centre part of the strip, and the longitudinal strain and the influence of the roll diameter become small.
Accordingly, type B is preferable to make pipes with high deformability.
Keywords: Roll forming, Finite element analysis, Electric resistance welded pipe, High strength steel sheet, Vertical roll, Strain evolution,
Roll diameter
Introduction
Seam-welded pipes are widely used for line-pipe, oil
well tubular, automobile components etc. In the field of
automobile components, thin wall pipes with high strength
are increasingly needed because high strength pipes realize
both the improvement of the fuel cost and the car crash
safety. Also in the field of line-pipe and oil well tubular,
due to the decrease in oil reserve, high strength pipes are
needed in order to develop the deep wells of oil and gas.
The pipes for these fields require not only high strength
but also high deformability. That is because pipes are often
subjected to bending, pressing and expanding when
automobile components are manufactured and when line
pipes are laid into the deep sea. The deformability of the
pipe depends not only on the material ductility but also on
the amount of work hardening, i.e. the strain of the strip
during the deformation from flat to cylindrical form. For
this reason the production process of seam-welded pipes
using high-strength steel sheets is now a very important
process to be examined and established.
One of the popular production processes for seamwelded pipes is roll forming. The roll forming process is
superior in production cost and dimensional accuracy.
Therefore, the seam-welded pipes made by the roll
forming process are expected to be widely used in the
automotive and energy fields. The roll forming process for
pipes consists of three processes, forming, welding and
sizing. In the forming process, a flat strip is deformed
gradually to cylindrical form through series of rolls. Then
the edges are welded. The pipe whose edges are welded by
electric resistance welding is called electric resistance
welded (ERW) pipe. Finally in the sizing process, the
shape and size of pipes are adjusted accurately. To control
the forming process is very important to make pipes with
high deformability because most of the strain occurs in the
forming process. The forming process is geometrically
complicated. The sheet is subjected to not only transverse
bending but also longitudinal stretching and bending. In
186
Metal Forming
the associated flow rule with isotropic hardening are used.
Owing to the symmetry of the process, only the half part is
modelled by the shell elements with five Gauss integration
points through thickness. The element size is 2 mm both in
the width and longitudinal directions. Coulomb's friction
law is employed and the friction coefficient is set to 0.15.
In addition, the experiments are carried out to confirm
the simulation results. A longitudinal strain evolution of
the sheet centre at point a, which is 500 mm away from the
sheet top, and the cross-sectional profile at point b, which
is 300 mm away from the sheet top are measured (Figure
2). The length and width of the strain gauge are 2 mm and
0.9 mm, respectively. A narrow groove is cut at the centre
part of the bottom roll of type A to prevent the strain
gauge from breaking by the contact with the roll.
Dt
23R
23R
230
25R
10
25R
250
Db
30
Vertical roll Type B
Guide roll
350
Top
500
Point a
Adverse side
Tail
Back side
900
Vertical roll
END
300
Guide roll
350
250
Forming direction
Strain gauge
20
Guide roll
E GPa
y MPa
F MPa
206
0.3
231
765
0.26
0.01
1.0
187
Metal Forming
Roll Type A. As shown in Figure 3, in both roll types,
first the strain of back side surface becomes plus and the
strain of adverse side surface becomes minus. Then the
strain of back side surface becomes minus and the strain of
adverse side surface becomes plus just before the roll
pinch point. Such simulated results mean that the flat sheet
is first subjected to downward bending in the longitudinal
direction and is subsequently subjected to upward bending
just before the roll pinch point. After the roll pinch point
the deformation of the strip is very small.
The influence of roll diameter in the case of roll type A
is shown in Figure 5 which shows the strain evolution at
the strip centre. The influence of roll diameter on the first
downward bending is very small. On the other hand the
188
Metal Forming
189
Metal Forming
Introduction
At present, pressing, deep embossing etc. processes are
used for the production of the elements of machines or
functional objects, whereas surface plastic working is rarely
used in spite of its advantages. The main reason of this is
that there are no guidelines concerning the preparation of
the object for burnishing and concerning the conditions for
the execution of burnishing to ensure a product with the
intended technological quality. So far, studies have not
taken into account the quality of the surface for burnishing
with the following being assumed: the roughness profile
after preceding working has no substantial impact on the
burnishing process, the real surface is ideally smooth or the
real asperity outline is consistent with the theoretical outline.
Due to the random nature of the processes of surface preparation for burnishing, the real asperity outline is substantially different from the theoretical outline. The new method
as proposed in this paper concerning the preparation of the
surface for burnishing is free from the abovementioned
drawbacks. It consists in plastic forming of regular asperities with the aid of an embossing element with a suitable
geometry of the working part (Figure 1).
occur in the surface layer of the object which has been prepared for burnishing.
Theoretical Analysis
The process of plastic formation of surface regular asperities can be analyzed when plane strain and threedimensional stress states are assumed. For this purpose,
elementary sectors are isolated from the cylindrical workpiece and the embossing element by means of two parallel
planes being distant one from another by elementary distance dl (Figure 2). In these elementary sectors, the deformation of asperities in the work-piece occurs in the
axial plane (in the radial and axial directions) without the
occurrence of a flowing wave of the material in the
circumferential direction. The rounding of the cylindrical
surface is neglected, as well. The theoretical analysis of
the formation process of regular asperities was conducted
with the use of the method of the characteristic slide lines
of the material. Solutions were presented for the cases of
embossing of regular asperities with the use of a single
wedge or double wedges.
190
Metal Forming
final burnishing process, and for an analysis of a plastic
cutting process of the material.
A
C
a
C
E
D
D
B
(1)
h
,
cos sin( )
(2)
and the following dependence was obtained from the condition of constant area (incompressible material):
a 2 [cos( ) + sin ] sin( ) = a h sin .
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Figure 4. Diagram of the embossing process of triangular asperities with two wedges.
(7)
(8)
The real embossing depth is different from the theoretical depth by the value of the elastic strains of the whole
system. The friction coefficient in the contact zone and the
hardening of the material has a significant impact on the
kinematics of the flow of the material. Therefore, in order
was presented with the use of the finite element method.
Numerical Analysis
In the application which was developed in Ansys/LSDYNA environment, the object was modeled as flat (2D),
191
Metal Forming
0.012 A
d1 = 45
A
Ux=0, Uy=0
30
20
70
70
Ra = 0.63
B2.15
d = 50
20
70
20
B
B
B
B
CC C
A
B
C BB B
BB B
C D MX
C
B
CC
C C DC C
C C
B
B
A
B
BB
B
B B B B BB
B B B BB
B B
B B
BB
A
B
B
A
A
A
B
B
A
AA
B B BB
A AA
A
A
A
AA AA A
A
AAA
A A A AA
A
A
A
A
A A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A A
A
AA
AAA
A A AA
A
A=.078743
B=.236229
C=.393715
(b)
(a)
D=.551201
192
fw
(9)
Metal Forming
where is the twist out angle of embossing element,
fw is the embossing feed and d is the workpiece diameter .
The sample results of the embossing of regular asperities
are presented in the form of surface stereometry in Figure
10.
(a)
0.5
0.01
152
2.0
0.01
152
0.5
0.10
152
2.0
0.10
Vertical angle of
asperity []
Asperity height
h [mm]
Tests
Simulation
Tests
Simulation
150.42
149.14
0.066
0.069
147.66
0.280
0.290
151.28
150.00
0.064
0.067
150.86
149.78
0.260
0.270
148.72
(a)
(b)
0,63
5
0,42
5
0,21
5
0
0
[mm]
05
0,6
1
1,2
1,8
15
2
2,4
25
3,0
3
3,6
35
4,2
4
4,8
4 5 mm
5,4
(b)
Tool
Conclusions
2'
h'
Workpiece
fw
Figure 11. Quantities measured: asperity height h and apex
angle of asperity =2.
A test was conducted concerning the significance of the differences for the results of the experiment and the simulation.
The following statistical hypotheses were put forward: H0
there are no significant differences between group means, i.e.
the results of the numerical analysis and the results of experimental tests are not substantially different, compared with
the following alternative hypothesis: H1 the group means
are substantially different from one another, i.e. the results of
the numerical analysis and the experimental investigations are
significantly different. The statistical analyses for the corresponding results did not exhibit any substantial differences on
significance level = 0.05. It can be therefore established that
it is possible to forecast the properties of the product as early
as on the designing stage of the technological process with an
accuracy being sufficient for engineering practice.
193
Metal Forming
Research and Development Center, Sanyo Special Steel Co., ltd. / Japan, tnakamizo@himeji.sanyo-steel.co.jp;
Japan
2)
Osaka University /
Hot ring rolling is one of useful processes for production of large seamless rings such as bearing races for ships, airplanes and windmills.
The ring rolling is classified into two types, a two-rolls-type and three-rolls-type, by the roll layout. In this study, deformation characteristics
on three-rolls-type ring rolling process have been experimentally investigated. FE analysis with the ALE method was also carried out for the
ring rolling. FE analysis with the ALE method can simulate deformation characteristics in the three-rolls-type ring rolling. It has been found
that deformation characteristics near the center of the width of the ring were similar to those of plane strain compression. In this region,
grain flow toward the outer side was observed. It was found that the three-rolls-type ring rolling process shows less lateral spread and
relatively uniform deformation than the two-rolls-type process.
Keywords: Ring rolling, Deformation characteristics, Grain flow, FE analysis, ALE method
Introduction
Hot ring rolling is one of useful manufacturing processes for production of a large seamless ring. During this
process, a ring is deformed continuously in the localized
plastic zone. Because of this feature, advantages of this
process include a short production time, smaller deformation energy and less material waste.
The ring rolling process is classified into two types such
as two-rolls-type and three-rolls-type by their roll layout.
The two-rolls-type ring rolling, also called radial-axial
type, is widely used, therefore a lot of studies were carried
out [1-4]. While those of three-rolls-type ring rolling were
few due to their less applications [5].
In this paper, deformation characteristics of material in
three-rolls-type ring rolling process were investigated by
experiments and FE analysis. Preformed ring which had
some artificial hollows introduced periodically was rolled
on three-rolls-type ring rolling mill. After this process,
their strains were obtained by the displacements of hollows. FE analysis using ALE method was conducted.
Experimental Procedure
Three-Rolls-Type Ring Rolling Mill. Figure 1 shows a
schematic diagram of a three-rolls-type ring rolling mill
[6]. This mill consists of two main rolls, one mandrel and
some backup rolls. Two main rolls are fitted together with
shafts of which axes lean 20 degree from horizontal axis.
Each shaft rotates independently with a constant angular
velocity. Because of this leaning, circumferential velocity
on the surface of main rolls has distribution.
The mandrel moves perpendicularly with the backup
rolls by a hydraulically driven system and rotates by
frictional force on the inner surface of the ring. A
preformed ring is deformed in the closed roll pass which
consists of two main rolls and one mandrel.
Preformed Ring. A preformed ring was prepared by the
process shown in Figure 2. The ring was machined from
steel bar with 200 mm in diameter. Because of this procedure, grain flow in the preformed ring is parallel along the
194
Main rolls
Ring
Mandrel
Backup rolls
Front view
Side view
2 hollows
182
43
75
Grain flow
Turning
Hot ring rolling
( three-rolls-type mill)
Electrical discharge
machining
232
43
163.3
Metal Forming
Table 1. Experimental conditions.
-1
Main
rolls
Mandrel
Ring
14.2
330
2350
72
3.8
0.45%C Steel
1150
Water
9.5mm
outer side
outer side
21.0mm
(center of width)
outer side
inner side
inner side
5mm
inner side
hollows
hollows
(a) Slicing toward TD
Result
50
r =45
40
30
20
r =55
10
0
Rolling direction
-30
Outer side
A row of hollows
-10
10
20
30
z coordinate /mm
Figure 6. Radial displacement over z coordinate.
Width side
-20
h1
h0
(1)
Ur
+ 1
r
(2)
= ln
195
Metal Forming
is reformed by axial rolls and main rolls alternately. Due to
the above-mentioned grain flow phenomena in the threerolls-type ring rolling may be easier to form rings with a
complicated cross-section.
50
40
30
Three-rolls-type
outer side
Two-rolls-type
outer side
inner side
inner side
20
inner surface
10
outer surface
0
0
25
50
75
100
Z=-20.2
Radial strain r
-0.2
Z=-11.1
Z=0
-0.4
Z=11.1
-0.6
Z=20.2
-0.8
plane strain
compression
-1
0
25
50
75
100
FE Analysis. 3D FE analysis was applied to the threerolls-type ring rolling by using the Arbitrary Lagrangian
Eulerian (ALE) method. ALE method is useful to reduce
the computing time without loosing accuracy. Figure 9
shows the FE analysis model. Brick mesh was adopted and
the total number of initial elements was 9,500.
Table 2 shows the FE analysis conditions of the ring
rolling. The mandrel feed speed shown in Figure 10 was
obtained as a result of fitting to the hydlaulic power to the
experiment.
Circumferencial strain
1
0.8
Main rolls
0.6
0.4
Ring
0.2
Mandrel
0
0
25
50
75
100
Figure 7. Radial displacement Ur, radial strain r and circumferential strain over r coordinate before ring rolling.
196
Main
rolls
Mandrel
Ring
14.2
330
2350
Movement control
Torque 0
72
Figure 10.
Material
AISI-1045
Temperature /C
Friction factor
1150
m=0.7
Metal Forming
as a hydraulic load that was detected during ring rolling.
The result is shown in Figure 11. The FE analysis results
show good agreement with the experimental ones.
-0.2
Radial strain r
-1
6
5
-0.4
experiment
-0.6
FE analysis
-0.8
4
3
-1
25
50
75
100
1
0
0
300
250
200
150
Circumferencial strain
experiment
FE analysis
0.4
0.2
0
100
50
experiment
FE analysis
0
0
25
50
75
100
Figure 12. Radial stain r and circumferential strain over r coordinate before ring rolling.
References
[1] M. Hayama, T. Oshima: Journal of JSTP, 22 (1981), 71-79.
[2] H.K. Moon, M.C. Lee, M.S. Joun: Int. J. Mech. Sci, 50 (2008), 306314.
[3] T.F. Stanistreet, J.M. Allwood, A.M. Willoughby: J. Mater. Process.
Technol., 177 (2006), 630-633.
[4] L. Hua, D. S. Qian, L. B. Pan: Int. J. Mech. Sci. 22 (2008), 13741382.
[5] M. Nakasaki, T. Nakamizo, I. Takasu, H. Utsunomiya: Journal of
JSTP, 50 (2009), 873-877.
[6] T. Nakamizo: Sanyo Technical Report, 11 (2004), 70-73
197
Metal Forming
Introduction
Cold ring rolling, as shown in Figure 1, is an advanced
forming technology increasingly applied to manufacture
various precision seamless ring-shaped parts with nice
metal streamline, favorable grain flow and high strength
owing to repeated work-hardening from multi-steps rolling.
So it is widely used in bearings and gears industries [1].
However, in practice, excessive inhomogeneous deformation often leads to residual stress, distortion and even damage in the cold ring rolled parts. For controlling the excessive inhomogeneous deformation, it is essential to deeply
understand the reason and mechanism of the inhomogeneous deformation and thereby guiding the optimum design
of the process. This issue has apparently not been discussed in the literature, although some studies [2-5] on the
cold ring rolling process were carried out.
Because of the three-dimensional deformation and complex geometry, boundary and material nonlinearities of the
process, it is a challenge to investigate the inhomogeneous
deformation behavior by analytical method and experimental observations. FE modeling and simulation, which
has capabilities of providing detailed information of various field variables such as stress, strain and temperature,
and performing more comprehensive, profound and detailed research over the analytical and experimental methods, has been proven to be an accurate method to explore
the deformation behavior of various complicated metal
forming processes [6].
In the present study, the inhomogeneous deformation
behavior of cold ring rolling is investigated based on the
3D-FE models developed under ABAQUS/Explicit platform to gain a profound insight into the reason and
198
Metal Forming
given in [10]. vf, n1 and are varied in simulations to explore their effects on inhomogeneous deformation behavior of cold ring rolling.
(a) D56G90
(b) Samples
Figure 3. Experimental equipment and samples.
(a) Simulation
(b) Experiment
Figure 4. Deformed shapes of samples from simulation and
experiment.
61.9 mm
39.7 mm
25.4 mm
104.8 mm
34.9 mm
34.9 mm
32%
vf
n1
199
Metal Forming
compressive strain zones occur and gradually reduce with
the increase of n1, as shown in Figure 7.
200
Metal Forming
Inhomogeneous Deformation Behavior. An index parameter i is proposed to evaluate the degree of inhomogeneous deformation. i is defined as:
(1)
i = (maxmin) i
k
i = i (k +1)
(2)
i=1
In Eqs. (1) and (2), max and min are the maximum and
minimum signed values of strain in the strain contours; k
is the contour intervals; i is the strain value corresponding
to each contour interval; and i denotes the average deformation degree of the rolled ring. For example, in the
contour of EPS when vf =2.0 mm/s, as shown in Figure 6
(d), max=1.31 and min=0.31; the value of k is 6; the values
of i are 0.31, 0.48, 0.65, 0.81, 0.98, 1.15 and 1.31, respectively; and i =0.81. The bigger is i, the more inhomogeneous is the deformation of the rolled ring.
The variations of i in the R, C and A directions and the
variations of i of EPS in the rolled rings under different vf,
n1 and are given in Figure 9.
201
Metal Forming
Introduction
Ring rolling processes are widely used in industry because they are an effective method to produce ring shaped
parts with a small cross section compared to the overall
dimensions.
Even with the ring rolling machine and thus the basic
kinematics are given, the setting of a rolling process is
influenced by a lot of parameters and may be difficult to
control. Initially the ring growth velocity the increase of
the ring diameter per unit time may be limited by the
machine power or stiffness. After this a high ring growth
velocity ensures an effective process. At the end of the
process a calibration phase may be needed to achieve the
ring roundness and the desired cross section. During the
whole process the rotation of the ring with minimum slip
and a stable movement of the ring center must be achieved.
Modern ring rolling machines use sophisticated inprocess measurement and closed-loop control to maintain
a stable and effective process based on higher-order settings like the desired ring growth velocity. But these
higher-order settings still need to be found, verified and
optimized. Additionally further development of the control
algorithm of the machine may be desired. With the constantly raising demands to shorten the time to market and
to simultaneously reduce the development costs, shopfloor testing is no longer adequate.
Thus there is a growing need for forming simulation of
ring rolling processes. The use of ring rolling simulation
was limited in the past. This was due to the excessive
calculation times of the needed 3d models and the required
huge number of calculation increments to reflect the incremental process characteristics. Additionally the complex kinematics and the demanding contact conditions are
a challenge for the simulation.
In [1], a summary of research activities to enable fast
and accurate ring rolling simulations is given. One approach for this is to use dynamic explicit finite element
202
Metal Forming
modeling of the physics. Contact and friction calculation,
including the release of nodes that leave a roll, is stable.
For the ring rolling simulations a special ring mesher is
used that produces a consistent mesh of hexahedron elements (Figure 1). For finite element analysis, hexahedron
element is known to produce better results. To speed up
the simulation the stabilizing effect of the rolling table can
be replaced by a spring stabilizer that adds tilting stiffness
to the model.
The models contain the real kinematics, including skewwhiff axes and the separation between driven rolls and
drag rolls. The drag rolls are rotated by friction and not
modeled as not rotating frictionless cylinders. As far as it
is predefined, the detailed movement of the rolls is used as
input including multi-dimensional forward and backward
movements.
As the loads and boundary conditions on the workpiece
are not symmetric during ring rolling full 3d models have
been used. Even in cases where symmetry perpendicular to
the ring axis may be a reasonable assumption, symmetry
should not be used because of the stabilizing effect of the
symmetry plane that would suppress all tilting effects.
Integration of Closed-Loop Control in Simulation
Typically the translational and rotational velocities of
the dies are used to calculate the finite element solution.
But for most incremental forming processes the velocities
are usually not pre-defined for the whole process. Within
the real machine the current status positions, dimensions,
and forces is continuously measured and used to calculate updated speeds and feeds using closed-loop control.
For industrial relevant simulations of such processes the
same control loop must be implemented in the simulation.
Positions, dimensions and forces are usually analyzed in
the post-processing phase of a finite element analysis,
whereas the definition of velocities is normally done in the
pre-processing phase. In the controlled simulation of incremental forming processes this would lead to continuous
ineffective jumping between the different phases and thus
probably to a control loop only every couple of increments.
To avoid this and to enable process control within each
increment the whole control algorithm was integrated into
the finite element solver, including the required measurement of positions, dimensions, forces and other status
quantities (Figure 2).
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
post-processing
results of the incremental forming process
Figure 2. Closed-loop control within finite element solver.
203
Metal Forming
real control strategy may have differed from the implemented control resulting in justified differences. The calculation time of the shown model was about three days on
a standard workstation using only one CPU.
main
roll
mandrel
center
roll 1
ring
center
roll 2
start
velocity
of main
roll
end
velocity
of main
roll
calibration
velocity
of main
roll
Figure 3. Path of center rolls during axial radial ring rolling, axial
rolls omitted.
roll-out
rotations
of the main
roll without
infeed
1025C
switch
final
diameter diameter
1070C
edges
204
1025C
980C
path in reality
simulated, self controlled path
450
400
350
300
0
10
20
time [s]
30
40
Metal Forming
Infeed Velocity. Hot radial profile ring rolling of
42CrMo4 steel is used to demonstrate simufact.formings
standard control of the infeed velocity of the main roll. In
this example mainly the profile of the ring is formed, the
outer diameter is only slightly increased to 210 mm. The
main roll is the only driven roll and rotates with constant
frequency. Its movement was defined as function of the
current ring diameter as described in Figure 4. This included the determination of the end of the process, too.
The results shown in Figure 8 illustrate how this control
links the infeed velocity to the diameter and the form fill.
The calculation time of the used model was about a day on
a standard workstation using only one CPU.
12
0
0
time [s]
of the process
start
inner profile filled
ring diameter starts to increase infeed velocity is reduced
nearly filled, ring switch diameter reached
profile
calibration starts
end of the process
Figure 8. Infeed control for radial profile ring rolling.
37C
53C
70C
86C
136C
120C
103C
Conclusions
Ring rolling and other incremental forming processes
are usually not driven by predefined kinematics but controlled based on in-process information. For industrial
relevant simulations this closed-loop control needs to be
implemented. An effective approach for this is to integrate
the whole control algorithm, including the required measurement of positions, dimensions, forces and other status
quantities, into the finite element solver. This way time
consuming switching between pre-processing, solution
and post-processing phase is avoided and control is enabled within each calculation increment.
This solver integrated closed-loop control enables real
process optimization using the same higher-order settings
in simulation and reality. Ring rolling, cogging and radial
forging can be simulated efficiently using the standard
controls of simufact.forming. But the concept and the open
architecture enable the adaptation of closed-loop control to
all kind of incremental forming processes. Further control
algorithms are in development, partly in cooperation with
machine manufactures to implement the same controls in
simulation and in reality.
Ring rolling simulation can be combined with the simulation of the pre-forming and heat treatment operations to
achieve the closed simulation of the whole process chain.
Changes in the microstructure can be included in the simulation, too. With parallel computing using the domain
decomposition method a considerable speed up of the
simulations is possible.
References
[1] P. Groche, D. Fritsche, E.A. Tekkaya, J.M. Allwood, G. Hirt, R.
Neugebauer: CIRP Annals, 56-2 (2007), 635-656.
[2] M. Wang, H. Yang, Z.C. Sun, L.G. Guo: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 209-7 (2009), 3384-3395.
[3] P. Pauskar: Proc. Workshop on Modelling of Incremental Bulk Forming Processes, Darmstadt, (2006).
[4] A. v Hehl,: Thermomechanische Behandlung beim Ringwalzen
Modelle zur schnellen Simulation der Gefgeevolution, Dissertation
RWTH Aachen, Shaker Verlag, Aachen (2010).
205
Metal Forming
Introduction
Hollowed products of shafts type are more widely used
in techniques instead of, applied so far, full elements.
Apart from favorable reduction of mass of this type of
hollowed products, their metal forming becomes more
often a bigger challenge.
At present, the most often used in industry methods of
obtaining of these products include: drawing, rotary forging, swaging, extrusion and hydrostatic forming [1-3]. At
the same time in many countries research centers conduct
research on the development of new metal forming methods of stepped hollowed products. The latest solutions deal
with technologies of cross rolling (including cross-wedge
rolling (CWR), wedge-rolls rolling (WRR) and rolling
extrusion proposed by Lublin University of Technology
[4,5].
Results of conducted research works [6,7] show wide
possibilities of application of the mentioned above methods, however, they also have certain limits, resulting
mainly from the possibility of billets squeezing in the
workspace between tools and slips causing disturbances of
obtained products shape. The stability of such obtained
products can also be disturbed by the appearance of uneven metal flow in the direction to axis of longitudinal
formed products, which leads e.g. to disturbances of
roundness of shafts steps. A certain solution of this problem in hollowed products forming is application of three
working tools, which are placed uniformly on the circumference. Application of this solution considerably limits
parts shape faults, resulting from not proper material flow
during the process [8,9].
Distributions of wall thickness in cross sections and longitudinal ones are an important issue concerning forming
of stepped hollowed products. As it was discussed in research works [5-7] in rolling processes with the application of wedge tools (CWR, WRR), thinning of the wall in
the area of diameters reduction is always present, yet, this
phenomenon depends directly on tools segments geometry.
In rolling extrusion processes, wall thickness can be predicted and designed by means of adequately chosen process parameters. Depending on rolls tools shape and value
206
Metal Forming
forming by means of three working tools possible in practice.
An important advantage of this rolling mill design is the
possibility of its rebuilding for CWR and WRR processes
realization. For the WRR process the same rolls as in the
case of rotary compression can be used, only the upper
tool is replaced by wedge segment. However, for the realization of CWR process in the two flat wedges configuration, the rolls gear is replaced by lower tool slide driven by
the second hydraulic servo-motor. The lower tool slide
equipped with wedge segment is positioned by means of
guiding devices with shafts mounted on the lower plate.
The rolling mill LUW-2 in configuration for rotary compression process realization is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Laboratory rolling mill LUW 2 prepared for rotary compression process realization.
Tools and Billets Preparation. Using results of research on WRR technologies [6], tools segments shape for
rotary compression process was worked out. Both in flat
segment and in profiled rolls it was decided to apply side
wall inclination angle = 30. In CWR and WRR processes, this value of forming angle guaranteed obtaining
certain equilibrium between axial and radial metal flow.
The length of tool segment was determined on the basis of
numerical calculations FEM in such a way that appropriate
sizing of product, in order to remove cross section shape
disturbances presented during the process, was possible
[5].
A chosen course of numerical simulation of product cross
section disturbance in form of ovalization is given in
Figure 3.
Figure 4. Tools used in experimental research on rotary compression processes of hollowed parts.
In research works it was decided to form a single, central necking of hollowed shafts with diameter reduction
from 25 to 20 mm.
Billets destined for research had the length lw = 80 mm
and the walls thickness go = 3 or 4 mm. Billets were made
from steel bar C45 type and titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V)
shown in Figure 5.
The designed and worked out tools set for rotary compression process is shown in Figure 4. Diversification of flat
208
Wall thickness, %
Metal Forming
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
Section, n
100
1 2 3 4 5
g=3mm C45 EXP
9 10 11 12 13
g=3mm C45 FEM
Metal Forming
of working cycle resulting in oscillating course of real
forces.
Fx C45 EXP
Fx Ti6Al4V EXP
Fx C45 FEM
Fz C45 EXP
Fz Ti6Al4V EXP
Fz C45 FEM
25
Force values, kN
20
15
10
5
4,
9
4,
4
3,
8
3,
2
2,
2,
1,
6
1,
0
0,
0,
0
Time, s
As one of the most important factors concerning possible application of the analyzed forming method, roundness
deviation of obtained products was assumed, measured in
three sections: 9 9, 11 - 11 and 13 - 13 (according to
Figure 7) This parameter values did not exceed 0.3 mm in
all zones, which was regarded as a satisfactory result. The
manufacturing allowances predicted for the parts with the
same diameter range obtained by means CWR technology
are +0.6 mm and 0.4 mm [10] These allowances permit
to make a final parts by means of grinding operations.
Conclusions
Results of conducted experimental research confirmed
the possibility of hollowed products forming by means of
rotary compression. This process allowed for obtaining
products from steel and titanium alloys with local increase
of walls thickness in the area of diameter reduction. However, in CWR and WRR processes, it is impossible to
obtain such favourable enlarging of wall thickness which
limits significantly scope of applications of these methods.
Observed during rotary compression wall thickness enlarging can be useful for guaranteeing unchangeable mechanical characteristics, although products diameter is reduced.
This phenomenon can be also used for the further machining of these areas in order to produce e.g. toothed elements
as stepped, hollowed shafts.
Comparing the rotary compression with CWR and
WRR methods the length of flat tool segment for rotary
compression process is smaller then in CWR and WRR
technology. This fact can increase the productivity of this
process and it limits machine size. Designing and manufacturing of tools for this process is also easier, which
allows for reduction of implementation costs of this technology. The another possibility is using of multiple rolls
sets with parallel possibility of forming more then one part
at the same time.
The lack of axial metal flow during rotary compression
limits possibility of part shapes designed by this method
but results of conducted research point to the possibility of
obtaining satisfactory narrow scopes of dimensional tolerances of roundness, which is one of the key problems in
cross rolling processes of hollowed products. Rare presence of slide phenomenon during process, especially for
products with smaller walls thickness, shows the necessity
for the further works on tools design and on realization of
research on applied technological parameters influence.
Acknowledgements
Financial support of Structural Funds in the Operational
Programme Innovative Economy (IEOP) financed from
the European Regional Development Fund Project No
POID. 0101.02-00-015/08 is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] R. Neugebauer, M. Kolbe, R. Glab: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 119 (2001), 277-282.
[2] P. Kettner, F. Schmieder: Journal of Material Processing Technology,
71 (1997), 113-118.
[3] P. Amborn, H. Frielingsdorf, S. K. Ghosh, K. Greulich: Journal of
Material Processing Technology, 48 (1995), 3 12.
[4] J. Bartnicki, Z. Pater, A. Gontarz, J. Kazanecki, G. Samoyk: Steel
Research International, Special edition, 1 (2008), 364-368.
[5] J. Bartnicki, Z. Pater: Journal of Material Processing Technology,
155-156 (2004), 1867-1873.
[6] Z. Pater, J. Bartnicki: Journal of Achievements in Materials and
Manufacturing Engineering, 18-1-2 (2006), 407-410.
[7] Z. Pater, A. Gontarz, J. Bartnicki: Proc. 24th International Manufacturing Conference, IMC 24, Ireland, (2007), 603-610.
[8] A. Danno, T. Tanaka: Proc. 3rd International Conference on Rotary
Metalworking Processes, Kyoto, (1984), 321-332.
[9] L. Guifu, Z. Guolu, G. Changwu: Proc. 3rd International Conference
on Rotary Metalworking Processes, Kyoto, (1984), 333-343.
[10] Z. Pater: Walcowanie poprzeczno klinowe, Publ. Lublin University of Technology, Lublin, (2009), 1-471, (in Polish).
209
Metal Forming
The Influence of Roll Inclination Angle in Three-Roll Rotary Rolling of Bi-Metallic Rod
Abdullatif Al-Salmi, Peter Hartley
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
This paper focuses on the use of the finite element method to simulate and analyse the three-roll rotary rolling process for producing bimetallic rod. There are a number of variations on the basic rotary rolling technique which can incorporate three, four or more rolls. One of
these methods is PSW (Planetenschragwalzwerk), which is also referred to as planetary rolling. One of the major advantages of this process is the large area reduction that can be achieved by one rolling pass of a PSW mill, which is approximately equivalent to that of 68
rolling passes of a traditional rolling mill. The process has often been used in tube manufacture. Initially a basic geometric model of PSW
rolling that considered roll profiles and offset angles of the rolls was constructed. A full three-dimensional elastic-plastic finite element model
was then used to study the effect of the changes in inclination angles of the rolls on both the bar deformation characteristics, the distributions of stress and the roll bearing forces. In the examples here the inner core of the bi-metallic rod is C45, while the cladding layer is much
harder steel. The reduction of the bar from 40 mm diameter to 20 mm diameter requires an area reduction of 75%, much greater than
would be achieved in a single pass of normal bar rolling. A range of roll inclination angles between 9 and 18 are considered. The results of
the modelling show that an increase in the angle of inclination of the rolls will reduce the bearing force. Greater levels of stress are observed in the outer layer compared to those in the softer inner core. With the process conditions used here an undulating surface develops
in all cases resulting from the high twisting effect imposed during the process.
Keywords: FEM, Rotary rolling, Bimetallic bars, PSW, Roll bearing forces
Introduction
An increased interest in the use of bimetallic bars has
been observed in recent years. One of the most important
conditions for the industrial use of such bars is to assure
the high strength of the interfacial joint between the individual layers of the two materials. Also of importance are
corrosion resistance, high strength and electrical conductivity. One of the principal bar manufacturing methods
employs a Planetenschragwalzwerk (PSW) mill [1]. This
bimetallic bar rolling process is similar to the process of
rolling seamless tubes and is also referred to as rotary
rolling. The mechanism of flow is different to that in conventional groove rolling for example, due to the different
geometrical parameters in the roll gap. The PSW process
involves three conical rollers and an external ring, as
shown in Figure 1. The rollers are inclined and are equally
spaced around the axis of the workpiece.
piece during the process and to help maintain the roundness of the rods after rolling. The axis of the roll can be
adjusted to form a cross angle () and a feed angle ()
which causes the workpiece to move forward as the rollers
rotate as shown in Figure 2.
210
The axes of the three conical rolls are arranged at intervals of 120, and rotate around the deforming bar. The
surface of each roll is composed of two regions, one is the
reduction zone with a tapered cone, and the other is the
cylindrical smoothing zone, as shown in Figure 3. Various
cross-sectional reductions of the product can be obtained
simply by adjusting the axes of the three-rolls. An imporsteel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
tant advantage of the three-roll mill is the low cost of operation and maintenance and the small plant space required
compared to more conventional bar rolling processes.
Furthermore, the advantages of PSW include flexibility of
ingot size, low rolling load, low lateral spread of material
and a low temperature drop between the leading and trailing end of the rolled bar [2-6].
Steel
C45
360L
m4
-0.05957
-0.01270
360L
C45
Boundary Conditions
Figure 5. Effect of relative strength on rotary rolling for clad bar [8].
p = A0e m T m m e m
1
[MPa]
The rolls are assumed to be rigid and the process isothermal (at 1000 C), any heat exchange between rolls and
the rod is excluded. The profiles of the rolls used in the FE
models are shown in Figure 6.
(1)
211
Metal Forming
from 1 to 1e7 has been tested by measuring the ratio of the
kinetic energy to the internal energy for the model to be
quite negligible. A mass scaling factor of 103 was chosen
for the bimetallic bar, only to speed up the analysis. The
rollers and the pushing part were excluded from the mass
scaling to eliminate their inertia effect on the kinetic energy of the model [9].
Figure 6. Shapes and dimensions of work-rolls used in the analyses, showing the four different inclination angles.
Metal Forming
The greater fluctuations in the curves for smaller angles
was due to the large contact area, because the bar suffers
large deformation faster in the larger bite area. The bar
with rolls having an inclination angle of 9 is subject to
greater oscillation throughout the process.
3e+6
2.59e+8
1.73e+8
The progression of the bar through the roll gap is illustrated in Figure 11. The stress increases as the bar moves
through the roll gap until it reaches its maximum values in
the central part, and decreases in the later stages, as shown
in Figure 12.
Figure 12. Bar cross section shows von Mises stress [N/m2] for
different angles.
Conclusion
213
Metal Forming
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju / Korea; 2) TIC of Gyeongsang National University, Sacheon / Korea; 3) Youngsin Metal Industrial Co., Ansan / Korea; 4) Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Incheon / Korea; 5) Corresponding author, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju / Korea, msjoun@gnu.ac.kr
This paper describes a three-dimensional finite-element analysis of thread rolling of a 12-point flange bolt using a rigid-plastic finite-element
method. The paper also presents a new analysis model for simulating the thread rolling of fasteners or bolts. The new analysis model is
characterized by a slice of material and two artificial symmetric planes and is based on negligible change in the longitudinal dimension of
the material during thread rolling. The approach was applied to simulating the thread rolling of a flange bolt with a relatively small pitch and
depth, and the predictions were compared to experimental results. The deformation of the concave crest at the top of the thread was observed during the final stage of thread rolling, and the predicted thread shape lines agreed closely with the experimental results. However,
the effective strain distribution was not reliable because of excessive remeshing, which was inevitable due to the intrinsic geometric complexity of the thread rolling of bolts.
Keywords: Thread rolling, Flange bolt, Finite element model, Concave crest
Introduction
Bolt-shaped products are mostly manufactured by machining and thread rolling. Machining is relatively inefficient in terms of product quality and manufacturing cost
and thus is restricted to applications such as non-standard,
small-lot and large bolts that cannot be metal formed.
Thread rolling, on the other hand, has the distinct advantages of minimized material loss, better product quality,
higher productivity, and higher strength, and is thus used for
the mass production of most standard bolts. In thread rolling,
long pieces of material are incrementally formed into final
products by two sliding or rolling dies that are either tapered or flat as they compress the material in the lateral
direction while moving perpendicularly.
The increasing demand for durable and reliable fasteners
has led to the use of new higher-strength materials such as
high-strength steel, stainless steel, and pre-heat treated steel
in automobile fasteners and bolts. The plastic flow behavior
must be considered in developing a thread-rolling process
for these new materials to optimize the process and guarantee product quality and economical die life. Thread rolling
is very complicated from the standpoint of numerical simulation, and an analytical approach is often not feasible for
predicting the mechanical details of thread-rolling processes.
Thread rolling is the same as cross-wedge rolling from the
standpoint of mechanics and numerical simulation. In general, however, the problem of simulating the thread-rolling
process is more difficult than for other metal forming processes, meaning that numerical approaches have many inherent limitations. For example, thread-rolling process simulation requires excessive computational time due to the many
solutions steps required to simulate most incremental forming processes. The problem of computational time has been
mitigated to some extent by advances in computer hardware
and should become less severe as computing technology
progresses. However, advances in computer hardware alone
can clearly not solve the problem of thread-rolling simulation of products that are quite long relative to the initial
material radius.
The thread-rolling process is characterized by its complicated repeated geometry and long stroke. The former
214
Metal Forming
final stage involves forming the threads by thread rolling
between a piecewise tapered flat die and a flat die. The
first and second stages are the forward extrusion and upsetting processes, respectively, to form the preform. The
third and fourth stages are the heading and backward extrusion processes, respectively, to form the head of the bolt.
After forging, the material passes directly to the threadrolling process without any intervening processes such as
heat treatment or lubrication.
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4 Thread rolling
Figure 1. Sequence of processes in bolt manufacturing.
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
Compression test
Tensile test
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Fixed die,
tapered and flat
Sliding die,
flat
215
Metal Forming
0.04 mm on average, indicating that the change of length
during thread rolling can be neglected.
For the prediction of Figure 6, an intelligent remeshing
technique that minimizes the number of finite elements
was used. However, only about 500 of the approximately
25,000 nodes (110,000 elements) contacted the dies, and
this was not sufficient to guarantee stable contact between
the material and dies because the contact force or pressure
was relatively small.
The above simulation of the whole process demonstrates
that a distinct limitation exists in increasing the number of
finite elements sufficiently so that the process geometry
can be described in enough detail to guarantee an appropriate number of contact finite elements. This limitation
stems from the inherent geometric complexity of the
thread-rolling process of a bolt with a relatively small
pitch and depth.
metric side planes. The symmetric side planes are characterized by an absence of friction and no separation or
penetration of nodes, i.e., conditions of a theoretically
symmetric plane. This analysis model is based on the
negligible longitudinal elongation discussed above. Even
though the new model is quite simple, its practical application in a forging simulation is not trivial due to the geometrical complexity near the symmetric plane resulting in
remeshing failure. Therefore, a robust intelligent remeshing capability[9] is essential for the new analysis model.
Figures 8-10 show the predictions of the same process
considering contact conditions. Sticking in the rolling
direction was also assumed; however, Coulombs law
friction with a frictional coefficient of 0.1 was applied in
the other direction. Note that the contact region was still
not sufficiently large to consider the application of proper
frictional laws in the rolling direction, which may predict
the hill-like friction behaviors inherent in rolling.
Figure 8 shows the formation of the thread, and Figure 9
shows the shape of material with metal flow lines at the
instant when the material passes through the tapered region defined by the piecewise tapered flat die, i.e., the
major thread-forming region. Note that the sharp corner at
the top of the thread was more or less smoothed due to 450
remeshings, which cause a small amount of under-filling.
Excessive remeshings also resulted in too much smoothing
of the state variables including the strain distribution
shown in Figure 10, implying that the state variables may
not be reliable. The flow stress of the new material used in
this study had a very weak strain-hardening capability, and
thus all the results shown in Figure 8 and 9 were scarcely
affected by the numerical smoothing. The reason of nonuniform distribution of meshes in Figure 8 is due to geometric features of cutting in the early stage of thread rolling.
The experiments shown in Figure 11 illustrate that the
etched shape of the thread agreed well with the predicted
shape, especially at the top.
Metal Forming
Figure 11. Thread-rolling process experiments.
Conclusions
Figure 9. Metal flow lines and concave crest at top of the thread.
1.13
1.52
2.72
1.13
0.74
2.31
1.13
1.92
3.11
3.50
2.72
3.11 3.90
1.92 3.50
1.52
0.74
[1] J.P. Domblesky, F. Feng: J. Mater. Proc. Technol., 121 (2002), 341349.
[2] K.H. Kim, D.H. Kim, D.C. Ko and B.M. Kim: Proc. KSPE 2002
Autumn Conf., (2002), 312-315.
[3] Z. Pater, A. Gontaz, W. Weronski: J. Mater. Proc. Technol., 153-154
(2004), 722-728.
[4] Y.C. Kao, H.Y. Cheng, C.H. She: J. Mater. Proc. Technol., 177 (2006),
98-103.
[5] S.J. Jang, M.C. Lee, S.S. Han, D.J. Yoon, M.S. Joun: Proc. Kor. Soc.
Tech. Plast. Conf., Gangneung, (2009), 292-296.
[6] www.afdex.com
[7] M.S. Joun, J.G. Eom, M.C. Lee, J.H. Park, D.J. Yoon: International
Journal of Modern Physics (IJMPB), 22-31 (2008), 5774-5779.
[8] D.J. Yoon, S.T. Ahn, Y.H. Son, E.Z. Kim, N.H. Kang, M.S. Joun:
Research on preheat treated steel for application to automobile fasteners, Technical Report (2009), Korea Institute of Industrial Technology.
[9] M.C. Lee, M.S. Joun: Advances in Engineering Software, 39-1
(2008), 35-46.
217
Metal Forming
Introduction
Burnishing rolling process [1], during which, finishing
properties of treated product surface layer are shaped, is
included to the group of very difficult processes, at the
portion random and incomplete information about mechanism which determine steering of its running. Great numbers of existing factors as well as complexity of physical
phenomena are the trouble to elaborate universal models
of dependence between the state of the product after previous treatment and condition of realization burnishing
rolling process and products technological quality (PTQ).
By reason of these, it is accepted that identification and
modeling of research object with increase characteristic
should be based on the experimental-statistical method.
This method allow to take into account, in researched
process of shaping surface roughness, relatively great
number of input data and results of researches. The basis
of this consideration is taking the burnishing rolling process as a black box, which contents mechanism of burnishing rolling process, is not fully identified [2-7]. Technological quality of the burnished product, in fact, depends
on the quality of the semi-finished product prepared in
previous treatment [6-11]. Therefore, turning and burnishing processes are considered together. The best outline
after previous treatment, which is next used during burnishing rolling, is periodical, symmetrical and determined
outline.
The first attempt of burnishing process modeling made
S. Fic [4]. Basing on dimension analysis method he elaborated regression function in the form of power function,
considering influence of initial height of roughness and
technological parameters of sliding burnishing on the
objects roughness and depth of strengthening layer.
L. Kukielka in papers [2,5] used modern methods of
experiment planning and statistical results study of measurements. Elaborated empirical models consider simultaneously influence of all technological parameters of burnishing rolling process, with taking into account interaction, on chosen objects technological quality parameters.
218
Y = Y (r , , f,n ).
(1)
Metal Forming
Burnishing
Turning
Disturbing factors
Disturbing factors
Random fluctuations of
System vibration,
machining parameters,
tool wear, inherency
inaccuracy of samples
of machining liquids, mechanical fixing, material heterogeneity, uncontrolled roller wear
chips interaction
Variable
factors
f feed,
n rotation,
vertical
angle of
the tool,
r rounding
radius
Ra
[m]
PTQ
Constant factors
Lathe Europe,
number of tool path:
i=1, material: steel
C45, diameter: d=24.5
[mm], kind of liquid to
cooling and greasing
Constant factors
Lathe - Jotes Typ: TSS 150,
number of tool path: i=1, burnishing roller: two-toroidal and
cylindrical, roller material: HS180-1, hardness of roller material:
62HRC, kind of liquid to cooling
and greasing, type of burnishing
Examine Factors Variation Range (Research Zone) Establishing. Established research zone in considered case
comes: x 1 = r : 0-0.2 [mm], x 2 = : 60-120 [],
Y = b0 +
b x + b x
i =1
i i
i =1
2
ii i
(3)
The turning depth was different in each point of experiment plan. Diameters of the samples d=24.7 [mm] were
constant. The general view of the exemplary sample (a),
its zoom (b) and photo (c) after turning process are shown
in the Figure 3.
a)
b)
b x x .
i , j =1
i< j
ij i
(2)
Eq. (2) contains L=15 unknown coefficients b0, bi, bii and
bij.
c)
Coding of Examined Factors. True (T) and standardized (S) values of examined technological parameters are
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. True and standardized values of examined parameters.
Parameters
level
x1 = r
Stellar top
+2
0.2
Top
+1
0.15
Central
0.1
Bottom
-1
0.05
Stellar bottom
-2
x2 =
x3 = f
x4 = n
120
1800
0.45
0.8
1250
0.30
0.6
900
0.18
0.4
630
60
0.2
315
Figure 3. General view of the sample No. 3 after turning (a), its
zoom x35 (b) and photo of the surface (c).
219
Metal Forming
m
m
400
400
300
200
200
100
0
0
-100
-200
-200
-300
-400
-400
-500
4
4
66
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30 mm
88 10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30mm
0.261 mm mm
0.261
4.5 mm
4.8 mm
2 mm
2 mm
Elimination of Gross Mistakes. In aim to eliminate results with gross mistakes [12] the result factors from each
trial in ascending order were arranged. In relation to ignorance of parameters and , statistics: B6+ and B6 were
used. Critical value of b6+ statistic from statistical tables,
on the significant level =0.05 and form the number of
replicates p=5 equals b6+ = 0.642. The condition
B6+ b6+ ( 0.05;5 ) in all lines of results matrix is realized.
There are no grounds to reject the hypothesis about maximum values of experiment results for each point of the
plan. Similarly, because the condition B6 b6 ( 0.05;5 ) is
realized, there are no grounds to reject the hypothesis
about minimum values of experiment results.
Calculation of Among-Line Variation and Standard
Deviation. Next, the uniformity of variation in the trial
with using Cochrans test was checked. Maximum value of
2
variation equals s imax
= s 32 = 0.019 , sum of variation
31
i =1
b)
m
m
00
-50
-50
-100
-100
-150
-200
-200
c)
-250
10
10
11 12mm
11
12 mm
d)
mm
2.34 2.34mm
4.99 mm
4.99 mm
2.5 mm
2.5 mm
Figure 5. View of samples after burnishing (a), zoom of the surface (b), exemplary roughness profile of sample No. 3 (c), meshed
axonometry (d).
Symbol
b0
b1
b2
b3
b4
b12
b13
b14
b23
b24
b34
b11
b22
b33
b44
Value
0.7536
-2.7578
-0.0089
0.4271
-0.0003
0.01620
0.3406
0.00029
-0.0037
1.8951
8.2566
3.635
3.1508
0.0397
7.4175
t-Student
7.9571015
7.8861015
6.0121015
4.6591015
7.1451015
5.5461015
1.5541015
2.1271015
5.1181015
4.0311015
2.3421015
5.5051015
4.2941015
9.6271014
6.0821015
T critical
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
titkr
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Metal Forming
Y = R a = 0.754 2.758 r 0.009 + 0.427 f +
0.0003 n + 0.016 r + 0.341 r f +
+ 0.0003 r n 0.004 f + 1.895 n +
2
(4)
+ 7.417 n 2 .
Ra
R a = R a( , f ),
-1
[]
[mmrot ]
Ra
[]
[mm]
6.
Graphs
of
the
functions:
R a = R a ( r , ).
-1
n [rotmin ]
-1
f [mmrot ]
Conclusions
Experimental researches confirm significance of influence of turning process condition on the technological
quality of burnished product. Parameters of roughness
profile after burnishing rolling depend on turning conditions geometry of the tool edge (rounding radius r and
vertical angle of the tool ) and technological parameters
(turning feed f and rotation n ).
Elaborated regression function in the form
Y = Y (r , , f , n ) , allow definite values of roughness profile parameters (for example Ra, Rz, Rmax, Rt, RzISO, Rp,
RSm as well as waviness Wt) in the dependence on turning
conditions or definite optimal turning process condition
considering extreme values of roughness profile after
burnishing rolling.
Function (4) is the mathematical model, which identifies burnishing rolling process with definite condition of
its realization at the inconfidence level =0.05. This function in the form of second degree polynomial can be used
to optimization.
Received results have significant meaning for steering
of shaped during burnishing rolling process surface layer
properties, because make the possibility of effectively
integration in technological process design and adapting
technological quality to required exploitative product
conditions.
References
R a = R a ( r , )
Figure
R a = R a ( n, f )
Ra
R a = R a ( , f ), and
221
Metal Forming
School of Mech. Eng., University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing / China, bywang@ustb.edu.cn;
Imperial College London, London / UK
2)
Traditional cross wedge rolling has been widely used for the production of various kinds of shafts with circular cross sections. However it
is normally considered that the shafts with non-circular cross section, such as camshafts and eccentric shafts, cannot be produced using
the process. A new and innovative method for forming camshafts that includes non-circular sections by cross wedge rolling is presented
in the paper. The procedure and technique of the process for production of camshafts are detailed, which include the detailed tool design
methods for the precision process. This design method of roller surface profiles for forming camshafts is developed based on the
analysis of relative motion between the roller and the camshaft, and a mathematical model of the tool surface has been set up. The
model for the precision process of the camshaft has been carried out using the commercial FEM software DEFORM-3D. The process of
forming a camshaft via cross wedge rolling is simulated. Tests have been carried out for forming the camshaft by the new developed
process. The test results confirmed the new method. The newly developed process can be readily used in the automotive industry for
large scale production of camshafts.
Keywords: Cross wedge rolling, Camshaft, Non-circular sections, Metal Forming
Introduction
Cross wedge rolling is a rotary metal forming process in
which a cylindrical billet is plastically deformed into a
shaft as shown in Figure 1. The process has gained
tremendous popularity and remains a major topic in metal
forming industries. In fact, in Europe and Asia, the process
has already replaced many conventional machining,
forging, and casting processes in the manufacturing of
rotational parts. The weight of products produced by the
process is over tens of thousands of tons per year, and
more than 400 types of products have been produced in
factories. Most of the parts rolled by the process for
automobiles are gear shafts in gear shift boxes and
camshafts for engines [1].
Metal Forming
heated metal bar (workpiece in Figure 5) is driven so it
revolves in the opposite direction to the roller rotation by
means of friction. The round metal bar will be compressed
223
Metal Forming
transfers from k to c2. Then,
kc1 = kc2
Then
Rk d1 = rk d 2
d 2 Rk
=
d1
rk
Therefore
(4)
(5)
(6)
(a) Step 12
(b) Step 24
(c) Step 36
(e) Step 86
.
Y = x( ) sin 2 + y ( ) cos 2 R0 sin 1
X Y X Y
=0
1 1
224
(d) Step 55
(9)
Experiment on Cross Wedge Rolling of Camshafts
Metal Forming
i
ri
0.0
0.0 0.0 -0.18 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.39 0.26
/mm
10
11
12
13
14
15
16 17 18
19
-0.32 -0.21 0.65 0.66 0.61 0.43 0.35 0.0 0.0 0.0
Conclusions
225
Metal Forming
FEM Simulation of Planetary Cross Rolling Process for Production of Seamless Tubes
of Steel and Copper
Carolin Binotsch1), Andreas Feuerhack1), Birgit Awiszus1), Heinrich Potthoff2)
1)
Department of Virtual Production Engineering, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz / Germany; carolin.binotsch@mb.tuchemnitz.de; 2) FRIEDRICH KOCKS GmbH & Co KG, Hilden / Germany
Planetary cross rolling is a very complex deformation process to produce seamless tubes of steel and copper. By analyzing physical
interrelationships, to solve open questions and for the optimization of the process, the FEM simulation is an essential tool to achieve a
deeper process understanding. The aim of the common project between the FRIEDRICH KOCKS GmbH & Co KG and the Department
Virtual Production Engineering at the Chemnitz University of Technology is the optimization of a new, innovative and resource-saving rolling
process called Kocks Rotation Mill (KRM) by using the FEM. The basic prerequisite for the simulation is a 3D-model which characterizes
this process realistically. This paper describes the development of the 3D-model, some important simulation results and the difference in
modeling and production of steel and copper tubes.
Keywords: Planetary cross rolling, Kocks-Rotation-Mill, KRM, FEM, Simulation, Seamless tubes, Steel tubes, Copper tubes, Incremental
forming process, Elongation, Four-rolls elongator
Introduction
Numerical simulations are very important to achieve a
deeper process understanding by analyzing physical
interrelationships of the planetary cross rolling process and
to solve open questions. The basic prerequisite for these
simulations is a model which characterizes this process
realistically. Particularly, a precise representation of the
geometry and kinematics of the tools, a suitable material
model as well as appropriate friction and thermal conditions are essential for an adequate description of the
material behavior.
Figure 1. Kinematics.
Advantages of the Four-roll Elongator. What distinguishes this process from planetary cross rolling systems
that already exist is the fact that there are four rolls instead
of three and better conditions concerning the stressing and
straining of the material in the forming zone. With a new
compact gear arrangement the rotor mass is reduced. Thus,
the rotation speed and as a result the throughput can be
increased significantly. Figure 3 shows the principal
cross-section formation by an elongator with three rolls (a),
with four rolls (b) and the comparison of both procedures
(c). The three-roll process causes a triangulation in the
cross-section in the forming area. With four rolls, however,
a nearly square form is produced. Due to the small diameter of the rolls, there are less redundant form changes in
Metal Forming
the roll interspaces. Compared to the three-roll process,
the material flows less in radial and circumferential
direction and the occurring shear strains are smaller.
The reasons for that are smaller contact areas and a
lower circumferential speed due to the smaller roll diameter. Thus, less material is transported to the roll interspaces.
Another advantage is the direct linking of the KRMprocess and the stretch reduction process. Thus, an intermediate re-heating is avoided, which results in a reduction
of energy costs. So, beside the improvement of the forming process, economic advantages can be achieved compared to the elongators of Diescher, Assel or PSW with
regard to the production of seamless tubes.
a) Triangulation
b) Square formation
c) Comparison of
by the four-roll KRM
both procedures
by three rolls
Figure 3. Material flow in circumferential direction.
Steel
Copper
168
100
127
56
26
25
150
980
ambient
850
400
(1)
227
Metal Forming
Friction. For the cross-rolling process, it is important to
distinguish between the friction between tube and rolls as
well as between tube and mandrel. The surface texture of
each roll zone influences the feeding and transport behavior as well as the final geometry. Whereas the friction
between rolls and tube is desired, it has to be minimized as
much as possible on the mandrel. For the planetary crossrolling, the viscoplastic friction law according to Eq. (2)
has been applied. This law considers the sliding velocity
and the dependency of the used material.
= K(T, ) V p1 V
(2)
The friction coefficient on the mandrel has been determined through simulation calculations, by comparison
with the measured forces acting on the mandrel. Furthermore, different friction coefficients were assigned to the
roll surface, because in the real process there are different
surface textures (straight-knurled, sandblasted, rollerburnished) with different conditions. Scores of friction
variants have been calculated to achieve realistic results.
Simulation Results
For the verification of the FEM-model different calibration criteria have been determined. The simulation models
of steel and copper were calibrated using different experimental references. Accordingly, the final geometry of the
rolled out tubes varies as well. It is decisive for the evaluation and quality of the simulation model to compare data
from real tests with the results from the FEM-calculation.
For the comparison, percental and acceptable deviations of
the simulation results have been defined for the calibration
characteristics. The achieved deviations regarding the
geometrical dimensions (final diameter and wall thickness) as well as the rolling speed are below 2 %. Deviations regarding forces (roll force, mandrel force) are below
10 %. Due to the excellent accordance of simulation
results and real process results the simulation models are
regarded as calibrated and ready to use for phenomenological examinations.
Tools for Analysis. The system FORGE offers the possibility to examine the forming behavior of the material in
greater detail using marking grids and sensors (Figure 4),
which can be placed everywhere in the material. The
sensors, as so-called material particles, "travel" through
the whole forming process and store the following values
for each increment, i.e. displacements, velocities, temperature, equivalent stress, strain and strain rate, normal
stresses x, y and z as well as the shear stresses xy, yz
and xz. All recorded values are available as ASCII data.
The calculated data facilitate the evaluation of the forming
behavior because experience already gained can be confirmed and new relations can be discussed. The analysis
using more than one hundred sensors gives information
about how the final wall thick-ness depends on the local
contacts of the roll zones. These insights are used for an
optimization of the roll geometry.
228
The examinations of the material behavior in the forming area have been carried out with different analyses of
the sensors [3]. Figure 5 exemplary shows the strain rates
for a sensor regarding to the contact between this material
sensor and the rolls by the copper simulation. It is noticeable, for instance, that the equivalent strain rate increases
to the middle of the forming cone and that it reaches a
maximal value of about 550 s-1. Furthermore, the results of
velocity and displacements shown in a vector representation in 3D contribute to a deeper process understanding.
As can be seen from the strain rate, the material is subject to great strain during the process. During the production of steel tubes roughly 850 mm are rolled out in the
quasi-stationary phase. One particle (sensor) travels
through the forming zone from 0.324 s (8 contacts with the
rolls) to 0.38 s (9 contacts with the rolls). In copper tubes
the particles have between 28 contacts (in 0.916 seconds)
to 33 contacts (in 1.054 seconds) in the quasi-stationary
phase, depending on their position when they come into
the deformed zone. In this short time great deformations
take place and thus large strain rates occur.
Equivalent Strain and Strain Rate. One quality of
incremental processes is the occurrence of so-called
redundant changes of shape which can be sub-divided by
additionally internal shear strains into tangential, axial and
torsion. These deformations have no influence on the final
measurements of the rolling stock. But they have a great
influence on the efficiency of the process. Especially in
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
copper tubes appear great redundant changes of shape
besides the main changes in form in axial, radial and
tangential direction. These redundant changes of shape are
not necessary for achieving the final geometry, but they
can put extra strain on the material and limit the maximum
of possible deformations.
Great differences become apparent when comparing the
nominal effective strain with the one from the FEsimulation. A characteristic volume element for a detailed
deformation analysis has been defined using a marking
grid. This volume element consists of 124 points and
covers the entire wall thickness. From the normal strain a
equivalent strain equ acc. to Mises has been calculated.
Tangential and axial displacements as well as torsion
displacements are calculated acc. to Eicken [4] which
results in the enhanced equivalent strain *equ
2
1 2
2
*eqv= r2 +a2 +t2 + tor
+tan
+a2
3
2
steel
3.2
5.7
equ
copper
9.6
(3)
equ
15.8
Figure 6. Cross-section of tubes / FE-result: equivalent strain.
Conclusions
The applied simulation program FORGE renders it possible to realistically describe the complex KRM process of
planetary cross-rolling. The simulation results concerning
the geometry development of the forming area, the rolled
out tube and the velocities correspond very well to the
practical experience. Prerequisite for this is a material
model for high strain as well as high strain rates, and
especially for copper covering a great range of temperature. The material models as well as the further simulation
parameters (fine mesh, small time steps, real kinematics,
etc.) are necessary for a simulation which is sufficiently
safe from unforeseen runtime errors and which yields
results near to reality. At the moment, further examinations
with regard to the optimization of the roll geometry are
carried out: the material flow in the smoothing and rounding areas is monitored with sensors, particularly in order to
reduce the variation of the wall thickness of the produced
tube. Other main points are to analyze the limits of the
process in terms of stability and speed with the FEM and
to apply the found-out results for the configuration of
future rolling systems.
References
[1] L.W. Meyer, C. Kuprin, T. Halle: Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech, 38-2
(2007), 97-100.
[2] B. Awiszus, C. Binotsch, S.; Willems: Proc. 9th International
Conference on Technology of Plasticity, Gyeongju, (2008), 609-610.
[3] C. Binotsch: Dissertation, Verlag Wissenschaftliche Scripten, (2008).
[4] A. Eicken: Dissertation TU Clausthal, (1971).
229
Metal Forming
Multiscale Modeling of Rolling Processes and Bond Strength Development for Layered Materials
Matthias Schmidtchen, Rudolf Kawalla
Institute for Metal Forming, Technical University of Mining and Technology, Freiberg / Germany, matthias.schmidtchen@imf.tu-freiberg.de
A general multiscale model for non-isothermal roll-bonding and rolling processes and the bond strength development will be given. The
model is used for optimization of rolling and especially for cladding processes in research and commercial applications. The computations
were performed on the basis of a new general n-layer asymmetric roll-bonding model. It is based on strip theory and simplified thermal
computations, while the bond strength model is a modified model of Bay and Zhang. In the used layer - model extensions of the roll
bonding model of Tzou etal. concerning number of layers, solution procedure, cladding geometry, temperature and layerthickness model
were made. Due to the possebility of a high number of individual layers, inhomogeneous deformation states can be approximated using
visioplasticity methods. The solution procedure will allow for the determination of residual stresses between connected layers. In the
presented examples for a Al / steel clad and the hot rolling of an inhomogeneous steel the computations will be given. In the paper
investigations are based on similarity considarations for 2-layers. Finally interrelationships for classical similarity considerations of cold
rolling and the new model are presented.
Keywords: Strip theory, Rolling, Roll bonding, Bond strength, Layer model, Similarity analysis
230
Zone >N
FW
m1
m2
vw1
m3
mN-1
mN+1
vw2
R
hi(x)
Exit
Roll bonding is one of most used production technologies for layered metallic composite materials. Due to a
process similar to pressure welding commercially up to 5
layers will be welded at one forming step. Beside surface
treatment and annealing steps the main parts of this technology are the processes of roll bonding and further rolling
of the layered structures [1].
On the one hand differences in mechanical und thermal
properties of the alloys used for each layer are the reason
for several technological problems. On the other hand
small tolerances are expected concerning variations in
layer thickness, bond strength and the maximum allowed
residual stresses.
Therefore in the past great effort was made to model the
roll bonding and the bond strength itself.
First models concerning the material flow inside the roll
gap assuming a constant ratio of the layer thickness computed from the initial ratio at the entrance section. In comparison to experimental data they failed especially for
structures with a large layer thickness and e.g. a large ratio
of the yield stresses of base to clad material. In actual
models the development of the layer thickness will be
computed within first zones starting from the entrance
were only materials with a lower yield strength will be
deformed. After the stress state fulfils the condition of the
yield criterion (e.g. von Mises) the harder materials will be
deformed also. This process will be repeated until the
entire cross section of the roll gap is within the plastic
state.
The models used for simulation of the stress state and
material flow can be subdivided into analytical and numerical models. In the sense of a fast computation for
optimization purposes we will focus here on models based
on strip theory and related approaches. While analytical
models will compute the stress and strain state with simplification, e.g. a constant thickness ratio after plastification of adjacent layers [2,3], numerical models will include
also the hardening effect in thickness development and
Entrance
Introduction
FW
Metal Forming
Within this paper an extended layer model will be discussed, using up to 11 layers and a more physically based
modelling of the bond strength development for the simulation. As an advantage of this model the rolling of layered
structures can be simulated as well, using only an additional assumption for the relative movement of the layers
at the entrance and exit of the roll gap. During the computation of the roll bonding and rolling process the residual
stresses are also obtained.
hi ( x ) dqdxi ( x )
k fe i ( x ) dhi ( x )
k fs
dx
C 1 + tan i ( x ) R i
2
C 1 + tan i +1 (x ) R i +1
2
(2)
Roll gap:
h g ( x ) = 1 + A x 2 (1 + B )
,
A=
*
2hgesA R1 2(1 g )
R
L
B = 1 , C = *d ,
R2
hgesA
(1)
k
K i = Fi , m1 ,..., mN +1 , Ri , V
k Fs
k Fs k Fs
The meaning of the Pi values can easily be predicted
from Eq. (1). Values known from classical rolling theory
are also to be found. So e.g. A represents the total strain, C
is similar to the roll gap ration and mi are the friction factors. The basic equations for plastic and elastic deformation of the layers were derived in a similar way to [2-5].
The yield criterion of v. Mises and a parabolic description
of the roll gap geometry were used. During the solution
process there is a need for an additional semi empirical
equation describing the thickness variation of each individual layer during the deformation process. Therefore the
model of Zhang is used [5].
In a similar manner to [11] the temperature evolution
was computed using a quasi 1D-heat conduction equation
taking convective terms into consideration. These equations were modified for inner and outer layers respectively.
Initial values for each layer were computed for hot or
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Friction: = m Min[k ,k ]
Ri
i
Fi
Fi +1
Yield condition: p + q =
i
2
3
(3)
(4)
Ki
(5)
k F = A e m1 m9 m2 e(m4 + m7 ) (1 + )
m5
(m3 + m8 )
(6)
c h0 v0
dT1
= k F,1 (x ) 1 h1 ( x ) W,1 (T1 T,1 ) +
dx
+
c h0 v0
b1
T T2
R,1 v1 vW + 2 1
b1 + bW,1
h1 + h2
dTN
= k F,N (x ) N hN (x ) W,N (TN T,N ) +
dx
bN
T TN
R,N v N vW + 2 N 1
bN + bW,N
hN 1 + hN
Inner layers (i=2, 3,..N-1):
+
c h0 v0
T T T T
dTi
= k F,i (x ) i hi (x ) + 2 i 1 i + i +1 i
dx
hi 1 + hi hi +1 + hi
p = 1.23 c
a1 = 4 104
a2 = 0.5
c = a1 D0a Z a Ddyn = d1 Z
3
X dyn
e2
c
= 1 exp e1
p
d2
,
,
a3 = 0.15
e1 = 0.8
e2 = 1.4
d1 = 1.6 104
d 2 = 0.23
Qd = 312000J / mol
( p p E ) e R`
E`
E` ( A0 + B 0 AB 0 RT ( A + B AB ))
231
HH LL
0.24
b0
H L H L @D
K F2F2)
K(
m1
0.20
m2
0.18
m3
C
0.16
HL
A
C
A(C)
0.14
0.12
0.10
0
@D
modified_values_
modified
valuesK,_m,_C_
K, m, C [-]
For a sufficiently good approximation of the initial temperature distribution the maximum number of layers necessary is 11.
Within the model a mean yield stress of the plastic layer
is used which is determined by a recursive approach following Eq. (5) using a linear rule of mixing. Therefore
from Eq. (6) the yield stresses of the single layers are
predicted.
During computation an equivalent plastic strain is used
consisting of the actual deformation state itself and two
additional terms arising from shear at the entrance region
vorE i [11,13] and from the prestrain vor i of a former deformation step. These terms are usually not always
mentioned in strip theory. For simulation tools in roll
bonding these terms are very important due to the different
angles of the strips in the entrance region in real processes
and have to be used.
Solution Procedure
The system of differential equations were numerically
solved using the computer algebra system METHAMATICA for implementation.
In analogy to the approach of Bay [4] or Tzou et al. [2]
all stress components were predicted using Eqs. (2)-(6)
within each deformation zone. The end of a deformation
zone is reached, if the yield condition for a new layer is
fulfilled. Using the residual stresses for each layer, the
position of this boundary can be shifted toward the entrance or exit of the roll gap. The equations for the residual
stresses of the welded layers are determined by e.g. the
conditions xbj=-1 within the region before the neutral line.
These conditions arise from the assumption of disappearing relative movement between adjacent welded layers.
Independent of the computation of the stress state the
layer thickness is determined by an additional equation (4).
In general all thermal equations are coupled with the
mechanical problem by a dissipative term. Due to the
additional equations for the layer thickness all thermal
equation can be solved without direct consideration of the
differential equations of the stress state.
Finally the solution will be computed within an iterated
approach: First, a simplified solution of the mechanical
problem is searched using the initial temperatures. Second,
the real temperature distributions were predicted as mentioned above. Third step is the computation of the finial
stress and strain state using the predicted temperature
distributions within the yield stress model.
232
HH LL
K(s F1
K
F1)
0.7
K F1F1)
K(
0.22
Bonding
_ strength B/ kf [-]
layer
layer_thickness
thickness_ ratio
ratio hh11x(x=0)/h
=0 hgesges
x=(x=0)
0 _ - [-]
Metal Forming
K(
K
s F2
F2)
0.6
m1
0.5
m3
m2
HH LL
0.4
0.3
A
C
A(C)
A(K)
A
K
0.2
0.1
0.0
modified values K,
m, C, A [-]
modified_values_
K,_m,_C,_A_
@D
Metal Forming
value is often used to control the final layer thickness
without significant changes in bond strength.
All incoming layers will have the same angle at the entrance of the roll gap. As a result sketches similar to Figure
2 will be obtained for a sensitivity of the thickness of each
layer.
Due to differences within the layer thickness models the
results shown in Figure 5 for constant and variable thickness ratio will be totally different. Similar deviations are
obtained for strain rates and thus for microstructure evolution as well (Figure 6(b)). Thermal computations results
in a vertical distribution whereas the temperature within
the core of the strip slightly increases. The layers at the
outer region of the cross section are showing the expected
fast decrease of the temperature.
a)
b)
Figure 6. Development of temperature distribution during deformation (a) resp. grain size and recrystallized volume fraction X (b).
Given curves were computed using a symmetric 11-layer model.
Acknowledgment
As a member of the DGM working group Roll bonding the authors have to thank all companies involved as
well as Siemens VAI and DFG within SPP1204 contract
KA 1591/16-1for their support and fruitful discussions.
References
233
Metal Forming
Manufacturing of Mg/Al Clad Sheet with Pure Titanium Foil as Inserts by Hot Pressing
and Rolling
Masahiro Saito1), Motoo Asakawa1), Yoshifuru Sunaga2), Masaru Kobayashi3), Masahito Kato4), Kunio Matsuzaki4)
1)
Applied Mechanics and Aerospace Engineering, Fundamental Science and Engineering, Waseda University / Japan,
s.masha@toki.waseda.jp; 2) Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo / Japan; 3) Nagaoka University of Technology / Japan; 4)
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology / Japan
The manufacturing process of an Mg/Al clad sheet, in which both faces of a magnesium sheet were covered with an aluminum sheet; such
a clad sheet is required to be good deformability and high corrosion resistance, was investigated. After the bonding, this Mg/Al clad sheet
could withstand heavy hot rolling. We measured the bonding strength of the bonded Mg/Al clad sheet and the formability and mechanical
properties of a 0.5-mm-thick rolled sheet. The obtained results were as follows: (1) the formation of Mg17Al12 at the bonding interface was
prevented by inserting pure titanium foil between the magnesium sheet and the aluminum sheets; (2) the bonding strength of the Mg/Al clad
sheet with titanium foil inserts was 1.5 times greater than that of a sheet without titanium foil at room temperature; (3) the fracture
elongation of the Mg/Al clad sheet with titanium foil inserts was about 2 times greater than that of AZ61; and (4), the formability in bending
at room temperature was improved remarkably.
Keywords: AZ61, A1100, Clad sheet, Corrosion resistance, Pre titanium, Frmability, Bonding strength
Introduction
Magnesium alloy is lightest metal with high specific
strength in practical use today. However, because the
wrought magnesium alloy is poor in formability and corrosion resistance at room temperature, the manufacturing
process of Mg/Al clad sheets with thin aluminium sheets
has been investigated [1]. In this combination, by selecting
the optimum process, high corrosion resistance and good
formability would be expected.
In previous investigations on direct bonding without the
use of an inserts, the magnesium sheet and the aluminum
sheets are peeled away from each other. This was
attributed to the formation of Mg17Al12 at the bonding
interface between the magnesium sheet and the aluminum
sheets [2]. In this experiment, to prevent the formation of
Mg17Al12, a pure titanium foil was inserted between the
magnesium sheet and the aluminum sheets. In a previous
investigation of the manufacturing process of a Mg/Al
clad sheet and direct bonding (Figure 1), the intermetallic
compound Mg17Al12 was formed (Figure 2) and the magnesium sheet and the aluminium sheets peeled away from
each other. To improve the bonding strength, we found it
to be effective to insert titanium foil between the magnesium sheet and the aluminium sheets to avoid the formation of Mg17Al12 and increase the bonding strength by
formation of a thin diffused layer.
Hot press
Al
Mg/Al
clad sheet
Mg
Al
Al
Mg17Al12
20 m
Figure 2. Microstructure of the bonding interface after direct bonding and its line analysis (SEM-EDX).
Experimental Procedure
Process of Bonding. Three kinds of metals and alloys
(i.e., AZ61, pure aluminium A1100, and pure titanium)
were prepared. The specimens we used were an AZ61
magnesium strip made by twin-roll strip casting to a thickness of 4.0 mm, an A1100 pure aluminium rolled sheet 0.8
mm thick, and titanium rolled foil 0.04 mm thick. The
chemical compositions of the three specimens are shown
in Tables 1, 2 and 3. The AZ61 and A1100 were annealed
as shown in Table 4 and the mechanical properties are
shown in Table 5.
Table 1. Chemical compositions of AZ61 (mass %).
Mg
92.5
Al
6.26
Zn
1.03
Mn
0.234
Fe
0.001
Cu
0.15
Fe
0.61
Si
0.09
Ti
0.02
234
Space
Mg
Ti
99.9 103
C
4.51
Fe
28.0
Ni
2.0
O
30.0
H
0.4
Metal Forming
AZ61
4.0 mm
400 C, 1 (h)
A1100
0.8 mm
350 C, 1 (h)
Ti
0.04 mm
As rolled
AZ61
201 MPa
12.1%
A1100
90 MPa
35.0%
Al
Mg/Al
clad sheet
Al
200
20
200
250
25
250
210
21
150
150
15
136
13
100
100
10
50
50
50
00
0
Without
Ti Ti foil
Without
3 min 5 min 7 min
150 MPa
400 C
3, 5, 7 min
E I
i
Without
Inserted
Ti foil
Ti foil
= i i 1
(1)
(2)
M Ei
i =
20
60
Fracture elongation %
15 mm
7 min
5 min
10
Pressure
Inserted Ti sheet
3 min
R5
Pressure
Temperature
Holding time
30
300
300
Hot press
Mg
Ti
MPa
Material
Thickness
Annealing
condition
Table 4. Thickness and annealing temperature of AZ61 magnesium alloy sheet, A1100 aluminium sheets, and titanium foil.
AZ61
Holding time 7
min
AZ61
235
Metal Forming
20 m
Mg17Al12
Mg
Without
Inserted
Ti foil
Holding time 3 min
Holding time 5 min
Ti foil
Al
AZ61
(a) Without Ti foil (Holding time 5 min)
Mg
3 min
9 m
5 min
14 m
20 m
(b) Inserted Ti foil (Holding time 5 min)
Figure 9. Mapping pictures of structures and line analyses results
(SEM-EDX).
20 m
Mg
Ti
enlarged
5 m
Ti
Mg
Al
Figure 10. Mapping pictures of structures and line analyses results (Holding time 5 min, SEM-EPMA).
Table 8. Relation between holding time and depth of diffused
layers in bonded Mg/Al clad sheet inserted with titanium foil.
Holding time
Depth of diffused layer (Mg-Ti)
Depth of diffused layer (Ti-Al)
3 min
8.0 m
4.6 m
5 min
10 m
5.8 m
7 min
11 m
6.0 m
Diffused layer in
magnesium side
Diffused layer in
aluminium side
Al
7 min
16 m
236
Al
Ti
In the line of
magnesium
In the line of
titanium
Less
90.0%
Less
99.6%
Less
99.6%
than
than
than
In the line
of
aluminium
Less
than
99.0%
Metal Forming
Rolling of Mg/Al Clad Sheet with and without Titanium Foil Inserts
Conclusions
o : Formable
Necking
Species
Holding
time
1.0
2.0
4.0
3 min
o
Mg/Al clad sheet
5 min
o
(inserted Ti foil)
7 min
o
3 min
o
Mg/Al clad sheet
5 min
o
(without Ti foil)
7 min
o
3 min
x
x
x
AZ61
5 min
x
x
x
7 min
x
x
x
o : Formable, - : Necking of surface aluminum, x : Fracture
237
Metal Forming
Introduction
Sheet metal often shows shape defects, which is not
complying with the increasing requirements for the quality
of products needing to satisfy high demands on tolerances.
As the computational power has increased over the past
years, simulation is playing an outstanding role in the
production process and is becoming much more effective.
Simulation proved to be a powerful tool for defining and
developing new methods.
Sheet metal defects can be distinguished into two main
types: surface-to-surface and edge-to-edge length differential shape defects. The first one can be eliminated using
conventional roller levellers [1], while the eliminating of
edge-to-edge length differential problems requires levellers featuring an adjustable bending of the levelling rolls
[2,3] (see Figure 1). By means of this, the centre and the
left or right edge zones of the sheet stripe can be stretched
to a different extent. A successful adjustment of these
machines is complex and depends mainly on the experience of the line operator [4,5].
In this paper, wavy edges and centre waves as well as
their causes and possible corrections are investigated. By
means of an analytic description, a three dimensional
simulation model of an adequate levelling machine was
developed using the MATLAB programming environment
to analyze the levelling process. Compared to the finite
element method, the use of this model considerably reduces the calculation effort while producing satisfactory
results [6]. The analytic description provides a wide range
of features to analyze the levelling process for different
types of sheet metal and levellers. A user-friendly graphical user interface was developed to facilitate entering the
required parameters for the simulation. The topography of
the sheet metal to be levelled is analyzed using a measurement system and is used as input for the simulation.
The optimal machine settings can be virtually determined
to save time and costs and the topography of the sheet
metal before and after virtual levelling can be visualized.
Different methods have been tested to investigate the effect of the levelling process on the sheet metal and to calculate the remaining defects after levelling. The simulation
results were validated with experimental results.
Levellers
238
levelling rolls
supporting rolls
Figure 1. Leveller with supporting rolls.
The type of levellers discussed here features an adjustable bending of the lower set of levelling rolls by controlled vertical adjustment of the lower supporting rollers
[9].
By this, certain zones (virtual stripes) of the sheet metal
as the centre and the left or right edge zones can be
stretched to a different extent. This is necessary to eliminate edge-to-edge shape defects [9,10].
Furthermore the upper roll set can be adjusted in vertical
direction, but arranged linearly and without a bending of
the rolls. This enables the machine to straighten surfaceto-surface defects resulting from a coiled delivery of sheet
metal.
Metal Forming
edge stripes
centre stripes
centre stripes
edge stripes
edge stripes
(b) Sheet metal with edge waves
mm
Simulation of Levelling Process. A theoretical description of the levelling process is complex due to different
sheet metal materials, the complexity of the levelling machine and the sensitive process itself [3,8]. The sheet metal
properties, especially the residual stresses and the potential
strain hardening before levelling are known only with
restricted exactness due to multiple wrapping or forming
of the sheet metal during its production (e.g. rolling and
multiple recoiling). The required forces on the levelling
rollers respective the machine settings to obtain acceptable
levelling results are accordingly variable [1].
The friction conditions within the machine vary from
roll to roll in a barely predictable way and the levelling
process is very sensitive. According to this, a m of variation of the rollers adjustment can be decisively whether
the sheet metal will be flat or still has shape defects after
the levelling process. Furthermore, comparative data of
real sheet metal as input and output parameters are difficult to gather. Measured bending, wavelengths or amplitudes of waves in a sheet metal are accurate only if the
sheet metal is not impacted by external forces [8]. This
condition is hard to achieve as in fact the self-weight of
the sheet metal may influence the value of the shape defects. Due to the reasons named above as well as high
computing times, the use of the finite element method for
the process simulation is not suitable for a quick analysis
and adjustment of a leveller [6]. At the Institute of Metal
Forming and Metal-Forming Machines of the Leibniz
University in Hanover, an analytic description of a leveller
was developed. The levelling process using a machine
with adjustable bending of the levelling rolls was analysed
on the basis of a geometrical approach to eliminate edgeto-edge length differential shape defects (edge waves and
centre waves).
Roll 6
Roll 4
Roll 8
0
Roll 1
-50
Roll 3
50
contact points
Roll 5
100
mm
Roll 7
150
Roll 9
200
239
Metal Forming
0.1
0.09
0.08
length difference (mm)
0.07
before
0.06
0.05
virtual
0.04
0.03
experimental
0.02
0.01
0
0
200
400
600
800
sheet metals width(mm)
1000
1200
According to this, large length differences were calculated for the edges. Virtual and experimental levelling was
done using the same adjustments for the real leveller as
well as for the virtual model.
The sheet metal after virtual levelling still had waves at
both sides, but considerably smaller than before. Accordingly, the length differences were decreased. The results of
the experimental tests correspond to the simulation. Small
edge waves remained in the material, even a little smaller
than those of virtual levelled sheet. A good accordance
between simulation and reality was found.
In Figure 6, the topography of the sheet metal is visualized with the help of the developed software.
240
Metal Forming
Reduction of Middle Waves. Figure 7 shows the results of levelling a sheet with middle waves using another
set of machine adjustments. The middle waves were eliminated by the experimental levelling process. As a result of
unsuitable machine settings, edge waves were generated
instead. In accordance, virtual levelling with the same
machine adjustments lead to similar results.
Acknowledgement
0.25
0.2
virtual
0.15
experimental
before
0.1
References
0.05
0
0
800
600
Sheet metals width (mm)
400
200
1000
1200
0.03
0.025
0.02
before
0.015
virtual
experimental
0.01
0.005
0
0
200
400
600
800
sheet metals width (mm)
1000
1200
Conclusions
The intent of the presented work is the development of
an analytic simulation model of a levelling machine for
sheet metal to eliminate edge and middle waves. The
model allows a virtual determination of suitable settings
for levellers featuring adjustable bending of the levelling
rolls. By this, waves at the edges as well as in the middle
of the sheet metal can be eliminated. An adequate approach for the calculation and a graphical user interface
was developed and realized using the programming environment MATLAB. A description of modern levellers, the
acquisition of the sheet metal topography and the method
241
Metal Forming
Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Roller Leveller Straightening for Coiled Bar
Motoo Asakawa1), Motohiko Urabe2), Kotaro Nishimura2), Ryota Hamada2), Shigeyuki Aizawa2), Masahiko Amari3)
1)
Department of Applied Mechanics and Aerospace Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo/ Japan, asakawa@waseda.jp; 2) Major in Applied Mechanics, Graduate School of Fundamental Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo/ Japan, 3) Asahi Sunac Corporation,
Aichi/ Japan
Straightening is carried out industrially to eliminate or modify the curvature of bars and wires using, for example curved and twisted coiled
bars for wire rod rolling, and a wire drawing process. Roller leveller straightening is one of the most popular methods used for straightening
wires or coiled bars, because of its simple mechanical structure. The objective of this study is to investigate roller leveller straightening by
theoretical and experimental analyses. Three-dimensional FEM analysis of roller leveller straightening was carried out using multipurpose
nonlinear FEM software MSC. Marc.. The Chaboche model (by considering the Bauschinger effect) was used to improve the accuracy of
the analysis. Results of the theoretical FEM analysis were found to be in good agreement with the experimental result of bar tilting, and
thus, the obtained result provides an effective tool for estimating the limit value of straightness and bar tilt. The limit value of straightness
could be found only when the three-dimensional shape of a coiled bar was completely straightened. The limit value of straightness was
caused by the tilting of the bars during straightening. From the theoretical and experimental analysis, it is found the initial shape of a curved
and twisted coiled bar is the main factor causing bar tilting.
Keywords: Straightening, Tilting, Bar, Rod, Simulation, Roller leveller
Introduction
Recently, straightening has been widely used to remove
or change the curvatures of bars (cast or helix shaped) of
wires formed by wire rod rolling, or drawing. The demand
for straight automobile precision machine parts has particularly increased. Since straightening methods largely
depend on workers experience and precision, the machine
setting and process sequence is usually entirely left to the
workers discretion.
Straightening on a roller leveller is the most popular
method for straightening bars and wires because of the
simple mechanical structure and low cost of the device.
Several researches have been conducted on sheets and
plates, however, research conducted on bars and wires are
relatively few [1].
In this report, three-dimensional FEM analysis of
straightening on a roller leveller was investigated using
multipurpose nonlinear FEM software MSC. Marc.. The
Chaboche model (considering Bauschinger effect) was
used to improve the accuracy of the analysis results, which
were compared with previous experiments [2-6]. Limit
value of straightness and bar tilting during straightening were determined only when a coiled bar (curved and
twisted) was straightened.
Experimental Method
Figure 1 shows the roller leveller used for straightening
bars and wires in this study. The rollers were numbered
along the feed direction of the material. The roll intermesh
h was adjusted by moving even numbered rollers along the
Y-axis, but the odd numbered rollers were fixed. The
roller diameter and pitch was D = 55 mm, and L = 70 mm
respectively. V shaped roller groove was used. Medium
carbon drawn steel bar (0.45% C) with a diameter of 6 mm
was used as the material. Figures 2 shows 3 types of bar
shapes, one-dimensional straight bar, two-dimensional bar
(curved in one plane), and three-dimensional bar (curved
and twisted coiled bar). Tables 1 and 2 list the chemical
242
Three-dimensional bar
C
0.430
Si
0.190
Mn
0.700
P
0.011
S
0.005
C
0.450
Si
0.200
Mn
0.770
P
0.019
S
0.023
Metal Forming
Analytical Method
800
400
Strain gage
Tensile-Compress
test
200
0
-200
-400
Teflon sheet
Bar
-600
Isotropic hardening
-800
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
True Strain %
Figure 3. Cyclic load test of medium carbon steel bar.
800
600
400
Experiment
200 Experiment
Stress /MPa
Stress /MPa
600
Die
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
-0.6
sotropicIsotropic
hardening
hardenin
Chaboche
model
Chaboche-model
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4 0.6
True Strain %
Figure 4. Comparison of material model and experimental
results of axial loading unloading.
Rotation fix
Forced displacement
Front side
Prescribed displacement
otation is ree
LL
0 de
L/2
L/2
L/2
L/2
deg.
de
= 1/ = 4 / L2
s
P P
Plasticit ratio r
Experimental Result
Figure 11 shows relationships between roll intermesh
h4 and straightness for 5 roll straightening, h2 = 3.0 mm.
Accurately straight bar can be obtained by only adjusting
h4 when one-dimensional and two-dimensional bars are
used. On the other hand, the limit value of straightness is
obtained when three-dimensional bar is used. The rotation
243
Metal Forming
12
Three-dimensional
- bar
Two-dimensional
2- bar
One-dimensional
1- bar
6
3
Analysis
of two
dimensional
2
bar
Analysis
one dimensional
of1-
bar
3
0
200
300
400
500
Displacement X /mm
Figure 13. Theoretical and experimental relation between
displacement and tilt angle.
100
10-4
2.5
2.0
-
Three-dimensional
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
One-dimensional bar
-0.5 1-
-1.0
bar
2-
Two-dimensional
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
x-z=1/
x-z
X-Z 1/X Z
Z
Y
X
1000
Straightness /mm-1
Figure 13 shows the theoretical and experimental results for tilt angle for 5 roll straightening, h2 = 3.0 mm,
and h4 = 0.7 mm. The theoretical analysis result was quantitatively similar to the experimental one. From both results, no rotation occurred when one-dimensional and twodimensional bar were used, but a large rotation occurred
when a three-dimensional bar was used. Figure 14 shows
the difference between the initial shape and straightness
of the bar in the theoretical analysis under for 5 roll
straightening and h2 = 3.0 mm. Maximum plastic ratio max
= 40.2% and curvature s = 38.010-4 mm-1. There was no
limit value of straightness when one and two-dimensional
bars were straightened by adjusting only h4. On the other
hand, there was a large limit value of straightness when
three-dimensional bar was straightened. Figure 15 shows
resolved straightness of a straightened three-dimensional
bar. Straightened three-dimensional bar straightness was
dissolved into X-Y and X-Z planes The curvature X-Y was
well straightened in X-Y plane. However, X-Z remained
even after straightening in X-Z plane. This residual bending is considered to be the reason for limit value of
straightness.
=1/
x-yX-Y=1/
x-yX-Y
Analytical Result
244
of three-dimensional
Experimental
-
12
-4
2.5 10
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
X-Y
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.4
X-Z
15
15
Tilting angle /deg.
10
2.5
Three-dimensional
bar
-
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
Two-dimensional
bar
2-
-2.0
One-dimensional
bar
1-
-2.5
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Straightness /mm-1
-4
Straightness /mm-1
1.2
1.4
1.6
Metal Forming
No.1
No.2
L=70 mm D=55 mm
No.5
No.3
No.9
No.8
h
Z
t1
Figure 16. Arrangement of rollers for roller leveller.
8
6
t 1 = 0 mm
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10 0
t 1 = 2 mm
Straightness /mm-1
t1 = 2 mm
t1 = 0 mm
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
No.8 roll intermesh h8 / mm
Figure 18. Improvement of limit value of straightness applying
change of height t1.
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
00
-0.5
-1.0
Limit value
-1.5
-2.0 (H straightening)
-2.5
0.4
0.6
0.8
Y
X
Limit value
(H-V straightening)
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Circle
Straightene
Z
Straightness /mm-1
20 deg.
25 deg.
X
2.5
2.0
1.5 New type straightener
1.0
Limit value
0.5
0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0 Limit value of conventional straightening (H straightening)
-2.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.5
No.2 Roll intermesh h2 /mm
leveller straightener
200
400
600
Displacement X mm
Figure 17. Relation between tilt angle and displacement X during straightening of three-dimensional bar.
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
10-4
Conclusion
No.7
No.6
Straightness /mm-1
ing along the direction of bar rotation. The residual bending in the vertical plane is considered to be the cause of
limit value of straightness. Figure 19 shows the straightness values after straightening in the X-Y and the X-Z
planes; this method is commonly used industrially. The
bar was straightened in both planes and the limit value of
straightness was improved, but still had a large straightness limit value. The rotation of the bar caused bending in
the X-Y plane, nevertheless bending remained only in the
X-Z plane when the bar was straightened in the X-Y plane.
Therefore, the rotation of the bar adversely affected
straightening.
Finally, it was considered that aligning the straightening
plane along the direction of bar rotation would be effective,
and a new straightener was developed as shown in Figure
20(a). This straightener could change the straightening
plane every 5 rollers by the circle guide. The straightening
plane angle of first 5 rollers was calculated using the
formula given below from the pitch of the coiled bar p, its
the diameter 2, and the distance between the starting
point of the apparatus and the point of first bending X.
X
(1)
360 deg
=
2
2
p + (2 )
Figure 20(b) shows the effect of the new roller leveller.
Changing the straightening plane with the rotation of the
bar caused more effective straightening as compared to
straightening only in the X-Y plane.
References
[1] H. Suzuki, J. Araki, N. Yamamoto: J. Japan Soc. Technol. Plast., 15156 (1974), 35-42.
[2] T. Irisawa, M. Asakawa, T. Hama, S. Aizawa: Proc. 55th JSTP, (2004),
497-498.
[3] M. Nagahira, M. Asakawa, S. Aizawa, M. Motoda, H. Yoshida, M.
Amari: Wire J. Int., (2006), 124-131.
[4] R. Hamada, M. Asakawa, M. Nagahira, M. Amari: Proc. 58th JSTP,
(2007), 483-484.
[5] T. Aikawa, R. Hamada, M. Asakawa, M. Amari: Proc. 58th JSTP,
(2007), 485-486.
[6] R. Hamada, M. Asakawa, M. Nagahira, M. Amari: Wire J. Int.,
(2008), 81-87.
245
Metal Forming
Introduction
Idea of MEFASS Rolling Process. Tested to date methods of metal forming with induced strain path such as:
ECAP or KOBO extrusion allowed to gain interesting
effects. However, these processes also have one disadvantage, which is a small volume of material that can be deformed during a single operation. Application of induced
strain path during the rolling process allows for deformation a much larger volume of material in one pass.
Presented in the article rolling process is characterized
by application of cyclic, transverse movement of the working rolls during forming of the material. The additional
movement of rolls produces shear stresses in the material hence the name of the process is Metal Forming Aided by
Shear Stresses.
246
Metal Forming
The parameters of the rolling process have been identified on the basis of earlier laboratory tests [5]. So far during the research of MEFASS rolling process with maximal
parameters of additional movement were used to maximize the effects of induced strain path. However observations made during the research showed that a particularly
negative impact of using maximum amplitude of transverse displacement rolls on the shape of the rolled strip
obtained after the process [5].
Accordingly, in the research the following process parameters were applied:
rolling reduction - studies have shown that the effects of
induced strain in the MEFASS rolling process is recorded
for values greater than 10% - in research values of h=10,
15 and 20% were used,
rotational speed of rolls maximum number of additional rolls movement cycles must be executed during the
material were cross the rolling gap - the minimum rotational speed possible to get were used - v=1 rpm,
the frequency of transverse, cyclic rolls movement - in
order to obtain the maximum number of cycles per volume
of the rolled material the maximum frequency was applied
- f=3 Hz,
amplitude of transverse rolls movement - minimum value
of the amplitude of transverse rolls movement were used
for reasons explained above - A=0.8 mm.
Research Results. One of the most important advantages of metal forming processes with induced strain path
is high value of strain, which can be obtained in one operation. However, the calculation of deformation in these
type of process requires dependence, which can take into
account the characteristics of the process.
For calculating equivalent strain value in MEFASS rolling it was necessary to derive new relation, because existing relations for equivalent strain can be applied only for
conventional rolling process. By assumption of strain
macro-homogeneity the following relation (1) was derived:
ic =
4 f a
(h0 h1 ) D
2 + ln h1
h0
3 v w (h0 + h1 )
(1)
247
15%
20%
Rolling torque, [Nm]
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
10%
10%
15%
20%
1 pass
2 pass
112
60
84
40
56
20
28
0
-20
0
14
14,5
15
15,5
16
-28
-40
-56
-60
-84
-80
-112
-100
-140
time, [s]
80
140
80
112
60
84
40
56
20
28
0
-20
0
14
14,5
15
15,5
16
-28
-40
-56
-60
-84
-80
-112
-100
Rolling torque Nm
84
40
56
20
28
0
-20
14
14,5
15
15,5
16
0
-28
-40
-56
-60
-84
-80
-112
-140
time, [s]
Upper axial force [kN]
-140
time, [s]
Upper axial force kN
112
60
140
80
-100
100
100
Metal Forming
Rolling force kN
100
140
80
112
60
84
40
56
20
28
0
-20
0
14
14,5
15
15,5
17
16
-28
-40
-56
-60
-84
-80
-112
-100
-140
time, [s]
Upper axial force [kN]
248
Metal Forming
1000,00
800,00
600,00
400,00
200,00
0,00
15%
20%
2 pass
10%
5000,00
4000,00
3000,00
2000,00
1000,00
0,00
Research conducted in Department of Material Technology Silesian University of Technology are the step forward
in direction to design the most effective mechanical working process build on induced strain path phenomena. Rolling mill with possibility of cyclic, transverse rolls movement is the unique construction around the world.
Carried out so far, studies show that it is particularly interesting effects of this deformation mode can be obtained
for materials such as advanced high strength steels, , magnesium or titanium alloys. Presented results are the first
attempt to use the MEFASS rolling process for this group
of materials.
Further studies of MEFASS rolling process will be focused on
impact evaluation of induced strain path on the mechanical and
physical properties of shaped material. In order to achieve even
greater results, related to the mode of deformation, it is also
planned to introduce certain changes to the device construction.
Acknowledgements
15%
20%
2 pass
10%
1 pass
Relative
Deformation
Work, [MJ/Mg]
These results are another confirmation that for easy-toform materials the effects of rolling with induced strain
path can be observed for processes conducted with height
reduction value greater than 10%. To obtain these effects
for hard-to-form materials it is necessary to apply 20%
height reduction at least.
Probably this is due to the need of increase the material
volume, which at the certain moment is undergoing a
process of deformation with induced strain path. Height
reduction increase enables to obtain such an effect because
it increases the length of rolling gap.
Numerical Modelling of Rolling Process with Induced Strain Path Change. Very important role in the
research of process with induced strain path have the FEM
analysis. Because of different behaviour of the material
numerical model development for these processes is more
difficult than in the conventional metalforming process.
However, taken so far works presented in the literature [79] have already given the first interesting results.
In work [9] the numerical model of MEFASS rolling
process is presented. Of particular importance in this
model proved to be a method for modelling a specific
shape of working rolls, which were used to induce changes
of the strain path. This required the application of anisotropic friction model, which allowed to differentiate friction coefficients for the rotation and transverse rolls
movement . Comparison of the strips shape obtained in
laboratory tests and numerical modelling has shown great
compatibility. Further development of this numerical
model could allow a better understanding of the phenomena occurring in the material during MEFASS rolling
process.
Conclusions
1 pass
Relative
Deformation
Work,
[MJ/Mg]
249
Metal Forming
Youngsin Metal Industrial Co., Ansan / Korea ; 2) TIC of Gyeongsang National University, Sacheon / Korea; 3) Samhwa Steel, Busan /
Korea; 4) School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju / Korea; 5) Research Center, Hyundai
Motor Company, Korea; 6) Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Incheon / Korea; 7) Corresponding author, School of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju / Korea, msjoun@gnu.ac.kr
The plastic deformation behavior of ESW105 and SCM435 steels was examined by simulations and experiments. ESW105 is a special and
pre-heat-treated steel characterized by high initial yield strength and negligible strain-hardening behavior. The flow stresses of the two
steels for large strains were calculated from tensile tests with their associated material identification algorithm. Axial and lateral compression behaviors of cylindrical bars were tested and simulated, and the deformed shapes were compared to characterize the plastic deformation behavior of the two materials. A two-stages forward extrusion process of a cylindrical bar, which is a part of the ball-stud forging process, was also simulated to determine difference between the two steels. The findings showed significant differences in metal flow between
ESW105 and SCM435, which caused differences in strain-hardening capabilities, indicating that experience-oriented design rules for common commercial materials may lead to failures in process design if the new material ESW105 is used without considering its plastic deformation behavior.
Keywords: Prediction, Experiment, Strain-hardening exponent, Pre-heat-treated steel, Forgeability
Introduction
Various efforts have been made to reduce the generation
of CO2 gas during the manufacturing and servicing of
commercial goods. Indeed, this has become a global
megatrend. International rules and regulations to improve
the environment are gradually being implemented. Thus,
improving manufacturing processes is imperative, especially if they involve great energy consumption.
Of course, minimizing toxic material generation in the
servicing of automobiles and increasing their fuel efficiency have also become major interests in the automobile
and related industries. To increase the fuel efficiency,
weight reduction is an issue to consider, as is the use of
clean energy sources. Weight reduction is dependent on
the availability of light and/or high-strength materials and
optimized structural design. More economical and less
energy consuming manufacturing of high-strength mechanical parts will have a great influence on competitiveness in the industry in the near future. These goals provide
challenges to engineers in applying new materials in vehicles development.
The pre-heat-treated steel called Energy Saver Wire
(ESW) [1], a special steel pre-heat-treated in a highfrequency induction heating method, is very attractive, not
only because it is a new high-strength material, but its
manufacturing process also consumes less total energy.
This applies especially to several mechanical parts, including tie rods and bolt-form products. In particular, it is
advantageous for long slender parts because removal of
the final heat treatment process, which inevitably is followed by their bending or twisting, can save manufacturing costs by removing an additional straightening process
and reduce the output of environmentally toxic materials.
However, ESW is known to have a peculiar behavior,
particularly when it is a little drawn [2, 3]. It has relatively
high initial yield stress, but has negligible strain-hardening
behavior. In previous studies [2,3], deformation character-
250
Metal Forming
pression or upsetting usually precedes the main forging
stages to enhance the initial billet for the following stages.
The cut cross sections can be more or less improved
through this process, but barreling inevitably occurs due to
friction between material and die. Predicting the barreled
diameter is sometimes important in the process design of
precision forging. Additionally, it is important because
barreling is deeply related to the materials properties,
including its strain-hardening capability.
In this study, barreling in cylinder compression was
studied by both predictions and experiments for two materials, SCM435 and ESW105. The diameter and height of
the cylindrical specimen tested were 16 mm and 24 mm,
respectively, and the specimens were not lubricated. A
mechanical press and a metal forming simulator AFDEX
[6] were used. The assumption was made that the frictional
coefficient was 0.15 [7] because no lubricant was applied.
The reduction in height in this test was 50%. The experiments were conducted under the same conditions.
Experiments are shown in Figure 2 and the predictions
in Figure 3. The predicted maximum diameters of
SCM435 and ESW105 were 23.6 mm and 24.1 mm, respectively. Thus, as shown in Figure 3, the barrelled surface of SCM435 should be the smoother of the two due to
volume consistency. This deformation behavior can also
be observed in the experiments in Figure 2. This plastic
deformation behavior may be advantageous or undesirable,
according to the situations, and the process designer must
consider this plastic deformation behavior. For an example,
the reduction in height of ESW105 in upsetting for consecutive backward extrusion should be more or less decreased compared to SCM435 for safe loading of the upset
material into the backward extrusion die cavity, which
may lead to advantageous or undesirable change of material flow near die corners, as the case may be.
(a) SCM435
(b) ESW105
Figure 2. Experiments of cylinder axial compression.
1200
1000
800
600
(a) SCM435
400
SCM435
ESW105
200
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
(b) ESW105
Figure 3. Predictions of cylinder axial compression.
251
Metal Forming
(a) SCM435
(b) ESW105
Figure 4. Experiments of cylinder lateral compression.
(a) SCM435
(b) ESW105
Figure 5. Predictions of cylinder lateral compression.
20.0
7.5
45
7.495
R2.0
(a) SCM435
(a) Billet
(b) Die
(b) ESW105
Figure 6. Detailed view of deformed surface.
252
Metal Forming
Experiment
Prediction
(a) SCM435
(b) ESW105
Figure 8. Comparison of deformed shapes between SCM435 and
ESW105.
Conclusions
Experimental and numerical studies were conducted on
the macroscopic plastic behaviors of the pre-heat-treated
steel ESW105 characterized by its low strain-hardening
capability and the common special steel SCM435 that is a
typical strain-hardening material at room temperature. To
reveal the macroscopic plastic behaviors of the two materials, basic formability tests including compression of
cylindrical specimens in the axial and lateral directions by
flat dies and forward extrusion of cylindrical specimen
were investigated.
This work was supported by the Korea Research Foundation (KRF) grant funded by the Korea government
(MEST) (No. 2009-0066590) and by the Ministry of
Knowledge Economy, Republic of Korea.
References
[1] S.T. Ahn, Y. Yamaoka, KR-A-0056917, (2001), 10-2001-0056917,
09-14.
[2] J.T. Park, J.G. Eom, J.H. Kim, D.J. Youn, M.S. Joun: Proc. Kor. Soc.
Tech. Plast. Conf., KSTP, Kangwon, (2008), 439-443.
[3] S.M. Jang, J.G. Eom, M.C. Lee, M.S. Joun: Proc. Kor. Soc. Tech.
Plast. Conf., Jeju, (2008), 292-296.
[4] M.S. Joun, J.G. Eom, M.C. Lee: Mech. Mater., 40-7 (2008), 586-593.
[5] M.S. Joun, J.G. Eom, M.C. Lee, J.H. Park, D.J. Yoon: Int. J. Mod.
Phys. B, 22-31 (2008), 5678-5773.
[6] http://www.afdex.com.
[7] S.H. Corandall, N.C. Dahl, T.J. Lardner: McGraw-Hill, (1978).
253
Metal Forming
Development of Ultra High-Strength Low Alloy TRIP-Aided Steel for Hot-Forging Parts
Koh-ichi Sugimoto1), Junya Kobayashi1), Goro Arai2)
1)
2)
An ultra high-strength TRIP-aided steel consisting of bainitic ferrite lath structure matrix and interlath retained austenite films possesses
high toughness and fatigue strength, as well as high resistance against hydrogen embrittlement. In this study, to develop the ultra highstrength TRIP-aided steel for hot-forging parts, the effects of hot-forging and subsequent austempering process on the microstructure,
retained austenite characteristics, tensile properties and impact toughness of 0.2%C-1.5%Si-1.5%Mn-Cr-Mo-B TRIP-aided steels were
investigated. The process achieved an excellent combination of yield strength of 700-800MPa and Charpy impact absorbed value of 110130 J/cm2 in these steels, as well as a good balance of yield strength and total elongation when subjected to austempering at temperatures
between 325oC and 375oC below martensite-start temperature (Ms). These combinations exceeded so much those of the steel subjected to
the conventional austempering without hot-forging. From examinations of microstructure and retained austenite characteristics, it was found
that these combinations are mainly caused by (i) refined mixed structure of bainitic ferrite and retained austenite without pro-eutectoid
ferrite (ii) high uniformity of the mixed structure and (iii) the increased volume fraction of metastable retained austenite.
Keywords: TRIP-aided steel, Ultra high-strength steel, Austempering process, Hot-forging, Retained austenite, Microstructure, Tensile
property, Impact toughness
Experimental Procedure
Three kinds of vacuum-melted steel bars (32 mm in diameter) with chemical composition listed in Table 1 were
prepared in this study. CCT diagrams of the steel bars A-C
are shown in Figure 1.
Square thick plates of 20 mm in thickness, 80 mm in
length and 32mm in width were machined from the steel
254
Table 1. Chemical composition (mass%), martensite-start temperature (MS, oC) and PCM (mass%) of steels used.
Steel
Si
Mn
Cr
Mo
A
B
C
0.20
0.21
0.18
1.52
1.49
1.48
1.50
1.50
1.49
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.0021
0.0019
0.0029
1.00
1.02
0.20
Steel
Al
Nb
Ms
PCM
A
B
C
0.039
0.040
0.043
0.050
0.050
0.050
0.0018
-
0.0010
0.0012
0.0015
0.0011
0.0012
0.0010
420
397
407
0.335
0.385
0.368
1000
F
600
0
1000
F
M
(c)
200
10
10
100 1000 10
t (s)
F: ferrite
P: pearlite
B: bainite
M: martensite
600
400
10 2 0.5
20 5 1 0.3
800
0
1
M
o
40 C/
(b)
400
200
(a)
800
T ( oC)
T ( oC)
Introduction
100 1000 10
t (s)
Metal Forming
C = (a-3.5780+0.00095xMn+0.0056xAl+0.0051xNb
+0.0006Cr+0.003xMo +0.0220xN)/0.0330
(1)
T (oC)
where Mn, Al, Nb, Cr, Mo and N represent solute concentration (mass%) in phase. For convenience, added
content of individual alloying elements was substituted in
Eq. (1).
T=900oC, 1200s
R=0% or 50% (50%/s)
In salt
40oC/s
TA=300-450oC,
tA=1000s
t (s)
reduced by FA process. There are a small amount of proeutectoid ferrite in steel A. When the image quality (IQ)
index of matrix (bcc) and retained austenite (fcc) in steel C
subjected to CA or FA process which was analyzed from
phase map of EBSP analysis (Figure 4 (c) and (d))), IQ
index of both the phases subjected to FA process become
lower.
Figure 5 shows typical TEM image of steel C subjected
to FA process. It is appeared that the FA process reduces
bainitic ferrite lath size and increases dislocation density
in the bainitic ferrite lath structure.
Figure 6 shows the variations in initial volume fraction
(f 0) and carbon concentration (C0) of retained austenite
of steel C subjected to CA or FA process. It is found that a
good combination of the volume fraction and carbon concentration can be obtained when austempered at 325-375
o
C. In this case, there is only a small difference between
CA and FA process.
Figure 7 shows the volume fraction and carbon concentration of three steels austempered at 325 or 350 oC as a
function of weld cracking parameter (PCM) which is defined by the following equation.
PCM =C+Si/30+(Mn+Cu+Cr)/20+Ni/60+Mo/15
+V/10+5B
where C, Si, Mn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Mo, V and B represent content
(mass%) of individual alloying elements.
The volume fraction of retained austenite increases with
increasing PCM. On the other hand, the carbon concentration decreases with increasing PCM. The FA process tends
to decrease the volume fraction although it increases
somewhat the carbon concentration. This result is opposite
to that of previous study referring to a 0.42%C-1.47%Si1.51%Mn-0.50Cr-0.20Mo-0.48%Al-0.052Nb TBF steel
with good hardenability [13].
(a)
(b)
t/4
(2)
forging direction
specimen
for tensile
10m
(c)
(d)
Results
Microstructure and Retained Austenite Characteristics. Figure 4 shows typical phase maps and inverse pole
figure maps of steel C subjected to CA or FA process.
When subjected to austempering at 325-375 oC after hotforging, the FA process makes the matrix structure fine,
although some of the bainitc lath structure is changed to be
indistinct or granular. In this case, blocky and filmy retained austenite phases exist uniformly on bainitic ferrite
lath and prior austenitic grain boundaries. Furthermore, it
is found that prior austenitic grain size is considerably
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
111
001
101
Figure 4. Phase maps (a,b) and inverse pole figure maps (c,d) of
steel C subjected to (a,c) CA or (b,d) FA process (TA=350 oC). In
(a) and (b), green and red regions represent matrix and retained
austenite, respectively.
255
Metal Forming
steels achieve extremely a superior combination of yield
strength and impact value by FA process. These good
combinations exhibit the same level as 0.4%C-TBF steel
[13] and are superior to SCM420 and SCM440 steels subjected to heat treatment of quenching and tempering.
Figure 10 shows weld cracking parameter (PCM) dependence of combinations of yield strength and total elongation (YSxTEl) and Charpy impact absorbed value (YSxCIAV) of steels (TA=325-350 oC). These combinations are
improved by FA process and increased with increasing
PCM, particularly for YSxTEl.
R
bf
200nm
900
C0 (mass%)
0.6
650
600
25
CA
0.4
f0 (vol%)
15
CA
10
5
0
0.3
1.2
(a)
FA
thin plate
0.35
PCM (mass%)
C0 (mass%)
20
0.4
1.1
(b)
thin plate
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.3
CA
15
0.35
PCM (mass%)
FA
10
(b)
FA
CA
(d)
150
FA
100
50
CA
0.4
20
FA
256
(c)
CA
0.2
0
CA
700
CIAV (J/cm2)
CA
(b)
TEl (%)
f0 (vol%)
10
FA
0.8
750
CIAV (J/cm2)
FA (a)
800
100
A(FA)
0.4%-TBF
C(FA)
YSxCIAV=
B(FA)
150
140GPaJ/cm2
A(CA)
C(CA)
SCM420
B(CA)
50
SCM440
0
400
120
100
80
60
40
20
800
1000
1200
1400
YS (MPa)
Figure 9. Relation between Charpy impact absorbed value (CIAV)
and yield strength (YS) of steels A-C, 0.4%C-TBF (0.42%C1.47%Si-1.51%Mn-0.50%Cr-0.20%Mo-0.48%Al-0.052%Nb),
SCM420 and SCM440 steels.
600
25
YSxTEl (GPa%)
15
FA
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
200
20
15
10
5
0.3
(a)
200
YSxCIAV (GPaJ/cm2)
(a)
850
YS (MPa)
TS (MPa)
bf
FA
150
CA
100
thin plate
0.35
PCM (mass%)
0.4
50
0
0.3
(b)
thin plate
FA
CA
0.35
PCM (mass%)
0.4
Metal Forming
Discussion
Effects of FA Process on Microstructure. In Fig. 4,
FA process considerably refined the bainitic ferrite lath
structure and retained austenite in steel C. Also, both the
phases were characterized by lower IQ index. DeArdo et al.
[14] had reported that IQ index of phase map is equivalent
to dislocation density of individual phases. So, it is expected that both phases of the steel C possess inherent
high dislocation density resulting from hot-forging. The
high dislocation density of bainitic ferrite lath structure
was also confirmed by TEM image (Figure 5).
According to Sugimoto et al. [2,3], mechanical stability of retained austenite (stability against the straininduced transformation to martensite) is controlled by its
initial carbon concentration, size and morphology. If the
retained austenite is fine and possesses high carbon concentration, its mechanical stability increases. As shown in
Figures 6(b) and 7(b), the FA process brought on somewhat higher carbon concentration than the CA process
when austempered at 325 or 350 oC. As mentioned above,
retained austenite phase of steel C subjected to FA process
was refined. So, it is considered that the retained austenite
possesses higher mechanical stability than that in steel
subjected to CA process.
In Figure 7, volume fraction of retained austenite was
increased with increasing PCM. On the contrary, the carbon
concentration was decreased with increasing PCM. Such
results were different from that of previous study referring
to 0.4%C-TBF steel [13]. This may be caused by that in
steels B and C carbon-enrichment into retained austenite
was suppressed due to addition of Cr or Cr-Mo. In Figure
7, volume fractions of retained austenite in steels A-C
were much more than those of specimen machined from
thin plate (dotted line). This may be responsible for a
small amount of pro-eutectoid ferrite which plays a role of
increasing volume fraction of retained austenite [15].
Effects of FA Process on Toughness. In Figure 9, FA
process improved the combination of yield strength and
Charpy impact absorbed value in steels A-C, although the
combination was nearly the same as that of 0.4%C-TBF
steel [13].
According to Song et al. [8], impact toughness of TBF
steel is mainly controlled by (i) sizes of prior austenitic
grain and bainitic lath structure and (ii) volume fraction
and stability of retained austenite. The retained austenite
plays the following roles to improve the impact toughness.
(1) Stress relaxation or plastic relaxation on the straininduced transformation of retained austenite suppresses an initiation and growth of void at interface of
matrix and second phase. The void initiation is further
suppressed by refining of the microstructure.
(2) The strain-induced transformation contributes to increase the upper shelf absorbed value through increasing the strain-hardening rate at an initial stage.
As shown in Figure 4, the steel C subjected to FA
process can be characterized by refined uniform bainitic
ferrite structure matrix and a large amount of retained
austenite, with a small amount of pro-eutectoid ferrite. So,
257
Metal Forming
Introduction
It is known that uniform elongation and total
elongation decrease with decreasing in ferrite grain size,
though an excellent combination of high yield strength
and low ductilebrittle transition temperature can be
achieved by grain refinement [1-9]. Ohmori et al. have
successfully demonstrated that the balance of yield
strength and uniform elongation for ultrafine-grained
structures could be improved by the dispersion of
cementite particles by an enhancement of strain
hardening rate [10].
Figure 1 shows that reduction in area in tensile tests is
also an important measure of ductility as well as uniform
elongation. However, measurement of the reduction in
area requires standard tensile specimen which means
bulk material for the preparation of the specimen. This
may be the reason why there are no detailed reports on
the reduction in area of ultrafine-grained materials
obtained by severe plastic deformation. Reduction in
area is expected to be an indicator of the formability as
well as uniform elongation.
Reduction in area is affected by second phases and
inclusions. Ultrafine-grained steels usually consist of
ferrite and dispersed cementite particles. These
cementite particles are formed through the fragmentation
of pearlite by the large strain deformation process and
get dispersed in ultrafine-grained ferrite matrix.
(1)Uniform
elongation
s
s
e
rt
S
550 C
Introduced strain3
(21 passes)
(2)Non-uniform
elongation
(3)Reduction in area
S0 S
x100 (%)
S0
Strain
80? 18
20m F+P
RA =
258
Metal Forming
Microstructure of Ultrafine-Grained Steel
The chemical composition of the steels used is 0.3Si 1.5Mn - 0.01P - 0.002S with varying carbon contents viz.
0.05, 0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 wt%. The composition of steel
with 0.02C has a slightly different chemical composition
with 0.3Si - 0.2Mn wt%. Initial microstructures are
ferrite or ferrite +pearlite structure. Rectangular bars
with 80mm square were produced by vacuum melting
and hot forging, and pieces 600 mm in length were
sampled as rolling material for warm multi-pass caliber
rolling. The rolling process is shown schematically in
Figure 2.
The materials were heated to 823 K and subsequently
rolled by 21 passes of warm rolling from 80 x 80 mm in
cross section to a final of 18 x 18 mm (cumulative
reduction 95%). This caliber rolling procedure resulted
in microstructures consisting of ultrafine ferrite grains
with dispersed cementite.
Figure 3 shows microstructures of caliber rolled bars
at a fixed strain of 3.0 for 0.02, 0.05, 0.15, 0.3 and 0.45
wt% carbon contents in L-cross section [11]. It can be
seen from these microstructures that cementite particles
are uniformly distributed in the ferrite matrix. It can be
clearly seen that the grain sizes of specimens with 0.02
and 0.05C are slightly coarser, 0.7 and 0.6 m,
a) 0.02C
b) 0.05C
1m
1m
d) 0.30C
c) 0.15C
1m
1200
1000
800
0.45C
600
400
0
0
0.00
1m
e) 0.45C
0.05C
0.02C
200
5
0.05
0.30C
0.15C
Carbon content
10
0.10
15
0.15
20
0.20
Nominal
strain
Nominal
strain
(%)
20.0
15.0
Nonuniform elongation
)
(%
n
io
t10.0
a
g
n
o
l
E
Elongation (%)
5.0
Uniform elongation
0.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
259
Metal Forming
by the thermodynamic equilibrium calculations. It can be
clearly seen that while the uniform elongation gradually
increases as the volume fraction of cementite increases,
the non-uniform elongation drastically increases from
the specimen with zero cementite (0.02C) to specimen
with about 0.5 volume percent cementite (0.05C). This
rapid rise in non-uniform elongation is followed by a
gradual decrease with further increase in the volume
fraction of cementite.
Tensile Strength-Reduction in Area Balance
Figure 6 shows the relationship between the reduction
in area and tensile strength of ultrafine-grained steels
with the carbon contents of 0.02-0.45% [11]. The test
data of conventional ferrite-pearlite steel [12] and
tempered martensite steel [12] are also plotted in Figure
6. It is clear from this figure that 0.02C steel has strength
of 700 MPa and a reduction in area of 80%. For the case
of 0.05C steel, the strength has increased to 825 MPa
with a slight decrease in reduction in area to 76%. On
the other hand, the strength of 0.15C steel has increased
to 850 MPa and a reduction in area of 70%. Finally, the
0.45C steel has strength of almost 1000 MPa while the
reduction is still about 60%. For the case of conventional
0.15C ferrite+pearlite steel, the strength is 450 MPa and
the reduction in area is 82%.For the case of conventional
S45C ferrite+pearlite steel, when the tensile strength is
650 MPa, the reduction in area is 55%. The usual trend
for conventional steels is as the pearlite volume fraction
increases, the strength increases, however with a drastic
decrease in reduction in area. Therefore, the balance of
reduction in area and tensile strength for ultrafine-grain
steels is far better than the conventional ferrite+pearlite
steels and martensite steels for all materials tested in the
present study. It is attributed for the combination of
ultrafine ferrite grains and fine dispersed cementite of
ultrafine-grained steels.
100
) 90
%
( 80
a
e
r 70
a
60
n
i
n 50
o
it
c 40
u
d 30
e
R 20
10
0
0.0
0.05
0.15
0.30
0.45C
Tempered
martensite of
S35C,S45C, S5512)
F+P, S25C-S45C12)
SM490
200
260
Formability
(b) Rolling
(b) Rolling
Metal Forming
100.0
TS=700 850
0.02 0.05
900
0.15
980
0.30
1000MPa
0.45C
80.0
60.0
No crack
40.0
small crack
crack
large crack
20.0
0.0
0.0
Figure
8.
(a) 0.45C
(b) 0.30C
(c) 0.05C
(d) 0.02C
Relationship
between
carbon
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
Figure 9.
Relationship between reduction in area and
occurence of crack in heading.
content
and
2.0
1.0
Figure 10.
Appearance of M1.7 screw produced by Furiya
Micro Fastening Systems [14].
Ackowledgement
We would like to thank President Y. Suzuki of Furiya
Micro Fastening Systems, T. Nozawa and E. Tsuchiya of
NIMS for their great coopeartion to complete this
research.
References
[1] A. Ohmori, S. Torizuka, K. Nagai: Testu-to-Hagane, 89 (2003),
765-772.
[2] A. Ohmori, S. Torizuka, K. Nagai, N. Koseki, Y. Kogo:
Tetsu-to-Hagane, 89 (2003), 781-788.
[3] P.D. Hodgson, M.R. Hickson, R.K. Gibbs: Scripta Materialia, 40
(1999), 1179.
[4] K.T. Park, Y.S. Kim, J.G. Lee, D.H. Shin: Materials Science and
Engineering, 293 (2000), 165.
[5] K. Nagai: J. Mater. Process. Technol., 117 (2001), 329.
[6] N. Tsuji, Y. Ito, Y. Saito, Y. Minamino: Scr. Mater., 47 (2002),
893.
[7] T. Hanamura, Y. Fuxing, K. Nagai: ISIJ International, 44 (2004),
610-617.
[8] A. Howe: Mater. Sci. Technol., 16(2000), 1264.
[9] T. Hayashi, K. Nagai: Trans. Japan Soc. Mech. Eng. A, 68 (2002),
1553-1558.
[10] A. Ohmori, S. Torizuka, K. Nagai: ISIJ International,
44(2004),1063-1071.
[11] .S Torizuka, E. Muramatsu, S.V.S. Narayana Murty, K. Nagai:
Scripta Materialia, 55(2006), 751-754.
[12] NIMS data base, Materials Information Technology Station,
National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Japan.
[13] NHK Business-jyuku committee, Textbook of NHK
Business-jyuku V, NHK, Tokyo, (2003), 190-198.
[14] S. Torizuka : Materia Japan, 45(2006), 438-443.
[15] S. Torizuka, E. Muramatsu : CAMP-ISIJ, 20(2007), 1395.
[16] S. Torizuka, E. Muramatsu : CAMP-ISIJ, 21(2008), 712, 1654.
[17] S. Torizuka, E. Muramatsu : CAMP-ISIJ, 22(2008), 709, 1741.
[18] S. Torizuka, E. Muramatsu: Proc. 2008 Japanese spring conf. for
the technology of Plasticity, (2008), 339-340.
[19] S. Torizuka, E. Muramatsu: Proc. 60th Conf. the Japan Society
for Technology of Plasticity, (2009), 389-390.
[20] S. Torizuka, E. Muramatsu: Material Science Forum, 638-642
(2009), 3543-3548.
261
Metal Forming
Introduction
Development of the automotive industry and the development of new manufacturing technologies create a need
of searching for even better materials with increasingly
high mechanical properties, while appropriately high plastic properties are maintained. The investigation described
in the paper concern steel with the TRIP effect, which is
classified into the group of AHSS (Advanced High
Strength Steel) multiphase steels. Comparing to conventional microscopic steels, the TRIP steels exhibit an unique
correlation of high strength combined with good workability [1-3].
TRIP steels are an example of multiphase steels, whose
structure consists of ferritic matrix, which contains precipitates of hard phases, i.e. martensite and bainite and
retained austenite. These particles are directly responsible
for material high strength, with preserved high plasticity.
The TRIP effect in low- and medium-carbon steels can be
achieved through appropriately conducted two-stage heat
treatment. This heat treatment consists in the annealing of
steel in the inter-critical (+) interval and then soaking it
in the bainitic transformation range. These steels are composed of a larger amount of carbon and silicon and/or
aluminium, or manganese, comparing to DP (Dual Phase)
steels. Manganese mechanically stabilizes the retained
austenite and retards the process of pearlite formation in
the structure. On the other hand, silicon promotes the formation of ferrite during cooling after annealing in the
inter-critical interval, and prevents or retards the process
of carbides precipitation during the formation of bainite in
the structure [4-6].
During the cold deformation, the retained austenite in
TRIP steels intensively transforms into martensite, thus
leading to an increase in hardening. This property enables
this type of steels to be considered for the manufacturing
262
Metal Forming
Experiment
Tests were carried out for a wire rod having 5.0 mm in
diameter produced form a steel bar of chemical composition given in Table 1. The wire rod was produced at the
Centre of Research in Metallurgy, Belgium.
bainite
martensite
Mn
1,430
Si
1,320
Ni
0,122
Cr
0,100
Al
0,045
S
0,011
retained
austenite
ferrite
p = a1 a2 exp
(1)
The parameters of the equation were as follows: a1=
847.39; a2= -0.0783; a3= -0.0137; a4= -0.0484; a5= 0.0061; a6= -0.0663; a7= -0.0003; a8= -0.0405; a9= 0.00093
A metallographic analysis was performed after the upsetting tests. It involves the evaluation of the volume fractions of retained austenite in the structure of the deformed
steel.
The experimental procedure included the etching of the
test pieces with the Lichtenegger and Bloech reagent [9]
and quantitative analysis of volume fractions in the test
piece structure. Since the upsetting process is an axially
symmetrical, a quarter of the test piece was subjected to
the analysis. Figure 1 shows a sample structure illustrating
particular components of the steel structure.
Simulation of Upsetting Process
Simulation of the cold upsetting process was performed
using the commercial finite element based Forge 3D software. Eq. (1) was used for the description of the workhardening curve.
The conditions of simulation of the variants of upsetting
process were the same as for the experimental tests on the
Gleeble 3800. Effective strain distributions for particular
Testing Methodology
The testing methodology described in the paper consisted in plotting of the effective strain distributions, obtained from the simulation, on a grid corresponding to the
photographs of structures for particular regions obtained
from the tests carried out on the Gleeble 3800. Then, the
values of the retained austenite volume fractions in the
structure, as calculated based on the experimental tests,
were assigned to respective segments of isolines representing the effective strain. If an isoline segment is situated at
the boundary between the two elements of the grid, then
the average value of volume fraction of retained austenite
in the structure was taken for the analysis of the results.
The method of interpretation of these results is shown in
Figure 3.
The values of deformation times, as obtained from the
tests, were used for the calculation of the deformation rate
for respective deformation stages, according to following
relationship:
(2)
t
where is the effective strain and t is the time of the deformation.
263
Metal Forming
The equation of the function approximating the obtained
results is as follows:
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
v
[%]
25.21
24.92
24.76
24.56
24.51
23.93
23.57
23.50
23.99
22.41
21.19
20.07
[s-1]
5.3
7.0
8.8
10.6
76.1
101.5
126.9
152.2
195.5
260.7
325.9
391.1
(3)
Figure. 4. Plane representing relationship between retained austenite percentage share in structure and strain intensity and deformation velocity during the cold upsetting test of TRIP-effect
steel.
264
Metal Forming
References
[1] F. Grosman F.: Obrbka Plastyczna Metali, 13 (2002), 5-15.
[2] M. Jang, G.W. Rathenau: Acta Metallurgica, 7 (959), p246-253.
[3] M.R. Berrahmoune, S. Berveiller, K. Inal, A. Moulin, E. Patoor:
Materials Science and Engineering A, 378 (2004), 304-307.
[4] F. Grosman, J. Herian: Inzynieria Materialowa, 10 (1990), 68-71.
[5] S.S. Hecker, M.G. Stout, K.P. Staudhammer, J.L. Smith: Metallurgical Transactions A, 13 (1982), 619-635.
[6] S. Hiwatashi, M. Takahashi, Y. Sakuma, M. Usuda: Proc. 26th
ISATA, Dec. Conf. On New and Alt. Mater. for Auto. Ind., (1993),
263.
[7] S. Wiewirowska: Hutnik Wiadomoci Hutnicze, 76 (2009), 122125, (in Polish).
[8] A. Hansel, T. Spittel: Kraft- und Arbeitsbedarf Bildsomer
Formgeburgs
Verfahren,
VEB
Deutscher
Verlag
fur
Grundstoffindustrie, Lipsk, (1979).
[9] P. Skocovsky: Colour Contrast in Metallographic Microscopy, Ed.,
Blaha J., Slovmetal, Zilina, (1993).
[10] A.A. Milenin: Russian Metallurgy, 5 (1998), 38-43.
[11] A. Milenin, P. Kustra: Steel Research International, 79-2 (2008),
717722.
265
Metal Forming
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju / Korea; 2) TIC of Gyeongsang National Univer5)
sity, Sacheon / Korea; 3) Taeyang Metal Industrial Co., Ansan / Korea; 4) Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Incheon / Korea;
Corresponding author, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju / Korea,
msjoun@gnu.ac.kr
A thermoelastic finite-element method was applied to a geometrically simple ball-stud forging process to quantitatively examine the causes
of longitudinal fractures in die inserts during cold forging. The same forging processes and die designs developed and empirically optimized
for SCM435 alloy steel were used to make a geometrically equivalent ball-stud of the much higher strength alloy ESW105. A thermoelastic
finite-element method for die structural analysis, coupled with a forging simulator, theoretically based on a rigid-plastic finite element
method, was used to compare the two materials. The study showed that the longitudinal fractures in the die inserts were due to a nonoptimized shrink fit value, which emphasizes the importance of optimal die design in the cold forging of high-strength materials.
Keywords: Die fracture, Die structural analysis, Shrink fit, Ball-stud, Comparative study, SCM435, ESW105
Introduction
Die life in cold forging is dependent on the fracture,
wear, and plastic deformation of the die inserts [1], with
fracture being the major determining factor. Die fracture
during cold forging can cause serious accidents, as well as
major increases in manufacturing costs, so the die fracture
problem is an issue of considerable importance.
Quantitatively investigating the possible causes of die
fracture is complex, with the choice of die material, the
metal-forming process design, the die-making process, and
the field service history of the manufacturing process all
potentially being major contributors. Although many problems resulting from process or die design can be detected
by structural analysis of the die, it is difficult for researchers or engineers to find or access appropriate tools because
of the complexity of die mechanics; few investigations
have satisfied the needs of process design engineers. Further, the inability to sufficiently specify the die fracture
conditions, due to the complexity of both the die geometry
and the process conditions, has left most studies inapplicable to other situations and researchers.
Several researchers have used finite-element based approaches to die structural analysis [2-11]. With the exception of the work of Lange et al. [7], Nagao et al. [8] and
Qin and Balendra [11], where commercial forging simulators were used, most studies have made assumptions and
simplifications about the contact conditions of the diepressure distributions. Several researchers have employed
boundary-element methods [12-14] to investigate the elastic mechanics of forged or extrusion dies. Joun et al. [15]
proposed a varying penalty method to analyze complex
shrink-fitted die structures. They developed a generalpurpose die structural-analysis software AFDEX/DIE,
which is theoretically based on the rigidthermoviscoplastic finite-element method, and is one of
modules of the general-purpose metal-forming simulator,
AFDEX [6]. The method of die structural analysis proposed here has been verified both for accuracy and numerical stability. Also, recently, considerable research has
been done on shrink fit die structures using commercial
software [17-20].
266
In this study, the die structural analysis software AFDEX/DIE was used to examine the causes of die fracture
during cold forging of a high-strength ball-stud. The example forging process used in this paper was simple and
geometrically well-defined, with well-characterized results
making this study academically quite attractive, because
related process information can be shared with other researchers.
Problem Description and Analysis of Die Fracture
Causes
Problem Description. Figure 1 depicts an automatic
four-stages cold-forging machine process for manufacturing ball studs. Figure 2 presents the associated detailed
design of the lower die of the fourth stage where all the
shrink rings were preloaded by a 0.4% uniform initial
strain. Note that the die design has been empirically optimized for SCM435 alloy steel; the process and die designs
are sound and guarantee moderate and economical tool life.
Indeed, no unpredicted die fractures have been reported
with SCM435.
Billet
1st stage
2nd stage
3rd stage
4th stage
Figure 1. Cold-forging process design for a ball-stud.
Metal Forming
shown in Figure 3. These results suggest that a comparative study between SCM435 and ESW105 under the same
conditions may quantitatively reveal the cause of the die
fracture.
Punch
26 mm
Shrink
ring
77 mm
A
Die
insert
13 mm
Material
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
150
SCM 435
ESW 105
125
100
Load (ton)
75
50
25
10
15
Stroke (mm)
20
25
1000
The comparison in Figure 6 shows that although the pattern of increase in forming-load is quite similar, the load
for ESW105 was considerably higher than that for
SCM435. The steep jump in the ESW105 forming load,
ranging from the stroke at 15 mm to around 16 mm, is
remarkable, compared with that of SCM435. Interfacial
stress information and the effective strain for the critical
case at a stroke of 16 mm are compared in Figure 7, indicating that the interfacial stress at the cracked region of the
ESW105 was twice that of the SCM435.
Die Structural Analysis. Figure 8(a) shows a fourthstage lower die design, where the die fracture occurred at
the point marked A, and Figure 8(b) shows the related diestructural finite-element analysis model. The die design is
composed of three separable layers clamped by the outer
cylinder numbered 4. Each layer has three parts, a die
1200
800
600
400
200
SCM 435
ESW 105
0
0.4
0.8
True strain
1.2
1.6
267
Metal Forming
insert and two shrink rings. All die inserts, numbered as 1,
5, and 8 in Figure 8(a), were made of tungsten-carbide
(WC), while the other die parts were all made of SKD61.
The material properties are listed in Table 1 [14,17] with
an assumed 0.1 Coulomb coefficient of friction between
die parts [19]. The fit of all the shrink rings was equivalent
to 0.4% homogeneous initial compressive strain. Along
with the shrink fit, the mechanical load induced by the
material was included in the exerted load. In an actual
industrial situation, the shrink-fit is usually made by cooling the assembled die system after assembling the die
insert and the thermally expanded shrink rings. Considering the shrink-fit procedure, the initial normal strain oj ,
due to the shrink fit, was evaluated by its corresponding
thermal load T , and calculated as:
The general die-structural analysis software AFDEX/DIE, based on the thermoelastic finite-element
method, was used for the die-structural analysis. Variation
in the effective stress and circumferential stress component with stroke were chased to choose the strokes where
fracture was suspected. The fractured region marked by
point A was selected as the chase point. As can be seen in
Figure 9, the peak stress values were observed at the 2
mm and 16 mm strokes as well as at the final stroke. The
structural analysis of the die system was therefore focused
at the selected strokes.
4000
3500
3000
(1)
Stress (MPa)
2500
T
oj = T
T
2000
1500
1000
where oj and are a normal strain vector with components in the r z coordinate system and the thermal
expansion coefficient of the shrink ring, respectively.
500
0
-500
-1000
CL
CL
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.2
B
0.2
1267
0.4
0.8
0.6
2740
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.8
0.6 1.0 1.4
1207MPa
1602MPa
(a) SCM435
(b) ESW105
Figure 7. Effective strain and interfacial stress at 16 mm elapsed s
troke.
CL
3
1
A
5
10
268
Stroke=16mm
10
15
Stroke (mm)
20
25
0.6
0.2
0.4
Stroke=2mm
In Figure 7, it can be seen at the 16 mm stroke, the effective strain reached 0.15 near the fracture point, indicating that the yield stress of ESW105 was almost 1.9 times
that of SCM435, as seen in Figure 4. Additionally, the die
pressure for ESW105 was 1.3 times that for SCM435. At
the final stroke, the ESW105s yield stress was 1.7 times
that of SCM435, with an effective strain value nearly the
same as the 16 mm stroke case.
The effective stress and circumferential stress components of the 16 mm stroke are shown in Figure 10, where
the maximum effective stress for ESW105 reached 2850
MPa, while that of SCM435 reached only 779 MPa. In
particular, the ESW105 circumferential stress component
was in tension, with a magnitude exceeding 871 MPa.
Conversely, the circumferential stress components, (i.e.,
another of the principal stresses) are almost entirely in
compression. Investigation of the stress distribution at the
final stroke showed the same phenomena; these results are
presented in Figure 10.
It is well known that the tungsten carbides used for dieinsert material have relatively low strength in tension,
compared with their strength in compression. For example,
the compression fracture strength of a commercial tungsten carbide reaches 2680 MPa, while its fracture strength
in tension is only 340 MPa (i.e., about 13% of the compression fracture strength) [22]. These general characteristics of tungsten carbide alloys lead us to conclude that the
reason for the die fracture shown in Figure 2 was likely
due to a poor shrink-fit of the die system for the new
higher strength material, which was optimized for the
common steel SCM435. That is, the first cause of the die
fracture was likely the increased circumferential stress due
to the increased flow stress of the material; the increased
Metal Forming
high pressure along the die-material interface also contributes. This emphasizes the importance of having an optimal
die design, which considers die geometry and the shrinkfit in cold forging.
It is believed that the die life in this example may be much
increased if much stronger shrink fit for the die insert numbered 5 is applied. This can be seen from the stress distribution in Figure 11, which was obtained with the improved
shrink-fit (increased by 20%) of the die parts numbered 6 and
7. With this stronger shrink fit the maximum effective stress
was reduced from 2800 MPa to 2400 MPa and the maximum
circumferential stress from 1600 MPa to 1200 MPa.
According to related studies [23], the extruded end of the
material with low strain-hardening exponent is concave and
flows down more readily due to its low strain-hardening
capability. In the case of SCM435, the relatively high strainhardening behavior causes the bulging of part B in Figure 7,
which is supposed to reduce the rate of forming-load increase between the 15 mm and 16 mm strokes.
CL
Poissons ratio
WC
696
0.24
SKD61
200
0.28
Conclusions
In this paper, the cause of die fracture in cold forging of
higher strength ESW105 alloy ball-studs was revealed by
thermoelastic finite element analysis. To ensure reproducibility, an empirically-optimized forging process and associated mass-production die designs for a geometrically
simple ball-stud with special SCM345 steel were selected.
A comparative study between ESW105 and SCM435 revealed that a non-optimized shrink-fit that inherently causes
large circumferential stress in tension is the major cause of die
fracture. Of course, material properties, such as the strainhardening exponent, can also be a major factor in die fracture.
The strain-hardening exponent can change the pattern of
plastic deformation, leading to changes in the forming loadstroke curve, which, in turn, directly influences the die mechanics and fractures.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Korea Research Foundation (KRF) grant funded by the Korea government
(MEST) (No. 2009-0066590) and by the Ministry of
Knowledge Economy, Republic of Korea.
Unit: MPa
References
(a) SCM435
CL
Unit: MPa
(b) ESW105
Figure 10. Effective stress and circumferential stress at possible di
e-fracture stroke.
CL
400
-1000 -600
200
200
400 800
800
800 800
400 1200
400
-200
-600
200
600
-600
400
200
-600
Unit: MPa
-600
-200
ESW105
Figure 11. Effective stress and circumferential stress at
possible die-fracture stroke for 20% increased shrink-fit of die
parts 6 and 7.
269
Metal Forming
Refinement of Grains and Second Phases in Aluminum Alloys by Compressive Torsion Processing
Yuji Kume, Makoto Kobashi, Naoyuki Kanetake
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya / Japan, kume@numse.nagoya-u.ac.jp
In the compressive torsion process, a cylindrical workpiece is subjected simultaneously and continuously to compressive and torsional
loading at elevated temperatures without changing its shape. As the workpiece was deformed under hydrostatic pressure, the compressive
torsion process causes severe plastic deformation even to poor ductile metals, such as hypereutectic Al-Si alloy which has many brittle
second phase particles, without any difficulty. Therefore, the compressive torsion process is a very attractive process for the refinement of
not only grains but also brittle second phase. In the present work, the compressive torsion process was applied to a pure aluminum and a
hypereutectic Al-Si alloy. The grain refinement, the second phase refinement and subsequent tensile properties of these alloys were investigated. As a result, The grain size of annealed pure aluminum was around 100 m. After processing, fine grains below 10m were observed homogeneously over the radial cross section. The grain size was decreased with decreasing process temperature. The tensile
strength was increased due to the grain refinement. On the hypereutectic Al-Si alloy, initial particle sizes of primary and eutectic Si were
around 30 and 10 m, respectively. After the processing, both Si particles were refined below 5 m in the severely deformed region of the
specimen. The total elongation was remarkably increased due to the Si particle refinement.
Keywords: Severe plastic deformation, Compressive torsion processing, Grain refinement, Second phase refinement, Aluminum alloy
Introduction
In recent decades, severe plastic deformation process
has developed for obtaining ultrafine grained materials.
There are many severe plastic deformation process such as
equal channel angular pressing/extrusion [1-3], accumulative roll bonding [4] and high pressure torsion [3,5]. Utilization of some scientific knowledge of these processes,
enhancement of productivity and developing a new severe
plastic deformation process is expected.
We have developed the compressive torsion process [611] in which compressive and torsional loadings are applied to specimens simultaneously. This process is similar
to the high pressure torsion. However, compressive torsion
process use low pressure (several hundred MPa) and apply
to cylindrical shape specimen not only disc shape. This
process has the great advantage of providing severe plastic
deformation without change in the specimen shape.
Many metal materials are multiphase alloys. For example, hypereutectic Al-Si alloy, which has many brittle
second phase particles, has good mechanical properties
such as high temperature strength, high wear resistance
and low thermal expansion. Applying this alloy to automobile components was effective to reduce their own
weight. However, it is difficult to use a plastic deformation
process for mass production of the components because of
the low ductility of the alloy. It is well known that the size
and distribution status of second phase of multiphase alloys are an important factor for obtaining both high
strength and elongation simultaneously. Applying the
severe plastic deformation to the multiphase alloys, there
is some difficulty because of the poor ductility of the alloy.
As the work piece was deformed under hydrostatic pressure, the compressive torsion process can apply severe
plastic deformation even to poor ductile metals without
any difficulty. Therefore, the compressive torsion process
is very attractive process for the refinement of not only
grains but also brittle second phase. The second phase
270
refinement of multiphase alloys would become new research topic for severe plastic deformation process.
In the present work, the compressive torsion process was
applied to a pure aluminum and a hypereutectic Al-Si alloy.
The grain refinement and the second phase refinement and
subsequent tensile properties of these alloys were investigated.
Experimental Procedure
Compressive Torsion Processing. Figure 1 shows a
schematic drawing of the facility for compressive torsion
processing. The cylindrical specimen is set into the container. The upper and lower basal planes of the specimen
contact the upper and lower dies and the lateral side of
specimen is surrounded with container. Upper and lower
dies move vertically to apply the compressive loading and
the both dies also rotated in the opposite direction to apply
the torsional loading. The combined compressive and
torsional loadings are simultaneously applied to the specimen. Continuous large share deformation under hydrostatic pressure can make the severely deformed specimen
Compression load
Upper die
Thermocouple
Container
Heater
Specimen
Lower die
Torsion load
Figure 1. Schematic drawing of facility for compressive torsion
processing.
Metal Forming
in short time without change of shape. Top of the both dies
has a rugged face with 1mm depth so that the torsional
loading can be sufficiently imposed on the specimen.
Materials and Process Condition. The materials used
in this study were extruded bars of commercially pure
aluminum (A1050) and hypereutectic Al-Si alloy. The
hypereutectic Al-Si alloy used in this experiment contains
14.5wt.%Si, 4.5wt.%Cu, 0.62wt.%Mg, 0.2wt.%Fe and
0.01wt%P. Cylindrical specimen with the size of
4010mm was cut from the extruded bar. Pure aluminum was annealed at 618 K for 5 min before processing.
The compressive torsion process experiments were performed by flowing condition for each aluminum alloy:
different processing temperature, room temperature, 373,
473 and 573 K with 10 rotations for pure aluminum, at
473K with different rotation numbers ranging from 0 to 20
rotations for hypereutectic Al-Si alloy. The others processing conditions were fixed as follow; the compressive pressure: 100MPa, the rotation times: 10 times, the rotation
speed:5 rpm.
After processing, the specimens were cut along the radial
direction. The microstructure on the longitudinal cross
section was investigated by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscope. Particles size of primary and
eutectic silicon on hypereutectic Al-Si alloy was evaluated
by image analyzing software.
(iv)
unitmm
(i)
Figure 2. Cutout position from compressive torsion process
specimen and shape of tensile test piece.
25m
(a) Processed at 473 K (b) Processed at 573 K
Figure 5. Optical microphotograph of pure aluminum processed at
different temperatures.
100m
5m
(a) Processed at room temperature (b) Processed at 373 K
Figure 6. Scanning electron microscope image of pure aluminum
processed at different temperatures.
Stress, /MPa
200
Observation point
of microphotograph
Tensile strangth
Proof stress
150
100
50
0
300
50m
400
500
600
Processing temperature, T/K
Figure 7. Tensile strength and proof stress of specimen as function of processing temperature.
271
Metal Forming
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
0
0
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
Diameter, Dp / m
50
Frequency ( -)
20
30
40
50
Diameter, Dp / m
0.5
Cumulative frequency (- )
Diameter, Dp / m
10
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Cumulative frequency (- )
0.5
Cumulative frequency (- )
0.4
Frequency ( -)
0.5
Cumulative frequency (- )
Frequency ( -)
Second Phase Refinement of Hypereutectic Al-Si alloy. Figure 8 shows optical microphotograph and Si particle diameter (Dp) histogram of hypereutectic Al-Si alloy
before processing. Primary Si particles with irregular
shape of around 30m and eutectic Si particles with needle-like shape less than 10m were observed (Figure 2(a)).
The histogram has bimodal peaks around 5m and
25~40m.
Figures 9 and 10 show the optical micrograph and frequency distribution of Si particle size of processed specimen with 5 rotations at 473K. Figures 11 and 12 show the
same observed data of processed specimen with 20 rotations at 473 K. Optical micrograph was observed at 4
observation points illustrated in the figures. Particle diameter was evaluated from the each observation points.
The size and distribution status of primary and eutectic
Si was modified by compressive torsion process. Applying
5 rotations (see Figure 11), microstructure improvement
on the upper outer point was the most significant among
all observation points. The shape of primary and eutectic
Si which was observed on before processing was disappeared and became finer. These fine particles were also
dispersed
Frequency ( -)
Figures 5 and 6 show optical microphograph and scanning electron microscope image of pure aluminum processed at varius tempeature with 10 rotaions. These
microphotographs were taken on the most refined points
on the longitudinal sections of the specimen. The grains
refined around 10m were observed on the speimen processed at 573 K (Figure 5(b)). Slightly smaller grains were
observed on the 473 K processing (Figure 5(a)) comparison with 573 K. The grain size was reduced with reducing
processing temperature. Processed at 373K, grains became
around 5m (Figure. 6(b)). 1 to 2m grains were obtained
at room temperature processing (Figure. 6(a)). The
grainrefinement of pure alumium is caused by the
continuous recrystallization and the grain size is depend
on the processing temperature. Lower processing
temperature was effective to obtain finer microstructures.
Tensile strength and proof stress as a function of processing temperature is shown in Figure 7. The tensile
strength and proof stress of before processing were around
70MPa and 30MPa, respectively. Tensile strength and
proof stress were increased with reducing processing temperature. At room temperature processing, the strength and
proof stress were significantly increases. It was twice as
high on the tensile strength and four times as high on the
proof stress comparison with before processing.
Diameter, Dp / m
Figure 9. Optical micrograph of hypereutectic Al-Si alloy processed at 473 K with 5 rotations.
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
Eutectic Si
50m
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Diameter, Dp / m
272
Cumulative frequency (- )
Frequency ( -)
Primary Si
Observation point
of microphotograph
50m
Metal Forming
Figure 13 shows the stress-strain curve of hypereutectic
Al-Si alloy pro cessed at 473K with various rotations.
Before processing, tensile strength and elongation were
about 220MPa and 3%, respectively. For the 5 rotations,
the tensile strength was almost the same as before processing. However, the elongation that was about 10% was
significantly increased. The elongation of after 20 rotaions
was more than four times comparison with before processing. This is cause of the refinement and distribution improvement Si particles.
Observation point
of microphotograph
Conclusions
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
0
0
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
0
0
10
20
30
40
20
30
40
50
Diameter, Dp / m
0.5
50
Diameter, Dp / m
Frequency ( -)
Diameter, Dp / m
10
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Cumulative frequency (- )
0.5
Cumulative frequency (- )
0.3
Frequency ( -)
0.8
Cumulative frequency (- )
Frequency ( -)
0.4
Cumulative frequency (- )
0.5
Diameter, Dp / m
300
250
Stress, /MPa
References
50m
Figure 11. Optical micrograph of hypereutectic Al-Si alloy processed at 473 K with 20 rotations.
Frequency ( -)
200
150
Before
100
5 rotations
50
20 rotations
0
0
10
15
Strain, e(%)
Figure 13. Stress-strain curve of hypereutectic Al-Si alloy processed at 473 K with various rotations.
273
Metal Forming
Microstructural Analysis of Alloys from Fe-Al System by Means of Electron Back Scatter Diffraction
Jaboska Magdalena, Bednarczyk Iwona, Bernstock-Kopaczyska Ewelina
1)
A microstructural analysis of multicomponent alloys from the Fe-Al system after axial compression tests, carried out using a scanning electron microscope equipped with Electron Back Scatter Diffraction (EBSD) sensor. The EBSD technique has been applied in order to determine the influences of deformation parameters (deformation temperature, deformation value and deformation rate) on structural changes.
The microstructure has been examined in order to disclose the phenomena taking place during the strain. Results of the investigations of
Fe-28Al-5Cr alloy microstructure revealed domination of dynamic recovery process. The process was confirmed by EBSD research, which
allowed to ascertain presence of the subgrains. A different structure recovery process was observed in the case of Fe-38Al domination of
dynamic recrystallization was revealed.
Keywords: Fe-Al alloys, Deformation, Rebuilding mechanism, Structure mechanism, EBSD map
Introduction
Ordered intermetallics from the Fe-Al system (iron aluminides) are investigated as new materials for hightemperature and corrosion atmosphere applications. Currently, their development and their usefulness for industry
is restricted, because low plasticity of Fe-Al intermetallics
is still a problem [1,2]. Many causes of the low plasticity
are known: environmental brittleness [3-5], even in the
room temperature, grain boundaries internal brittleness
and vacancy hardening [6-8].
Attempts to improve the technological plasticity of iron
aluminides are based on introduction of micro- and macroadditions to the base alloys, and on selection of optimum
parameters of heat treatment, ensuring preparation of the
material for further shaping with plastic working [9-13].
As it is know, properties of a material depend strongly
on orientation, size, and shape of grain, and also on type of
the phases forming in the alloys during solidification or
annealing processes. Information concerning crystallographic orientation of materials may be obtained using
Electron Back Scattered Diffraction (EBSD) as a tool of
scanning electron microscopy. Nowadays, EBSD becomes
a powerful method for investigation of microstructure and
texture of materials. This technique provides, among others, information on relative and absolute orientations of
grains, and misorientation angle. It also allows for phase
identification [13-17].
The article presents an analysis of changes in microstructure of alloys based on Fe-Al system after hot deformation, using the EBSD method. Results of EBSD analysis, such as grains size, dimensions of grains boundaries,
relation between low and wide angle grains, maps of
misorientation of the structure with indicated misorientation angles, after supplementing by LM and TEM, were a
basis for establishing a new model of structure rebuilding
after hot deformation in Fe-Al alloys.
Experimental Procedures
Cr
Mo
Zr
Fe
28
5.0
0.20
0.1
0.05
0.01
66.64
38
0.20
0.1
0.05
0.01
61.64
274
Metal Forming
(a)
(b)
(a)
(a)
(b)
0.3
Area Fraction
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Figure 2. (a) Fe-28Al-5Cr and (b) Fe-38Al (=1 z strain rate 0.1 s-1,
T=900 C). Grains boundaries migration. Progress of recrystallization.
(b)
Figure 3. (a) EBSD map for Fe-28Al-5Cr (900C, strain rate 0.1 s1)
and (b) histogram of the grains area.
275
Metal Forming
Grain boundaries
Fraction
Angle
Min
Max
5
15
15
(a)
180
0,874
(a)
0.6
0.25
0.5
0.2
0.4
Number Fraction
Area Fraction
0,125
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
100
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
(b)
(b)
Figure 4. (a) EBSD map forFe-38Al (900 C, strain rate 0.1 s1)
and (b) histogram of the grains area.
LOW ANGLE
BOUNDARIES
5 - 15
Grain boundaries
Fraction
Angle
Min
Max
5
15
0.347
15
0.652
180
(a)
0.35
Number Fraction
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
(b)
Figure 5. (a) EBSD microstructure map for Fe-28Al-5Cr:
T=900 C, rate 0.1 s1 and (b) histogram of misorientation angles
between grains.
276
Metal Forming
COALESCENCE
SUBGRAINS
(a)
Figure 8. Microstructure after homogenizing annealing at 1000 C
for 48h (a) Fe-28Al-5Cr and (b) Fe-38Al.
SUBGRAINS/GRAINS ON
THE BOUNDARIES OF
THE ORIGINAL GRAINS
NEW GRAIN RECRYSTALLIZATION
SUBGRAINS/GRAINS
INSIDE THE
ORIGINAL GRAINS
References
Grain boundaries
Fraction
Angle
Min
Max
5
15
0.351
15
0.638
180
(b)
Figure 7. (a) Fe-28Al-5Cr microstructure deformation =1, strain
rate 0.1 s1, T=1000 C and (b) microstructure map of missorientation angles between subgrains/grains.
Conclusions
In the case of both examined alloys, after the process of
hot deformation, dynamic processes of structure reconstruction were observed. Investigations of Fe-28Al-5Cr
alloy microstructure revealed domination of dynamic
recovery process (see Figure 8). The process was confirmed by EBSD research, which allowed to ascertain
presence of the subgrains. A different structure recovery
process was observed in the case of Fe-38Al domination
of dynamic recrystallization was revealed in Figure 9.
Microstructural analysis of Fe-38Al using EBSD technique allowed for demonstration of effects connected with
recrystallization through nucleation and grain growth.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education
and Science of Poland under grant No. N N507 270436.
277
Metal Forming
State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die and Mould Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan /
China,2)Department of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan / China,
wuxiao0697@sina.com
The effect of a loading mode on the formability of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass was investigated through uniaxial compression in the
super-cooled liquid region. The constant load with a certain dwell time, the cyclic load with a vibration force and the load controlled by
velocity were employed in the experiment. The maximum diameter to which the bulk metallic glass ecimen can be formed during
compression experiment was taken as a measure of formability. The results indicated that the formability was enhanced by employing the
cyclic loads with a vibration due to the reduction on the viscosity of the bulk metallic glass, both amplitude and frequency of the vibration
are the key influence factors for the formability. Under the constant load, creep phenomenon was found in the bulk metallic glass during the
dwell phase and the diameter of formed specimen increasing with the dwell time.
Keywords: Bulk metallic glass, Formability, Loading mode, Viscosity.
Introduction
New metallic glasses are recently being recognized as
promising micro-materials because of their homogeneity
on a micro- and nano-scopic scale [1]. In the application of
the materials to micro/nano-machines or micro- electromechanical-systems (MEMS), such as various optical
devices, micro-chemical reactors or analyzers, threedimensional micro/nano-structures are required. The scope
of its application is dependent on the formability of a Bulk
metallic glass (BMG) which is controlled by the viscosity.
Many studies show that the viscosity of the BMG in supercooled liquid region is strongly dependent on the
temperature and strain rate [2,3], therefore, the formability
of the BMG can be improved by employing the
reasonable temperature and strain rate. Many people
studied the effects of temperature and strain rate on the
formability of the BMG, but no study about the effect of
loading mode on the formability of the BMG has been
reported. In fact, the viscosity of some materials can be
reduced by applying vibration and their formability can
then be improved. Literature [4] reported that the kinetic
viscosity of plastic melt during extrusion forming can be
significantly reduced by introducing vibration stress field,
and increasing the amplitude and frequency will be
beneficial to the reduction on the viscosity. Deshpande and
Barigou [5] investigated the effects of vibration on flow
characteristics of shear- thinning fluid and reported that
flow enhancement was observed by applying vibration to a
flowing tube. Prior to this report, Goshawk [6] and Thien
[7] studied the flow of non-Newtonian fluids in a pipe
under the influence of an oscillation, and concluded that
the flow rate is increased if the pipe is subjected to an
oscillation. In addition, Suh et al. [8] studied the effects of
vibration on blood viscosity and reported that blood
viscosity was reduced as much as 10-12% by applying
vibration. Shin et al. [9] used a mixture of zeolite and
silicone oil as the test fluid, studied the effect of vibration
on the viscosity of the fluid. The experiment results
suggest that artificial vibration technique can reduce oil
viscosity, and the viscosity reduction rate is related to the
vibrating parameters.
278
Metal Forming
0.4v
(1)
t ))
A
where F is the load, F is the average load, A is the
F = F (1 + A sin(
Load
3mm
C1
C0
C3
C2
3mm
3mm
3mm
C5
C4
3mm
C6
3mm
C7
3mm
3mm
3mm
C8
3mm
3mm
279
Metal Forming
C8
C7
C5
C3
C0
C
1.0
0.8
0.6
Dwell time
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Test time /s
Figure 3. Displacement-time curves as a function of vibration
frequency.
F (l0 x) 2
3V0 v
(2)
4.0x10
2.0x10
0.0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
-1
Frequency /min
C1
C4
1.0
0.2
0
6.0x10
1.2
0.4
0.0
8.0x10
Displacement /mm
Displacement /mm
1.2
Viscosity /Pa*s
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Test Time /s
Metal Forming
Viscosity reduction due to vibration was greater at high
frequency than at low frequency.
Acknowledgement
The research is supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China under grant No. 50635020
and by the Science-Technology Foundation of Education
Bureau of Hubei Province, China (Grant No. B20091703),
it is also supported by Technology Research Program of
Ministry of Education of China No.107075.
References
[1] A. Inoue: Bulk amorphous alloys. Trans Tech Publ; 1998.
[2] R. Busch, E. Bakke, W.L. Johnson: Acta mater., 46-13(1998), 47254732.
[3] C. Way, P. Wadhwa, R. Busch: Acta Mater., 55(2007), 2977-2983.
[4] Y.-Z. Chen, H.L. Li: China Plastics,18-12(2004),45-50.
[5] N.S. Deshpande, M.Barigou: Chem. Eng.Sci., 56, (2001), 3845-3849.
[6] J.A. Goshawk, K.Walters: J.Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech.,54 (1994),
449-455.
[7] N.P. Thien, J. Dudek: J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 11(1982), 521526.
[8] S. Suh, S. Yoo, D.I. Kim, B. Lee: J. Korean Vascular Surgery Society.
14,1 (1998).
[9] S. Shin, J.H. Lee: Int. Comm. Heat Mass Transfer, 29-8(2002), 10691077.
[10] X.-F. Cheng, J.-P. Qu: Light industry machinery, 3-4(2004), 22-24.
281
Metal Forming
Modelling of Microstructure Evolution in AISI 5140 Steel Triple Valve Forming under
Multi-Way Loading
Zhichao Sun, He Yang, Xiaofeng Guo
State Key Lab of Solidification Processing, College of Materials Science, Northwestern Polytechnical University, P.O. Box 542, Xian / China,
zcsun@nwpu.edu.cn
Multi-way loading forming of AISI 5140 triple valves is a complicated hot working process due to the complex and alternation of loading path.
The metal undergoes complicated unequal deformation and microstructure evolution, including dynamic recrystallization in the deforming
zone, metadynamic recrystallization and static recrystallization in the undeformed zone as well as grain growth after recrystallization, which
will determine the quality, mechanical property and usage life-span of the formed valve. A 3D finite element model of the multi-way loading
forming process of the triple valve has been developed based on the DEFORM-3D platform, and some key technologies have been solved.
The microstructure models of AISI 5140 steel was established and successfully integrated into the finite element model, and a coupled
simulation of deformation, heat transfer, and microstructure evolution was subsequently realized. Taking dynamic recrystallization volume
fraction, dynamic recrystallization grain size, and average grain size as parameters, the microstructure evolution and distribution law in
multi-way loading forming process of triple valve body were studied.
Keywords: Triple valve, Multi-way loading, Microstructure evolution, Finite element model, AISI 5140 steel
Introduction
Triple valves with high performance are widely used in
the marine, petrochemical and power industries. Multiway loading technology, in which the billet is loaded in the
horizontal and vertical direction at the same time or in
sequence, provides an efficient approach to form integral
triple valves with high strength [1,2]. However the multiway loading forming of the AISI 5140 triple valve is a
complicated hot working process due to the complex and
alternation of loading path. The metal undergoes complicated unequal deformation, especially microstructure evolution, such as dynamic recrystallization in the deforming
zone, metadynamic recrystallization and static recrystallization in the undeformed zone as well as grain growth
after recrystallization, which will determine the quality,
mechanical property and usage life-span of the formed
valve.
Xu [3] and Hu et al. [1] investigated the multi-ram forging of tee joint by means of 2D finite element modeling,
and found that horizontal rams were under nonequilibrium force. Guo et al. [4] carried out a coupled
thermo-mechanical FE analysis on multi-way loading
forming process of triple valve body. Gontarz [2] executed
physical experiment and numerical simulation of forming
of valve drop forging with three cavities, and found that
the magnitude of the strain had a significant influence on
the forming quality and work done.
Although multi-way loading forming process has been
studied by experiment, theory, and finite-element techniques, and some study of AISI 5140 steel microstructure
evolution of has been made on strip rolling, forging process etc. [5-7], relatively little work related to microstructure evolution in multi-way loading forming of triple
valves has been presented.
In this paper a macro-micro coupled finite element
model of an AISI 5140 triple valve multi-way loading
forming has been developed by combining a microstructure evolution model based on the DEFORM-3D platform
for the prediction and control of quality, process parameters optimization and precise control.
282
FE Modelling
vertical punch
female die
horizontal punch
billet
Metal Forming
body, and the billet as a rigid-plastic material. The shearing friction model is adopted to describe the friction at the
die-billet interface, but the friction between the punches
and the female die is ignored. The invariable and variable
process parameters used in the simulation are listed in
Table 1 according to the relevant literature and the process
characteristic of multi-way loading forming. In order to
validate the finite element model, the multi-way loading
forming process of triple valve was simulated under the
same forming conditions as in the literature [2], using a
punch loading speed v=13 mm/s; friction factor=0.2; diameter of billet=66 mm; length of billet=54 mm. It can be
seen from Figure 2 that the shapes of the deforming body
at different forming stages in simulation (Figure 2(b)) are
in good agreement with those obtained by experiment in
the literature [2](Figure 2(a)).
exp(3.4766 10 5 /( R T ))
Microstructure Evolution Model. Microstructure evolution during multi-way loading process is very complex,
and involves dynamic recrystallization, metadynamic
recrystallization, static recrystallization as well as grain
growth after recrystallization. Through experiment, the
microstructure evolution of AISI 5140 steel can be described as follows [5-7]: For dynamic recrystallization:
according to the Avrami equation:
(1)
X drex = 1 exp[3.9057 ( 0.83 p )1.0421 ]
where p = 5.162 10 Z
3
0.128
Deformation
, c = 0.8 p ,.
Z = exp(Q /( R T )) .
The grain size for dynamic recrystallization is
d drex = 2.5 10 4 Z 0.211 , where Q is activation energy
of dynamic recrystallization, 370.6KJmol-1.
No
as
t0.5 = 8.2648 10 6 0.3549 exp(1.0924 105 /( R T )) (3)
The grain size for metadynamic recrystallization is
(4)
d mrex = 1.4513 105 Z 0.2417
For static recrystallization, after deformation or between
Yes
Yes
> c
X d + X m < 0.95
X d + X m < 0.95
No
Yes
MRX
No
No
X s < 0.95
No
Yes
SRX
yes
DRX
> c
Yes
For metadynamic recrystallization, metadynamic recovery and metadynamic recrystallization will occur after
dynamic recrystallization, described by
(2)
X mrex = 1 exp 0.693 (t / t0.5 )1.5
No
> 0
Residual strain
Growth
No
t < ttotal
Yes
end
The microstructure evolution module and macrodeformation module were integrated by using DEFORM-
283
Metal Forming
3D software interface program written using Fortran language, and the finite element model for coupled analysis
of deformation, heat transferring and microstructure evolution was developed.
Results and Discussion
Research Objective. During the triple valve multi-way
loading forming process, dynamic recrystallization may
occur in the deforming zone, and in the undeformed zone
metadynamic recrystallization and static recrystallization
may occur due to high temperatures. Thus there exists
several kinds of grains such as dynamic recrystallization,
metadynamic recrystallization, static recrystallization in
addition to the ones without recrystallization. The average
grain size d can be used to describe mixed grain size,
which is defined as:
(9)
d = X rex d rex + (1 X rex ) d 0
(X
i =1
The larger the value of the S.D the greater the nonuniformity and the variation in grain size.
Microstructure Evolution Law. Numerous simulations
of the triple valve multi-way loading process and metal
microstructure evolution were done by changing the forming conditions. Figures 4-7 show typical microstructure
evolution and distribution law under forming condition:
initial temperature of billet, 1050 ; punch loading speed,
10mm/s; frictional factor, 0.3.
Figure 4 shows the distributions of dynamic recrystallization volume fraction Xdrex at different forming stages in
the multi-way loading forming process. With the forming
process progressing, the regions where dynamic recrystallization occurs, increase gradually and merge due to the
increasing deformation. In the early forming stage (Figure
4 (a)), only in regions in front of the horizontal punches
and the surface area around the punches dynamic recrystallization occurs adequately due to deformation mainly
concentrating in the vicinity of the horizontal punches.
There exists a small part of the region in front of the
horizontal punches (as marked in Figure 4 (a)), which is
equivalent to the rigid zone in upsetting, and the strain
here is difficult to meet the value of the critical strain for
284
Figure 5 shows the distributions of dynamic recrystallization grain size ddrex at different forming stages in multiway loading forming process.
In the initial forming stage (Figure 5 (a)), in the inner
layer of both ends of the horizontal branch pipes the size
of the dynamic recrystallization grains is large due to
small strain rate here, while the size of dynamic recrystallization grains is the small in the core of the billet due to
the large strain rate. With the deformation progressing
those regions in which dynamic recrystallization occurs
increase and the distribution of dynamic recrystallization
grain size becomes more uniform (Figure 5 (b) and (c)),
and the distribution of dynamic recrystallization grain size
is of the best uniformity (Figure 5 (d)) at the end of forming.
Figure 6 provides the standard deviation value of the
recrystallized grain size, it can be seen that the S.D value
decreases gradually as forming progressing, i.e. the distribution of recrystallized grain size becomes more uniform.
Metal Forming
This is because as the deformation progressing, the region with occurrence of dynamic recrystallization expands
(Figure 4), and the number of recrystallized grains increases. So the distribution of recrystallized grain size of
deforming body is more uniform.
25
20
15
10
30
40
50
60
70
Figure 6 S.D value of dynamic recrystallization grain size at different forming stages.
The average grain size d and its distribution are a combination of recrystallized grain size and the original grain
size and will determine the mechanical properties of
formed part.
Figure 7 shows the distribution of the average grain
size d of billets at different forming stages.
Conclusions
References
[1] Z. Hu, B.-Y. Wang, Z. Liu Zhaung: Journal of Plasticity Engineering,
3-2 (1996), 33-40. (in Chinese)
[2] A. Gontarz: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 177 (2006),
228-232.
[3] J.-S. Xu: Forging & Stamping Technology, 4 (2002), 11-14. (in
Chinese)
[4] X.-F. Guo, H. Yang, Z.-C. Sun, D.-W. Zhang: Journal of Plasticity
Engineering, 16-4 (2009), 85-90. (in Chinese)
[5] M.-T. Wang, X.-T. Li, F.-S. Du, Y.-Z. Zheng: Materials Science and
Engineering A, 379 (2004), 133-140.
[6] M.-T. Wang, X.-T. Li., F.-S. Du, Y.-Z. Zheng: Materials Science and
Engineering A, 391 (2005), 305-312.
[7] J.-W. Ren, FEM simulation and grain size predication of bar rolling,
Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, 2005 (in Chinese).
285
Metal Forming
Determination of reliable friction data associated with a given lubrication system is core to successful process design and simulation by FE
analysis. The dependable performance evaluation of cold forging lubricants is largely dependent on the suitability of the test procedure to
accurately model the severe deformation conditions that occur in actual cold forging operations. The tip test experiment emulates these
practical conditions (severity of deformation and surface expansion) found in most cold forging operations better than the ring compression
test. Also, the differential frictional condition at the punch/billet and billet/counter punch interfaces makes it more authentic for selection of
cold forging lubricants than the double cup extrusion test. For the test, cylindrical specimens made of aluminium alloys of 6061-O, 1050-O
and copper alloys and four lubricants such as grease, corn oil, VG100 and VG32 were used. Two different deformation speeds of 0.1 and
1mm/s were used for the test to evaluate the performance of each lubricant. It is seen that, using tip test, we can simultaneously know the
interface frictional conditions (high or low) at the punch/billet and billet/counter punch interfaces without resulting into elaborate instrumentation. That is, the farther or closer the tip distance is from the die wall, the higher and or lower is, comparatively, the frictional stress at the
punch/billet than at the billet/counter punch interface. It is found that in the choosing lubricant for cold forging operations the type of alloy
and deformation speed should be properly considered. The present study shows that tip test can, however, be utilized not only to differentiate among lubricants performance but also select appropriate lubricant for a particular alloy under increasing speed magnitude. For increasing deformation speed, the best of the four lubricants investigated for annealed copper, AL6061-O and AL1050-O is corn oil.
Keywords: Speed, Tip test, load, Evaluation, Type of alloy, Lubricant selection
Introduction
In cold forging operations, punch/workpiece interface
pressures can be very high with enormous surface enlargement and temperature rise due to deformation heating
[1]. Since the friction at the punch/workpiece interface
plays such an important role in the process, it is essential
that the lubricants used in cold forging withstand the interface conditions encountered in production, in order to
form good quality parts. Failure of the lubricant can lead
to part surface defects and significant die wear or even die
failure. A good lubrication system is, therefore, essential
for successful cold forging. The evaluation of friction is a
complex matter, which depends on both material and interface local conditions, such as temperature, strain, strain
rate, flow stress, normal pressure and surface roughness.
In addition, choosing the proper metal forming lubricant
for non ferrous metals such as aluminum, copper and brass
has become a difficult and complicated decision.
Several tests are commonly used to evaluate the performance of cold forging lubricants. Two common tests
used for this purpose are the ring compression test (RCT)
and the double cup extrusion test (DCET). In order to
evaluate lubrication in cold forging it is useful to have a
test method that represents the actual forging conditions
realistically. In the well-known ring compression test, the
amount of strain and new surface generation are relatively
small compared with the actual conditions present in cold
forging [2]. Thus, the ring test has a limited value in evaluating lubrication in cold forging. In double cup extrusion,
the test better models the severe deformation conditions
that occur in actual cold forging operations. The ratio of
the height of the upper cup to the height of the lower cup
is extremely sensitive to friction. However, the friction on
both punches is the same. Thus, only the friction along the
container wall influences the metal flow. However, a pre-
286
Metal Forming
ing operations. By using the tip test, qualitative and quantitative evaluations are made to determine the effectiveness of lubricants, based on the maximum punch load
attained at varying speed and material (the lower the load,
the better the lubricant).
CL
Experimental
Materials Preparation and Equipment Used. Commercially available AL6061-O, AL1050 and copper alloy
bars with 12mm diameter were annealed by heating from
room temperature to 415, 310 and 475 oC for 3 and 1/2 h
residence time, respectively. Then, AL6061-O bars were
cooled at a cooling rate of 30 C/h to 265 C and then
finally exposed to air-cool to room temperature while
AL1050 and copper were furnace cooled to room temperature. The bars were then machined to final specimen size
of 10mm in diameter and 5mm in height. In order to reduce size irregularity, vernier calipers (Mitutoyo CD15CPX) were used to re-check the dimension of the specimen, and the tolerance of specimens was maintained to
be less than 0.03 mm.
The punch and counter punch including the container
used for the tip test were made of tool steel alloy AISI D2
and were chromium coated and polished. The punch used
in the experiment has roughness magnitude Ra of 0.17m
while the counter punch produced by lapping has roughness magnitude Ra of 0.08 m. For the measurement, a
confocal laser microscope (Olympus OLS-3000) and
white-light scanning interferometer microscope were used.
Computer-controlled MTS machine (Alliance RT/100)
with a maximum load of 100 kN was used for the tests.
Extrusion Test. The tip test (extrusion test) experiments
were performed on a computer-controlled MTS machine
(Alliance RT/100) with a maximum load of 100 kN. The
die assembly, illustrated in Figure 1, is centrally mounted
on the MTS machine. Each of the four kinds of lubricants
of grease (AMSOIL GLC-12), cooking corn oil, VG100,
and VG32 (shell Tellus), was manually brushed on both
faces and sides of the specimen and on the punch face and
stem. The specimen is then located centrally on the counter punch surface via a centering device to avoid eccentricity. The upper punch is subsequently placed on the specimen and a preload of 44N is applied to keep the specimen
firmly in position before the centering device is lifted
above the specimen to allow free backward flow when the
punch descends into the material. The upper punch was
moving downward at the speed of 0.1, or 1 mm/s up to the
stroke of 4. 3mm/s for AL6061-O, AL1050 and copper
alloy while the counter punch and container were stationary. For each lubricant, four experiments were carried out,
and the average used in this present work. After each lubricant, the surface of the punch, centering device and dies
were thoroughly cleaned by a wiper (Kimtech wipers)
soaked with ethanol to avoid adulteration among lubricants, and hot air, using hair dryer, were blown on the
tools to remove residue of ethanol. The ambient temperature and humidity were carefully monitored during the test.
Average viscosities of grease, corn oil, VG100, and VG32
was 10.55, 0.033, 0.079, and 0.027 Pa s, respectively, at
Specimen
The tip distance d of the deformed specimen was measured as shown in Figure 2, with an optical microscope
(Olympus B201) which has an extended focal imaging
function to integrate pictures of different focuses. Because
centering was critical in measurement of the test data, the
tip distance d was measured at four different poles in the
present investigation. The average value of these four data
was used in the present work.
Metal Forming
2
3
Stroke (mm)
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
100
2
3
Stroke (mm)
Load (kN)
20
0
2
3
Stroke (mm)
(b)
30
20
Stroke (mm)
(c)
80
Stroke (mm)
Stroke (mm)
(a)
40
(d)
Load (kN)
20
10
2
3
Stroke (mm)
(a)
60
2
3
Stroke (mm)
(b)
30
20
10
0
10
Load (kN)
10
(d)
(c)
Figure 3. Load versus punch stroke curves in the tip tests of
copper alloys showing the effect of each lubricant on load.
288
70
20
20
30
Stroke (mm)
(b)
(a)
100
10
10
Load (kN)
20
Load (kN)
20
30
Load (kN)
40
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
experimental work on cold rolling of copper using colloidal graphite as lubricant that the roll load tends to increase
significantly with increasing speed. Hence, the effect of
alloy is presumably the probable reason for this observation.
2
3
Stroke (mm)
2
3
Stroke (mm)
(c)
(d)
Figure 5. Load versus punch stroke curves in tip tests of AL6061
alloy showing effect of each lubricant on load.
However, at higher deformation speed, there is no sufficient time for the lubricant to be squeezed out, resulting in
favorable lubrication conditions and low values of friction.
While this is observable in AL1050 and AL6061-O for all
the lubricants investigated except for grease, the reverse
was the case with copper alloy lending credence to the fact
that the type of alloy should be considered before selection
of lubricant for cold forging operation under increasing
ram speed.
Figures 6-8 show the plots of experimental data of normalized maximum load (L/1000) versus tip distance (d/t)
obtained from the tip test of copper and aluminum
(AL1050 and AL6061-O) alloys under various lubrication
conditions and different ram speed. In these figures, the
measured load and tip distance were normalized by 1000
kN and 1,214 mm (tip thickness t), respectively.
Although two of the materials are different from previous works [5,6], linearity between the normalized load and
tip distance was maintained for the two ram speeds and
materials considered. The interface frictional condition
(high or low) between the deforming billet and the punch
can be deduced without resulting into instrumentation.
Metal Forming
0.085
0.1mm/s
1mm/s
0.084
VG32
0.083
0.082
VG32
VG100
Grease
Corn-oil
VG100
0.081
0.080
0.079
0.078
Grease
0.077
Conclusions
Corn-oil
0.305
0.310
0.315
0.320
0.325
0.070
VG32
0.065
0.1mm/s
1mm/s
VG32
VG100
0.060
Corn oil
0.055
0.050
VG100
Grease
Corn oil
0.045
0.31
Grease
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.40
0.058
0.056
VG32
0.054
0.1mm/s
1mm/s
0.052
VG100
0.050
0.048
Grease
Grease
VG100
0.042
Corn oil
0.30
0.31
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
That is, the larger the tip distance, the higher is the frictional stress at the punch and the billet interface. For increasing speed magnitude, corn oil is seen to be the best of
the four lubricants for copper alloy as it gives the least
measured tip distance and load, showing low frictional
stress at the billet/punch interface. Similarly, for AL1050
and AL6061-O, corn oil gives the lowest measured tip
distance and load with increasing speed magnitude. According to these figures, while increasing ram speed leads
to increasing load and tip distance for copper, increasing
ram speed leads to decreasing load and tip distance for
AL1050 and AL6061-O except in the case of grease under
the same lubrication conditions. One of the important
findings, therefore, in this study is that in choosing lubricant for cold forging operations the type of alloy and deformation speed should be properly considered. Also, from
the foregoing, while grease may serve as good lubricant in
gears and journal bearings, it may not be recommended for
bulk metal-forming operations especially under increasing
VG32
Corn oil
0.046
0.044
289
Metal Forming
Institute of Metal Forming and Metal-Forming Machines, Department of Massive Forming, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, An der
Universitt 2, 30823 Garbsen / Germany, bistron@ifum.uni-hannover.de; 2) Fraunhofer-Institute for Surface Engineering and Thin Films,
Bienroder Weg 54E, 38108 Braunschweig / Germany, hanno.paschke@ist.fraunhofer.de
The near surface area of forging dies is exposed to high mechanical loads. Additionally thermal and chemical stresses occur during the hot
forging process. Depending on the number of forged parts several kinds of damage develop in the near surface area, which lead to initial
failures of forging dies. Die wear is the main reason of initial failure with a 70% ratio. Additionally, thermal and mechanical cracks as well as
plastic deformation occur. The abrasion resistance of the surface area of forging dies has to be increased in order to reduce wear.
Therefore, different methods were examined such as the increase of the abrasion resistance by plasma nitriding and by coating with thin
hard coatings (TiN, TiCN, TiC, TiBN and TiB2). These layers are applied to the forging die by using the plasma activated chemical vapor
deposition (PACVD) treatment. A wear reduction of factor 3.5 compared to nitrided forging dies was achieved by using these thin multilayer
coatings. A further reduction of wear can be achieved by using a thermal steady boron multilayer coating. For the investigations the
thicknesses and number of layer repetitions were varied. To receive realistic wear values under industry-related conditions, an automated
eccentric press was used for the testing. After 3000 forged parts, the coatings were examined by tactile measurement, SEM and EDX
analyses to characterise the occurring wear.
Keywords: Forging, Multilayer coatings, PACVD, Wear resistance
Introduction
Forging dies are exposed to high mechanical loads,
which are superposed within the near surface areas by
thermal and tribological loads. Depending on the number
of forged parts these stresses cause different kinds of damage on the forging die [1]. If the damage reaches a critical
value, it causes the failure of the forging tool and the die
has to be replaced or refurbished. Thermal and mechanical
crack formation, plastic deformation as well as wear are
the main failure causes at the shaping area of forging dies
(Figure 1) [2]. With a percentage of 70% wear is the
major occurring failure cause of a hot forging die.
290
Metal Forming
and TiC in combination with plasma nitriding was applied
to forging dies. Compared to a nitrided forging die after
2000 forgings a reduction of wear by factor 3.5 was
achieved with this coating system [6].
Furthermore, first wear investigations with boroncontaining layers were made. As references a nitrided and
a variant coated with the TiN-TiCN-TiC multilayer system
were used. To improve the thermal resistance of the
coating the reference multilayer coating was reinforced
with a hard, thermal steady toplayer of titanium boron
nitrid (TiBN) or titanium diborid (TiB2) [7]. Additionally,
gradient layers of TiBN and TiB2 were applied on helical
gear forging dies for testing purposes. Figure 3 depicts the
results of the wear tests. It is obvious that the toplayer on
the multilayer coating only affects the wear behaviour in
the beginning. After 1000 forging cycles there is no real
difference between the forging dies with and those without
toplayer. The best results were obtained by using the
gradient boron-containing coatings. This led to the idea of
using boron-containing multilayer coatings for the
reduction of wear and optimisation of the tribological
surface properties of forging dies.
Variant
Surface treatment
Layer thickness
V1
Nitrided reference
PACVD coating
TiN-TiB2
TiN-B / TiB2 / TiB-N
TiN-B / TiB-N
~0.2 mm
Repetition of
layer system
-
~2.0 m
~1.8 m
~2.8 m
1
8
8
V2
V3
V4
291
Metal Forming
Measurement of Wear. The inspections of the used
forging tools were made previous to the investigations in
an unused die condition as a reference and after a given
number of forging cycles. The contour of the dies is
investigated by a 3D coordinate measuring machine to
quantify the die wear. For that purpose the tools are
measured every 500 forging cycles and by comparing the
measured data of the worn-out tool with the reference data
the progression of wear can be analysed. The resulting
wear is determined by calculating the mean value of the
eight measured contours of the die surface. Figure 5
depicts a typical wear profile, the positioning of the
measured contours and the 3D measuring machine used.
Figure 8. Wear investigations on forging dies with boron containing multilayer coatings.
Figure 6. Visual comparison of nitrided and coated forging die
after 3000 forgings.
Metal Forming
within the area of the radius and result from a plastic
material deformation. The best overall performance was
achieved by variant V4.
293
Metal Forming
Tool Life Evaluation of Cold Forging Dies Using Numerical Prediction Model Based on
Fatigue Characteristics of Tungsten Carbide
Soo-Young Kim, Satoshi Kubota, Masahito Yamanaka
Solution Engineering Group, Yamanaka Engineering Co., Ltd., Sakura / Japan, sykim@yamanaka-eng.co.jp
A simple tool life prediction model was proposed for the fatigue crack failure of tungsten carbide tool in the cold forging process. To model
the fatigue characteristics of tungsten carbide material, the axial tension-compression tests and the 4-point bending tests were carried out
under several cyclic loading conditions to cover various stress variations. The proposed tool life prediction model was based on a simple
stress-life theory using the mean value and the amplitude of stress variation during a forging cycle. To calculate the tool stress distributions
at the initial and the loading status, the general-purpose forging simulation software DEFORM-2D/3D was used for the forging process and
the elastic tool stress simulations. The proposed model was applied to several forging process examples to evaluate its accuracy and
robustness.
Keywords: Tool life of cold forging dies, Fatigue characteristics, Tungsten carbide, Tool stress analysis, Forging process simulation
Introduction
Tool life is one of the most important factors, which
should be considered carefully in the forging process design. The typical tool life patterns of forging tools are
depicted in Figure 1. In general, the fatigue crack is considered as most dominant failure pattern of the cold forging tools. Accurate prediction of tool life is still difficult
for the tool design engineers since it can be affected by
many factors complexly related with process and tool
manufacturing conditions as shown in Figure 2. Many
researchers have studied about the mechanism of tool
failure and the prediction of tool life in cold forging process [1-3], but more improvements should be necessary in
this field to be used for the industrial applications in practical point of view.
Production
conditions
Workpiece
material
Process
design
Human skill
Crack
(Vertical)
Vertical
crack
Crack
(Horizontal)
Unknown
Other
Tool quality
-Press
-Lubricant
-Temperature
Tool design
Tool
manufacturing
Tool material
Heat treatment
Ring
crack
CAE
Surface
treatment
Wear
Seizure
Chipping
Seizure
Wear
Number of Cases*
(*In-house data)
294
Experiments
Axial Tension-Compression Fatigue Test. To obtain
the basic S-N curve data, the axial tension-compression
tests were carried out for various loading conditions. The
MTS fatigue test machine as shown in Figure 3 was used
for the test. All test specimens were manufactured to have
sufficiently small surface roughness. The shape of test
specimen is shown in the same figure. The detailed test
conditions were listed in Table 1. The loading conditions
were selected to cover various mean stress conditions
since the variation of tool stress during usual forging process is not completely reversed (zero mean stress) condition.
Metal Forming
Mirror
Region
Initiation
Point
Mist
Region
Hackle
Region
Test material
Test facility
Temperature condition
Room temperature
Loading condition
105 cycles
Mean stress m
Stress amplitude a
Hydraulic
control
a /MPa
2500
m [MPa]
2000
500
0
-250
-500
1500
1000
1.E+02
1.E+03
1.E+04
1.E+05
1.E+06
Nf /cycles
Figure 4. S-N data obtained from axial tension-compression test.
Upper side
8 mm
30 mm
2 mm
(b) Test specimen
Figure 6. (a) Fatigue test machine, jigs and (b) test specimen
used in 4-point bending test.
Temperature condition
Room temperature
Loading condition
105 cycles
0.1
295
0.5F
2
8
24
Contact nodes 30
2
1
F = 280 kgf
0
0 5 10 15
Number of elements
(x1000)
2000
1500
1000
1.E+03
1.E+04
1.E+05
Nf /cycles
1.E+06
WC
Co
5 m
Numerical Applications
Modelling for Tool Life Prediction. In the present
study, a simple fatigue life prediction model was constructed based on the stress-life analysis theory. In case of
zero mean stress condition (completely reversed loading),
the fatigue life is usually approximated as the following
equation.
ar = f (2 N f )b
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.0
0
4
6
log(Nf)
Figure 10. Determination of coefficients f and b in eq. (1).
Several models are proposed to consider mean stress effect in stress-life analysis. Goodman and Morrow equations are well known and widely used for fatigue life prediction [4].
a m
~
+
= 1 Goodman = u , Morrow ~ = f
ar ~
(2)
~ f =
(3)
WC
10 m
3.4
a m
+
=1 ,
ar ~ f
Co
log(a)
12,160 elements
(1)
1
N f = ar
2 f
ar = a 1 m ~
(4)
By applying Eq. (4), the experimental data can be transferred to ar-Nf space as plotted in Figure 12. The result
shows reasonable correlation with S-N line at m = 0 MPa.
2
Axial T -C
4pt Bending
Morrow
Goodmam
1.5
a/ar
0.5F
Metal Forming
1
0.5
0
-1000
1000
2000
m /MPa
3000
4000
296
Metal Forming
10000
ar/MPa
Approx. line
Axial (sm<0)
Axial (sm>0)
4pt-Bending
1000
1.E+02
1.E+03
1.E+04
Nf
1.E+05
1.E+06
[log(f)]
105
300
700
[m (MPa)]
(Lower side)
100
500
p /MPa
1500
Exp.
Sim.
1000
1.E+02
1.E+03
1.E+04 1.E+05
Nf /cycles
1.E+06
-200
-400
600
300
900
[m (MPa)]
-500
300
103
105
Figure 15. Example of tool life prediction for nut forging die.
Conclusions
2000
[a (MPa)]
1,230
Point A
103.89 =7,762
3rd
Process
107
100
-500
[log(f)]
-300
-400
-200
-300
104.74 = 54,954
100
-100
0
Tool life in cold forging process is important factor affecting to production cost of forged part. Accurate prediction of tool life is essential to exclude inadequate tool
designs and to improve tool life. In this study, axial tension-compression tests and 4-point bending tests were
carried out to find out fatigue characteristics of tungsten
carbide tool materials. Based on the experimental results, a
simple tool life prediction model was proposed and applied to several example processes. From the results, it
was found that the current tool life model predicted the
location of crack initiation point correctly. The current
model showed reasonable accuracy in the case of simple
stress conditions with well-defined mean and amplitude
values. More evaluations for various forging processes and
tools will be required to improve prediction accuracy and
robustness of the current developed model.
References
[1] K. Lange, L. Cser, M. Geiger, J.-A.-G. Kals: CIRP Annals, 41-2
(1992), 667-675.
[2] M. Meidert, C. Walter, K.Phlandt: Proc. 6th Int. Tooling Conference,
Karlstad, (2002), 815-828.
[3] M.A. Saroosh, H.-C. Lee, Y.-T. Im, S.-W. Choi, D.-L. Lee: Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 191 (2007), 178-181.
[4] H.-O. Fuchs, R.-I. Stephens: Metal Fatigue in Engineering, 1st edition,
Wiley-Interscience, (1980).
297
Metal Forming
Hot Forging Design of Cam for Vessel Engine Using Finite Element Analysis and Ductile Fracture Criteria
Jong-Taek Yeom1), Jee-Hoon Kim1), Jeoung-Han Kim1), Jae-Keun Hong1), Jae-Sik Lee2)
1)
Special Alloys Research Group, Korea Institute of Materials Science(KIMS), Changwon / Korea, yjt96@kims.re.kr;
Seongdo Co., Ltd., Gimhae / Korea
2)
Research Institute,
The hot forging process of an exhaust cam for a vessel engine was designed by finite element simulation and experimental analysis. An
aim of process design was to achieve the near-net shaped cam forgings by hot forging process. From deformation processing map based
on the dynamic materials model and instability criterion, the initial heating temperature of the cam material was determined as 1200oC. In
order to predict safe processing conditions, the modified Cockcroft-Latham criteria were utilized. Critical damage values varying with process variables of the cam material were generated by analyzing hot tensile tests. The critical damage values, local state of stress, strain,
strain rate and temperature were then determined at the point of necking. FE analysis coupling with the modified Cockcroft-Latham criteria
model was simulated to predict the formation of forming defects and deformed shape with different forging designs. Optimum process
design suggested in this work was made by comparing with the cam for vessel engine manufactured by actual process.
Keywords: Exhaust cam, Vessel engine, Near-net shape, Hot forging design, Ductile fracture criteria, Finite element analysis, Modified
Cockcroft-Latham criteria
Introduction
In a hot forging process, near-net shape design is an essential prerequisite for obtaining the lowest possible cost
and minimum possible lead times [1,2]. With the development of computer simulation techniques, the optimization of metal-forming processes such as forging, extrusion,
and rolling is widely attempted nowadays by means of the
finite element method, which can minimize extensive
experimentations. Previous design and control methods
have been concerned mainly with the shape and size of the
final product without considering the generation of various
forming defects such as shear bands, cavities, cracks, and
other non-uniformities. If the processing variables are not
controlled carefully, it is usual to observe the forming
defects in the formed parts [3].
Previous manufacturing processes of a large cam for
vessel engine were carried out by the gas cutting for making the cam hole after semi-closed die forging process for
forming the outside shape of the cam. In that case, the
formation of the cam hole joining with the shaft by gas
cutting process results in a significant material loss. Therefore, in order to minimize the material loss, the previous
gas cutting process should be replaced by a piercing process.
In this work, the optimum process design for hot forming of an exhaust cam for vessel engine was attempted by
performing a FE simulation along with an experimental
verification. Several designs for piercing process were
considered important in this work.
Hot Workability Analysis of Cam Material
Hot Workability Tests. The material for an exhaust cam
used in this work was Cr-Mo steel (KS or JIS SCM415).
In order to analyze the hot workability of the material with
state variables such as strain, strain rate and temperature,
high temperature tensile and compression tests were carried out. The compression tests were carried out in the
temperature ranges between 850 and 1250 oC at 50 oC
298
0d
Cp
(1)
Metal Forming
(3)
() =
ln(m/ m +1)
ln
+ m< 0
(4)
This criterion indicates that unstable flow can occur during hot deformation when the parameter ( ) becomes
negative. Figure 1 shows the processing map for the CrMo steel at a true strain of 0.7. In Figure 1, the contour
indicates the iso-efficiency lines for power dissipation
and crosshatched areas present unstable forming regions.
In the general ram speed ranges of a hydraulic press (strain
rates = 0.1-10 s-1), the map shows a maximum value of
about 0.378 at 1200 oC and the strain rate ranges of 0.010.1 s-1, which means that this regime is an optimum
condition for hot working. The microstructure at this
region indicated a refined grain structure by dynamic
recrystallization. However, the micrographs of specimen
deformed at the unstable regions showed flow localization.
Therefore, the initial hot forming process conditions were
suggested as the heating temperature of 1200 oC at normal
ram speed of the hydraulic press.
tests with the strain rate of 1.0 s-1 and various temperature
conditions. The fracture strain (f) at the temperature of
1250 oC is lower than that at other temperature conditions.
From the analysis of tensile tests result, the forming temperature for manufacturing the cam was confirmed as
1200 oC.
160
-1
140
1050 C
o
1100 C
o
1150 C
o
1200 C
o
1250 C
120
Stress(MPa)
log = ln
log T, ln T,
m=
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Strain
In order to predict the forming defects during the forming processes of the cam, the modified Cockcroft-Latham
criterion was utilized. The model is related to both maximum normal tensile stress and plastic strain by the following equation [9].
f
Dcrit = maxd
0
(5)
f
Dcrit = UTS + UTS
r
d
2R
max
f ln 1 +
d = f + UTS
(6)
0.64
0.61
-1
Log(strain rate, s )
0.5
0.0
-0.5
0.49
0.52
0.58
0.55
0.46
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
0.43
1050
0.40
1100
1150
1200
1250
Temperature( C)
299
Metal Forming
Figure 3 show critical damage map for the Cr-Mo steel.
The contours represent the critical damage value, Dcrit,
above which cracking or porosity is likely to occur. The
critical damage values (Dcrit) at different temperature and
strain rate conditions were used to predict the forming
defects during hot forming processes of the cam.
Hot Forming Design of an Exhaust CAM
Initial Hot Forming Design. Final forged shape of an
exhaust CAM is shown in Figure 4. Cam hole joining
with the shaft is 200 mm. Previous manufacturing processes of the cam are semi-closed die forging for forming
the outside shape of the cam and gas cutting for making
the cam hole. However, in the process, the gas cutting
process for making the large cam led to a significant material loss. Several design concepts for hot forging process
of an exhaust cam were suggested to obtain the near-net
shaped cam forgings as shown in Figure 5.
(b) Damage
Figure 6. FE simulation results for the semi-closed die forging
process of cam.
300
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 7. Deformed shapes obtained at different process designs:
(a) Case I, (b) Case II and (c) Case III.
Metal Forming
0.8%. Especially, the dimension difference between the
experimental data and target dimensions represents a mean
error ratio of 1.3%. It means that hot forming process of an
exhaust cam is proceeded by near-net shape.
Conclusions
Actual hot forming process for an exhaust cam was carried out by considering the hot workability analysis results
and relatively good piercing process(Case III) designed by
FE simulation. The initial heating temperature of the preform was selected as 1200 oC. The die was heated to
150oC. Figure 9 shows the hot formed exhaust cam and
FE simulated cam shape. Note that the actual hot formed
cam indicates a relatively uniform shape without forming
defects such as fishtail, fold, crack, etc. .
(a)
(b)
Figure 9. Comparison between (a) actual exhaust cam and (b)
finite element simulated shape.
Table 1. Comparison between main dimensions for forged cam.
Main
Dimension
Target (mm)
Experimental
Simulation
data (mm)
data (mm)
389.0
393.4
380.0
~320.0
323.0
322.0
170.0
171.0
173.7
301
Metal Forming
Introduction
The cold-forming of certain non-ferrous alloys is limited
due to an imminent occurrence of cracks in the material.
However, there exist technologies which require the material to be formed in room temperature. An example of such
a technology is orbital forging of a forged workpiece, e.g.
by means of presses with an oscillating upper die. Unfortunately, the studies concerning limitations of forming by
means of this technology are not thoroughly systematized
[1,2]. Conducting research (especially of a theoretical
character) on this technology first requires developing an
adequate numerical model for the finite element method
(FEM). Given that the material used is Ti6A14V titanium
alloy, it is important to adopt an optimal model of cracking.
In order to do this, preliminary laboratory tests should be
carried out to develop an FEM model based on relatively
simple methods of forming that alloy, where the cracking
phenomenon is taken into consideration [3,4,5,8,9].
The most common method of fracture modelling in the
FEM simulation is the application of the element removal
method [4,8,10], where the characteristic parameter calculated in accordance with the determined cracking criterion
will exceed the limiting value. Unfortunately, such a
method of crack modeling cannot be applied to many
metal forming processes, including orbital forging. For
this reason, alternative ways of modelling the cracking
phenomenon in which element removal is not required
should be found and verified.
The simplest alternative way of modelling metal forming processes is running a simulation in which only the
value of characteristic parameters is calculated, and then,
on the basis of the calculation result, the material condition in certain zones is verified (procedure I). On the basis
of the calculated value, e.g. the Cockroft-Latham integral
[2,4,5, 9,11,12], the probability of crack occurrence can
thus be calculated. A more advanced procedure of crack
modelling involves first determining the characteristic
parameter value and then comparing it with the limiting
value, which results in treating a given element as a special one (procedure II). In other words, this element is still
considered in the calculations (it is not removed), yet it is
treated as void.
302
Taking the above into consideration, it should be determined which of the two presented fracture modelling procedures is optimal for simulating cold-forming of titanium
alloys. Hence, the authors of the paper present a certain
philosophy of material fracture modelling which is based
on two exemplary methods of forming Ti6Al4V titanium
alloy in room temperature. The research has been done as
project no.: NN508439036, financed by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education.
Modelling of Selected Metal Forming Procedures
Tensile Test of Profiled Specimen. Applying to the research work a cylindrical billet with a constant cross section in the measured zone made according to the standard
requirements, e.g. [5,6,7,11,12], is not the best solution in
terms of crack modelling. This results from the lack of
possibility of estimating the zone where cracking occurs
during the FEM calculations. The authors of the present
paper have hence developed a billet of a special shape,
which is shown in Figure 1(a).
The proposed specimen, whose main dimensions (d x L)
equal 10mm x 110mm, has two convergent conical surfaces in the measured zone, where the convergence angle
is 3 degrees. In the middle part, where the previously
mentioned surfaces converge, the rounding of the radius R
of about 10 mm has been used, which results in limiting
the notch influence. The billet diameter d0 is the lowest in
this zone it equals 7.5mm.
(a)
(b)
Metal Forming
ture. The shape of the fractured specimen is shown in
Figure 1(b). Although titanium alloy is regarded as the
material which is difficult to deform in room temperature
[3], the moment of cracking is preceded by distinct plastic
strains a characteristic necking appears in the specimens
middle part. On the basis of the numerical analysis, it can
also be assumed that a uniaxial stress state is present in
this zone. Given the results of the conducted laboratory
experiments, an FEM model of the tensile test has therefore been built, which is schematically presented in Figure
2.
p = 1893 (0,0063 + )
0 , 2273
(1)
C CL =
(2)
303
Metal Forming
In the case of modelling the billet tensile test under procedure II, the force starts decreasing quickly after having
reached the moment corresponding to the real specimen
fracture. It can be explained by the fact that under procedure II the material begins to behave similarly to the real
object. This means that a considerable material necking is
to be observed in the neighborhood of point p1 just before
the specimen fracture. Such a behaviour of the material
modelled in FEM is consistent with the experiment (Figure 5). Moreover, the character of those cracks proves the
effectiveness of applying the Cockroft-Latham cracking
criterion to simulate the titanium alloy tensile test.
(a)
(b)
A special attention should be paid to the change of values in the function of time for such calculated parameters
as the strain and normalized Cockroft-Latham integral
value. The values of the calculated strain and CockroftLatham integral (Figure 6) begin to rise suddenly when
the stage corresponding to the moment of specimen fracture has been reached.
Summarizing, modelling the tensile test of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy under procedure II helps obtain the results
which are largely consistent with reality. This method of
modelling, however, requires that the critical value of the
Cockroft-Latham integral CCL be calculated. On the other
hand, modelling billet deformations by means of procedure I is more universal and can be employed in preliminary research, together with experiments, as a method of
determining the critical value of the Cockroft-Latham
integral CCL.
Upsetting of Ring Workpiece. In the case of stretching
a profiled billet in the materials whole volume (in the
measuring zone), a uniaxial stress state in the form of
tension is present. In this context, a question may arise
304
Metal Forming
plane of the maximum principal shear stress 13 [5] determines the course of the workpiece cracking lines. Moreover, the tangential stress 1 is the largest principal stress
in the form of tension. Hence, the calculated stress state
fully explains the behaviour of the titanium alloy during
the upsetting tests. To sum up, the processes where the
general stress state is involved require that both the distribution of the normalized Cockroft-Latham integral CCL
and the direction of the maximum principal shear stresses
13 should be known.
What is more, it should be emphasized that the observed
tendency to change such upset parameter values as the
strain and Cockroft-Latham integral CCL corresponds to
the calculations obtained from modelling the tensile test of
the profiled billet. The calculated course of the CCL integral
value change in point p4 is shown in Figure 9. As for modelling the process under procedure II, the CCL value increases rapidly after a hypothetical material cracking
operation.
Conclusions
This paper presents the analysis of two procedures of
fracture modelling illustrated by selected cases of forming
Ti6Al4V titanium alloy in room temperature. Both procedure I and procedure II allow to obtain the desired effect
whose precision is comparable to the results obtained in
305
Metal Forming
2)
Upsetting is a typical test for determining parameters of ductile fracture criteria. Although axisimmetric samples are mostly used for the
upsetting tests, the shape of samples has a significant effect on the ductile fracture initiation. The fore, a greater variety of sample geometry
leads to more accurate values of parameters involved in ductile fracture criteria. A difficulty here is that a theoretical treatment of samples in
which three-dimensional flow occurs is more difficult and time consuming as compared to axisymmetric samples under axisymmetric
loading. This difficulty can be overcome in the case of the modified Cockroft-Latham ductile fracture criterion. The paper presents an
experimental-theoretical method for verifying the modified Cockroft-Latham ductile fracture criterion.
Keywords: Upsetting, Ductile fracture, Experimental-analytical method
Introduction
Ductile fracture criteria are usually used for predicting
fracture initiation in metal forming processes in
conjunction with finite element analyses. Reviews of
ductile fracture criteria can be found in [1-3]. Fracture
often occurs at free surfaces. To study free surface fracture,
axisymmetric samples subject to axisymmetric loading are
usually used [4 - 10]. An obvious advantage of this type of
tests is that the corresponding theoretical analysis is
relatively simple. However, it is known that nonaxisymmetric shapes of samples may have a great effect
on the fracture mode [11]. Therefore, it is of importance to
develop an efficient method for determining parameters
involved in ductile fracture criteria with the use of
experimental data from non-axisymmetric upsetting. In the
case of the ductile fracture criterion [12] such a method
can be based on the theoretical result obtained in [13]. The
ductile fracture criterion [12] is a modification of the
Cockroft-Latham criterion [14]. The modified CockroftLatham criterion is often used in applications [3,12],
including hot metal forming processes [15]. The
significance of the result obtained in [13] is that it relates
the state of strain at the fracture site to the material
parameter involved in the fracture criterion if fracture
occurs at the intersection of two planes of symmetry on a
free surface. Thus the stress of state is excluded from
consideration. Since it is relatively easy to measure the
state of strain in experiment, the material parameter
involved in the ductile fracture criterion can be directly
found from experiment.
In the present study, five non-axisymmetric samples are
tested in upsetting between parallel flat dies. Then, the
theoretical procedure proposed in [13] is used to identify
the material parameter involved in the ductile fracture
criterion [12].
Experimental
Five different types of samples have been tested in
upsetting between parallel flat dies. All five types of nonaxisymmetric samples are shown in Figure 1. Actually,
one of the samples has the axis of symmetry. However, the
motion of dies is orthogonal to this axis. Therefore, the
306
Metal Forming
in-surface principal natural strain is 1 . To measure the insurface strains two pairs of grid lines were applied in the
vicinity of the intersections of planes of symmetry of the
processes. These lines formed a square with its side of
4mm before deformation.
307
Metal Forming
t
eq
eq dt = C
(1)
3
21 + 2 = C
2
No. of
Strain 1 to
Strain 2 to
sample
sample
fracture
fracture
1.13
-1.21
(see Figures
2 to 6)
1
(2)
308
Type of
1.16
-1.29
1.14
-1.18
0.64
-0.72
0.61
-0.68
0.63
-0.72
0.65
-0.78
0.66
-0.75
0.64
-0.76
0.67
-0.78
0.68
-0.93
0.72
-0.85
0.68
-0.8
0.74
-0.77
0.68
-0.8
No. of sample
Value of C
(see Figures 2 to 6)
1
0.7
0.69
0.73
0.37
0.36
0.36
0.35
0.38
0.35
0.37
0.29
0.39
0.37
0.47
0.37
Conclusions
Metal Forming
E.L. and S.A. acknowledge support from grants RFBR10-08-00083- (Russia). D.V. and D.M. are thankful to the
Ministry of Sciences of Republic of Serbia for support
through grant TR 14050 Development and application of
contemporary approaches of forging technology design
with purpose of quality products advancement and
production cost reduction.
References
[1] A.G. Atkins: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 56-1-4
(1996), 609-618.
[2] M.A. Shabara, , A.A. El-Domiaty, M.A. Kandi: Journal of Materials
Engineering and Performance, 5-4 (1996), 478-488.
[3] R. Hambli, M. Reszka: International Journal of Mechanical Sciences,
44 (2002), 1349-1361.
[4] H.A. Kuhn, P.W. Lee, T. A. Erturk: Transactions of the ASME Journal
of Engineering Materials and Technology, 95 (1973), 213-218.
[5] S.I. Oh, S.Kobayashi: Transactions of the ASME Journal of
Engineering for Industry, 98 (1976), 800-806.
[6] R. Sowerby, I. OReilly, N.Chandrasekaran, N.L. Dung: Transactions
of the ASME Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, 106
(1984), 101-106.
[7] R.Sowerby, N.Chandrasekaran: Journal of Applied Metalworking, 3
(1984), 257-263.
[8] J.J. Shah, H.A. Kuhn: Journal of Applied Metalworking, 4 (1986),
255-261.
[9] S. Kivivuori: Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy, 16 (1987), 98-102.
[10] H.-P. Ganser, A.G. Atkins, O. Kolednik, F.D. Fischer, O. Richard:
Transactions of the ASME Journal of Engineering Materials and
Technology, 123 (2001), 94-99.
[11] V. Sljapic, P. Hartley, I. Pillinger: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 125-126 (2002), 267-274.
[12] S.I. Oh, C.C. Chen, S.Kobayashi: Transactions of the ASME Journal
of Engineering for Industry, 101 (1979) 36-44.
[13] S. Alexandrov, D. Vilotic: Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering
Science, 222-9 (2008), 1869-1872.
[14] M.D. Cockroft, D.J. Latham: Journal Institute of Metals, 96 (1968),
33-39.
[15] N. Ogawa, M. Shiomi, K. Osakada: International Journal of
Machine Tools and Manufacture, 42 (2002), 607-614.
[16] V. Vujovi, A. Shabaik: Transactions of the ASME Journal of
Engineering Materials and Technology, 108 (1986), 245-249.
[17] D. Vilotic, M. Plancak, S. Grbic, S.Alexandrov, N. Chikanova:
Fatigue and Fracture of Engineering Materials and Structures, 26-4,
(2003), 305-310.
309
Metal Forming
Introduction
Ring compression tests have been widely used for evaluating friction effects in bulk metal forming among all
common methods for measuring the interface frictional
shear factor [1]. The tests are relatively easy since there is
no need for force measurement during the test and also nor
knowledge of material properties such as the yield strength
and work hardening characteristics. Basically this method
measures the dimensional changes of a specimen to arrive
at the magnitude of friction coefficient or factor. Male and
Depierre [2] proposed a set of calibration curves for various ring geometries and compared with experimental results of their previous work [3]. The friction calibration
curves developed by them gained wide acceptance for
evaluating coefficient of friction regardless of material
properties such as work hardening effect. Hasan and Jahan
[4] investigated whether generalized calibration curves are
applicable to all types of materials and test conditions. Rao
and Sivaran [5] conducted a research on the effects of
different ring geometries on the calibration curves in terms
of sensitivity and noted that a particular geometry is applicable within a definite range of friction due to the barreling and discrete changes of the specimen to the interfacial
friction.
Sensitivity analysis is considered as an effective tool for
optimum design. Sensitivity analysis has been widely
performed for calculating the gradient of the objective
function and for studying the effects of process parameters
or input parameters in the states of the final products [6].
Most of the contributions in the area of sensitivity have
been devoted to structural analysis, where the information
coming from the sensitivity analysis can readily be used
and has an immediate interpretation [7].
In the present study, the ring compression test has been
numerically investigated to analyze the effects of ring
geometries on dimensional changes to interfacial friction
at different positions of specimen. Movements of neutral
positions were also investigated to explain variations of
sensitivity of dimensional changes over the whole range of
friction factor. The main objective of this study is to reveal
the effects of the ring specimen height on the sensitivity of
310
Initial
height (H)
Folding area
hs
Metal Forming
20
H (0.5) = 4.23 mm
H (1.0) = 8.47 mm
19
18
H (2.0) = 16.93 mm
H (3.0) = 25.40 mm
17
16
15
14
m = 0.3
m = 0.8
13
12
0
17.0
16.5
10
20
30
40
Reduction in height [%]
50
Reduction in height : 50 %
H (0.5) = 4.23 mm
H (1.0) = 8.47 mm
16.0
15.5
15.0
H (2.0) = 16.93 mm
H (3.0) = 25.40 mm
14.5
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Friction factor (m)
Figure 2. Neutral positions vs. reduction in height (top) and friction
factors (bottom) for various specimen heights, respectively.
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Inner periphery
Outer periphery
0.1
0.0
0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
10
20
30
40
Reduction in height [%]
H (0.5) = 4.23 mm
H (1.0) = 8.47 mm
H (2.0) = 16.93 mm
H (3.0) = 25.40 mm
50
Re : 50 %
Inner periphery
Outer periphery
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Friction factor (m)
Figure 3. Folded area vs. reduction in height (top) and friction
factors (bottom), respectively.
Dimensional Changes
Response Parameters Used in Analyses. In the course
of conventional ring compression, as a response parameter
to interfacial friction, the internal diameter at the middle
section of ring specimen increases or decreases if friction
is low or high, respectively. However, different dimensional changes may be measured at different positions of
ring specimen and thus lead to different friction calibration
curves. In the present study, four different response parameters are selected such as dimensional changes of internal diameters at the top (D1) and middle (D3) sections, and outer diameters at the top (D2) and middle
(D4) sections, respectively, and their dimensional
changes to interfacial friction have been investigated for
various specimen heights.
Dimensional Changes and Linearity. Simulation results have been recorded at 50% reduction in height of
ring specimen for all response parameters in terms of the
relationship between friction factors and dimensional
changes for various specimen heights as shown in Figure
4. It is seen in the figure that the dimensional changes
seem sensitive to the change of interfacial friction for
internal diameter at the middle section and outer diameter
at the top section. It is generally seen in the figure that the
dimensional changes decrease as the friction factor increases regardless of the locations of specimen. However,
it is also easily known from the figure that the dimensional
changes for internal diameter at the middle section decrease as the specimen height decreases while the dimensional changes for outer diameter at the top section increase as the specimen height decreases, respectively.
Dimensional changes at four different positions of ring
compression test are placed on curves which are plotted as
reduction in height vs. changes in dimensions for various
311
Metal Forming
35
D1
D2
D3
20
40
D4
m=0.3
m=0.6
m=0.9
m=0.6
m=0.9
m=0.6
m=0.9
m=0.6
m=0.9
15
30
25
5
40
Dimensional change (D4) [mm] Dimensional change (D3) [mm] Dimensional change (D2) [mm]
15
H (0.5) = 4,23 mm
H (1.0) = 8.47 mm
H (2.0) = 16.93 mm
H (3.0) = 25.40 mm
10
H (0.5) = 4,23 mm
H (1.0) = 8.47 mm
H (2.0) = 16.93 mm
H (3.0) = 25.40 mm
20
10
5
m=0.0
m=0.0
H (0.5) = 4,23 mm
H (1.0) = 8.47 mm
H (2.0) = 16.93 mm
H (3.0) = 25.40 mm
35
Reduction in height : 50 %
30
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Friction factor (m)
Figure 4. Dimensional change vs. friction factors for various
specimen heights at 50% reduction in height.
m=0.3
25
m=0.0
18
m=0.3
13
H (0.5) = 4,23 mm
H (1.0) = 8.47 mm
H (2.0) = 16.93 mm
H (3.0) = 25.40 mm
3
40
m=0.0
m=0.3
H (0.5) = 4,23 mm
H (1.0) = 8.47 mm
H (2.0) = 16.93 mm
H (3.0) = 25.40 mm
35
30
25
0
10
20
30
40
50
Reduction in height [%]
Figure 5. Dimensional changes vs. reduction in height for various
friction factors and specimen heights.
Table 1. Summary of linear regression analyses over whole range of friction factors for various specimen heights.
Response parameters
Speciman
Height
D1
D2
D3
D4
ratio
Sensitivity
Linearity
Sensitivity
Linearity
Sensitivity
Linearity
Sensitivity
Linearity
H (0.5)
0.328*
0.318
0.277
0.731
H (0.75)
0.281
0.299
0.354
H (1.0)
0.249
0.292
0.418
H (1.25)
0.234
0.307
0.474
0.686
0.705
0.159
0.460
0.840
0.711
0.756
0.179
0.558
0.892
0.735
0.790
0.191
0.620
0.920
0.750
0.816
0.198
0.665
H (1.5)
0.229
0.332
0.519
0.936
0.751**
0.837
0.201*
0.698
H (1.75)
0.228
0.352
0.555
0.945
0.739
0.851
0.198
0.721
H (2.0)
0.232
0.371
0.587
0.948
0.725
0.861
0.195
0.737
H (2.5)
0.251
0.422
0.637
0.949**
0.677
0.879
0.185
0.771
H (3.0)
0.273
0.476*
0.671*
0.945
0.586
0.894*
0.169
0.801*
312
Metal Forming
1.2
1.2
1.0
D3
D4
H (0.5) = 4,23 mm
H (1.0) = 8.47 mm
H (1.5) = 12.71 mm
H (2.0) = 16.93 mm
H (3.0) = 25.40 mm
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.0
0.0
Re : 50 %
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.25
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Friction factor (m)
Figure 6. Sensitivities vs. friction factors over whole range of
friction factors for various specimen heights.
Conclusions
References
D2
D3
D2
D3
D2
D3
D2
D3
D2
D3
D2
D3
D2
0.1
0.20
0.45*
0.28
0.49*
0.34
0.53*
0.40
0.56*
0.44
0.57*
0.47
0.57*
0.49
0.2
0.15
0.30
0.22
0.33
0.27
0.36
0.31
0.38
0.34
0.39
0.37
0.39
0.3
0.13
0.22
0.18
0.25
0.22
0.26
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.28
0.30
0.28
0.4
0.11
0.17*
0.15
0.19*
0.19
0.20* 0.22*
0.20
0.24*
0.21
0.25*
0.5
0.09
0.13
0.13
0.14
0.16
0.15
0.18
0.15
0.20
0.15
0.6
0.08
0.10
0.11
0.11
0.14
0.11
0.15
0.11
0.16
0.7
0.08
0.11*
0.08
0.12*
0.08
0.8
0.05
0.04
0.07
0.05
0.08
0.05
0.09
0.05
0.9
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.02
m = 0.0
m = 0.1
m = 0.3
m = 0.6
m = 0.9
D4
0.4
0.2
D3
0.6
0.2
H (0.75)
D2
0.8
Reduction in height : 50 %
H (0.5)
D1
1.0
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
D2
D1
D3
H (2.5)
D2
H (3.0)
D3
D2
D3
0.56* 0.53*
0.52
0.56*
0.45
0.39
0.40
0.42
0.38
0.43
0.34
0.31
0.28
0.33
0.27
0.34
0.25
0.20
0.25*
0.20
0.26*
0.19
0.25*
0.17
0.20
0.15
0.20
0.14
0.20
0.13
0.19
0.12
0.11
0.16
0.10
0.16
0.10
0.15
0.09
0.15
0.08
0.13*
0.07
0.13*
0.07
0.12*
0.07
0.12*
0.06
0.11*
0.05
0.09
0.04
0.09
0.04
0.09
0.04
0.08
0.03
0.07
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.01
313
Metal Forming
Introduction
One of main objectives of open die forging such as upsetting and cogging is to eliminate voids which are localized mostly near the ingot centre during the solidification
process of the large-scale ingot. Otherwise, this defect
may cause catastrophic damage of the final product in
operation. Thus, extensive compressive deformation of the
ingot by forming processes is necessary in order to eliminate such the internal voids.
It has been well recognized that the voids evolve in response to the tri-axiality of the remote stress state. In this
point of view, some researchers have been trying to find
the relationship between the internal variables (effective
stress, hydrostatic stress and effective strain) and void
crushing by adopting the numerical approach with assumption of axi-symmetric plastic deformation of spherical-shaped void or two dimensional plastic deformation of
cylindrical-shaped void [1,2]. However, this is not realistic
in the point of view that even though the void has a spherical or cylindrical shape, three dimensional deformation of
the void takes place during forging process.
It has been also investigated by numerical approaches
such as upper bound method and finite element simulation
that effective strain and hydrostatic stress are the major
factors which dominate void crushing during forging [3-5].
Park et al. revealed from FE simulation of upsetting of the
large-scale ingot that volume fraction ratio of void is independent of void size and effective strain is more efficient
than hydrostatic stress for void crushing [6]. Ono et al.
carried out three dimensional FE analyses to investigate
the effects of strain and stress distributions on crushing of
void within the pre-cooling ingot during forging [7]. More
recently, Nagasaki et al. proposed the integral hydrostatic
stress model to describe the relationship between the internal variables and void crushing [8]. They found that the
cross-sectional area of the void decreases with increasing
integral value of hydrostatic stress in terms of effective
314
Spherical-shaped
void
Cylindrical-shaped
ing ot
Figure 1. Modeling of Ingot and void.
Metal Forming
(1)
Anvil
Ing ot
Void (po sition 1)
4x10
3x10
2x10
1x10
Position 1
d = 200 mm
d = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
Stroke (mm)
80
60
Position 1
d = 200 mm
d = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
40
20
0
10 15 20 25 30 35
H / Ho (%)
(a) 5%
An vil
Void
Nod e 1
Nod e 2
In g ot
Effective strain
V / Vo (%)
where , , and T represent the effective stress, effective strain, effective strain rate and temperature in that
order. The constants of A and m1-m5 were taken as 1872.07,
-0.00289, -0.1123, 0.14368, -0.04879 and 0.0, respectively.
The temperatures of ingot and anvil and anvil speed
were taken as 1200 and 250 oC and 100 mm/s. Friction
coefficient of 0.4 (no lubricant condition) was assigned in
simulation.
5x10
V (mm )
(b) 20%
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
60
50
40
30
Node 1
d = 200 mm
d = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
20
10
0
0
10 15 20 25 30 35
(c) 25%
Figure 2. Deformation shapes of ingot and void according to
reduction ratio.
Node 1
d = 200 mm
d = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
10 15 20 25 30 35
Node 1
d = 200 mm
d = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
effective stress exponentially increased. In case of hydrostatic stress, it decreased exponentially and then rapidly
increased after contact of node 1 with opposite node. Ac-
315
Metal Forming
gm =
( ) d
(2)
Hydrostatic stress/
Effective stress
0.2
Node 1
d = 200 mm
d = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
0.1
Effective strain
0.00
0.0
g m = 0.011
g m = 0.012
Before
contact
After
g m = 0.012
Node 2
d = 200 mm
d = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
0.1
Gm
316
d ds
0.2
where S =
Position 1
d = 200 mm
d = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
80
60
40
20
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Gm
Figure 8. Calculated Gm when the whole surface area of void is
considered.
0.3
ds
s
=
s
d ds
where S =
ds with
s
<0
(4)
80
0.4
100
100
Effective strain
(b) Node 2
Figure 6. Change in gm in nodes 1 and 2.
V / Vo (%)
hydrostatic stress/
Effective stress
0.12
0.03
(a) Node 1
0.06
h > 0
Gm
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.09
g m = 0.103
g m = 0.092
g m = 0.075
0.3
h < 0
V / Vo (%)
cordingly, the compressive hydrostatic stress was transformed into tensile one. With respect to void size, larger
effective strain and effective stress were required in case
of larger void size in order that node 1 can be contacted
with opposite node. On the other hand, lower absolute
hydrostatic stress was needed. Thus, it can be confirmed
from Figure 5 that void crushing is strongly dependent
upon the three internal variables.
Using three internal variables, Tanaka proposed the integral hydrostatic stress model at the node of the void surface as defined by [8],
(3)
60
40
20
Position 1
d = 200 mm
d = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Gm
Figure 9. Calculated Gm when the surface area of void with compressive hydrostatic stress is considered.
Metal Forming
100
Ing o t
Position 1 2 3 4 5
V / Vo (%)
Anvil
80
60
40
10
20
30
H / Ho (%)
40
50
100
V / Vo (%)
80
d = 100 mm
Pos. 1
Pos. 2
Pos. 3
Pos. 4
Pos. 5
60
40
20
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Gm
168 m m
29 m m
Effect of Void Shape. Effect of void shape was also investigated. FE simulation with certain shaped void in
Figure 11 was carried out. This void is placed between
positions 1 and 2 in Figure 10 and has length of 324 mm,
max. height of 168 mm and min. height of 29 mm.
324 m m
100
100
80
80
60
40
20
0
20
0
(a) 7.5%
(b) 22.5%
(c) 30%
Figure 12. Deformed shapes of the certain shaped void according
to reduction ratio.
V/Vo(%)
d = 100 mm
position 1
position 2
position 3
position 4
position 5
V / Vo (%)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
H / Ho (%)
60
40
20
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Gm
(a) Volume fraction ratio of void (b) Volume fraction ratio of void
vs. reduction ratio
vs. Gm
Figure 13. Volume fraction ratios of certain shaped void according
to reduction ratio and Gm.
Conclusions
In this work, the relationship between the internal variables and void crushing was investigated based on the FE
simulations and the following conclusions were obtained:
1. From the FE investigation of void size, modified hydrostatic stress model was proposed considering the surface
area of void with compressive hydrostatic stress.
2. Void crushing is strongly dependent on position of the
void. On the other hand, there is almost no effect of
void size and shape on the void crushing.
3. Regardless of void size, reduction ratio of 40% was
enough to elimination of void along the centre line of
ingot.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank for support from the Basic Research Program of the Korea Institute of Materials Science.
References
[1] B.J. Lee, M.E. Mear: Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids,
40-8 (1992), 1805-1836.
[2] S.P. Dudra, Y.T. Im: International Journal of Machine Tools and
Maunfacture, 30-1 (1990), 65-75.
[3] U. Sthlberg: journal of Mechanical Working Technology, 4 (1986),
51-63.
[4] M. Tanaka, S. Ono, M. Tsuneno: Journal of Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity, 27 (1986), 927-934.
[5] M. Tanaka, S. Ono, M. Tsuneno: Journal of Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity, 28 (1987), 238-244.
[6] C.Y. Park, J.R. Cho, D.Y. Yang, D.J. Kim, I.S. Park: Transactions of
the Korean Society of Mechanical Engineers, 16-10 (1992), 18771889.
[7] S.I. Ono, K. Minami, E. Murai, T. Iwadate: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 209 (2009), 1950-1959.
[8] M. Nakasaki, I. Takasu, H. Usunomiya: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 177 (2006), 521-524.
317
Metal Forming
Introduction
Cold forging offers the potential to manufacture parts
with high dimensional accuracy and surface quality as
well as high strength due to work hardening. Thus, the
industry increasingly demands high strength cold forged
parts that do not need any machining after the forming
process. This kind of net-shape production can help saving
machining resources and material costs. For this reason,
net-shape production in cold forging is an important target
in research [1,2].
However, the high flow stress of the workpiece material
causes a high loading of the press and the tooling system.
As a consequence, the whole system is subjected to considerable deflections that can cause deviations in the
workpiece dimensions. These interactions between process,
press and tooling system due to deflections make it difficult to achieve a high workpiece accuracy solely based on
process simulation [3].
Hence, the achieving of high workpiece accuracy without comprehensive adjustment at production start requires
the consideration of the elastic behavior of the whole system already in the phase of laying out the cold forging
process. This can be done with a combined FE modeling
of process and tooling system. Based on this comprehensive simulation model, an adjusted process and tool design
can be determined so that high workpiece accuracy is
achieved by a compensation of the deflections of the tooling system. To avoid experimental investigations on the
tooling system, a determination of its elastic behavior in
the simulation is desirable.
In this paper, an approach for the determination of the
deflection characteristic of a tooling system with mechanical end stops is presented for a backward can extrusion
process on a force-controlled press. The deflection characteristic is determined by FE simulation and then integrated
into the FE simulation of the process by spring elements.
With the resulting integrated FE model, a detailed description of the process behavior can be realized.
318
Determination
Tooling System
of
Deflection
Characteristic
of
For the production of cold forging parts, strokecontrolled as well as force-controlled presses are commonly used. Besides the deflection of the tooling system
under process load, the elastic behavior of the press frame
itself can have an influence on the accuracy of the cold
forging process. The modeling of these deflections and
their influence on the workpiece dimensions is subject of
several recent research projects in bulk and sheet metal
forming [4-6]. On a stroke-controlled press, these deflections directly lead to a reduced actual punch stroke and, in
turn, to deviations in the workpiece dimensions. In contrast, the deflection of the frame of a hydraulic press in
force-controlled mode can be compensated by the hydraulic control. However, the deflections of the tooling system
itself and the end stops still affect the workpiece dimensions in this case.
For the determination of the deflection characteristic of
the tooling system with mechanical end stops on a forcecontrolled press and its modeling in the FE process simulation, the following methodical approach was developed.
The tooling system mounted on the press can change frequently. Thus, to avoid experimental investigations on
various tooling systems and to consider the tooling system
characteristic before its production in the phase of laying
out the forming process, the determination of its deflection
characteristic is carried out by FE simulation.
The tooling system in consideration is illustrated in Figure 1, showing the experimental setup. The tooling system
is based on a pillar die-set. Between its bottom plate and
the prestressed die with ejector, spacer plates are mounted.
On the top plate, a piezo-electric load cell is mounted to
measure the punch force (Kistler 9091A; max. load 1200
kN). For the workpiece ejection, a hydraulic cylinder with
an ejector pin was mounted under the bottom plate of the
die-set. The bottom dead center of the press is limited with
Metal Forming
two steel end stops. At the end of the forging process, the
top plate of the die-set touches the end stops with a certain
force depending on press force and forming load.
For the modeling of the tooling system characteristic,
two different stiffnesses, for the end stops and the components in the flow of the punch force, respectively, have to
be taken into account. Hence, the tooling system is split up
into two superior assemblies that are investigated separately: the mechanical end stops loaded by the entire press
force and the tool components loaded by the forming force.
workpiece
punch
prestressed
die
end stop
end stop
load cell
Figure 1. Tooling system with end stops for backward can extrusion process on force-controlled press.
Furthermore, the tool components affected by the forming load are split up into the top and the bottom tool plate.
The mentioned components are modeled by elastic bodies
in the FE simulation and then loaded according to the real
forming process. Based on the simulation results, loaddeflection curves are generated. The curves show a nearly
linear characteristic. Their gradient represents the constant
stiffness of the respective assembly. The stiffness of the
end stops can be directly integrated into the FE process
simulation as a spring element. For the tool components in
the flow of the forming force, an equivalent value as substitute quantity is calculated based on the stiffnesses of the
top and bottom assemblies. This substitute stiffness is
integrated into the FE process simulation as a spring element, too. Below, the approach is carried out for a backward can extrusion process on a force-controlled press.
Backward Can Extrusion Process on ForceControlled Press. The tool and punch layout as well as
the resulting workpiece geometry of the backward can
extrusion example process are shown in Figure2(a). The
punch has an undercut so that the workpiece does not
touch the punch behind the forming zone. The punch diameter in the forming zone is 8.5 mm. The die diameter is
12 mm with an angle of 45 at the shoulder. The die is
prestressed with two shrink rings.
FE Modeling of Tooling System Characteristic. For
the determination of the load-deflection curves in simulation, the investigated tooling system is divided into three
assemblies that include the parts mounted on the top and
the bottom plate of the tooling system, respectively, as
well as the end stops. The FE simulations were performed
in simufact.forming 9. The two FE models of top and
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
backing device /
ejector
die
spacer
punch head
Figure 3. (a) 3D FE-models of bottom tool plate and (b) end stops.
319
Metal Forming
(1.7131). Both materials noticeably differ in their flow
stresses, leading to different punch forces. In simulation,
the forming force is varied using flow stress data of the
two workpiece materials.
stop
Cstop
C tool
prestress ring 2
rigid punch
prestress ring 1
die
elastic punch
tool_bottom
tool
320
Metal Forming
the rigid models compared to the experiments is considerable at a low press force of 391 kN (0.20 and 0.31 mm,
respectively). The entirely elastic model shows a significantly lower deviation in this case (0.03 mm). The simulation models with rigid tool or additionally rigid punch lead
to the same workpiece dimensions at different press forces,
because the increasing compression of the end stops at
higher press forces is not represented.
Figure 8. Depth of can of backward can extruded part comparison between experiment and simulation models depending on
workpiece material and press force.
321
Metal Forming
Yoshida2),
Nobuki
Yukawa1),
Michiaki
Kamiyama1),
Hirotaka
Ogitani1),
1)
Deformation Processing of Materials Laboratory, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya / Japan,
ishikawa@numse.nagoya-u.ac.jp; 2) Manufacturing System Engineering, Dept. of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, Gifu University,
Gifu / Japan; 3) Chubu Reikan Co Ltd., Okazaki / Japan
The possibility of bonding between dissimilar materials in a cold forging process is investigated. A two-layered cylindrical cup of steel and
aluminum alloy is forged by cold backward extrusion, and the bonding strength and diffusion zone are investigated under various forging
conditions. FE analyses for the backward extrusion in a similar experiment are also conducted and the interface expansion ratio, interface
pressure and their history during forging are calculated. The condition of strong bonding is obtained and the diffusion zone of several micrometers at the interface of the steel and the aluminum alloy is observed.
Keywords: Forging, Bonding, FEM, SEM, TEM
Introduction
Experimental Procedure
322
Influence of Brushing of Contact Surface. In this section, the upper and lower billets are S10C steel and A6061
alloy, respectively. And the chemical compositions of the
materials are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
The experimental conditions are shown in Table 3.
Brushing was conducted on the contact surface of billets
using an emery paper of #400 with the aim of establishing
a newly-formed surface appearance. Bottom thickness
conditions of the extruded product were chosen as hbottom=12.0 and 6.0mm to investigate the influence of the
condition in the strength of the joint between the upper
and lower billets.
Figure 2 shows an example of the extruded product.
Both of the materials were bonded at the contact surface,
this is labelled as bonding interface in this study.
Metal Forming
C
16
44
12
Bal.
0.3
0.3
0.1
Bal.
sTS =
hbottom
Case No.
Upper billet
Lower
billet
S10C
A6061
12.0
S10C
A6061
Lower and
upper
12.0
S10C
A6061
Lower only
12.0
S10C
A6061
Lower only
6.0
Steel (S10C)
/mm
P
A0
(1)
Tensile direction
Cut off
Steel
Bonding interface
Aluminum
Bonding interface
Upper
material
Lower
material
Time
Compression
/s
/mm
KTCF10A
A1070
10
22
KTCF10A
A1070
30
22
KTCF10A
A1070
50
22
KTCF10A
A1070
70
22
KTCF10A
A1070
90
22
KTCF10A
A1070
KTCF10A
A1070
3600
(1 hour)
172800
(2 days)
22
22
Numerical Simulation
In order to calculate the interface expansion ratio, interface pressure and their history during forging, rigid-plastic
FE analysis was carried out using DEFORM-2DTM. Billet
dimension is the same as in the experiment and has a bottom thickness of hbottom=12.0 mm. The friction coefficient
between tools and material is 0.1 and that between the
steel and Al alloy is 0.2. Figure 5 shows initial FE mesh.
The eight observation points on the interface of the two
materials are set from the center to the edge of the cup
shown in Figure 4 and the relations between reduction and
interface pressure and interface expansion ratio at each
point are investigated.
323
Metal Forming
In case 2, there were some specimens in which bonding
surface separation occurred. Figure 6 shows a SEM observation of the fractured surface and a typical dimple
pattern is found. Material layer at the bonding interface
deforms relative ductile in this case.
Dpunch=36.2mm
Punch
Upper billet
(S10C)
Dbillet=42mm
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
Lower billet
(A6061)
Container
Figure 5. Example of FE mesh for cold forge bonding.
Results
Influense of Brushing of Contact Surface on Bonding
Strength. Table 4 shows the results of tensile test in cases
1-4 of table3. In the case 1, separation of billets occurred
at bonding interface during wire cutting. A successful cold
forge bonding is impossible without brushing the billet
contact surface.
In case 3, bonding surface separation was found in tensile test. Otherwise, fractures occurred in the Al alloy
matrix material in cases 2 and 4. It is easy to understand
that bonding effect is nurtured by brushing both the upper
and lower billets on the contact surface. Tensile strength
also increases with the increase of extruded amount (case
4) and it correlate with the increase of contact pressure and
surface expansion ratio on bonding interface.
Table 4. Results of tensile test.
sTS
Brushing of
hbottom
/mm
/MPa
contact surface
12.0
-
Case
No.
1
No.
7
172800
(2
days)
Tbf/s
10
30
50
70
90
3600
(an
hour)
TS/MPa
113
110
111
111
107
68
38
Bonding
Table 5 shows the influence of the interval time Tbf between brushing and forging on bonding strength. Bonding
strength increases with the decrease of Tbf. Because the
oxide layer on the surface of the billet increases as time
advances after brushing, bonding has to be performed
under the short Tbf condition to reinforce metal bonding.
Analysis of Bonding Interface by TEM-EDS. Figure
7 shows the TEM image and intensity distribution near the
interface of two materials under the condition of case 3 in
Table 4. The cross area of intensity distribution of Fe and
Al is 50 nm. Because of this very narrow area, intermetallic compound layer or diffusion area doesnt exist or
hardly exist.
A
B
Bonding
state
12.0
199
good
Lower only
12.0
82
peeling
Lower only
6.0
117
good
Distance/nm
Figure 7. TEM image near interface two materials and intensity
distribution of the case3 of Tabel4.
324
Metal Forming
Influense of Interface Expansion Ratio and Interface
Pressure on Bonding Strength. Figure 8 shows an
example of result of FEM analysis for cold forge bonding,
and Figure 9 shows the ralationship between the contact
surface pressure and punch stroke at P1~P8. that is obtained from FE analysis until punch stroke hbottom=6.0 mm.
Contact surface pressure increases with the decrease of
distance from the center axis of the product.
Figure 10 shows the relationship between the average
contact surface pressure and surface expansion ratio at
each segment of P1-P8. Contact surface pressure of P4-P6
is lower, but surface expansion ratio is larger. Average
contact surface pressure and surface expansion ratio at P4P5 segment are 672 MPa and 540%, respectively. At P5P6 segment, they are 127 MPa and 706%. This result is
similar in concept with the result of Nakamura et al. [6]. In
addition, area of cold forge bonding success is shown in
the upper right region of Figure 10. The boundary is described by a dotted line.
Punch
P8
P7
P6
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
P1
(a) Container
P5
Punch
P2
P3
P4
(b) Container
Conclusions
A two layered cylindrical cup of steel and aluminum alloy is forged by cold backward extrusion, and cold forge
bonding was performed. The bonding strength and diffusion zone are investigated under various forging conditions. As a result, the following conclusions were obtained.
1. Brushing of contact surface is necessary to complete the
cold forge bonding. It is beneficial to brush the contact
surface of the upper and lower billets.
2. Bonding strength increases with the decrease of interval
time between brushing on the contact surface of the billet and cold forge bonding operation.
3. Because the cross area of intensity distribution of Fe
and Al is very narrow, intermetallic compound layer or
diffusion area doesnt exist.
4. Interface pressure above a certain level and a surface
expansion ratio of more than 500% are necessary to obtain strong bonding.
References
[1] N. Bay, C. Clemensen, O. Juelstrop: Annals of the CIRP, 43-1 (1985),
221-224.
[2] W. Zhang, N. Bay: Annals of the CIRP, 41-1 (1992), 293-296.
[3] W. Zhang, N. Bay: Annals of the CIRP, 45-1 (1996), 215-218.
[4] H. Kudo, Y. Kikuchi, K. Miyazaki: Annals of the CIRP, 27-1 (1978),
165-168.
[5] T. Tabata, S. Masaki: Journal of JSTP, 28-322 (1987), 1094-1099.
[6] T. Nakamura, K. Kondo: Journal of JSTP, 28-322 (1987), 1150-1157.
325
Metal Forming
Variation in Temperature Distribution of Die from Unsteady to Steady States in HotForging of Car Front-Wheel-Hub
Huachang Wang, Hongfu Wang, Yuxi Tang
School of Materials Science and Technology, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan/P.R. China, wanghch_whut@qq.com
In order to design and manufacture dies in hot-forging of car front-wheel-hubs, it was necessary to calculate the distributions of temperature, stress and strain under real working conditions. This paper simulated the whole working process in hot forging of front-wheel-hubs of
cars by DEFORM-2D program. The temperature distribution varying from unsteady to steady states was simulated. The variable parameter was analyzed quantitatively. The corresponding relationship and difference of temperature distribution between the unsteady and
steady states were revealed.
Keywords: Temperature distribution, Simulation, Thermal balance, Hot forging die
Introduction
In the modern hot-forging industrial production, hot
forging die continuously works; temperature distribution
of hot-forging die continuously changes. There are correlation and essential distinction between unsteady and
steady state temperature distribution. But until now, the
knowledge about temperature distribution of hot-forging
die is limited to unsteady state temperature distribution
without system analysis about steady state. The knowledge about temperature distribution of hot-forging die is
far form overall and concrete.
In order to remarkably improve and increase the service
life span of hot forging die, this paper employ Functionally Gradient Materials to manufacture hot-forging die.
The temperature and stress distribution of hot-forging die
are important parameters to design and manufacture hotforging die. According to the parameters, the preparation
method of Functionally Gradient Materials for this hotforging die could be explored.
This paper simulated the whole working process of hotforging die of a front-wheel-hub by Deform-2D program
and calculated the distributions of temperature, stress and
strain.
Simulation of Car Front-Wheel-Hub Hot-Forging Die
Working Process
Simulation Model. Because the forging workpiece is
axisymmetric, the simulation of half section is enough as
shown in Figure 1. The material of the forging workpiece
is 35# steel (carbon 0.35%wt). The material of hot-forging
die is 4Cr5MoSiV1 steel (H13 or SKD61). The initial
forging temperature of the workpiece is 1220 C. The
finish-forging temperature is 1100 C. The ambient temperature of finish-forging is 20 C. The finish-forging
equipment is 20 MN die-forging machine. The friction
factor between the workpiece and the die is 0.3 under
flowing deformation condition. The heat exchange coefficient is 11 W/(mC) between the workpiece and die under
the deformation condition. Without the deformation, it is 1
W/(mC). The preheating temperature of finish-forging
die is 300 C.
326
Metal Forming
creased, but fluctuation range is decreased. The surface
temperature of die chamber receded, but it was still
higher than the pre-heating temperature. For example,
the temperature of Point 2 increased from 300C to
526.5 C (fluctuation range: 226.5 C) in the first forging cycle period as shown in Figure 2, but it was increased from 427.2 to 568.9 C (range: 141.7 C) in the
second forging cycle period as shown in Figure 3. The
range of point 2 was decreased.
i) The depth of temperature fluctuation region was enlarged. The boundary of temperature region was further
away from the surface of die chamber.
ii) The temperature of the die surface slightly increased.
Maximum temperature point in the surface of die is also
on point 2, which is 568.9 C. Second maximum temperature point is on point 1, which is 540.4 C. The temperatures of two points increase to 42.4 and 46.2 C, respectively.
iii) The temperature on each point in the die slightly in-
327
Metal Forming
Analysis of Steady Temperature Distribution of HotForging Die
When the temperature distribution of hot-forging die
was steady, heat transforming from workpiece to forging
die was equal to that from forging die to surrounding
media. The forging die turned into thermal equilibrium
condition.
Temperature Distribution on Die Surface. When the
hot forging was stable, the summit temperature distribution of the die in every forging cycle is shown in Figure 6
and Table 1.
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
Numb C1
B10
Temp 731.4 722.1 635.3 605.1 595.1 631.6 678.8 775.0 732.3 700.0
Numb B11
B12
B13
B14
B15
B16
B17
B18
19
B20
Temp 661.1 677.5 687.6 640.0 592.0 598.2 608.4 681.2 627.2 555.2
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
Temp 703.7 685.8 604.2 588.9 577.2 617.7 664.4 665.1 661.4 662
Numb C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
C16
C17
C18
C19
C20
Temp 649.2 642.8 638.7 614.2 567.3 559.1 553.8 546.9 545.2 521.7
Tbj +
1
Tbf = Tbf
2
(1)
328
Metal Forming
The temperature distribution of hot flow effusing surface in the temperature fluctuation region was shown as
Figure 6 and Table 2. Comparing Figure 6 with Tables 1
and 2, the centre of forging die had the highest temperature while it declined gradually along with diameter
(There were 4 specific points excluded). However, the
difference between highest and lowest temperature of flow
effusing surface was relatively less than that of forging die
surface, which indicated that temperature in flow effusing
surface would be more uniform. So, the temperature fluctuation range of hot flow effusing surface can be omitted
comparing with forging die surface.
Picking up a certain point in forging die surface, the
variation of temperature and temperature fluctuation range
of each point are shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively.
What is shown in Figure 2 is variation of temperature and
temperature fluctuation range of each point along the hot
flow direction of Point 1.
(a) Top
(b) Down
Figure 9. Final forging part of car front-wheel-hub.
Acknowledgements
References
[1] B.I. Tomov, V.I. Gagov, R.H. Radev: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 153-10 (2004), 352-358.
[2] W.R.D.Wilson, S.R. Schmid, J.Y. Liu: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 155-11 (2004), 1912-1917.
[3] G.H. Krempaszky, E. Werner: Computational Materials Science, 36-4
(2006), 480~489.
[4] P. Ulysse: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 209-8 (2009),
5584-5592.
[5] J. Liu, Z. Cui: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 209-9
(2009), 5871-5880.
[6] M.L. Long: FEM Analysis of the Integrated Stress Exerted on Forging Dies, Wuhan University of Technology, (2004).
[7] Y.X. Tang: Temperature Field & Stress Field Simulation and Optimization of Hot Forging Die, Wuhan University of Technology, (2008).
[8] M.S. Shirgaokar: Technology to Improve Competitiveness in Warm
and Hot Forging Increasing Die Life and Material Utilization [D],
The Ohio State University, (2008).
[9] H.C. Wang, Y.X. Tang: Proc. 3rd international Symposium on
Advanced Technology for Plasticity, 245-248 (2007).
329
Metal Forming
Guangzhou Civil Aviation College, Guangzhou / China, chengxiuquan@yahoo.com.cn; 2) School of Mechanical and Automotive
Enginnering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou / China; 3) Guangzhou Shipyard Company Limited, Guangzhou / China
Inner defects of heavy forgings are the main reason of leading the service life shortening or even discarding, and the central cavity is the
primary defect of the shaft heavy forgings. The closing of the central cavity during the shaft heavy forgings stretching was researched
based on the finite element simulation and practical experiment. The effects of the blow energy of electric-hydraulic hammer and the
relative reduction of stock on central cavity closing were analyzed. The results indicate that the central cavity tends to be closed with the
increase of the relative reduction of stock; the difference of the lateral and axial deformation of the cavity is inconspicuous, and the lateral
compression is a bit larger than the axial one; the effect of blow energy on the cavity closing is small, and the cavity closing is decided
directly by the relative reduction of stock.
Keywords: Shaft heavy forgings, Stretching, Cavity closing, Blow energy, Relative reduction of stock
Introduction
Stretching is the key forging process affecting the inner
quality and improving the inner defects of the shaft heavy
forgings. The main purpose of the heavy forgings stretching is not only to make the overall sizes of stock close to
the sizes of final forgings, but, in terms of forging quality,
also to eliminate the inner defects of forgings to achieve
the uniform distribution of stress and strain.
The heavy forgings generally refer to the 5-ton above
shaft forgings or 2-ton above disc forgings [1]. Inner
defects of heavy forgings are the main reason of leading
the service life shortening or even discarding, and the
central cavity is the primary defect of the shaft heavy
forgings. The distributions of stress and strain and the
various factors affecting the cavity closing during small
forgings stretching have been investigated, but the established model is only a two-dimensional one, and the deformation of the cavity along the axial direction hasnt
been analyzed [2]. Lots of researches show that the shape
of anvil is the most important factor to influence the
stretching efficiency, the distribution of stress and strain,
and the capability of cavity closing [3,4].
The cavities can be forged and closed by reasonable
forming process during high-temperature deformation,
and the closed cavities can be welded further through the
atomic diffusion and re-crystallization under high temperature, then the continuity of the material can be restored. Therefore, the pre-condition of cavity welding is
cavity closing [5].
The influences of the blow energy of electric-hydraulic
hammer and the reduction of stock on central cavity closing are analyzed through establishing a reasonable finite
element model of the shaft heavy forgings stretching.
Based on the analysis of the numerical simulation software, DEFORM-3D, the manufacturing technique of the
shaft heavy forgings is optimized to guide the actual
produce.
330
Numerical Simulation of Central Cavity Closing during Shaft Heavy Forgings Stretching
Establishment of Finite Element Model. The mesh
size has significant influence on the simulation results.
Generally, to guarantee the simulation accuracy, the side
length of mesh must less than the 1/3 of the minimum
feature size of the model. The flat anvil is usually adopted
to stretching the shaft heavy forgings in the practical
produce. The width of the anvil is 300 mm. The smallest
feature size is the fillet radius, 30 mm. Thus, the side
length of the mesh cant be greater than 10 mm. The cross
section dimension of the stock is 375 mm375 mm. The
numbers of mesh are more than 400,000 if meshing the
forging according to the actual size, which leads to an
over long simulation time. Therefore, the length of the
stock is simplified the 3 times of the anvil width, 900 mm
(as shown in Figure 1).
The stock material is steel 35, the initial forging temperature is 1200 20 C. The anvil material is steel H-13.
The anvils and clamping are regarded as rigid body, there
is no plastic deformation. They are meshed only for simulating the temperature conduct.
Establishment of Central Cavity Model. Thermal
contraction occurs during the molten steel cooling and
solidifying, the cavity defects form in the central area of
solidifying lattermost due to lack of complementary
liquid metal. Therefore, the central cavity defect is inevitable. The diameter of the cavity is generally 1-2 mm. The
Metal Forming
cavity of the shaft heavy forgings always lies near to the
axes. Accordingly, only the case near to the axes is analyzed when establish the cavity closing model. The mesh
size near to the cavity is refined to 0.2 mm (see Figure 2).
c = (d-h) / d 100%
(1)
compression
f=L/h
(2)
Value
1200C
300 C
28 C
0.3
11000
W/m2 C
20
W/m2 C
Value
140 KJ
Blow frequency
40~55 time/min
1450 mm
4200 Kg
7.63 m/s
The blow speed of the electric-hydraulic hammer is obtained by adjusting the blow energy of hammer. The cavity closing model with 3 different blow energy, viz. 140,
100 and 60 KJ, are selected and the corresponding maximum blow speed are 7.63, 6.42 and 5.14 m/s. The cavity
dimensions in different deformation stages are recorded,
and the cavity closure c is calculated according to Equation 1, and the curve of the closure c varying with the
relative reduction of the stock is obtained as shown in
Figure 4, where = b / b 100 % , b and b is the crosssection dimension of stock and its variation, respectively
(see Figure 2).
Figure 4 shows that the central cavity tends to closing
(c100%) with the increase of relative reduction , and
the closure c is basically in direct proportion to the relative reduction . Therefore, when the relative reduction
reaches a certain value, the cavity will be closed inevitably, and the central cavity of the forgings can be welded
in the condition of high temperature and pressure.
331
Metal Forming
Figure 4 also shows that the difference of the closure c
is very small for different blow energy, and when the
relative reduction is 28.5%, all the closure values c
reach 100%, namely the cavity is closed. Therefore, the
effect of the blow energy on cavity closing is very small,
and the central cavity will be closed when the relative
reduction reaches 28.5%.
The deformations of the cavity are analyzed quantificationally by using the compression f. The larger the f, the
longer the cavity stretched, and the better the closing
result. Figure 5 is the curve of the variation of the cavity
compressions f with different relative reduction .
gets small, during 5th to 10th blow, size a gets small and
size b gets large.
Figure 5 shows that the difference of cavity compression along the axial and lateral direction is less obvious.
The lateral compression fy is a bit larger than the axial
one fx. This is because that the axial dimension of heavy
forgings is much bigger than the lateral one, and the flow
resistance of material along axial direction is bigger than
lateral one.
Figure 6 shows the lateral deformation of the cavity.
The spherical cavity is changed into an ellipsoidal one
with the increase of closure c, and when the relative reduction reaches 28%, the cavity starts to close, and the
whole cavity becomes an arc-shaped slender gap along
the cross-section. When reaches 28.5%, the cavity disappears.
Experimental Investigation
Experimental Conditions. Two groups of dimensions
a and b and their variation during stretching of the shaft
heavy forging are simulated by finite element method and
measured actually as shown in Figure 7. Then the result
is compared for checking the rationality of the finite element model of the central cavity closing.
The experiment was carried out in a 4T electrichydraulic hammer, and its capability parameters are
shown in Table 2. The rest conditions is the same as being
descripted in the establishment of the finite element
model.
Comparison of Simulation and Experiment Results.
Figure 8 shows the simulation and experimental results
of size a and b of forgings. The forging was given a
quarter turn after 4th and 10th blow. So during 1st to 4th
and 11th to 12th blow, the size a gets large and the size b
332
On the whole, Figure 8 shows that the simulation results conform well to the experimental one. But the variation slope of the simulation curve is slight bigger than the
experimental one. That means the deformation by each
blow from simulation is slight larger than from experiment. The maximum difference is about 2%, and appears
at 4th and 10th blow, respectively. The main reason for
the difference is that the actual energy of each blow has
some fluctuation, and that the blow energy in simulation
is steady and always the maximum.
The Comparison result indicates that the simulation finite element mode is reasonable.
Metal Forming
Conclusions
(a) Size a
(b) Size b
Figure 8. Simulation and experiment results of size a and b of
forgings.
333
Metal Forming
Predictions of Maximum Forging Load and Initial Billets Dimensions of Near NetShape of Near Net-Shape Bevel Gear Forging
Tung-Sheng. Yang, Sheng-Yi. Chang, Zong-Xian. Jiang
1)
Department of Mechanical and Computer-Aided Engineering, National Formosa University, 64, Wunhau Rd., Huwei, Yunlin 632, Taiwan
This study applies the finite element method in conjunction with an abductive network to predict maximum forging load and billet dimensions during near net-shaped bevel gear forging. The initial billets dimensions and maximum forging force of the near net-shape bevel gear
are determined for different process parameters such as modules, number of teeth and nondimentional teeths length. The abductive
network is then applied to synthesize the data sets obtained from the numerical simulation. The predicted results of the initial billets
dimensions and maximum forging load of near net-shape bevel gear forging from the prediction model are consistent with the results
obtained from the FEM simulation quite well. Finally, prediction models are established for predicting maximum forging load and the billet
dimensions under an appropriate range of process parameters.
Keywords: Bevel gear, Near net-shape forging, Finite element analysis, Abductive network
Introduction
Analysis Method
334
dv
F
s
(1)
u i ds
where is the effective stress, is the effective strainrate, Fi represents the surface tractions and ui is the
velocity components. The variational form for finiteelement discretization is given by [6]:
(2)
= dv + k v v dv Fi u i ds = 0
v
v
s
where is the volumetric strain rate, is functional of
the total energy and work, and k, a penalty constant, is a
very large positive constant. Eqs. (1) and (2) are the basic
equation for the finite element formulation.
Finite Abductive Networks Synthesis and Evaluation.
In the abductive network, a complex system can be
decomposed into smaller, simpler subsystems grouped into
several layers using polynomial functional nodes. The
polynomial network proposed by Ivakhnenko [7] is a
group method of data handing (GMDH) techniques. It
consists of sigma (summation) units in the hidden layer
and pi (product) units in the output layer. Output of a
sigma unit is a weighted sum of its inputs, and output of a
pi unit is a product of its input. Let the kth input pattern to
the network be specified by Xk = [x0k, x1k, x2k, ..., xnk], and
general polynomial function in a polynomial functional
node can be expressed as:
n
y k = c 0 + c i x i + c ij x i x j + c ijk x i x j x k +
i =1
i = 1 j =1
i =1 j = 1 k = 1
(3)
Metal Forming
(a)
H0
where xi, xj, xk are the inputs, yk is the output and ci, cij, cijk
are the coefficients of the polynomial functional nodes. To
build a complete abductive network, the first requirement
is to train the database. The information given by the input
and output parameters must be sufficient.
(b) Formed by
Die
Effective stress
400
360
Al5056
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
strain rate=4(1/sec)
strain rate=100(1/sec)
280
0.0
H1
Billet
320
55.6
03D
2.0
Effective strain
Figure 2. Schematic Flow stress of AL-5056.
Punch
Effective strain
3.1
37.3
2.06
19.1
1.03
0.822
0.0029
0.822
0.0029
55.6
3.1
Metal Forming
maximum forging load. Figure 6 shows the effect of the
number of teeth on the volume of billet of the near netshape helical gear forging. The volume of the billet increases as the number of teeth increases.
Volume of billet(mm3)
16
5000.0
Punch Load(N)
m=0.3 R=0.4
N=12
N=17
N=22
4000.0
3000.0
12
0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
1600
Punch Stroke(mm)
1200
Punch Load(N)
Volume of billet(mm3)
0.4
1.0
0.8
0.6
module
1.2
1000.0
m=0.3
m=0.6
m=1
16
12
8
800
12
14
16
18
Number of teeth
20
22
400
0
0.0
4
0
m=module of gear
N=number og teeth
R=rate
m= module of gear
N=number of teeth
R=rate
2000.0
N=12 R=0.4
N=17 R=0.45
N=22 R=0.5
0.8
0.4
1.2
1.6
Punch Stroke(mm)
Figure 9. Effect of nondimensional teeths length on forging load.
20000
Punch Load(N)
16000
10
Volume of billet(mm3)
12000
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
Rate
0.50
N1
S7
N2
D8
R
m
N3
N4
4000
T6
F1/3
8000
00
2
0.40
m=0.3
N=12
m=0.6
N=12
m=1 N=12
Punch Stroke(mm)
N1
N2
R
n
N3
N2
N3
N1
W10
T9
V1/3
D11
336
Metal Forming
Prediction model for maximum forging force and billets dimensions. The number of teeth N is varied in the
range of 12-22, while the other process parameters are
selected by varying the module of teeth m and the
nondimensional teeths length of bevel gear R in the
ranges of 0.3-1 mm, and 0.4-0.5, respectively. There are
three process variables and each of theses variables was
set at three levels. Therefore, 27(333) combinations of
process parameters are constituted totally and are shown in
Table 1. Basing on the training database regarding to
process parameters, the maximum forging force and initial
billets volume of near net-shape bevel gear forging,
shown in Table 1, the abductive networks with a criterion
of minimum square error can be developed for predicting
the initial billets dimensions and maximum forging force
of near net-shape bevel gear under a suitable range of
process parameters. Two networks shown in Figure 11 are
built for predicting the maximum forging load and initial
billets volumes of near net-shape bevel gear forging. All
of the associated polynominal equations corresponding to
theses networks are listed in Appendix 1. The predicted
square errors are 0.00313493 and 0.000638521 for the
predictions of the initial billets volumes and maximum
forging load of near net-shape bevel gear, respectively.
Table 1. Effect of process parameters on maximum forging force
and volumes of billet.
Conclusion
A prediction model has been established for predicting
the maximum forging force and the billets volume of near
net-shape bevel gear forging by using the finite element
method in conjunction with an abductive network. The
number of teeth, modules and nondimesional teeths
length of bevel gear were taken into account as the process
parameters. The finite element method is used to
investigate the influences of the process parameters such
as the number of teeth, the modules, and the
nondimesional teeths length of bevel gear on the
maximum forging force and the billets volume of near
net-shape bevel gear forging. The abductive network was
then applied to synthesize the data sets obtained from the
numerical simulation. The predicted results of the
maximum forging load and the billets volume from the
prediction model are in good agreement with the results
obtained from the finite element simulation. By employing
the prediction model, it can be provided valuable
references to the prediction of the maximum forging force
and the billets volume under a suitable range of process
parameters in near net-shape bevel gear forging.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank the support from the National
Science Council under grants NSC- 98-2622-E-150-014CC3.
References
337
Metal Forming
Net Shape Forging of Light Weight LED Light Housing Developed by Physical
Forming Simulation
Satoru Kuwaharada1), Kenji Nakanishi2), Takehiko Matsuda1), Yasumichi Matsumoto3)
1)
2)
A net shape hot forging process and the apparatus to form an LED light housing made of aluminium (JIS-A1050) or magnesium alloy (JISAZ31B) were developed. First, the housing was designed to one-piece construction composed of the heat sink fins and the platform, on
which the electronic circuit to drive an LED light and LED device were fixed. Then, we carried out a series of physical forming simulation
and die modification to form the above housing by net shape hot forging using a hydraulic press machine. The model materials, which were
mixture of wax and powder, were used in the physical forming simulation. The model materials were prepared so that the model materials
represent the similar flow curves to those of aluminium and magnesium alloy deformed at forming temperature. Then, the forging process
and apparatus to form sound products were developed successfully. The LED light housing made of aluminium or magnesium alloy could
be formed by using the proposed hot forging process and the apparatus.
Keywords: Hot Forging, Physical forming simulation, model material, flow curve, material flow, magnesium alloy, aluminium, Housing of
LED light housing
Introduction
LED light is used increasingly because of its less electric energy consumption and its longer life time comparing
to the prevalent tungsten and fluorescent lights. [1-3].
While, LED is weak device at high temperature operation,
and operating temperature should be kept within moderate
temperature range. Then, a proper heat sink is attached to
the LED light housings. Aluminum and magnesium alloy
hold preferable physical properties, such as high strength
with less weight, for material of LED light housings. Thermal conductivity of aluminum is higher than that of magnesium alloy. On the other hand, specific gravity of magnesium alloys is lower than that of aluminum.
In the present investigation, we developed a net shape
hot forging process and the apparatus to form an LED light
housing made of aluminum (JIS-A1050) or magnesium
alloy (JIS-AZ31B). The housing was designed to onepiece construction composed of the heat sink fins and the
platform, on which the electric circuit to drive an LED
light and LED device were fixed. Then, we carried out a
series of physical forming simulation using the model
materials and made die modification to form sound product by the proposed net shape hot forging using a hydraulic press machine. The model materials, which were mixture of wax and powder, were prepared so that the flow
curves of the model materials measured at room temperature represented the similar configurations to those of the
flow curves of aluminum and magnesium alloy deformed
at forming temperature. While, stress level of the flow
curves of the model materials were very low compared to
those of aluminum and magnesium alloy. The apparatus of
physical forming simulation was made of acryl resin. The
apparatus to form an LED light housing made of aluminum or magnesium alloy was slinked to half of actual size
and made of tool steel. The products made of model material and those made of the actual metallic materials were
compared mutually, and performances of the forming
process and apparatus were confirmed.
338
Metal Forming
o
0 n
(2)
60
A1050
40
20
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Ture strain /
0
( q )
K ex p
(1)
Figure 4. Flow chart explaining fabrication process of model material, confirmation of flow curves of that material by uniaxial compressive test and application to forming simulation.
339
Metal Forming
II shows the results when the upper die of the flat type and
the lower die with the slant corner of C=3 mm, (b2) in
Figure 1, were used. Then, the cross section of the product
shows that shearing deformation is not observed at the fin
section. Photographs III shows the results when the upper
die of the circular truncated cone type, (a2) in Figure 1,
and the lower die with the slant corner of C=3 mm were
used. Then, remarkable material flow to the fin section can
be observed between the upper die and the lower die. Furthermore, shearing deformation at the fin section is not
observed. Incremental forming experiments were carried
out to observe forming conditions in the forging process
when the upper die and the lower die shown in III in Figure 9 were used. Figure 10 shows the products partially
formed when punch strokes are changed from 0 to 14.3
mm, 0 to 18.2 mm, 0 to 20.4 mm and 0 to 21.0 mm, respectively in the incremental forming experiments.
Figure 11 shows the punch load and stroke curves
measured in the experiments. The numbers attached to the
curves correspond to those of the incremental forming
experiments in Figure 10. Insufficient material flow to the
fin section is observed even in No. 5 in Figure 10 and
steep increment of punch load is observed in Figure 11.
340
Modification of Die Design and Product Design. Figure 12 shows the photograph of the reverse face of the
product made of model material (Pw=40 mass%) formed
by using the upper die and the lower die, III in Figure 9.
Metal Forming
A funnel appeared at the back end of the fin part formed
by extrusion process. Then the flow guide plate with thickness 1 mm was attached to the lower die so that the above
defect could be eliminated. Figure 13 shows the illustrations of front end view of the lower die seen through the
product and photographs of reverse face of the product.
The ordinal lower die was used in (A). While, the lower
die with the flow guide plate was used in (B). As a whole,
optimization of die design could be accomplished by the
above modification procedure made with referring to the
results of a series of forming simulation.
Figure 15. Punch load and punch stroke curves. (A): without the
flow guide plate, (B) with the flow guide plate, workpiece: AZ31B.
Conclusions
Figure 13. Schematic illustrations of plastic flow and macrophotograph of model materials with or without flow guide.
341
Metal Forming
Effect of Hot Forging Deformation Rate to Carburizing Treatment for Hot Forging Parts
Wei-Shin Lin1), Chun- Feng Tseng2)
1)
2)
Department of Mechanical and Computer-Aided Engineering, National Formosa University, Huwei, Yunlin / Taiwan, linwhs@nfu.edu.tw;
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Formosa University, Huwei, Yunlin / Taiwan
Low carbon-steel specimens were hot forged with different forging deformation rate and forging direction by hot forging, and the forged
specimens were carburized in carburizing atmospheres with different carbon potential. The carburized specimens were examined with
microstructures observation and hardness measurement. The reaults show the forging deformation rate will affect the microstructures of
carburized layer and non-carburized interior. The carburizing depth was decreased as forging deformation rate increased, and the higher
the carbon potential, the higher is the carburizing depth. The surface hardness of carburized and quenched specimens through hot forging
was significantly increased as forging deformation rate increased at 0.4% carbon potential; while it slightly increased at 0.8% or 1.2%
carbon potential as the forging deformation rate was below or above 30%, respectively.
Keywords: Forging deformation rate, Carburizing atmospheres, Microstructures, Carburizing depth, Surface hardness
Introduction
The forging process was completed by impacting or
extruding, the metal materials shape could be changed
with different die and tool under plastic deformation. After
the forging process, with the shape changed and the mass
as well as constituent of the material remaining unchanged,
the shape, dimension and mechanical property were fit in
with the requirement. The metal flow and grains structure
could be controlled to get the product with combination of
good strength and toughness through the forging process.
The machine parts with high load and high using
frequency were almost manufactured by forging process.
Steel parts were heated frequently to recrystallizational
temperature through the hot forging process. Since steel
parts were forged under the high temperature, they may
have the fine workability and low deformation energy.
After the forging process of the low carbon-steel,
carburizing and quenching treatment must be taken in
order to increase the surface hardness of the parts.
Carburizing treatment is a surface hardening method,
which will increase carbon contents of surface layer of
steel parts with the diffusion of carbon atoms, and
carburized steel parts then were quenched to produce
hardening case. The grain size will become small after hot
forging process as a result of recrystallization.
Furthermore, the grain size and grain orientation of the
forged specimen will be changed. These phenomena may
affect the diffusion of carbon atoms through carburizing
treatment, but the effect is not known [1]. Carburizing is a
diffusion process of carbon atoms at surface layer of steel
parts. A majority of carburizing operations utilize a gas
carburizing process. The process involves interchange of
carbon atoms between carburizing atompheres and iron in
austenite state [2]. Gas carburizing is a process of carbon
adsorption on surface and diffusion into interior of iron in
austenite state. This will cause carbon atoms in the gas
phase transfer to the solid phase. Accordingly, carbon
content on surface layer of steel parts will be increased,
then follows quenching to produce a hardening case [2-5].
In this study, the hot forged specimens of different hot
forging deformation rate for low carbon-steel JIS-S20C
were carburized under different carbon potential (CP). The
342
HW (%) =
H0 H
100%
H0
(1)
Metal Forming
Experimental Results and Discussion
Effect of Forging Deformation Rate to Carburizing
Microstructure. In order to understand the effect of the
forging deformation rate to carburizing microstructure of
hot forging parts, the carburizing microstructures were
observed by optical microscope. The results were shown
in Figures 1-3. From Figure 1 to Figure 3, it can be found
that the microstructures of carburizing layer near surface
consist of pearlite and ferrite for CP = 0.4 and 0.8%, but
more pearlite for CP=0.8%, while pearlite and Fe3C for
CP=1.2%. Also, we can find that the forging deformation
rate will affect carburized microstructure and even noncarburized interior microstructure.
(a) HW=10%
(a) HW=10%
(b) HW=30%
(b) HW=30%
(c) HW=50%
Figure 1. Carburizing microstructure for CP=0.4%.
(c) HW =50%
Figure 2. Carburizing microstructure for CP=0.8%.
343
Metal Forming
(a) HW=10%
(b) HW=30%
(c) HW=50%
Figure 3. Carburizing microstructure for CP= 1.2%.
Effect of Forging Deformation Rate and Carbon Potential on Carburizing Depth. The carburizing depth of
carburizing specimens can be measured with micro-ruler
by optical microscope observation. The carburizing depth
of carburizing specimens at different forging deformation
rate and carbon potential was shown in Figure 4. From
Figure 4, it can be found that the carburizing depth was
decreased as forging deformation rate increased at 0.8 and
1.2% carbon potential. This implies the carburizing depth
will be decreased as a result of hot forging process. Hot
forging may cause grains deformation and recrystallization
simultaneously, result in grains fining. The fining grains
after recrystallization will increase grain-boundary.
Carbon atoms diffusion across grain-boundary is more
344
Metal Forming
Effect of Forging Deformation Rate to Surface
Hardness of Hot Forged Parts. The surface hardness of
hot forged steel specimens, which were carburized and
water quenched, was shown in Figure 5. From Figure 5, it
can be found that the surface hardness was increased as
forging deformation rate increased at 0.4% carbon
potential. This is due to grains fining after recrystallization
through hot forging. The higher the forging deformation
rate, the finer is the grain size. Accordingly, the specimens
will obtain a higher surface hardness as a result of fine
martensite after carburizing and quenching. While carbon
potential is 0.8%, the higher the carbon potential or the
forging deformation rate, the higher is the surface hardness,
but the increasing scope was small. Furthermore, the
surface hardness keeps constant as the forging deformation
rate is below 30% at 0.8% carbon potential. However,
surface hardness keeps constant as the forging deformation
rate is above 30% at 1.2% carbon potential. This implies
that surface hardness of the steel specimens was less
sensitivity to the forging deformation rate as the forging
deformation rate is below 30% or above 30% under 0.8%
or 1.2% carbon potential, respectively .
Conclusions
The carburizing and quenching treatments with different
carburizing condition were conducted to the hot forged
steel parts with different forging deformation rates. The
carburized steel specimens were examined with
microstructures observation and hardness measurement.
From the experiment results, it can be found that:
1. Microstructure of carburized layer is finer than that of
non-carburized interior under same forging deformation
rate and carbon potential. And the larger the forging
deformation rate, the finer is the microstructure.
2. The carburizing depth was decreased as the forging
deformation rate increased. But no matter what forging
deformation rate is high or low in hot forging parts, the
higher the carbon potential, the higher is the carburizing
depth.
3. The surface hardness of carburizing specimens through
forging was increased as the forging deformation rate
increased at 0.4% carbon potential. And the surface
hardness of the specimens will present less sensitivity
to the forging deformation rate as the forging
deformation rate is below 30% or above 30% at 0.8%
or1.2% carbon potential, respectively.
Acknowledgement
The financial supports of this study by National Science
Council (Taiwan) (NSC97-2221-E-150-035) was acknowledged.
References
[1] D. Jandov, R. Diviov, L. Sklov, J. Drnek: Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, 16 (2006),17-24.
[2] ASM: Metals Handbook, ninth ed., Heat Treating, ASM International,
Metals Park, OH, 3 (1981), 135-175.
[3] F.J. Harvey: Metallurgical Transactions A, 9A (1978), 1507-1513.
[4] J.H. Kaspersma, R.H. Shay: Journal of Heat Treating, 1-4 (1980), 2128.
[5] C.A. Stickels, C.M. Mack, M. Brachczek: Metallurgical Transactions
B, 11 (1980), 471-491.
345
Metal Forming
Introduction
Many automobile components e. g. for engine, power
train and chassis are high duty parts with high requirements concerning mechanical properties and quality. They
are mostly produced by forging. The standards for these
parts are permanently increasing, thus the products and
processes in forging also have to fulfill rising demands.
Additionally, the globalization of economic life has intensified the suppliers competition. The increasing prices for
energy and steel cause a rising interest on the side of the
manufacturers to reduce these cost factors. Next to the
costs, another challenge is to meet the ecologic demands
for the reduction of energy and material [1].
The majority of parts made of steel are hot forged at
temperatures between 1000 C and 1300 C. The main
disadvantage of this temperature level is the occurrence of
scale, which leads to bad surface qualities and a waste of
valuable material. Additionally, scale exerts a negative
influence on the durability of the tools. This can be
avoided using warm forging processes. Warm forging is an
economical alternative to the conventional hot forging
technology. It offers several advantages that contribute to
economic, environmental and social issues. These are:
closer tolerances IT 9 to IT 8, improving the material
utilization and decreasing the allowances for subsequent machining operations,
reduced surface roughness (less than 20 m),
no scale, reduced decarburization improving the
product quality and
reduced energy input.
There are numerous definitions for the warm forging
process of steel. They all have in common that the temperature range is considered to be approximately 600 C to
900 C. This temperature range is limited by major material specific properties e. g. flow stress, fracture strain and
scale formation. The lower limit of the temperature range
is given by a significant increase in flow stress and a decrease in formability of material. The upper limit is set by
an increase of scale formation and decarburization, which
346
has a negative impact on the final work piece surface quality [2-4].
The geometrical spectrum of warm forged parts is limited. The more the mass distribution varies along the longitudinal axis, the more forging operations are necessary,
as the tool material can only withstand limited loads. Additional forming operations cause a negative impact on the
achievable tolerances. This is caused by cooling in each
forming step [5].
New Warm Forging Process Chain
To overcome this geometrical limitation of warm forging a new process chain is developed in the EU-founded
project DeVaPro Development of a Variable Warm
Forging Process Chain. In this project a common hot
cross wedge rolling process is adapted to the special requirements of warm forming. This preforming operation
allows a wider mass distribution in one step in comparison
to die forging. Furthermore, an intermediate heating operation is integrated in the process chain to compensate loss
of heat. The following process chain configuration results:
cutting, induction heating, rolling, intermediate heating,
forging, punching and cooling (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Warm forging process chain including rolling and intermediate heating.
Metal Forming
longitudinal axis and have subsidiary elements. A steering
link is currently hot forged and is transferred into the new
warm forging process chain in this project. This part is a
typical long flat piece and its forging sequence is shown in
Figure 2.
(b) CWR
(a) Raw part
(c) Preforming
Flash
Figure 2. Forging sequence of sample part steering link.
The microstructure of the analysed samples is fine lamellar pearlite with outlined ferrite. The amount of ferrite
is within the limits for this steel alloy (10-30%) and did
not reveal significant modifications due to different heating temperatures other than slight differences in grain size.
The morphology of the pearlite and interlamellar distances
as well as ferrite aspect are rather similar for all the forming temperatures.
A typical defect during cross wedge rolling is the occurrence of internal defects or voids, which influence the
forged parts negatively [7,8]. In the project DeVaPro no
internal defects or voids were detected at this stage of
forming.
The mechanical characterization was done by tensile test
and impact test. Tensile test was performed using an universal testing machine EU40tf type. 10 mm diameter tensile test bars were cut from the preformed sample and
tested at 20 C. Charpy U bending impact test (EN 100451) was done on impact testing machine WPM30 type. The
test bar has a 3 mm notch (KCU 3). For every forging
temperature three test bars were cut from the preformed
billets.
The tensile strength decreases as forging temperature
decreases. At a forging temperature of 1230 C tensile
strength is 870 N/mm, at 1080 C tensile strength is 860
N/mm and at 900 C tensile strength is almost 800 N/mm.
The fracture mechanism of the cross wedge rolled samples
was ductile-fragile. The fracture surface analysis showed a
small ductile fracture area and crystalline brittle fracture
surface for the rest of the cross section of samples. No
significant differences in the fracture surface were observed for samples heated at different temperatures.
FEA of Forging Process
347
Metal Forming
70
Horizontal force in kN
to Table 1. This billet shape allows minimum flash occurrence after final forming (see Figure 2 - Final forming).
850 C
60
50
900 C
40
30
1,250 C
20
10
0
0
Parameter
Diameter of cross section
Original size
60 % Scale
30 mm
18 mm
d0
42 mm
25 mm
188 mm
113 mm
LI
62 mm
37 mm
L II
13 mm
8 mm
For the new cross wedge rolling process an optimum design of the rolling tools is derived from the billet geometry
(see Figure 6). The wedge angle was iteratively varied
between the maximum of 12 and the minimum of 3.
Criteria, which have to be met, are a minimum wedge
length to reduce temperature loss and a rolled billet free
from structural defects. The optimum wedge angle was
found at 7. The forming angle is fix and is 25 because
its influence to the mass distribution of the billet should be
eliminated. Otherwise, the final form including the flash
would be influenced negatively.
Vertical
Sizing zone
Horizontal
Forming zone
Serrations
Knifing
zone
Distance in mm
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
850 C
Vertical force in kN
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
900 C
1,250 C
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Distance in mm
Figure 8. Vertical force (original size).
Wedge angle : 7
Forming angle : 25
Workpiece
Figure 6. Wedge tool.
348
Metal Forming
Experimental Tests
The aim of the experimental tests is the applied investigation of the effect of different temperatures, wedge configurations, materials and raw part diameters on the cross
wedge rolling process.
The experimental equipment is integrated in a hydraulic
press from the manufacturer NEFF. The wedge tools are
designed in a flat wedge configuration and moved linear
by the force of two hydraulic cylinders. This experimental
equipment configuration is much simpler and economical
in comparison to a cross wedge rolling machine with two
rollers.
The wedge fixture allows mounting of different wedge
tools in order to test different wedge geometries. Two
hydraulic cylinders (50 kN each) are connected with bearing blocks to the wedge fixture and deliver the forming
force. Hence, the direction of the hydraulic cylinders and
the forming force are in the same plane. Thereby shear
force and negative torque are avoided. The bearing block
allows clearing in the case of overturning.
To record the forming forces between wedge fixture and
hydraulic cylinder force probes are mounted. The upper
system of the experimental equipment is equal to the lower
system and is mounted to the press ram directly. Lower
and upper systems compose the complete experimental
equipment (see Figure 10).
40
Horizontal force in kN
This scale factor allows analogically showing of the developed cross wedge rolling process. Rolling time in both
cases is 1.5 seconds and is an expedient compromise between industrial approved CWR times of one or two seconds.
The geometric parameters of the cross wedge rolled
work pieces are given in Figure 5 relating to Table 1.
Knifing
zone
30
Forming zone
Sizing
zone
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200 250
Distance in mm
300
350
Conclusions
A warm cross wedge rolling sequence was introduced
and integrated into a warm forging process chain to overcome the limitation of the geometric spectrum of warm
forged parts. Cross wedge rolled samples were tested at
different temperatures. Analyses of microstructure and
mechanical properties of rolled pieces were performed and
the following results were obtained:
1. The structure of the analysed samples is rather similar
for all forging temperatures.
2. The samples forged at lower temperature have a finer
grain size, but the amount of outlining ferrite is higher.
3. No voids or internal defects were observed in the warm
cross wedge rolled pieces.
4. The rolling forces in horizontal and vertical direction
increase by the factor 2.5 while decreasing the billet
temperature from 1250 C to 900 C.
Acknowledgement
Force direction
(horizontal)
Upper system
Billet
Hydraulic
cylinder
References
Lower system
Force direction
349
Metal Forming
Introduction
The growing worldwide competition in the processing
industries leads to a constant increase in cost pressure.
Research and technological developments in manufacturing technologies are the basic prerequisites to meet cost
and quality requirements to maintain a favourable market
position. Forgings have outstanding material and component characteristics. They feature a high mechanical and
dynamical strength due to the process-related grain refinement, the unbroken grain flow as well as the absolute
freedom from cavities. An increased power density of
forgings forwards the trend of light weight construction.
The emerging industrial nations China and Japan as well
as Germany belong to the top producers of forgings worldwide. The German production in 2006 amounted to 2.6
million tons of forgings. 1.4 million tons accounted for
drop forgings. More than 80% of the total production are
supplied to the automotive sector and system producers [1].
The customer's desire for near-net-shape products with
high mechanical strength and dynamic load carrying capacity can be met by precision forging production processes. Precision forging belongs to the die forging group of
technologies and is carried out using closed dies without a
flash. By means of precision forging, production accuracies up to IT 7 (according to DIN EN 10243-1) can be
obtained [1]. Already in the 1950s, a process was developed for forging suitably shaped bevel gears with teeth
that required only little or no metal to be removed to
achieve final geometry. Later attention has turned to the
forging of spur and helical gears, which are more difficult
to form due to the disposition of their teeth [2]. Thanks to
increasing geometric, positional and dimensional accuracy
and the improved surface finish of the precision-forged
components, increasingly more functional elements and
complete parts can be manufactured ready to be installed
without, or with only minor finishing operations. For this
reason, the precision forging production process competes,
in many cases, with entire production sequences and no
longer with only individual production processes [3].
Figure 1 shows a selection of parts which were precision-forged at the Institute of Metal Forming and Metal-
350
Constant
velocity joint
Claw pole
Bevel gear
Compared to conventional machining processes a reduced process chain and a high material efficiency are the
advantages of precision forging. Process and cost analyses
for conventionally machined and precision-forged gear
wheels show a notable saving potential favouring the
forged parts [4].
Within the Collaborative Research Centre 489 Process
Chain for Production of Precision-Forged High Performance Components the development and qualification of
innovative technological, logistical and economical methods for manufacturing precision-forged high performance
components is the subject of current research work. The
IFUM fundamentally elaborates the process design and
process control of precision forging processes.
Process and Tool Design for Precision Forging
To attain the complex component geometries of geartoothed parts, the forming takes place at process temperatures of up to 1250 C to increase the deformability. A
process and geometry-related inhomogeneous cooling can
already be established during the forming process. Due to
the locally heightened contact pressures and the adverse
surface-volume ratio the heat loss in the teeth is increased.
This leads to a local cooldown during the forging process.
Thermography investigations prove a decrease of surface
Metal Forming
temperature down to ~800C in the toothing directly after
the forging operation (Figure 2).
Root diameter dr [mm]
73.5
16 Mn
C
73.4
r5
42 CrM
o
73.3
73.2
1 00 Cr6
73.1
73.0
mn
z
dt
dr
An abstract of the graphical analysis of measurement results for this gear wheel is presented in Figure 4. The plot
shows the measured root diameter for the gear wheels
made of 16MnCr5, 42CrMo4 and 100Cr6 and the forging
temperatures 1150, 1200 and 1250 C after cooldown.
(1)
o4
Cr
M
42
73 .5
73.5
73 .4
73.4
1 250
73 .2
73.2
Cr
6
1 200
10
0
11 50
73 .3
73.3
C
C
73.1
73 .1
73 .0
73.0
0.50
2
37
82.749 mm
73.300 mm
20
Tube
nC
r5
1250 C
16
M
1200 C
Temperature T [C]
Fukreisdurchmesser [mm]
1150 C
0.5
0.70
0.7
0.90
Ko hlens toffquivalent C
1.10
1.30
0.9
1.3
1.1
Carbon equivalent CE [-]
Figure 5. Deviations in components dimensions versus forging
steel (carbon equivalent CE).
An advancing carbon equivalent tends to result in a decreasing part dimension. The gear wheels made of 100Cr6
comparatively feature the maximal carbon equivalent and
the smallest part dimension. This can be traced back to a
material-related higher subsequent shrinking of these forgings.
Material Investigation. The cooling and shrinkage behaviour of the hot-forged parts is essentially determined
by the thermal expansion and the heat balance of the applied materials. The heat balance can be described via a
combination of the thermo-physical properties heat capacity cp and thermal conductivity . To verify and widen the
351
Metal Forming
Thermal expansion
-6
coefficient [x 10 1/K]
17
phase I
16
phase II
100Cr6
phase III
42CrMo4
15
14
C60
16MnCr5
C45
13
12
11
10
300
500
700
900
1100
1300
Temperature T [C]
Figure 6. Thermal expansion coefficient of selected forging
steels.
All investigated forging steels feature three characteristic phases in thermal expansion determined by the occurring phase transformation.
Phase I (400- 700 C): Previous to the phase transformation the thermal expansion of all tested steels features
similar characteristics. The expansion coefficients for
temperatures up to 700 C are depicted versus the carbon
equivalent CE in Figure 7.
Thermal expansion
-6
coefficient [x 10 1/K]
17
16
phase I
15
14
600 C
700 C
13
12
400 C
11
10
0.5
0.7
500 C
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
Figure 7. Thermal expansion coefficient versus carbon equivalent CE (Phase I: 400-700 C).
16
phase III
0 C
120
15
110 0
14
13
10 00 C
12
900 C
11
10
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
Carbon equivalent C E [-]
Figure 8. Thermal expansion coefficient versus carbon equivalent CE (Phase II: 900-1200 C).
(2)
Metal Forming
0.70
5
C4
r5
nC
M
0
16 C6
0.65
o4
rM
C
42
1300 C
r6
0C
0
1
Conclusions
1200 C
1100 C
0.60
0.55
0.5
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
Carbon equivalent C E [-]
Figure 9. Heat capacity cp versus the carbon equivalent CE.
0.7
32
31
M
16
r5
nC
0
C6
o4
rM
C
42
30
1 30 0
29
1 20
28
r6
0C
10
0 C
11 00
27
26
25
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
Carbon equivalent C E [-]
Figure 10. Heat conductivity versus carbon equivalent CE.
the subsequent shrinking during the cooling period is increased. Previously conducted forging tests confirm this
assumption (Figures 4 and 5).
353
Metal Forming
Control of Slide Motion in Hot Impression Die Forging of Aluminium Alloy Billets
Using Servo Press
Tomoyoshi Maeno1), Hiroyuki Fujii1), Ken-ichiro Mori1), Masahiro Sato2)
1)
Department of Production Systems Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi / Japan, maeno@plast.pse.tut.ac.jp;
SHOTIC EUROPA Industria de Aluminio, Vendas Novas / Portugal
2)
Slide motion in hot impression die forging of an aluminium alloy billet was controlled by a servo press to improve the filling of die cavities
and the forging load. The filing of a die cavity in hot die forging of a piston was changed by the slide speed. The spike forging test generally
used for evaluation of lubricants in cold forging was applied un order to investigate the effect of the slide motion in hot impression die
forging. The degree of the filling has a peak for the slide speed, because the distribution of temperature influencing the metal flow was
changed by the slide motion. Plastic deformation is caused during the holding of the dies at the bottom dead centre by the elastic recovery
of the tools and press induced from the decrease in flow stress, and thus the maximum forging load necessary for a product shape was
decreased. In addition, a die quench forging process having the holding at the bottom dead centre was developed to eliminate the solution
heat treatment in the conventional T6 process of aluminium alloy products.
Keywords: Forging, Aluminium alloy, Slide motion, Servo press, Die quench, Solution heat treatment, Spike test
400 C
350 C
300 C
Elongation
100
100
80
60
40
50
400 C
350 C
300 C
Tensile strength
20
0
10-2
10-1
1
Mean strain rate /s-1
Figure 1. Variations in tensile strength and elongation with heating
temperature obtained from tensile test of Al-Si alloy specimen.
0 -3
10
Billet
(400C)
1748
Lower die
(250C)
33
14
A
50
9.25
Upper die
(250C)
Sec A-A
9.25
150
Elongation /%
Introduction
354
Sec A-A
Metal Forming
The cross-sectional shapes of the forged parts for v = 6.6
and 82.5 mm/s are shown in Figure 3. The filling into the
die cavity for v = 6.6 mm/s is larger than that for v = 82.5
mm/s.
Cavity of parts
Flash
10
(a)Piston forging
y /mm
8
6
Flas
h
v = 6.6 mm/s
82.5 mm/s
sec AA
Measuring area
Spik
e
(b)Spike forging
350
300
6.6 mm/s
v = 82.5
mm/s
250
200
Cavity
150
100
Flash
50
0
Sec A-A
0.5
1
1.5
Time /s
2.5
Upper die(250 C)
22
Billet(400 C)
1620
16
10
R3
Lower die(250 C)
= 0.2
14
12
0.1
10
0.05
8
6
4
4
6
x /mm
2
0
20
40
60
80
Slide speed v / mms-1
Figure 7. Relationship between spike height and slide speed
obtained from finite element simulation.
355
Metal Forming
100
80
0
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
Flash thickness t /mm
Figure 8. Effect of slide speed on spike height for spike forging
obtained from experiment.
0
32
26
0
0
34
(a) v = 6 mm/s
260
300
280
(b) v = 15 mm/s
320
30
0
42
0
40
0
0
40
0
38 80
2
0
26
380
(c) v = 75 mm/s
Figure 9. Distribution of calculated temperature in billet and tools
in spike forging for t =2.0 mm.
356
14
0
120
10
0
100
80
80
80
(c) v = 75mm/s
Figure 10. Distribution of calculated equivalent stress in billet in
spike forging for t = 2.0 mm.
420
420
140
28
0
360
300
300
320
34
0
30
0
280
300
2
26 80
0
300 /C
260
280
300
320
26
0
280
(b) v = 15 mm/s
100 140
120
140
120
100
(a) v = 6 mm/s
140
80
80
120
100
lower die
120
100
75 mm/s
80
120
100
12
0
v = 15mm/s
140
12
0
10 6 mm/s
120/MPa
100
12
1
100 20
300
200
100
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
Time /s
Figure 11. Variation in forging load with holding time at bottom
dead centre.
Metal Forming
200
600
400
Hardness B
Hardness A
100
300
th=0 s
1s
5s
200
100
0
T6 heat treatment
150
50
A
1.2
1.4
1.6
flash thickness t /mm
Figure 12. Effect of holding time at bottom dead centre on maximum load in experiment of spike forging.
1.8
Water cooling
Heating
Heated die
2
3
Holding time th /s
500
Hardness B
Hardness A
100
B
50
A
0
150
50
100
200
Temperature of dies Td /C
250
Figure 15. Relationships between Vickers hardness and temperature of dies for th = 5 s.
Conclusions
1) Forging
Forging and holding
3) Aging treatment
cold die
1) Forging + quench
2) Aging treatment
(b) Die quenching forging
357
Metal Forming
Department of Computer Modelling and Metal Forming Technologies, Lublin University of Technology, Lublin / Poland, a.gontarz@
pollub.pl; 2) Technical Institute, State School of Higher Education in Chelm, Chem / Poland
This paper presents results of theoretical and experimental research of a forging process of a connecting rod without flash in a three-slides
forging press. In order to design a process guaranteeing obtaining a proper product, numerous simulations and experiments were made, in
which material flow kinematics, strain and stress distributions and forming forces were analyzed. On the basis of obtained results, a preform
shape was designed, guaranteeing proper filling of the impression. It was assumed that a preform can be obtained in a cross-wedge rolling
process. A model of such process was worked out and, on the basis of simulation, it was stated that obtaining the preform proper shape is
possible. Experimental and theoretical results within the range of forming force and material flow kinematics were compared and their
conformity was obtained. On the basis of conducted research, it was stated that forging without flash of connecting rod in the three- slides
forging press is possible.
Keywords: Connecting rod, Fleshless forging, FE analysis, Lead, Aluminium alloy
358
(a)
(b)
11
5
13
15
106
77
A-A
O 16,2
Research Characteristics
15
39,9
Introduction
B-B
Metal Forming
Table 1. Chemical composition of 6101A aluminum alloy (%wt).
Si
0.30.7
Fe
0.4
Cu
0.05
Mg
0.40.9
Other
0.1
Al
rest
formed in hot conditions by heating preform to a temperature of 470 C and tools to a temperature of 250 C.
Research Results
Forging Process Analysis. The main aim of model research on lead was working out of preform shape and
dimensions, which guarantees obtaining a product of assumed quality. The first shape of the preform (Figure 4(a)) was worked out on the basis of forging cross
sections diagram, changing concave surfaces into convex
ones and retaining constant volume. It should be noticed
that dimensions of the preform small head are larger from
dimensions of impression in this place. Because of that the
first stage of the process is based on flattening of preform
small head by side tools movement. Only at the second
stage of the process upper tool movement and forming of
final part take place. The comparison of theoretical and
experimental shape at the following stages of the process
is shown in Figure 5. As it can be seen, good conformity
of shape is present, which informs about proper formulating of numerical model of the process. On the basis of
conducted research it was stated that the application of
preform nr 1 led to lack of filling the impression in the
shank and small head. This fault removal is relatively
simple and it is based on the appropriate increase of material volume in places of its lack.
(b)
O 16
O 11
(a)
O 22
(a)
44,5
24,5
O 11,5
O 22
(b)
O 17,3
102
38
22
100
R50
O 18
37
99
O 11,8
(c)
O 24
R20
21,4
It was stated that overlapping appears in the area of connecting rod large head (Figure 6). This fault can be analyzed during the process simulation. As it can be seen in
Figure 6, in the area of overlapping presence, die impression is filled at the last stage of forming. Material flows
into that area from opposite directions, which is the cause
of overlapping presence.
In order to eliminate this fault, a preform of shape nr 2
was designed (Figure 4(b)), which better corresponded to
material volume placement in the forging. This preform
did not, however, guarantee obtaining the proper forging.
In the forging process, due to similar material flow as in
the case of preform 1, overlapping appeared in the same
area, which was observed both in calculations and in experimental research.
359
Metal Forming
(a)
(b)
1000
800
Force, kN
Experiment
600
400
200
0
0
10
15
20
25
Stroke, mm
Figure 9. Forging shape from 6101A aluminum alloy at the process stage corresponding with forming force equal 610kN.
Figure 7. Forging shape made from preform nr 3 obtained in the
experimental research for lead.
360
(a)
(b)
Metal Forming
would be reduced to value 17 mm, in the second step to
the final value 11.8 mm. Verification of preform rolling
possibility was made by means of numerical simulation in
software DEFORM-3D. Material parameters the same as
during simulation of forging process were assumed in
calculations. It was also assumed that: both wedges moved
in the opposite direction with the velocity 0.2 m/s each,
friction on the material-tool surface of contact was maximal and characterized by friction factor m=1, billet temperature (cylinder of dimensions 24 x 66 mm) was
450 C, and tools temperature equaled 150 C. In the conducted calculations results, it was stated that in the proposed cross-wedge rolling process it was possible to obtain preform of the assumed shape (Figure 11).
Conclusions
On the basis of theoretical and experimental analyses,
the following conclusions were made:
1. It is possible to make connecting rod forging without
flash in three-slides forging press due to application of
tools with 3 parting planes. Three movable tools in this
press allow for the application of preform of diameter
larger than cross dimension of impression. At the first
stage horizontal tools movement flattening the preform
has to take place. At the second stage, upper tool forms
ready forging. Such a process is not possible for realization when typical forging machines equipped in one
movable tool are applied.
2. Process of connecting rod forging without flash is not
material consuming and takes place in one working cycle of the press. The lack of flash guarantees fibers
continuity, which should allow for better characteristics to obtain in other connecting rod manufacturing
methods. This is especially important for this type of
elements, which work at fatigue load.
3. On the basis of numerical analysis results it was stated
that it is possible to make preform for connecting rod
forging in cross-wedge rolling process. Good conformity of theoretical and experimental results obtained
for forging process allows for presuming that results of
361
Metal Forming
Intelligent Hot Forging Process of Artificial Hip Joint Made of Ni-free Co-29Cr-6Mo0.12N Alloy
Emi Onodera, Yunping Li, Tadayoshi Odahara, Hiroaki Matsumoto, Akihiko Chiba
Deformation Processing, Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai / Japan, a.chiba@imr.tohoku.ac.jp
On the basis of processing map and FEM analysis, artificial hip joint stem of Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.12N alloy was fabricated by a non-isothermal
hot semi-closed die forging method. The optimum hot forging conditions (initial temperature of workpiece, forging speed) were determined
by processing map and FEM simulation. Microstructure of the produced stem is composed of both dynamic recrystallized fine grains and
deformed microstructure. The formation of deformed microstructure in the stem is thought to be due to the decrease in temperature during
the hot forging. It is found that processing map and FEM simulation enable to predict the microstructural formation of Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.12N
alloy during hot forging process into the shape of artificial hip joint.
Keywords: Hot semi-closed die forging, Biomedical cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloy, Artificial hip joint stem, Microstructure, FEM,
Processing Map
Introduction
Co-Cr-Mo alloys have been widely used for biomedical
implants, such as artificial hip joint and coronary stent due
to their excellent corrosion resistance, wear resistance and
blood compatibility. The products of Co-Cr-Mo alloys
were manufactured by precision casting followed by machining because of the poor formability at room temperature.
In general, Ni was added in biomedical Co based alloy
to improve the plasticity. However, it has been reported
that the release of Ni ions into human bodies showed the
possibility for causing the allergy [1]. Near-net shape hot
forging to manufacture into the various complex shaped
products has been applied extensively. However, in this
process, the microstructure of the final products will be
sacrificed if a high precision in the shape of products is
kept. We have presented that near-net shape hot forging of
artificial hip joint stem of Ni-Free Co-Cr-Mo alloy at a
low forming speed and a forging temperature of 1100 oC
was possible [2].
Processing map proposed by Prasad et al [3-5] has been
proved a very powerful method to predict the optimum
parameters such as temperature, strain rate, as well as
strain in hot forging process of metallic materials. Processing map of Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.16N (in mass %) alloy has
been established and exhibited good reliability to the microstructural formation [6]. Processing maps, expressed by
both the power dissipation and the instability, are developed on the basis of the Dynamic Material Model (DMM).
This model considers that the workpiece is a power dissipater and that the instant power dissipated at a given strain
rate ( ) consists of two complementary parts: the G content and the J co-content, which are related to temperature
rise and the microstructure dissipation. The J and the G are
expressed by using the parameter of strain rate sensitivity
(m). And the flow instability of () is obtained as following equation:
( ) =
log(m / m + 1)
+m<0
log
362
(1)
2m
m +1
(2)
The variation of is strongly related to the microstructural evolution during the hot deformation process [3-5].
Thus, utilizing the processing maps, expressed by the
parameters of and () , enable to predict the optimized
hot working condition without consuming the cost and the
time for the trial-and-error methods in industrial manufacturing process.
As well as the processing map technique, FEM simulation also gives the effective prediction of the effective
strain, effective stress, effective strain rate and the change
in temperature in the products under plastic deformation.
So, summarizing the result of processing map into a database and subsequently combining this database with the
FEM simulation makes it possible to optimize the condition of hot forging for obtaining the optimized microstructure.
In the current research, the optimum condition of hot
forging process of Ni-free Co-Cr-Mo alloy into the shape
of artificial hip joint stem was determined by using both
the FEM analysis and the database of processing map in
relation to microstructural evolution.
Processing Map of Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.16N Alloy
Figure 1 shows the power dissipation maps and instability maps of Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.16N alloy at 1050 oC and
1200 oC, respectively, in which X-axis is true strain, and
Y-axis is logarithmic strain rate. In the previous research,
it has been shown that the power dissipation coefficient
exhibited the value ranging from 0.15 to 0.3 in the optimum hot forging condition due to low stacking fault energy of Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.16N alloy [4]. The stable region
predicted by the Dynamic Material Model (DMM) was
Metal Forming
also shown in Figure 1, correspondingly. These processing
maps in temperatures ranging from 950 to 1200 oC at
various strain levels and strain rates were summarized into
the FEM software as a database, and the plastic state in a
workpiece could be predicted successfully.
When Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.16N alloy is held at a temperature below 1000 oC and followed by cooling at low rate,
high fraction of phase which is harmful for ductility
formed [2]. Therefore, a rapid cooling of the workpiece
just after the forming is required for suppressing the formation of phase.
1050 oC
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
-1.0
-1.0
Stable
1050 oC
1200 oC
20 mm/s
-2.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
True strain
(a)
A
1200 oC
Metastable
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0
0.5
(c)
Metastable
Metastable
-1.5
-1.5
-2.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
True strain
0.1 - 1.0
1050 - 1080
72.5
1.0
0.8
1100
True strain
1050
0.4
20
16
1000
950
900
Temperature
(d)
12
-2.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
3 - 20
1150
(b)
Effective
strain
Stable
Stable
0.0
-1.0
-1.0
Load
ton
0.0
1200 oC
-0.5
-0.5
Temperature
Effective
oC
strain rate s-1
0.2
True strain
1.5
1.5
Effective
strain
0.6
-2.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
(d)
Simulation result
Unstable
-1.5
-1.5
1.5
Simulation
condition
-0.5
-0.5
(c)
(b)
Log (Strain rate, s-1)
(a)
Table 1. Summary of FEM simulation (initial temperature of workpiece: 1200 oC, forging speed: 20 mm/s).
4
0
(b)
Effective
Stable region
Strain rate
o
s-1 simulation at 1200 C, 20 mm/s; (a)
Figure 3. Results of FEM
effective strain, (b) temperature, (c) effective strain rate and (d)
instability map.
363
Metal Forming
Hot Semi-Closed Die Forging of Artificial Hip Joint
Stem
Hot semi-closed die forging of Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.12N alloy into the shape of artificial hip joint stem was carried
out in the optimum processing condition determined in the
previous section.
Table 2. Chemical composition of the present ingot [mass%].
Co
Cr
Mo
Ni
Fe
Bal.
29.95
5.89
<0.01
0.04
0.051
0.120
0.0152
Before hot forging, the bar of Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.12N alloy with diameter of 15 mm was solution treated at 1250
o
C and quenched in ice water to obtain the microstructure
consisting of single phase. Table 2 shows the chemical
composition of the present alloy. Workpiece was cut out
from the bar, and was heated at 1200 oC for 5 min in Ar
gas. And then, hot semi-closed die forging was carried out
using optimum processing condition determined in previous section and followed by quenching in ice water after
forging. Initial die temperature was 100 oC. Figure 4
shows an appearance of hot forged stem. We can confirm a
smooth surface, no wrap and no crack of the stem, indicating that the hot semi-closed die forging of Co-29Cr-6Mo0.12N alloy into the shape of artificial hip joint stem is
successfully conducted.
50 m
Figure 5. Microstructure of swaged Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.12N alloy
(before hot forging).
A-1(a)
A-1
10 m
B-1(a)
364
A-1(b)
B-1(b)
B-1
50 m
B-2(a)
B-2(b)
B-2
0
5
50 m
Figure 6. Microstructure of the Co-29Cr-6Mo-0.12N alloy analyzed
by EBSD after forging; A-1(a), B-1(a), B-2(a): image quality, A-1(b),
B-1(b), B-2(b): kernel average misorientation.
Metal Forming
occurred during rapid cooling form temperature higher
than 1000 oC [7]. In the present alloy, phase is stabilized
by the addition of nitrogen. So, it is thought that the
amount of the formation of martensite phase is very
small in the present alloy as compared with the Co-29Cr6Mo alloy without nitrogen.
(a)
Intensity(arb.uni)
(111)
After-forging
(200)
As-swaged
Intensity(arb.uni)
40
(b)
(410)
(1010)
41
42
43
(1011)
44
45
46
47
48
Conclusions
365
Metal Forming
2)
Engineering Technology
Design equations of tooth parameters of die cavity for cold sizing process of spur gear have been proposed according to the parameters of
a sized gear, the interference between shrinkage ring and die insert, the elastic strain of workpiece by the method of elastic-plastic mechanics. Verification experiment shows, the errors of theoretical value and experimental value of three-tooth normal length, diameter of addendum circle and diameter of root circle are less than 0.035%, which means that it is possible to rapidly and precisely design the tooth cavity
of a spur gear cold sizing die.
Keywords: Spur gear, Cold sizing, Tooth parameters of die, Elastic recovery
Introduction
Precision forging of gear is one part of less chip or nonchip machining. Gears made by this method have the advantages of lower cost, less energy consumption, require
less raw materials, and result in higher productivity and
dynamic properties than conventionally cut ones [1]. Metal forming of bevel gears has been used in industry and
great efficiency and profit margin have been achieved.
However, most spur gear production continues to adopt
the method of cutting, which causes a great loss of energy
resources and raw materials.
In order to form high precision spur gears, the methods
of floating die [2,3] and divided flow [4,5] have been
proposed. High precision spur gears have also been
formed using the above two methods in a laboratory. But
the two methods have not been widely applied in industry
production as the methods have not been mastered, and the
forming load is very high for large gears. Recently more
investigations into a combined hot/cold forming process
have been carried out [6,7]. In this process, the cold forming is very important because it defines the precision of
the gear which is formed. E.R.H. Stone et al studied the
influence of cold ironing on the surface finish and dimensions of thick-walled cylinders [8]. Chang et al. studied the
changes of geometrical profile, dimensions and surface
finish when a single tooth is sized by the method of cold
ironing [9]. Hu et al. designed the cold sizing die on the
basis of numerical simulation, and formed high precision
spur gears using the die [10]. Kang et al. studied the spur
gear forging tool manufacturing method considering elastic deformation due to shrink fitting by finite element
analysis and forging test [11].
In this paper, the design equations of die tooth cavity for
spur gear sizing have been proposed based on the elastic
deformation of die and elastic recovery of workpiece.
Verification experiment has been done to check the agreement of proposed equations with the experimental results.
Relations between Tooth of Sized Gear and Tooth Cavity of Die Insert
At present, there are three design methods for the tooth
cavity of precision spur gear formation [12,13], namely, to
366
Positive
addendum
modification
Standard tooth
Negative
addendum
modification
Rb
(a) Module and pressure angle
(b) Addendum modification
Figure 1. Influence of tooth parameters change on involute profile.
Metal Forming
is df, circular thickness at reference circle is S, reference
diameter is d, diameter of base circle is db.
d3
S1 = S
d2
d + d a
(d + d a )(inv 1 inv )
d
db
d + d a
(6)
+ 2 x tg ) m
(7)
1 = cos 1
df
d
da
Shrinkage ring
In Eq. (5),
Die insert
S =(
(1)
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
a
E d 2 (d d )(d d )
d2
2d 22 (d 32 d a2 )
(2)
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
a
d 2 d d
da
d2 d d
(3)
Pre-pressing
Post-pressing
d a
Figure 3. Tooth cavity before and after pressing die insert into
shrinkage ring.
S = (
+ 2 x tg ) m
(5)
(4)
then
S1 = ( + 2 xtg )m
2
d + d a
(d + d a )(inv1 inv ) (8)
d
d a
Z
= S
(9)
From Eqs. (4), (8) and (9), and d=mZ, it can be obtained
that
x=
d a
d
Z
x +
+
(inv1 inv ) (10)
d + d a
4tg d + d a 2tg
(11)
then
367
Metal Forming
d =
d
1+
(12)
Tooth of sized gear
x=
d d
(d d )(inv inv )
d
(13)
(15)
S = ( + 2 x tg ) m
(inv inv )
2
1+ 1+
(16)
+ 2 x0 tg ) m
(17)
(18)
Z (inv inv )
2tg
(19)
368
d a
Z (inv inv )
x0 +
+ 4tg d + d
2tg
Z
(inv 1 inv )
2tg
(20)
where da, 1 and are determined from Eqs. (3), (6) and
(15).
The sized gears addendum circle diameter and root
circle diameter also have the relations of elastic recovery
between the corresponding parameters of the die inserts
tooth cavity. Then, the follow equations can be obtained
(21)
d a 0 = (d a d a )(1 + )
(22)
d f 0 = ( d f d a )(1 + )
(14)
d
d + d a
d a0
+ d a
1+
(23)
df0
1+
(24)
+ d a
Metal Forming
The hardness of the die insert is HRC60. The tooth
parameters of the die insert are as follows:
number of teeth: 18
module: 2.5mm
pressure angle: 20
modification coefficient: -0.04
diameter of addendum circle: 50 mm
diameter of root circl: 38.75 mm
The tooth cavity of the die insert was machined by LSWEDM before it was pressed into the shrinkage ring. The
punch is cylindrical without a tooth. The interference
between the shrinkage ring and the die insert in radial
direction is 0.471 mm.
Locating Ring
Punch
Die Insert
Workpiec
Shrinkage
Ring
Adjusting
Block
18.950
18.949
da
49.908
49.925
0.03407
df
38.640
38.643
0.00776
0.00528
Conclusions
On the base of considering the elastic deformation of the
die and the elastic recovery of the workpiece, the tooth
cavity design equations of modification coefficient,
diameter of the addendum circle and diameter of the root
circle have been derived from the parameters of the gear
that will be sized, the interference between the shrinkage
ring and the die insert, and the elastic strain of the
workpiece by the method of elastic-plastic mechanics. The
results obtainded from the proposed equations are in very
good agreement with the experimental ones. It is possible
to rapidly and precisely design the tooth cavity of a spur
gear cold sizing die.
Acknowledgements
Block
(25)
References
[1] Z.M. Hu, J. Cai, T.A Dean: Proc. International Conference on
Mechanical Transmissions, Chongqing, (2001), 123-127.
[2] C. Tuncer, T.A. Dean: International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture, 27-1 (1987), 65-76.
[3] J. Cai, T.A. Dean, Z.M. Hu: International Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 150-1-2 (2004), 48-55
[4] K. Kondo, K. Ohga: International Journal of Mechanical Sciences,
35-8 (1995), 1105-1113.
[5] K. Ohga, F.Murakoshi, H. Ando, K.Miyoshi, K. Kondo: Proc. 7th
ICTP, Yokohama, (2002), 43-48.
[6] T.A. Dean: Materials and Design, 21-4 (2000), 271-278.
[7] B.H. Zhang, Z.M. Zhang: Proc. 3rd JSTP International Seminar on
Precision Forging, Nagoya, (2004), 115-118.
[8] E.R.H. Stone, J. Cai, Z.M. Hu, T.A. Dean: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 135-2-3 (2003), 278-283.
[9] Y.C. Yang, Z.M. Hu, B.S. Kang, T.A. Dean: International Journal of
Machine Tools & Manufacture, 42-8 (2002), 945-952.
[10] Z.M. Hu: Journal of Plasticity Engineering, 9-4 (2002), 79-83
[11] J.H. Kang, K.O. Lee, J.S. Je, S.S. Kang: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 187-188 (2007), 14-18.
[12] H.B. Li, M. Lu, J.T. Luo: Die and Mould Technology, 1 (2003), 7-9.
(in Chinese)
[13] S.Q. Kou, S.H. Yang, L.J. Huang. P.F. Fu: Nature Science Journal of
Jilin University of Technology, 30-2 (2000), 19-23, ( in Chinese).
[14] B.H. Zhang, Z.M. Zhang: Proc. 2nd International Conference on
New Forming Technology, Bremen, (2007), 111-118.
[15] Compilation Committee of Heat Treatment Handbook: Heat
Treatment Handbook, 4th ed., Mechanical Industry Press, Beijing,
(1978), 1023, (in Chinese).
369
Metal Forming
Introduction
In metal forming, the friction forces developed between
the workpiece and the forming tools play an important role.
Ebrahimi and Najafizadeh developed an upper-bound
theory to determine the average friction factor by conducting a barrel compression test [1].
Rth
b
h
m=
4
2b
3 3 3
(1)
R h
,
Rth h
(2)
370
z = (1 +
2m r
)
3 3 h
(3)
where r and h are instantaneous radius and height, respectively, of the billet; and z are the stresses without friction and the average axial stress under frictional conditions,
respectively; m is the shear (or Tresca) friction factor.
Dieter proposed that there is a Coulomb stress distribution
at both the end-surfaces of the cylindrical sample [3], and
the average axial stress (mean height of the friction hill)
with respect to the stress without friction was given by
C 2 z
2[exp(C ) C 1]
2 r
.
C=
h
(4)
(5)
Metal Forming
Experimental Procedures
120 600
.
=
100
371
Metal Forming
varies in a wide range from 0.3-1.0. It should be noted that
the changing trends of Rm as a function of friction factor at
a specific strain level are extremely similar to that of Rc as
shown in Figure 2(c). Since both Rc and Rm are important
parameters in the determination of shape of compressed
sample, the above-mentioned observations imply that the
overall shape of the compressed sample does not vary
significantly, even though the friction factor might be
extremely different. Thus, in order to obtain a correct
method to evaluate the friction factor in hot forging process, parameter Rt should also be taken into account as in
Eq. (1). The variations in Rt are expressed as a function of
strain and m as shown in Figure 3(a) and (b), respectively.
Rt shows an extremely larger variation than both Rc and
Rm: Changing trends of Rt as a function of true strain are
quite different compared to that for either Rc or Rm (Figure
3(a)), and at a specific strain level, Rt decreased gradually
with the increasing friction factor, implying a strong dependence of friction factor m (Figure 3(b)).
A = a + bm + cm 2 ,
(7)
B = a + bm + cm ,
(8)
C = a + bm + cm ,
(9)
Rm H
for each process as a
Rt H 0
Rm H
, therefore, the
Rt H 0
(6)
(10)
Metal Forming
under frictional conditions and the Tresca friction factor m
can be given by
(11)
z = (1 + K ( ).m)
K ( ) = f ( )
Parameter
Value
(13)
Conclusions
1. By calculating the friction factor from the parameters of
P at different strain levels, a new equation for obtaining
the friction factor based on the simulation process was
obtained.
2. The friction factors calculated from Eq. (14) were found
to be in good agreement with the actual values in simulation process and gave better results than those obtained by using Eq. (1).
3. An equation for compensating the influence of friction
on the flow stress of materials was proposed on the basis of the simulations, and the results applied to 5065B
alloy were observed to have extremely high precision as
compared to those obtained using Eq. (1).
Acknowledgements
References
This research was supported by a Cooperation of Innovative Technology and Advanced Research in Evolutional
Area from Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science
and Technology of Japan.
373
Metal Forming
Introduction
Nowadays, in metal forming processes the numerical
simulation is used to avoid long and expensive experiments and many research works have been made in this
aspect [1,2]. In this paper, the main objective is to simulate
metal forming processes coupled with an optimization
procedure in order to obtain the optimal parameters. In the
mechanical system and concurrent engineering laboratory
of university of technology of Troyes, an extensive work
has been developed since ten years. A finite element package has been developed to solve thermo-visco-elastoplastic problems with ductile damage in large deformation.
This package allows realizing automatically numerical
simulation of metal forming processes. In order to avoid
large mesh distortions and achieve properly the convergence of calculation, meshing and re-meshing procedure
are also included [3-5].
The whole model of a metal forming process optimization system is shown in Figure 1. In order to connect all
these operations together automatically in ModeFRONTIER, the different macro commands are used to realize
it. First, the CATIATM macro command is used to create
the geometry of the tools and define the parameters that
we want to optimizer. Then, the ABAQUS macro command is used to input the shape and processing parameters
into a software package based on ABAQUS to simulate
the metal forming process. Finally, the advanced optimization algorithm is performed to reach the optimum variable
values on the response surface established.
Optimization Problems
Variables. There are so many factors associated with
the metal forming process. In this paper, we deal with the
example of an aluminum forged part which is obtained by
two different operations (platting and forging).
The platting operation (Figure 2) is realized with a mechanical press, and the upper tool is translated with a con-
Metal Forming
stant velocity Vtool=50 mm/s. The forging operation (Figure 3) is realized with a hammer, two blows are needed to
completely deform the part. The kinematic energy imposed to the upper tool is the same for blows 1 and 2,
which is equal to 30KJ. We defined that the initial dimension of the cylinder billet Rinitial and Hinitial and the final
height of the billet after platting process Hfinal are the variables to be optimized which are shown in Figure 2 and the
final shape of the part after forging operation is shown in
Figure 3.
where
is the (elastic
p
avg
is
the average
S .T . D(i) Dmax
(i ) = arccos( ni ni +1 ) min
S=
(b) H=90mm
(5)
Nbele _ contour
gap(i) S
i =1
(a) H=Hinitial=110mm
(4)
max
(6)
In Eq. (4), D (i ) is the damage value of the element i inside the machining part of the piece which is shown in
Figure 4 and the maximum value of the damage Dmax is set
to 0.1. If the damage value outside this part is larger than
Dmax, we also think that the forged part is available for the
following operations.
(c) H=Hfinal=70mm
(a)Initial shape (b) Shape after one blow (c) Shape after two blows
Figure 3. Forging operation.
I
Fobj
= min(
t2
0 V platting
Nbele
(1)
0 V forging
Nb
Vi p
V
p
p
with avg
i avg
= i i p (2)
i =1 VT
i =1 VT
II
Fobj
= min
III
Fobj
= min Fmax
ele
(3)
In Eq. (5), is the angle value of the nearby two contour elements as shown in Figure 5 and the minimum
value of the angle min is set to 3 . If (i ) is larger
than min , we can get the conclusion that there is no wrinkle in the forged part.
In Eq. (6), S is the total value of the gap distance between the contour element nodes of the achieved part and
the required part and the maximum value of the total distance Smax is set to 6mm. This value is to verify whether
the part fills well or not in the tools. As shown in Figure 6,
in order to make the value more precise, we make a box at
the end of the flash part, because when calculating the gap,
this part is useless to our results, so we just accumulate the
gap value outside this box.
375
Metal Forming
Applications
75
80
85
110
1,584E+07
1,602E+07
1,869E+07
1,917E+07
115
1,985E+07
1,578E+07
1,441E+07
2,162E+07
121
1,485E+07
1,664E+07
1,655E+07
1,454E+07
128
1,539E+07
1,509E+07
2,212E+07
1,430E+07
135
1,902E+07
1,416E+07
1,649E+07
1,563E+07
II
70
75
80
85
110
4,338E-01
4,707E-01
4,758E-01
4,499E-01
115
4,239E-01
4,357E-01
4,422E-01
4,391E-01
121
4,205E-01
4,314E-01
4,394E-01
4,463E-01
128
4,149E-01
4,255E-01
4,291E-01
4,401E-01
135
4,132E-01
4,355E-01
4,342E-01
4,387E-01
376
(Mille Joules).
70
I
Fobj
III
Fobj
III
Fobj
(Newton).
70
75
80
85
110
9,639E+05
9,180E+05
8,782E+05
8,378E+05
115
9,396E+05
8,987E+05
8,621E+05
8,266E+05
121
9,121E+05
8,802E+05
8,467E+05
8,154E+05
128
8,890E+05
8,550E+05
8,281E+05
8,013E+05
135
8,609E+05
8,249E+05
8,074E+05
7,850E+05
Metal Forming
to implement in solving our problem. The right one shows
the contours plots of the variables values and the objective
function results.
III
Figure 7. Response surface representing the relationships between the objective function
I
Fobj
Figure 8. Response surface representing the relationships between the objective function
II
Fobj
The advanced simulation technique is applied to a twooperation metal forming processes. The optimization module uses response surface method to search the optimal
parameters by changing the variables within the specified
limits. And in the future, it is desired:
1. It is better to incorporate more global optimization
algorithms with the surface repose method. Because
the response surface approach is a method of the metamodel, it does not have the function of improving the
response surface. It will be better that meta-modelling
combined to an evolutionary strategy, or to a genetic
algorithm, as in the hybrid approach.
2. In the modern industry simulation, getting the proper
results isnt the unique goal for our design. Another
important criterion is shorting the time of the simulation. Parallel calculation can be used in our forging optimization system. We can set several parallel workflows to run the calculation in order to generate the results of sampling data in the meantime.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the Mechanical System and
Concurrent Engineering Laboratory of University of Technology of Troyes, conseil rgional de Champagne Ardenne,
FRANCE and CSC, CHINA, which are gratefully acknowledged.
References
Figure 9. Response surface representing the relationships between the objective function
III
Fobj
II
Fobj
is more influenced by the value of Hfinal and
decreasing Hfinal leads to increase the deformation uniformity. When the value of Hfinal is small, the equivalent plastic
strain propagates uniformly in all part which may benefit
the forging part. But for a large value of Hfinal, the equivalent plastic strain locates in the middle of the billet which
is the typical phenomenon of forging core. Seen form
Figure 9, we can find that the surface generated is almost a
plane. So it can conclude that the objective function
III
Fobj
377
Metal Forming
VR System for Aiding Preform Design of Hot Forgings Using Haptic Device
Takahiro Ohashi1), Yusuke Tsurumi1), Yasushi Murata1), Heihachi Ueki2), Soju Matsumoto2), Kenji Iwata2)
1)
2)
3D Incorporated, Yokohama /
Locating an unstable preform on a die involves all sorts of unexpectedly uneven filling in the flash gutter and might result in under filling of
the die cavity in some cases. In this paper, the authors employ a virtual reality (VR) system to simulate locating a preform on a die cavity
using real-time collision detection and force feedback applied to a haptic device to evaluate the shape of a preform with respect to its postural stability and its ability to be located in a full position on a die. The user measures the position and tilt of preforms to locate them, using
a digital camera and 3D accelerometer attached to the preforms in advance. He then employs a real-time collision detection system to
simulate locating a newly designed preform using simulator data as mentioned above. The system outputs the position and tilt of the preform into log files. This information can then be used in forming a simulation. Thus, a preform designer can try out a candidate design with
this system before making actual dies to learn of any problems experienced by operators in properly locating the preform. He can then
improve its shape or design or change the process plan to avoid these problems. In addition, the detected force of collision in the simulation can be fed back to a haptic device, allowing the designer to examine his design intuitively.
Keywords: Forging, Preform design, Die design, Process planning, Virtual reality (VR), Haptic device, Real-time collision detection
Introduction
It is well known empirically that having a preform of
stable shape on a die in hot forging helps complete the
filling of the die cavity in metal flow. An unstable preform
involves all sorts of unexpectedly uneven filling in the
flash gutter and might result in under filling of the die
cavity in some cases (See Figure 1). In such cases, we
must consider the additional volume of the preform and
the increase in material yield loss. Traditionally, it has
been difficult to identify such postural instability of a
preform on a die before trial production.
Good
preform
shape
Die
Full position
Full filling
Difficult
preform shape
for locating
Die
Mismatched position
Uneven filling
taken by researchers and engineers. For example, engineers in automobile industries use it for planning of production line and layout of instruments [2]. Toyota carries
out virtual assembly of dies [3]. A press machine company
performs virtual assembly/disassembly of large press machines [4].
In forging, computer-aided optimum preform design has
been one of most important goal for virtual manufacturing.
Most of R&Ds for VR systems in metal forming depends
on numerical simulation of forming process mainly [5-8].
Many researchers have considered optimization of preform for the sake of reducing forging load and material
yield loss [9,10]. In addition, control of texture of forgings
by optimum preform design is also studied successfully in
recent years [11,12]. More powerful such the numerical
analysis becomes, it is more problematic that actual situation does not meet the model of process-simulation ideally
because of setup error, machine difference and other uncertainty and fluctuation in actual manufacturing. The
authors think that a collision detection system could be
one of powerful tools to solve such the problems. It also
could be a useful training tool for forging operators [13].
VR System for Simulating Collisions while Locating
Preform on Die Cavity
System Configuration. Figure 2 depicts the configuration of the virtual reality system used to simulate locating
a preform on a forging die. The system is utilized as follows. First, a user designs a candidate process plan. He
then creates a 3D CAD model of a candidate die and preform in STL format. Next, he transfers this model into the
real-time collision detection software. Here, he chooses
one of two methods of examination. One method is to
manipulate the preform with the haptic device directly.
The user can operate the device interactively using the
sense of touch. He examines the point of the problem with
its shape by repeatedly altering it and inserting it into the
die cavity. We employed a Phantom Omni from SensAble
Technologies as the device. Table 1 presents the abstract
specifications of the Phantom Omni.
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
The other examination method is to manipulate the preform depending on data compiled from a behaviour analysis. The user can measure the shift length from the full
position and tilt of a preform in actual operation and create
a database containing this information along with the operating conditions (i.e. the operator, handling-tool data, the
weight of the preform, transfer-machine data, pressmachine data, SPM, lubricant, and so on) before creating a
new design. Thereafter, the user can shift and alter the
newly designed preform over the die in the simulator
based on data for similar preforms and similar operating
conditions. He then attempts to insert it into the virtual
cavity in order to identify any problems with its ability to
be located. He can then modify the preform or the die
design based on the above result. Thus, a preform designer
can test his design using this system before making any
actual dies to identify its formal problems in locating. He
can then improve its shape design or change the process
plan to avoid the problems.
Data of shift length
from the full position
and attitude of actual
preforms
User
detection software
Control
Haptic device
Force feedback
Log
Real-time collision
Repelling
Forging process
simulator
(in future)
Fig. 2. Virtual reality (VR) system to simulate locating preform on
die cavity.
Minimum penetration
depth vector without
regarding track of penetration (not used)
B
(Translational)
Dynamic penetration depth
vector D
0.055mm
Workspace
< 0.26N
Stiffness
Force feedback
3 DOF (x,y,z)
Position sensing
Algorithm of Real-Time Collision Detection. 3D Incorporated has developed a real-time collision detection
system called Smart Collision. The authors modified the
system, creating a dedicated version to simulate locating
forgings that outputs position and tilt data for a preform
into log files. Details of the algorithm were reported in a
previous paper [15]. The authors will discuss it briefly as
follows. Figure 3 presents a schema of collision detection.
The system simulates the shape with a polygon model. A
polygon (triangle) soup or a closed polyhedron composed
of polygons is acceptable for the detection. Object A represteel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
A
B
Repelling
Rotational
penetration
depth vector DR
379
Metal Forming
Process no. 1
Process no. 2
Process no. 3
Process no.4
Process no.5
Examples of Operation. Figure 4 presents five processes as example operations to examine the simulation of
locating preforms. These processes are used for making
gear blanks of a symmetrical shape. All of them were
performed in an actual production setting. In our examination, a user locates a preform on a die 10 times for each
process, using a haptic device. Weight data for the preforms is entered into the system. We tried the operations
both with and without gravity. We compiled the positions
and Euler angles of tilt of a located preform from the log
file. We then calculated the shift length based on the full
position and using the angle with the z-axis as the value of
tilt.
Results and Discussion. Table 2 presents the simulation
results. The authors employed a statistical test with a 10%
significance level. In the table, a F-test and a T-test are
applied to compare the operations with and without gravity.
In the result, we did not observe a significant difference in
tilt. In contrast, preforms having a tall shape in Processes 2,
4 and 5 seem to suffer from this effect. In particular, the
results of the processes with deeper cavities in the die
were poor. Thus, gravity cannot be ignored in the simulation of locating preforms. At this point, the authors decided to perform a simulation with gravity as a test.
Table 3 presents the results of statistical tests along with
the results of the simulation of the five processes. We can
evaluate the processes in Tables 2 and 3 as follows.
(1) Process 3 presents more difficulties in setting the
preform than Process 1 (at 10% significance level).
(2) Process 4 presents more difficulties in setting the
preform than Process 2 (at 5% significance level).
(3) Process 5 makes it easier to set a preform than Processes 3 and 4 (at 5% significance level).
Thus, we can examine the difficulty of locating preforms
by using a VR system to simulate collisions, a haptic device, and statistical tests.
Table 2. Statistical tests along with results of simulation for example processes.
Process no.
1
2
3
4
5
GeometWithout
5.00
4.30
7.05
4.47
6.43
ric mean
gravity
of shift
With grav4.93
5.9
7.04
10.2
4.47
length
ity
from full
Two-sided
position / P(F<f)
0.746
0.568
0.803
0.935
0.959
mm
Two-sided
1.00
P(Tt)
0.931 0.0900
0.779
E-4 0.0880
GeometWithout
ric mean
gravity
4.64
3.89
7.51
5.40
5.18
of tilt
With grav5.15
4.50
5.99
6.78
4.76
from full
ity
position / Two-sided
degree
P(F<f)
0.55
0.596
0.246
0.632
0.286
Two-sided
P(Tt)
0.776
0.706
0.498
0.465
0.965
Metal Forming
Table 3. Statistical tests along with results of simulation for example processes.
Process No.
2
3
4
5
1 Two-sided
P(F<f)
0.738
0.290
0.000690
0.829
Two-sided
P(Tt)
0.449
0.0575
0.220
0.252
2 Two-sided
P(F<f)
0.577
0.00169
0.577
Two-sided
P(Tt)
0.219
0.000101
0.219
3 Two-sided
P(F<f)
5.64E-05
0.202
Two-sided
P(Tt)
0.461
0.0221
4 Two-sided
P(F<f)
0.000371
Two-sided
P(Tt)
0.000101
Accelerometer
Conclusions
The authors suggest utilizing a virtual-reality system
with collision detection for evaluating forging process
design. An unstable preform being located on a die involves all sorts of unexpectedly uneven filling in the flash
D
h
Group V1
Group V2
Virtual locating
Actual locating
(D,h)
45
40
Group A3
Group A1
Height h / mm
Methodology of Behaviour Analysis. The authors performed a behavior analysis of a forging operator using a
model die and a model preform in order to verify the simulation of locating preforms and to collect actual data. Figure 5 depicts the configuration of the behavior analysis for
locating a preform on a model die. The marker seen in the
figure is attached to the preform. To begin, the authors
located a preform exactly into its full position. They then
calibrated the accelerometer and took a picture for reference. Next, we removed the preform from the die and had
a test operator locate it with tongs. Finally, the authors
took another picture to compare the location of the target
mark with the first picture. The tilt of the preform is
computed from the direction of gravitational acceleration
as measured by the accelerometer.
Figure 6 depicts an example process for verifying virtual locating by the data from real operations. The authors
prepare model preforms by upsetting clay billets having 38
mm in diameter and 78 mm in height with various reduction ratios.
Results and Discussion. In this case, we did not observe
a significant difference by statistical tests in tilt. Therefore,
the authors discuss shift error here. Figure 7 shows geometric mean of shift length from full position. There is no
significant difference in statistical tests amongst members
of a group in the figure. P (Tt) between Groups V1 and
V2 is 0.0631 and that between Groups A1 and A2 is
1.20x10-6. There seems to be a border between better and
worse preform design around 53mm in D at 10% significance level in the virtual operation and 5% significance
level in the real operation. Result of this operator was
always better than the simulation in the whole of test. In
addition, real operation seems to accept narrower clearance between the preform and die cavity. The authors
think that the former should be the operators own tendency, but the latter could be caused by not only operators
ability but delay of collision check and force calculation.
60
55
Group A2
35
50
52
54
56
Maximum diamater D / mm
Figure 7. Maximum diameter and height of perform and geometric
mean of shift length from full position in virtual and actual locating
tests; A user locates each preform on the die 10 times.
References
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(1999), 313-319.
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[3] Y. Kawada, Y. Hanaki, K. Okiishi: Katagijutsu (J. Die Mold
Technol.), 20-15 (2005), 2-3.
[4] R. Mitsui: Komatsu Tech. Rep., 47-2 (2002), 10-15.
[5] T.S. Mujber, T. Szecsi, M.S.J. Hashimi: J. Mater. Proc. Technol.,
155-156 (2004), 1834-1838.
[6] R. Kopp, O. Hofmann, T. Kuhlen, V. Honnet, G. Knepee, C. Plociennik: Steel Res. Int., 74-11/12 (2003), 756-761.
[7] K. Mori: Kikainokenkyu (Sci. Machine), 53-6(2001), 627-631.
[8] E. Nakamachi: Soseitokakou (J. Jpn. Scoc. Technol. Plast.), 40460(1999), 403-404.
[9] C.C. Cheng, A.N. Bramley: Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part C, 214
(2000), 127-136.
[10] G. Zhao, E. Wright, R.V. Grandhi: Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng., 40-7
(1997), 1213-1230.
[11] V. Sundararaghavan, N. Zabaras: Int. J. Plast., 24-9 (2008), 15811605.
[12] J. Kusiak: J. Mater. Proc. Technol., 57-1/2 (1996), 79-84.
[13] J.V. Owen: Manf.Eng., 119-4 (1997), 84-90.
[14] Phantom Omini Users Guide, (2004), SensAble Technologies.
[15] H. Ueki, K. Okawa: Image Lab, 17-2 (2006), 51-56.
381
Metal Forming
Department of Metallurgical and Material Engineering, Tehran University, Tehran / Iran, bbmohammad@yahoo.com,
Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran / Iran
2)
Department of
The occurrence of restoration processes, in particular recovery and recrystallization, does significantly affect the hot working behavior of
metals and alloys. Principally, these processes reduce the stored energy of deformation in the microstructure thereby permitting further straining. In addition, the dynamic recrystallization phenomena improve the hot ductility behavior of the steel under deformation. This is done by
isolating the cracks due to high angle grain boundary migration. On the other hand, the static recrystallization which may occur during interpass time, leads to higher grain boundary area by grain refining. The latter stimulates grain boundary sliding in subsequent deformation
thereby reducing the hot ductility. In the present work, the occurrence of restoration processes in X210Cr12 tool steel is studied using hot
compression tests. The results indicate that the deformation temperature and applied strain rate affect extensively the steel flow stress and
microstructure.
Keywords: Restoration processes, Hot ductility, X210Cr12 tool steel
Introduction
Experimental Procedure
382
Si
Mn
Cr
Cu
Al
2.2
0.29
0.44
11
0.008
0.018
0.108
0.007
Temperature
1200C,10min
1050C
10min
=0.3,0.03&0.003Sec1
1000C
950C
900C
Water
Water
Water
Time
Metal Forming
TrueStress
II
III
Water
Water
TrueStrain
Figure 2. Area (I): before starting test, Area (II): before maximum
stress, Area (III): at end of test.
Results
The true stress-true strain curves obtained from the hot
compression tests at different strain rates and temperatures
are shown in Figure 3.
250
=0.3Sec1
200
150
=0.03Sec1
100
=0.003Sec1
T=900C
50
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
200
0.3
0.4
True Strain
0.6
0.7
=0.3Sec1
160
True Stress (MPa)
0.5
120
=0.03Sec1
80
=0.003Sec1
0.1
0.2
150
0.3
0.4
True Strain
0.5
0.6
0.7
=0.3Sec1
120
=0.03Sec1
90
=0.003Sec1
60
T=1000C
30
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
True Strain
120
0.5
0.6
0.7
=0.3Sec1
100
=0.03Sec1
80
60
=0.003Sec1
40
T=1050C
20
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
True Strain
0.5
0.6
0.7
Discussion
0
0.0
20 m
T=950C
40
20 m
383
Metal Forming
900C, Area I
-3
1050C, Area I
-2.5
-2
log
-1.5
-1
40 m
40 m
900C, Area II
=0.005MPa1
n(slop)=constant=6.4
-0.5
1050C, Area II
0
0.2
thin
twins
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
logsinh (0.005p)
384
logsinh (0.005p)
20 m
=0.005MPa1
n(slop)=constant=2.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.9
0.95
1.05
1000/T
1.1
1.15
Conclusions
The occurrence of restoration processes was
investigated using hot compression tests in a cold work
X210Cr12 tool steel. From the microstructure
observations, the obtained results are analyzed and the
amounts of QH.W. and n were calculated. The following
results can be obtained:
1. In all investigated senarios, a peak stress is observed in
true stress-true strain curves.
2. The mechanism responsible for of DRX at 900 C is the
formation and expansion of twins in the microstructure
of examined steel.
3. By increasing the deformation temperature, the
softening mechanisms were gradually substituted by
subgrain rotation and coalescence. The latter
mechanism is dominated at 1050 C.
4. The values for the stress exponent, n, was calculated to
be 6.4.
5. Regarding the calculated stress exponent, the activation
energy, QH.W., was equal to 310 kJ/mol.
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
References
[1] C.A.C Imbert, H.J. McQueen: Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 40-2
(2001), 235-244.
[2] B. Mintz, S. Yue, J.J. Jonas: International Material Reviews, 36-5
(1991), 187-217.
[3] X. Wang, E. Bruger, G. Gottstein: Scripta Meterialia, 46 (2002), 875880.
[4] X. Wang, E. Bruger, G. Gottstein: Scripta Meterialia, 38-12 (1998),
1843-1849.
[5] C.A.C. Imbert, H.J. McQueen: Materials Science and Engineering A,
313 (2001), 88-103.
[6] N.D. Ryan, H.J. McQueen: Journal of Material Processing Technology, 21 (1999), 177-179.
[7] E. Evangelista, N.D. Ryan, H. J. McQueen: Materials Science and
Technology, 5-2 (1987), 50-58.
385
Metal Forming
Introduction
The tie-bar end (seen in Figure 1) is one important part
of the motor steering system, which is located on the base
of steering trapezium and linked with steering arm. [1].
Tie-bar end (seen in Figure 1(a)) is constituted by hollow
cylinder head 1, central part 2 with groove and pole-like
hollow tail 3, which are simply called head, central part
and tail, respectively as follows. Its top surface is a plane,
and the bottom surface is constituted by hole and groove
with different depth. Tie-bar end can be formed by
precision plastic forming process, as precision casting and
liquid forging. [2]. But the product with better strength and
working life is difficult to be obtained by casting and
liquid forging, while the product with homogenizing
internal fibrous tissue, can be obtained by forging, thus the
forging method is usually adopted to manufacture tie-bar
end. The tie-bar end is processed by open die forging and
machining, the product is shown in Figure 1. The weight
of blank is 5.5 kg. In the forging process, large flash can
be produced, and the hole and groove are difficult to be
formed. In the machining process, the material waste is
about 2.5 kg, the material utilization is low. Furthermore,
the machining process will break the metal fibrous tissue,
thus the strength and working life of the product cannot be
satisfied.
386
Metal Forming
Metal Forming
During the forming process of the tail part, the metal of
head and central part partly flows, so the stress distribution
is inhomogeneous.
388
Metal Forming
References
[1] J.R Chen: Construction of automobile part II, 2005, China Machine
Press, Beijing.
[2] J.C Xia: Precision forming of typical parts, 2008, China Machine
Press, Beijing.
[3] J.C Xia: Mold design of forging, 2007, Beijing Electronics Industry
Press, Beijing.
[4] L Deng, J.C Xia, X.Y Wang: China Machine engineering, 4 (2009),
869-872.
[5] S.I. Oh, W.T. Wu, K. Arimoto: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 111 (2001), 2-9.
[6] G Liu, L.B Zhang, X.L Hu: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 150 (2004), 56-61.
389
Metal Forming
School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan / Korea; 2) Faculty of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering,
Keimyung University, Daegu / Korea; 3) PNU-IFAM JRC, Pusan National University, Busan / Korea, o3man@pusan.ac.kr
The curved profile extrusion process is a manufacturing method for producing curved profiles without additional process such as press
bending or stretch bending. In this study, an automotive aluminium suspension arm was developed through the hollow curved profile extrusion process. The guiding tool movement condition was determined based on the curvature prediction model for producing an automotive
suspension arm that has the required radius. In addition, the porthole extrusion process was analyzed by using FE analysis to predict the
extrusion load and the welding pressures on the welding planes in the material. The bending process was analyzed to determine the moving conditions of the guiding tool. Finally, the hollow curved profile extrusion experiment was carried out to verify the effectiveness of the
proposed curved profile extrusion process condition, and to produce the aluminium suspension arm. It was found that the hollow curved
profile extrusion process is a very effective method for producing curved profiles.
Keywords: Curved profile extrusion, Aluminium suspension arm, Curvature prediction model, Guiding tool movement condition, Porthole
extrusion, FE analysis
Introduction
Recently, extruded aluminium hollow profiles are
widely used for automotive parts for higher stiffness and
lightweight [1-3]. Several automotive parts require curved
profiles, mainly due to their design arises from consideration of constrains on the shape [4]. Under conventional
process, an additional process such as press bending,
stretch bending or other various post processes, is needed
to produce curved hollow profiles after linear extrusion [58]. However, the additional post process increases production cost and decreases productivity. Moreover, in some
cases, it is not easy to meet the requirements for precision
and cost-effective production, due to cross-sectional deformation, irregular decrease of the profile wall thickness,
springback following bending, and a complexity of the
process design. These problems can be generally solved by
using bending process at high temperature. The curved
profile extrusion process is a manufacturing method that
can overcome the above problems [9-13]. In this process,
the bending process is simultaneously performed with the
extrusion process. Therefore, the extruded hollow profile
is bent with high temperature. The advantage of the extrusion and bending process can be combined in a single
process. The curved extrusion profiles are generated by
variations in the velocity of the material flow at the die
exit that are created by the movement of guiding tool. The
radius of the curved profile is determined by the position
of the guiding tool.
In this present study, a curved automotive aluminium(Al6XXX) suspension arm was developed by using the
hollow curved profile extrusion process. Firstly, the guiding tool movement condition was determined for producing the curved suspension arm by using a curvature prediction model. And then the porthole extrusion process and
bending process for the suspension arm were analyzed by
FE analysis. The extrusion load, welding pressure of the
material, the effectiveness of the curvature prediction
model were verified through the FE analysis. Finally, a
curved profile extrusion process experiment was per-
390
Grip tool
io n
trus
Ex
Extruded profile
Guiding roll
nd
Be
ing
Guiding tool
Metal Forming
a +U
[a + f (U,l2)] + (U l1 l2)
(a), R =
(b)
2U
2(U l1 l2)
(1)
145.0
Extruded
profile
Bending
a=310mm
l1=4.0mm
U
Linear extrusion
Grip tool
Grip tool
Extrusion die
The a, l1, and l2 values of the applied equipment for producing the suspension arm in this study are 310 mm, 4 mm,
and 3 mm, respectively. In Eq. (1-a), the function f(U,l2)
was determined through FE analysis and experiment. FE
analysis was carried out by varying the moving distance
(U) of the guiding tool and the gap, l2, with the constant, l1
= 4 mm. Figure 3 shows the result of FE analysis. Based
on the result of FE analysis, the function f(U,l2) was defined by using U and l2. As shown in Figure 4 the predicted radius coincides with the experimental radius for
the applied curved profile extrusion equipment in this
study.
16000
l2
l2
l2
l2
12000
8000
= 6 mm
= 4 mm
= 2 mm
= 0 mm
l2
l1=4mm
4000
0
7000
6000
Prediction model
5000
Experiment
(l1= 4mm, l2= 3mm)
Section 3
Container
Ram
Billet
Porthole
Welding
chamber
Figure 6. FE model for porthole extrusion process.
Table 1. Conditions for FE analysis of porthole extrusion.
Conditions
Value
279.4 h700.0
500.0
Temp. of tools(oC)
465.0
Ram speed(mm/s)
1.0
Friction factor(m)
0.6
Extrusion ratio
48.5
2000
Forming
1000
500
3000
20
40
60
Stroke (mm)
80
100
1000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
165
Section 2
2000
20
30
40
50
60
Guide tool moving distance (U, mm)
256.0
FE analysis of porthole extrusion was performed to investigate the extrusion load and the welding pressure of
material on the welding planes. The initial FE analysis
model is shown in Figure 6. The flow stress curve of the
initial material (Al6XXX) for various temperature (300,
400 and 550 oC) and strain rate (0.01, 0.1, 0.5 and 3.0 s-1)
was obtained by the compression test. The conditions of
the FE analysis are summarized in Table 1.
FE analysis
4000
Secti
on
15.25
R712
Guiding roll
l2=3.0mm
145.0
R16.0
Guiding tool
Guide axis
Guiding
roll
73.0
71.0
R=
71.0
roll, and the gap (l2) between the extruded profile and the
grip tool. The curvature (R) is calculated by Eq. (1-a). If
the l1 and l2 are zero, Eq. (1-a) can be written by Eq. (1-b).
391
Metal Forming
chamber, there are six welding planes. Figure 8 shows the
location of the welding planes in the suspension arm. The
welding pressures are very important in these planes because the welding strength of the final extruded profile
depends on the welding pressure. The distribution of welding pressures on the welding planes is shown in Figure 9.
The welding pressure is between 100.0-207.0 MPa. Considering the average flow stress of the material of 40.0
MPa, the welding pressure is about 2.0-4.1 times the average flow stress. In the previous study, this welding pressure is enough to guarantee the welding strength of the
divided materials on the welding planes [14].
125.0
15.25
29.43
R712
187.4
Grip tool
238.0
310.0
B=113
E=153
F=167
G=180
H=183
I = 202
Guiding roll
m
(b) Plane : ,
Suspension arm
0m
(a) Plane : ,
D=140
31
C=127
E
: 4 xtru
8. sio
5
mm n ve
/s loc
i
ty
VG
Figure 12. FE analysis for predicting central angle.
(d) Plane :
(c) Plane :
Figure 9. Welding pressure on the welding planes (MPa).
Metal Forming
flange of the suspension arm. The dimensional error is
within the dimensional tolerance of the suspension arm.
Conclusions
For producing curved hollow profiles, the hollow curved
profile extrusion process is a very useful method compared with any conventional cold bending process that
follows a linear extrusion process. In this study, the process conditions of the curved profile extrusion process were
established for producing the curved aluminium suspension arm, and the following results were obtained.
1. The curvature radius depends on the moving distance of
the guiding tool from the extrusion axis, the distance between the grip tool and the guiding tool, and the gaps
between the profile and the guiding roll and between
profile and the grip tool. In this study, a curvature prediction model was proposed for the curved profile extrusion process based on these factors.
2. FE analysis of the porthole extrusion process for producing the suspension arm was carried out. The maximum extrusion load was about 18 MN from the result.
The welding pressure of material on the welding planes
was about 2.0-4.1 times the average flow stress.
3. The moving conditions of the guiding tool were established by using the prediction mode of the curvature radius and the FE analysis.
4. Finally, the experiment of the hollow curved profile
extrusion process was performed. The maximum dimensional error between the produced suspension arm and
the profile checker is about 1.2 mm, and this value was
within the allowable tolerance.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Research
Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government
(NRF-2006-K20601000004-09E0100-00410),
and NCRC Program of MOST and KOSEP (No. R152006-022-03003-0).
References
n1
Se ctio
Section 2
Section 3
393
Metal Forming
2)
This paper is concerned with the analysis of the forming load characteristics of a forward-backward extrusion process using commercially
available thick walled pipes as an initial billet. Combined extrusion processes generally have advantages of forming in terms of minimum
deformation power since the material is pressed through two or more orifices simultaneously. The combined tube forming process was
analyzed by using a commercially available finite element code, which is programmed in rigid plasticity theory with selected model material
as AISI 1015 steel. The punch geometry has been selected on the basis of ICFG recommendations. Several parameters related to tool and
workpiece were employed in the analysis and they are punch nose radius, backward tube thickness, punch face angle, and frictional conditions at the tool/workpiece interface, respectively. The main purpose of this investigation is to reveal the relationships between process
parameters and force requirements in combined extrusion process. The possible extrusion processes to form a forward-backward tube
parts in different process sequence were also simulated to investigate the forming load characteristics for different sequential operations.
Keywords: Combined extrusion, AISI 1015 steel, Punch face angle, Punch nose radius, Sequential operation, Thick walled pipes
Introduction
The basic processes involved in cold extrusion are
classified depending on their forming direction as forward,
backward and lateral extrusion [1]. In combined
simultaneous extrusion processes, a billet extruded
simultaneously in the forward, backward and radial
directions through plural orifices in the tool assembly.
Processes like backward combined with forward extrusion
[2], radial forward extrusion [3], and radial backward
extrusion [4] are typical extrusion of these processes.
In a combined forward/backward extrusion process, material flows into the die cavity in backward and forward
directions by means of axial movement of punch. In this
process, there are variety of extrusion ratios and lengths in
forward and backward directions, and simultaneous completion of material flow in the two directions is almost
impossible. Generally, one of the extruded parts reaches its
pre-determined length earlier and is stopped by the die
with mechanical type of stopper.
In the present study, the influence of tool geometry such
as backward tube thickness, die corner radius, and punch
face angle has been investigated on the characteristics of
force requirements in the forward extrusion combined with
backward extrusion process. The initial billet employed in
simulation is a thick-walled pipe of which outer diameter
is 32.0 mm. The specimen height is selected as 30.0 mm.
Different frictional conditions were also employed as a
process parameter to investigate the effect of the friction
factor on the characteristics of force requirements.
Analysis by FEM has gained wide application, in many
cases, in the area of metal forming process since the
method had been justified by its solution reliability and
computational efficiency. A commercially available FEM
code Deform-2DTM [5] has been used for simulation,
which is programmed in a theory of rigid plasticity. Due to
the nature of symmetry, half of the specimen was
represented to construct a 2-D model. A total of 2000
quadrilateral elements were employed to model the
specimen. The punch and die were modeled as a rigid body.
The die velocity was kept constant at 1 mm/sec. The
394
lF
R3 : Die corner radius
R2
lB : Backward tube length
R3
lF : Forward tube length
2a : Punch face angle
Di
W1
: Die angle
D
F
W1 : Forward tube thickness
W2 : Backward tube thickness
Figure 1. Tool and workpiece geometries.
794 . 3
0.11
MPa
(1)
Metal Forming
CL
R1=0.74
CL
Unit : MPa
W2=4.4
R1=1.74
CL
R1=2.74
W2=4.4
R1=1.74
Unit : MPa
W2=3.8
R1=1.83
W2=3.3
R1=2.905
Figure 2. Deformation patterns and contact pressure distributions for various punch nose radii (top) and backward tube thicknesses (bottom) with friction factors of 0.1 (left) and 0.2 (right), respectively.
different backward tube thicknesses (W2) with three different punch nose radii (R1) such as R1 = 1.74, 1.83 and
2.905 mm. It is generally seen in the figure that the can
height extruded in backward direction increases as both
friction factor and punch corner radius increases. This
trend is intensified with decreasing backward tube thickness. It is also noted in the figure that the maximum pressure exerted on the tool increases with increasing friction
factors and is mostly below 4,000MPa, which is the pressure recommended by experts for safe tooling [8]. The
maximum pressures appear both near punch face and die
exit in forward direction. It can be generally said that the
maximum pressure is not influenced very much by punch
nose radius and backward tube thickness.
1400
Tool geometry employed in simulation is shown in Figure 1. The initial and final tool positions in the forward/backward can extrusion process in combined operation are also described in the figure together with tool
geometries and process parameters, and they are summarized in Table 1. It should be noted in the table that three
different punch nose radii (R1) have been applied in the
simulations for each case of backward tube thickness (W2).
The applied punch nose radii are 0.905, 1.905 and 2.905
mm for the backward tube thickness of 3.3 mm, 0.83, 1.83,
2.83 mm for tube thickness of 3.8 mm, and 0.74, 1.74,
2.74 mm for tube thickness of 4.4 mm, respectively. The
punch geometry has been selected by following the recommendation of ICFG (International Cold Forging Group)
for successful operation [8].
22.6 mm
30 mm
Die angle ()
17
25 mm
3.7 mm
160, 180
0.1, 0.2
1 mm, 2 mm
800
600
W2 = 4.4
R1=0.74
R1=1.74
R1=2.74
400
0
32 mm
1000
1400
1200
200
W2 = 3.8 W2 = 3.3
R1=0.84 R1=0.945
R1=1.83 R1=1.905
R1=2.83 R1=2.905
1200
1000
W2=4.4
W2=3.8
W2=3.3
800
600
4.4
3.8
3.3
400
200
0
0
10
15
20
25
Punch Stroke [mm]
Figure 3. Load-stroke relationships for various punch nose radii
(top) and backward tube thicknesses (bottom).
395
Metal Forming
1000
400
R2=1, R3=1
R2=1, R3=2
R2=2, R3=1
200
1000
800
600
2a=160, R1=0.74
2a=160, R1=1.74
2a=160, R1=2.74
2a=180, R1=0.74
2a=180, R1=1.74
2a=180, R1=2.74
400
200
0
0
10
15
20
25
Punch Stroke [mm]
Figure 4. Load-stroke relationships for various die corner radii
(top) and punch face angles (bottom).
m=0.2
R2=1, R3=1
R2=1, R3=2
R2=2, R3=1
900
1400
17.9
18.5
17.0
18.2
1200
24.7
23.8
29.4
27.5
1000
14.7
17.6
800
35.5
31.3
600
400
200
0
0
10
15
20
25
Punch Stroke [mm]
Figure 5. Influence of friction factors on the force requirements.
m=0.2
m=0.1
2a = 160
2a = 180
R1 = 0.74, 0.83, 0.905
800
1100
m=0.1
R2=1, R3=1
R2=1, R3=2
R2=2, R3=1
700
1200
600
396
1100
m=0.2
1000
m=0.1
900
800
700
1200
1100
800
1200
1000
m=0.2
1000
m=0.1
900
800
700
23.2
24.4
25.4
Punch diameter [mm]
Figure 6. Relationships between maximum farce requirements
and punch diameters for various process parameters.
The maximum forming loads for various process parameters are shown in Figure 6. It is easily seen that the
maximum forming load increases almost linearly as the
punch diameter increases or the backward tube thickness
decreases. The figure also tells that the maximum forming
load increases as the friction factor increases. This trend is
intensified with increasing punch diameters.
Alternative Process Sequences. The product of forward
and backward tube shape could be extruded simultaneously in combined process as well as in sequential operations by combining separate processes. Figure 7 shows
five possible processes to manufacture the tube products
with the same initial billet.
The predicted results of the forming load requirements
are shown in Figure 8 in terms of load-stroke relationships
and pressure distributions exerted on the tool for all possible processes to produce a forward and backward tube
shape. It is easily seen in the figure that the maximum
force requirements in sequential operations, i.e. processes
of curves B, C and D, are about 30% greater than that in
the combined process, i.e. curve G. Statistics in Table 2
tells that the combined operation has all the advantages of
forming energy, forming load, and maximum pressure.
Table 2. Statistics for each possible process.
Forming
Maximum
Maximum
Possible
Energy
Force
Pressure
processes
(kJ)
(kN)
(MPa)
Process I (A+C)
14.317
959.7
3680
Process II (A+D)
14.562
956.9
3900
18.019
938.7
5780
Process IV (B+F)
18.132
938.7
5600
Process V (G)
13.915
776.3
3230
Metal Forming
CL
CL
CL
Process I
Process III
Backward
Forward
Backward
Process V
Forward
Combined
Process II
Process IV
Backward
Forward
1200
1100
1000
-B- : Forward
900
Process I : A + C
Process II : A + D
Process III : B + E
Process IV : B + F
Process V : G
800
-A- : Backward
700
-G- : Combined
600
-F- : Forward
500
-E- : Backward
400
300
3680
200
1230
100
-A-
0
0
3900
3510
2800
3460
1090
1940
1980
1370
-B-
-C-
2810
5780
3240
1280
3230
4870
2850
1810
1700 3270
1060
2000
3610
5600 3650
-D-
-E-
-F-
-G-
10
15
20
25
Punch stroke [mm]
Figure 8. Comparison of forming loads and pressure distributions among possible processes.
Conclusions
Acknowledgment
This paper was published with support of INHA University Research Grant.
References
[1] B.D. Ko, DJ. Kim, S.H. Lee, B.B. Hwang: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 113 (2001), 109-114.
[2] H.Y. Cho, G.S. Min, C.Y. Jo, M.H. Kim: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 135 (2003), 375-381.
[3] Y.S. Lee, S.K. Hwang, Y.S. Chang, B.B. Hwang: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 113 (2001), 136-140.
[4] H.J. Choi, J.H. Choi, B.B. Hwang: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 113 (2001), 141-147.
[5] SFTC: DEFORM-2D Ver.8.0 User Manual, Scientific Forming Technologies Corporation Inc, (2004).
[6] J.A. Schey: Metal Deformation processes Friction and Lubrication,
Marcel Dekker, (1970).
[7] Air Force Material Laboratory: Forming Equipment, Materials and
practices, Metal and Ceramics Information Center (1973), 164.
[8] International Cold Forging Group: General recommendations for
design, manufacture and operational aspects of cold extrusion tools
for steel components, ICFG Doc. No. 6/82, Portcullis Press (1983).
397
Metal Forming
Introduction
The geometrical accuracy, shape uniformity of the cold
forged parts and especially their stability during the production process, depend not only the tooling but also on
the whole metal-forming system. To control such system,
it is not only enough to identify the influential parameters
but also essential to know their individual and interrelated
impacts. Influential parameters [1] are categorized into
four major groups such as the selection of input material,
tools, the machine and the forming process sequence.
When material is pressed through two or more orifices
simultaneously, the deformation is self regulating and will
provide the minimum deformation power, leading to lower
loads on tools. Die failures normally occurring in a sequential operation have been eliminated by using a single
combined process [2]. A combined extrusion process offers potentiality of producing variety of complex and precise components and it expands the scope and versatility
of the cold forging process. A wide range of engineering
components are being manufactured these days by various
types of combined extrusion processes [3].
Simultaneous completion of the material flow in the two
directions is almost impossible because of the cavity of
extrusion ratios and lengths in forward and backward
directions in the combined process. In this sense, control
of the material flow is extremely important for reducing
the extrusion pressure at the final stage of the forward/backward extrusion process in order to take advantage of the combined processes [4]. In general, the cavity
for a smaller extrusion ratio is filled first, and then the
forming pressure increases sharply because the simultaneous extrusion becomes a single extrusion process [5].
Analysis by FEM has gained wide application, in many
cases, in the area of metal forming process since the method had been justified by its solution reliability and computational efficiency. In the present study, the influence of
tool geometry such as backward tube thickness, die corner
radius, and semi die angle has been investigated on the
characteristics of the material flow into each orifice in
term of extruded length and volume ratios in the forward
extrusion combined with backward extrusion. Different
398
frictional conditions were also selected as a process parameter to investigate the effect of the friction factor on
the characteristics of the material flow. Pressure exerted on
the interface is also investigated for various process parameters. A commercially available FEM code Deform2DTM [6] has been used for simulation, which is programmed in theory of rigid plasticity. Due to the nature of
symmetry, half of the specimen was represented to construct a 2-D model. A total of 2000 quadrilateral elements
were employed to model the specimen. The punch and die
were modeled as rigid bodies. The die velocity was kept
constant at 1 mm/sec. The punch movement ended when
the punch stroke reached 25 mm. In finite element modeling, relatively high mesh densities were applied to deDs
CL
b
stem
R1
2a
nose
Df face
DP
h(land) = 0.3DP to DP
R1(punch nose radius) =
0.05DP to 0.07DP
b(relief angle) = 4to 5
2a(face angle) = 160 to 180
Df(punch face) =
DP-(2R1+(0.2DP to 0.3DP))
Ds = DP-(0.1 to 0.2)
DP = Punch diameter
D0
DP
C
L
W2
lB
R2
R3
Di
lF
W1
DF
Metal Forming
CL
A
lB
VB
VF
lF
30 mm
Mandrel diameter Di
15.2 mm
Forward diameter DF
22.6 mm
Punch stroke hs
25 mm
3.7 mm
Punch diameter DP
0.74 mm
160
Friction factor m
= 715. 67
0.22
MPa
(1)
Unit : MPa, mm
1450
3290
1480
1340
1440
2820
4910
1450
1490
1850
1460
4890
3510
1360
19.76
25.31
26.42
1400
3070
4520
4390
1260 1400
863 880
871
1440
2850
R2,R3=2.5mm
1030
1500
1880
5480
5080
1310 1670
1420
1300
19.44
19.93
19.13
26.28
26.93
19.18
850
1020
1430
1850
1440
2820
19.34
1020
28.43
19.76
R2,R3=1.5mm
25.31
17.95
31.98
1020
1480
1440
2820
1480 1340
=45
18.71
4960
4920
1440 1610
3290
1340
1020
1450
3290
1020
884
1390
2400
25.33
1020
1450
4920
4960
1440 1610
4960
4920
1440 1610
1020
26.37
19.13
R2,R3=1mm
1440
1600
2860
19.64
1910
1610
W2=4.4mm
1130
25.30
1230
3710
4700
1500 1900
=22
19.13
19.46
1160
26.28
1380
1060
1720
2610
1020
19.12
1320
925
W2=3.8mm
26.57
959
10.84
=10
5030
4770
1440 1730
3460
26.28
1810
2460
32.48
1800 1680
28.12
1790
2020
1550
19.76
30.32
9.34
39.60
1770
3710
2100
3150 1730
25.31
14.42
W2=3.3mm
Figure 3. Deformation patterns and pressure distributions for various backward tube thickness (top), semi die angle (middle), die corner
radii (bottom) with friction factors of 0.1 (left) and 0.2 (right).
399
Metal Forming
2.0
W2 = 3.3 mm
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
1.5
m = 0.1
m = 0.2
=
45
1.0
0.5
=
10
0.0
3.5
W2 = 4.4 mm
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
3.0
2.5
W2 = 3.3 mm
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
m = 0.1
m = 0.2
=
45
=
10
0.0
0
10
15
20
25
Stroke [mm]
Figure 4. Relationships between extruded volume (top), length
ratio (bottom), and punch strokes for various process parameters.
(top), semi die angles (middle), and die corner radii (bottom) with friction factors of 0.1 (left) and 0.2 (right), respectively. It is generally seen in the figure that the flow
resistance in backward direction increases with decreasing
friction factor and this leads to form shorter tube lengths in
backward direction for smaller friction factor. This trend is
intensified with decreasing backward tube thickness. It is
also noted in the figure that die corner radii are not an
influential process parameter affecting the material flow
into each orifice in combined tube extrusion process.
However, it seems that the material flow is significantly
Extruded length ratio (lB/lF)
2.5
2.0
1.5
= 10
= 22
= 45
2.5
2.0
1.5
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
R2,R3 = 1.5 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
= 10
= 22
= 45
0.5
0.0
3.3
3.8
4.4
Backward tube thickness (W2) [mm]
Figure 5. Relationships between extruded volume (top), length
ratio (bottom), and backward tube thickness for various semi die
angles and die corner radii for m=0.1.
1.5
1.0
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
R2,R3 = 1.5 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
W2 = 3.3 mm
W2 = 3.8 mm
W2 = 4.4 mm
0.0
3.5
1.0
400
2.0
0.5
0.5
3.0
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
R2,R3 = 1.5 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
1.0
0.0
3.5
W2 = 4.4 mm
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
2.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
R2,R3 = 1.5 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
W2 = 3.3 mm
W2 = 3.8 mm
W2 = 4.4 mm
1.0
0.5
0.0
10
22
45
Semi die angle () []
Figure 6. Relationships between extruded volume (top), length
ratio (bottom), and semi die angle for various backward tube
thicknesses and die corner radii for m=0.1.
Metal Forming
2.5
= 10
= 22
= 45
2.0
W2 = 3.3 mm
W2 = 3.8 mm
W2 = 4.4 mm
2.0
1.5
1.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
= 10
W2 = 3.3 mm
W2 = 4.4 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
= 45
W2 = 3.3 mm
W2 = 4.4 mm
0.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
= 10
W2 = 3.3 mm
W2 = 4.4 mm
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
= 45
W2 = 3.3 mm
W2 = 4.4 mm
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.15
Friction factor (m)
Effect of Semi Die Angle. In Figure 6, the results of extensive analysis are shown in terms of the effect of semi
die angle on the extruded length (top) and volume ratio
(bottom), respectively. It is easily seen in the figure that
the ratios increase as the semi die angle increases and the
trend is intensified for greater semi die angle. The smaller
die corner radius leads to larger ratios and this tendency is
intensified with increasing backward tube thickness. It can
be said that the semi die angle is more influential parameter affecting the material flow divided into each orifice.
Effect of Die Corner Radii. It is seen again apparently
in Figure 7 that the effect of die corner radius on the volume (top) and extruded length ratio (bottom) are negligible. However, it is also revealed more apparently that the
semi die angle is the most influential one among the process parameters affecting the material flow into each orifice.
It should be noted in the figure that the material flow into
each orifice changes more sensitively for variation of die
corner radius as both semi die angle and backward tube
thickness increase.
Effect of Frictional Conditions. The effect of frictional
conditions at the tool/workpiece interface on the volume
(top) and extruded length ratio (bottom) is shown in Figure 8. It is again easily seen in the figure that the frictional
condition at the tool/workpiece interface is not an influential process parameter as the die corner radius in Figure 7,
in terms of material flow ratios into each orifice. However,
it is revealed in the figure that the other process parameters such as the die corner radius, etc. become more influential one for material flow ratios at mild frictional conditions.
0.1
0.2
R2,R3 = 2.5 mm
= 45
W2 = 3.3 mm
W2 = 4.4 mm
0.5
0.5
0.0
3.5
R2,R3 = 1.0 mm
= 10
W2 = 3.3 mm
W2 = 4.4 mm
1.0
1.0
2.5
0.15
Friction factor (m)
0.2
Conclusions
A rigid-plastic FE method has been employed to investigate the combined forward/backward tube extrusion processes. It can be concluded from the simulation results that
the material flow ratio for each orifice increases as the
backward tube thickness and semi die angle increases. The
effect of die corner radius and frictional condition at the
tool/workpiece interface on the divided material flow into
each orifice seems negligible. The maximum forming load
increases as the backward tube thickness, semi die angle
and friction factor increase.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by INHA University Research
Grant.
References
[1] K. Kuzman: Proc. 6th ICTP, Nuremberg, (1999), 805.
[2] J.A. Paul, R. Shivpuri, T. Altan: ERC/NSM Report, No. B8928
(1989), 11.
[3] H. H. Lin, K. Kawakami, H. Kudo: CIRP Annals, 37 (1988), 231.
[4] H. H. Lin, H. Kudo: Proc. of the 4th ICTP, Beijing, China, (1993),
1239.
[5] K. Osakada, X. Wang, S. Hanami: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 71 (1997), 105.
[6] SFTC: DEFORM-2D Ver. 8.0 User Manual, Scientific Forming
Technologies Corporation Inc.
[7] J.A. Schey: Metal Deformation Processes Friction and Lubrication,
Marcel Dekker, New York, (1970).
[8] Air Force Material Laboratory: Forming equipment, Materials and
Practices, Metal and Ceramics Information Center, (1973), 164.
401
Metal Forming
Carpenter Technology Corporation, Reading / USA; 2)Institute for Metal Forming, Lehigh University, Bethlehem / USA wzm2@lehigh.edu
Physical and Finite Element Modeling (FEM) approaches were used to understand and simulate the geometrical and microstructural development during the co-extrusion of stainless steel/plain carbon steel tubing. The FEM results were used to understand the bulk flow of the
materials and the effect of billet geometry on final layer thickness distribution as well as to provide state variable results used in the physical
modeling. Novel billet design using a shortened core was proposed in an effort to better control material flow during the co-extrusion of
stainless steel/plain carbon steel tubes. In order to minimize the amount of material that is extruded out of geometrical tolerance as a
result of non-concurrent material flow, the core length in the initial billet was shortened. Extrusion was simulated using DEFORM 2D finite
element modeling software and compared to actual extrusion experiments performed on the industrial press. FEM and industrial scale
extrusion results are presented and compared for two different extrusion ratios. There is a strong agreement between the FEM and actual
results when investigating the core material distribution throughout the extrudate. It is shown that by reducing the core length in the initial
billet approximately 10% - 20%, concurrent material flow is promoted during the early stage of extrusion and the amount of out of tolerance
material is minimized. Physical modeling performed via isothermal compression tests was used to understand the development of the
thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) in the final product. Due to diffusion of elements at the interface of the two materials, a unique
layered microstructure develops, which was further characterized using electron microprobe analysis (EPMA). The approach presented
here is sufficient to characterize the deformation behavior and microstructural development of different bi-material systems.
Keywords: Co-extrusion, bi-metal extrusion, bi-material extrusion, FEM, thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ)
Introduction
Co-extrusion of shapes and tubes is a manufacturing
technique where the initial extrusion billet is composed of
multiple materials that are concurrently extruded into a
bonded product. This type of bonding differs from the
diffusion bond because pressure and metal flow are used
in addition to chemical transport at the interface to join the
materials. Two different alloys of the same material system
or drastically different materials that are difficult to join
may be used to form a final, sound, composite product.
The most common metals welded by the co-extrusion
process include low-carbon and stainless steel, aluminum,
aluminum alloys, copper, and copper alloys. Additional
applicable materials include nickel, zirconium, titanium,
tantalum, niobium, and their alloys [1].
Extruding bi-materials presents problems that are not
encountered when extruding a single material. The continuity of the bond is an important consideration for both
strength and physical properties (corrosion resistance,
thermal conductivity, etc.). Development of transformation
products between the two layers is an important factor to
be considered. Figure 1 outlines the stages of microstructural bond development in solid state welding, focusing on
the thermomechanically affected zone.
A model system used in this study included 304 stainless
steel and 1020 plain carbon steel co-extrusion and to successfully model the process on a lab scale. The weld interface and thermal mechanically affected zone (TMAZ)
between the materials is of the most importance because it
is the most likely region for failure to occur and will exhibit the most complex microstructure. An understanding
of the development of the interfaces between materials
systems is critical for meeting production needs; however,
even for simple systems that form solid solution alloys
there is a lack of knowledge of the interface reactions [1].
Chemistry of the two steels is shown in Table 1.
402
0.19
0.02
Cr
18.27
Mn
Ni
0.71
1.13
9.32
0.050
0.025
Si
0.41
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
38.1 mm
Metal Forming
Figures 3 and 4 outline results of predicted and measured core thicknesses in the 3.3 extrusion ratio, full length
core and 10.6 extrusion ratio, 80% core. Agreement between the model and the actual is good, and was consistent
for all cases trials[5].
Results
The extrusion experiment was modeled using DEFORM-2D FEM software and core/sleeve thickness
distribution was measured as well as maximum effective
strain and strain rate at the material interface. These process parameters were used to physically simulate the extrusion process with a Gleeble Hydrawedge system. Samples
of the two materials were machined into cylinders 6 mm
thick and 10 mm in diameter. The materials were butted
together at a force of 445 N, held at the preheat temperature for the extrusion ratio conditions for the corresponding time, and were deformed at the corresponding extrusion temperature using a Gleeble Hydrawedge system. The
samples were allowed to air cool to room temperature
while still in the grips. Additionally, the low extrusion
ratio simulation sample was placed back into a box furnace at 1100 C and allowed to furnace cool to 200 C and
then air cooled to room temperature.
R=
= 10.6
10.6
R
80% Core
Core
80%
Actual
Ac tual
FEM
FEM
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Shortened
Core
Length
Sleeve
Thickness
Core
Thickness
12
RR
= 3.3
= 3.3
100%
Core
100%
Core
Actual
Actual
FEM
FEM
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
40 0
Metallographic examination of the extrudate cross section in the bond region revealed banded perlite in the bulk
of the plain carbon steel (also present in the unextruded
material) and a decarburized layer with large ferrite grains
adjacent to the bond. The stainless steel exhibits profuse
403
Metal Forming
SEM
SS
Ni
Fe
PC
Cr
SEM
SS
Fe
Ni
PC
Cr
Discussion
When the core thickness data from the actual extrudates
is compared to the FEM results the agreement is good.
Samples extruded using the lower extrusion ratio show the
same general core thickness distribution as the simulations,
but it is shifted back slightly in the extrudate.
The FEM simulations show that a billet with a core
length 80% (out of the conditions simulated) of the overall
length produces the optimal extrusion results. For both the
low and high extrusion ratios this proves to be true in the
actual extrusion experiments as well. Although low extrusion ratios promote concurrent flow of material [6], an
extrusion ratio of 3.3 appears to be high enough to benefit
from a billet with a recessed core. This is illustrated in
Figure 8. When the core is the full length of the billet the
core extrudes at a thickness equal to or greater than its
initial value. This is caused by a radial flow of the sleeve
404
R=10.6
R=10.6
R=10.6
90%
80%
Full
Figure 8. Axi-symmetric 2D FEM results showing early stage
development of co-extrusion.
Metal Forming
Summary of the microstructural development is shown
in Figure 9. At the preheat temperature, the microstructure
of both the plain carbon and stainless steel is austenite. Cr,
Ni, and Mn begins to diffuse from the 304 stainless steel
into the plain carbon steel, while C and Fe begin to diffuse
into the stainless steel. This creates a decarburized region
in the plain carbon steel adjacent to the interface, while a
region enriched in Cr, Ni, and Mn begins to form in the
plain carbon steel adjacent to the interface. As the material
is cooled below the A3 temperature, the austenite in the
plain carbon steel begins to transform to ferrite, and begins
to eject C into the surrounding austenite. Directly adjacent
to the bond in the plain carbon steel, a band of austenite is
stabilized for longer times to lower temperatures due to the
increase in Ni via diffusion from the stainless steel. This
layer becomes enriched in C and eventually transforms
into pearlite at low cooling rates or martensite at high
cooling rates. As the temperature reaches the solvus temperature for the Cr rich carbides (temperature dependant
on C content as well as the type of Cr carbide), the carbides begin to precipitate in the stainless steel. Near the
interface, where there is a higher amount of carbon, the
precipitates form on both the grain boundary and the grain
interiors, farther away from the interface the carbides only
form on the austenite grain boundaries. Slow cool to room
temperature allows for ample time to exceed the critical
cooling rate forming a decarburized region in the plain
carbon stainless steel and a thin layer of carbon rich,
chromium containing carbides (M7C3) nearest the interface
as well as additional chromium carbide precipitation
(M23C6) on austenite grain boundaries in the stainless steel.
These layers were extensively characterized by others in
similar material and processing situations [8-11].
Conclusions
1. Accurate simulation of bond microstructural development can be performed via a combination of FEM modeling and physical modeling to determine the state variables (temperature, strain, strain rate) and to apply them
into physical modeling experiments
2. Predicted core thickness distribution from FEM analysis
closely matches results from industrial scale extrusion
experiments which validates the FEM prediction.
3. FEM can be used to determine material layer thickness
in co-extruded products as a function of billet design
4. Reducing the length of the core material 10% or more
promotes concurrent material flow during extrusion resulting in higher yield.
Diffusion Layer
102
304
t = 0, T = 25 C,
=0
t = 2hr, T = 1100 C,
=0
A+F+P
A A A
t = 2hr, T = 1100 C,
= 1.2
AA
++
FF
+
P
A+MxCy
F
+F
P
A+MxCy
t >> 2hr, T =
25 C, = 1.2
References
[1] Coextrusion welding, ASM International, ASM Handbook Vol. 6:
Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, (1993), 311
[2] S. Kou: Welding Metallurgy, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., (2003)
[3] C. Kusko, J. DuPont, A. Marder: Proc. Materials Solutions Conference 1999 on Joining of Advanced and Specialty Materials, USA, 1-4
(1999), 125-131
[4] G. Kohn, A. Stern: International Trends in Welding Science and
Technology; Gatlinburg, Tennessee, 1-5 (1992), 335-338
[5] M. Epler, W. Misiolek: Materials Science and Engineering A, 429
(2006) 43-49
[6] M. Apperley, C. Sorrell, A. Crosky: Journal of Material Processing.
Technology, 102 (2000), 193
[7] P. Kazanowski, M. Epler, W. Misiolek: Materials Science and Engineering A, 369 (2004), 170-180
[8] I. Gutierrez, J. Urcola, J. Bilbao, L Villar: Journal of Materials Science and Technology, 7-8 (1991), 761-769
[9] X. Gomez, J. Echeberria, Journal of Materials Science and Technology, 16-2 (2000), 187-193
[10] X. Gomez, J. Echeberria: Journal of Materials Science and Engineering A, 348-1-2 (2003) 180-191
[11] B. Lopez, X. Gomez, J. Echeberria: Key Engineering Materials, 127
Part 1 & 2 (1997), 695-702
405
Metal Forming
2)
The effect of ultrasonic vibration on extrusion has been investigated in the actual experiment. At first, the effect was confirmed in the
compression. Ultrasonic vibration has been applied on the aluminum circular disk during the compression process at room temperature.
The load and pressure increase according to the displacement without ultrasonic vibration. When the ultrasonic vibration is applied on the
compression tool, the load reduces immediately to about 50%, and it returns to the same load without ultrasonic vibration when the
vibration is removed. From this fact, the mechanism of the reduction of the load by ultrasonic vibration has been investigated. Next,
utrasonic vibration has been applied on the die in the backward extrusion of pure aluminum at room temperature. The extrusion load
reduced 40% compared with that without vibration. In the backward extrusion, the die is vibrated directly by the ultrasonic horn and the
material under the die is compressed with vibration flowing to the die exit. On the other hand, when the ultrasonic vibration is applied on the
stem in the forward extrusion, the effect was not so prominent as the case of backward extrusion.
Keywords: Ultrasonic vibration, Extrusion, Compression, Experiment, Working load
Introduction
Ultrasonic
vibration
horn
Aluminum
circular
cylinder 8
Compression
Figure 1. Compression equipment using ultrasonic vibration.
120
Metal Compression
406
Without vibration
100
Stress/MPa
12
Ultrasonic vibration is often applied on the metal forming process such as bending, drawing and bonding to reduce the working load [1-3]. It is also known that load is
reduced by ultrasonic vibration in the metal compression
test [4]. There is a simulation report that extrusion load is
reduced by the ultrasonic vibration applied on the die [5].
But there is no experimental evidence on the effect of
ultrasonic vibration on the extrusion. The purpose of this
study is to elucidate the effect of ultrasonic vibration on
the extrusion by the actual experiment. At first the effect in
the metal compression is confirmed. Next the effect on the
extrusion has been investigated.
80
60
40
20
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
Strain
0.2
0.25
Metal Forming
Backward Extrusion
120
Vibration
is applied
100
Stress/MPa
Without vibration
Vibration
is removed
80
60
40
20
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
Strain
0.2
Extrusion load
0.25
Container
Elastic displacement
Plastic displacement
Billet
4.3
6
Ultrasonic
vibration horn
7.8
0.03
8 -- 0.06
Load-displacement
curve with ultrasonic
vibration
=Detected load by load
cell equipped above the
ultrasonic vibration unit
Die
Ultrasonic
vibration horn
4
8 +- 00.03
Die
Container
407
Metal Forming
on the die with vibration. Amplitude of the vibration was
15 m. Polymer lubricant was painted on the billet surface
before inserting to the container.
flows not only from die exit but also from the outside
clearance between the die and the container surface in the
case of extrusion with vibration.
Load cell
Upper rod
Ultrasonic vibration unit
Container holder
Lower rod
Extrusion load/kN
Compression process
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Extrusion process
Without ultrasonic
vibration
0.5
1.5
2
Stroke/mm
2.5
Forward Extrusion
Forward extrusion equipment is shown in Figure 11.
Ultrasonic vibration bar is pressed directly on the billet in
the container. The bottom part of the bar has a precise
diameter as the inside diameter of the container with the
same clearance in the die used in the backward extrusion.
The maximum amplitude of the vibration about 15 m
occurs at the bottom of the bar. The billet is extruded from
the die exit at the bottom of the container. Diameter of the
die exit is 4mm.
The billet size is 8 mm in diameter and 12 mm in the
length the same as that in the backward extrusion. The
material is 99.5% pure aluminum that was machined from
the cast ingot. Polymer lubricant was also painted on the
billet surface before inserting to the container.
Vibration was applied after the contact of the bar with
the billet because the vibrating bar often caused vibrating
slip contact with the inside surface of the container when
the bar was inserted into the container before the contact
with the billet.
Metal Forming
Extrusion load
Ultrasonic
vibration horn
Container
8
Die
Billet
Without ultrasonic
vibration
20
Extrusion load/kN
Extrusion process
Vibration
is added
15
3
4
Stroke/mm
409
Metal Forming
Introduction
Cold forging processes are used to produce small products like automobile parts. This process has several advantages: good yield ratio, high production speed and good
dimensional accuracy compared with hot and warm forging processes. However, the dimensional accuracy of cold
forging process is generally less than that of machining
process. The dimensional error is caused by misalignment
of upper and lower dies, elastic deformation of die and
workpiece, stiffness of press and heat contraction etc. [1-5].
Therefore ironing or machining process is necessary to
correct the shape of product. But increasing of the number
of process or disposing of materials lead to the increase of
production cost. Thus cold forging process with high accuracy (without correction process) is necessary by optimization of process condition of forging. There are many researches about high accuracy of cold forging process [6-8].
However, these proposed processes need complex die and
process. Therefore, in this study, slide motion is focused to
improve the dimensional accuracy of cold forging process.
The punch stroke of conventional crank presses is not
flexible. Thus a servo press is used in this study. Its slide
motion is controlled freely. It is possible that punch stroke
is static at bottom dead point and the direction of crank
rotation is reversed during mid-deformation [9]. Furthermore, slide oscillation is set up during one stroke. In this
study, the influence of some conditions of slide motion on
dimensional accuracy is investigated experimentally. Additionally, deformation analysis of forging process is carried out to investigate distribution of heat in metal forming
process by using Finite Element Method (FEM).
Experimental Equipment. Servo press H1F80 (KOMATSU, Japan) was used and the specifications are following, maximum load capacity is 800 kN, stroke of slide
is 130 mm, maximum stroke speed is 75 spm and rated
capacity of servo motor is15 kW. Figure 2 shows the press
appearance and die set. The shape of die used in this study
is shown Figure 3. Material of the die is SKH51 (tool
steel) and punch material is cemented carbide (G5).
410
Metal Forming
(1)
D = Dout Din
1 n
2
S = (Dout Dave )
n i=1
(2)
where Dout, Din and Dave are the outer diameter of the
specimen, the inner diameter of the die and average of the
outer diameter of the specimen, respectively. Decreasing
of D means the shape of specimen being close to designed value. Parameter S means standard deviation and
decreasing this value means that shape of workpiece is
straight.
Figure 3. Shape of die used in backward extrusion process.
Experimental Conditions. The conditions of slide motion are shown in Figure 4. Experiment was carried out
under 2 conditions of stroke speeds of 7.5 and 40 spm.
Specimens were treated phosphate coating as a lubricant.
The shapes of specimens were measured at room temperature after cooling.
411
Metal Forming
(a) 40 spm
Metal Forming
cooling in the case of 3Strike-1 and KBP (40 spm). The
outer shape tucks inward because of punch land as the
measurement point goes to top of workpiece. There are
few differences of outer profile in each case after ejection.
However, the outer shape after cooling is straight in the
case of 3Strike-1. Figure 12 shows heat distribution after
ejection in each case. In the case of 3Strike-1, high temperature is distributed at outer wall, especially around the
height of 5-20mm from the bottom of the cup. As a result,
shrink shape at upper section is corrected to straight shape
by heat contraction. On the other hand, low temperature is
distributed homogeneously in the case of KBP condition.
Therefore, shrunk outer profile cant be corrected to
straight.
Conclusions
[1] K. Kondo: Journal of Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity, 38438 (1997), 605-610.
[2] M. Matsubara: Journal of the Japan Society of Precision Engineering,
44-520 (1978), 434-441.
[3] B. Y. Jun, S. M. Kang, M. C. Lee, R. H. Park and M. S. Joun: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 189-1-3 (2007), 459-465.
[4] Y. Lee, J. Lee, T. Ishikawa: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 130-131 (2002), 532-539.
[5] T. Kawabe, T.Kato, A. Matsuda, M. Ichikawa, K. Nakanishi: Journal
of Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity, 33-380 (1992), 10571062.
[6] D.K. Min, M.E. Kim: Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
138-20 (2003), 339-342.
[7] J.C. Choi, Y. Choi: International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture, 39-10 (1999), 1575-1588.
[8] K. Osakada, X. Wang and S. Hanami: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 71-1 (1997), 105-112.
[9] T. Ishikawa: Journal of Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity,
49-565 (2008), 114-117.
[10] T. Ishikawa, N. Yukawa, Y. Yoshida, H. Kim, Y. Tozawa: CIRP
Annals (2000), 169-172.
413
Metal Forming
2)
Department of
It is possible to make a small shaft on a sheet metal by extruding the sheet in the thickness direction. This paper describes forming of a
stepped shaft by this method. A pure aluminum sheet of 2 mm in thickness was used for experiments. The effect of two-stages forming was
studied; the bottom part of the stepped shaft having 1mm in diameter and 2mm in height was formed, the punch was exchanged to a
smaller diameter one and the top part was formed. The influence of the punch diameter on the forming height was investigated and there
was the optimum punch diameter for the 2nd stage to maximize the forming height of the top part. The existence of the optimum punch
diameter was explained by the dimensional changes of the specimen during the 2nd stage. Measurements of force-stroke diagrams
showed that a higher punch force was required when using a lager diameter punch and that the punch force in the 2nd stage required to
form the highest top part was less than that required to form the bottom part in the 1st stage. It was concluded that the proposed method for
making a stepped shaft was advantageous in both forming force and forming height if an appropriate punch diameter was selected in the
2nd stage.
Keywords: Sheet metal, Extrusion, Stepped shaft, Shaft components, Micro forming, Formability
Introduction
There are increasing demands for miniaturizing the devices such as sensors or actuators to save the space and
weight and it is also true for the components mounted in
them. Shaft parts are generally produced by multi-stage
forging, in which a billet is transferred from a stage to
stage by means of a gripper. However, when scaling down
this process, billets or semi-finished parts tend to stick to
transferring grippers due to small weight, which makes
correct positioning difficult [1]. Although special grippers
or forming machines have been developed, putting them
into actual production result in a cost increase.
In order to overcome this problem, an alternative
method had been proposed; a small shaft is extruded on a
sheet metal in the first stage, formed into a desired shape
in the following stages and separated in the last stage. In
this method, handling of the shafts or semi-finished parts
is easy even in a small size since parts are connected with
the sheet throughout the stages. Progressive forming like
sheet metal forming such as blanking and bending will be
possible in actual production and no special machines are
required. In addition, sheet skeletons which are usually
discarded after blanking will be available as a raw material
since only a small forming area is sufficient for this
method, which contributes to natural resources saving.
A previous study had demonstrated that a small shaft of
1mm in diameter and about 4 mm in height was successfully formed on a 2mm thick pure aluminum sheet by this
method and the relationship between forming conditions
and shaft height was clarified [2]. The specific features of
sheet extrusion were also reported [2,3]. In conventional
forward extrusion process, a billet is enclosed in a container and the whole cross section is pushed by the piston
from the opposite side of a die hole. Accordingly, almost
all the volume pushed by the piston is extruded through
the die hole. Contrarily in sheet extrusion, a part of the
volume pushed by the punch flowed into the sheet specimen and more volume into the specimen resulted in a
shorter shaft, which was mainly affected by the constrain-
414
A1050-h24(JIS)
2 mm
Tensile strength
122 MPa
Total elongation
7%
Metal Forming
D
Dp1
Dp2
Guide
ring
Punch
Blank holder
Guide ring
h1
Blank holder
h'
Punch
Measurements
Ideal value
4
3
h1=2mm
2
1
1.4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Punch stroke /mm
1.2
0.1
0.08
1.2
1
0.06
0.8
0.04
0.6
0.4
0.02
0.2
0
0
1
1.25 1.5 1.75
2
Punch diameter(2nd stage) D p 2/mm
(a) d2=0.75 mm
1.6
0.1
1.4
0.08
1.2
1
0.06
0.8
0.04
0.6
0.4
0.02
0.2
0
(c) d2=0.75 mm
Dp2=2 mm
(e) d2=0.5 mm
(f) d2=0.5 mm
(d) d2=0.5 mm
Dp2=1.5 mm
Dp2=2 mm
Dp2=1 mm
Figure 3. Close up of stepped shaft obtained in experiment.
(b) d2=0.75 mm
Dp2=1.5 mm
1mm
(a) d2=0.75 mm
Dp2=1 mm
d2
d1
1mm
Die
h2
Die
1
1.25 1.5 1.75
2
Punch diameter(2nd stage) D p 2/mm
(b) d2=0.5 mm
Figure 4. Change of top-part height of stepped shaft and dimensional changes of specimen depending on punch diameter in 2nd
stage.
415
Metal Forming
Vt
VD
VP
VS
Vs
Vs
Vs+Vt
Vs+Vt
Vs+Vt+Vt*
Vs+Vt+Vt*
Vs+Vt+Vt*+VD
Vs+Vt+Vt*+VD
VP
VP
1.25
1.5
1.75
Punch diameter(2nd stage) D p 2/mm
(a) d2=0.75 mm
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Vs
Vs
Vs+Vt
Vs+Vt
Vs+Vt+Vt*
Vs+Vt+Vt*
Vs+Vt+Vt*+VD
Vs+Vt+Vt*+VD
VP
VP
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
Punch diameter(2nd stage) D p 2/mm
(b) d2=0.5 mm
Figure 6. Relationship between punch diameter and volumetric
changes during 2nd stage.
416
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Vt (d2=0.75mm)
Vt(d2=0.75mm)
Vt (d2=0.5mm)
Vt(d2=0.5mm)
VP
VP
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
lar results were obtained independent of the top part diameter d2 although slight differences were observed. The
curve of VS+Vt+Vt*+VD almost coincided with that of VP
and most of the material pushed by the punch was considered to move somewhere to the gray-painted regions in
Figure 5. Furthermore, the volumes of Vt* and VD were
rather small, which means that most of the volume displaced by the punch VP was used to form the top part (VS)
and to increase the thickness of specimen (Vt). Therefore,
the forming height of the top part was mainly affected by
the volumetric change in a thickness direction Vt. Figure 7
shows the comparison of curves between VP and Vt. It is
obvious that the difference between VP and Vt, which is
almost equal to VS, is maximized at DP2=1.5 mm. It is
explained by the variation of Vt, in other words, the increase in Vt becomes larger than that in VP when the punch
diameter DP2 exceeds 1.5 mm.
shown in Figure 4, in which the dotted line in the bar indicates the dimensional changes produced in the 1st stage.
Thickness change increased with increasing the punch
diameter DP2 in the 2nd stage. Considering that dimensional changes of the specimen are caused by the elastic
deformation of tools, lifting up of the blank holder is likely
to occur compared with expansion of the guide ring when
increasing DP2. In order to study the dependency of the
punch diameter on the forming height more in detail, the
material movement during the 2nd stage was analyzed in
the following section.
1.25
1.5
1.75
Punch diameter(2nd stage) D p 2/mm
Figure 7. Change of volume pushed by punch VP and that produced in a thickness direction of specimen Vt depending on punch
diameter in 2nd stage.
Metal Forming
was formed in the 2nd stage was less than that required for
the 1st stage and this is the greatest benefit of two-stage
sheet extrusion in forming a stepped shaft.
3
DP2=2mm
Punch forde / kN
2.5
2
Conclusions
1.5
DP2=1.75mm
DP2=1.5mm
DP2=1.25mm
0.5
DP2=1mm
0
0
0.5
1
Stroke /mm
(a) d2=0.75 mm
3
2.5
Punch forde / kN
1.5
DP2=2mm
2
1.5
DP2=1.75mm
DP2=1.5mm
DP2=1.25mm
0.5
DP2=1mm
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Stroke /mm
(b) d2=0.5 mm
Figure 8. Punch force-stroke curves for different punch diameters in 2nd stage.
References
2.5
Average punch force /kN
(2nd stage)
In order to produce stepped shafts, a new method of extruding the sheet metal in the thickness direction was proposed. Experiments were carried out using a pure aluminum sheet of 2mm in thickness and stepped shafts having
the bottom part of 1mm in diameter and 2mm in height
and the top part of 0.5or 0.75 mm in diameter were formed.
The effect of the punch diameter in the 2nd stage on the
forming behaviour was investigated and the following
results were obtained:
1. Stepped shafts having the top part of 0.4-1.3 mm in
height were successfully formed on the sheet metal.
2. Forming height of the top part increased with decreasing the diameter of the top part under the same forming
condition.
3. There existed the optimum punch diameter for the 2nd
stage to maximize the forming height of the top part,
which was explained by the dimensional change of
specimen in the thickness direction and the average
punch force.
4. The punch force to form the highest top part was less
than that in the 1st stage and the proposed method was
found to be effective in both forming height and forming force.
d2=0.75mm
d2=0.5mm
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
Punch diameter(2nd stage) D p 2/mm
Figure 9. Relationship between punch diameter and average
punch force in 2nd stage.
417
Metal Forming
Introduction
The design and production of a mold and die are the
most important and exacting aspects of the entire extrusion
process. Ulysse and Johnson [1] conducted plane-strain
upper-bound analyses to evaluate the effect of the process
variables in the eccentric single-hole extrusion and unsymmetrical multi-hole extrusion processes, respectively.
Ulysse [2,3] combined finite-element analyses with a
mathematical programming technique to optimize the
design of a two-hole extrusion die and to generate an optimal die flow corrector for flat-faced aluminum extrusion
dies. Lee et al. [4] presented 3D FEM simulations of the
porthole die extrusion process used to fabricate the condenser tubes in automobile cooling systems. Peng and
Sheppard [5] used three-dimensional FEM to model the
influence of the pocket on material flow in multi-hole
extrusion. Elisabetta et al. [6] conducted 3D FEM simulations to optimize the geometry of porthole-dies for the
extrusion of aluminum components. The current author [7]
employed rigid-plastic finite element DEFORMTM 3D
software to investigate the plastic deformation behavior of
Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy during indirect extrusion through
a single-hole die in the seamless tube fabrication process.
This study uses finite element software to simulate the
plastic deformation behavior of workpieces during the
three-hole indirect extrusion of seamless aluminum alloy
tubes. This study also uses the Taguchi method to determine design parameters. The results support our design
process of an indirect extrusion mold and die to achieve a
perfect design using the finite element method.
Taguchi Method
The Taguchi method, a well-known robust-design technique, provides a comprehensive understanding of the
individual and combined effects of various design parameters based on a minimum number of experimental trials.
Its aim is to establish parameter settings that achieve a
418
1 n
S / N = 10 log yi2
n
i =1
(1)
Metal Forming
Factor Selection
Mandrel
Central Line
Analysis of Means
Table 2 presents the effective strain, effective stress, die
load, and aluminum alloy curvature during indirect extrusion using nine different mold and die designs in the first
simulation. Table 3 shows the measurements of the same
characteristics in the second simulation.
Table 4 shows multi-quality characteristics: the effective strain weight is 15%; the effective stress weight is
15%; the mold and die load weight is 15%; and the curvature of the billet is 55%. All the factors supported the
rationale of lower is better (LB).
Table 5 presents the S/N responses for indirect extrusion of seamless tubes; Table 6 presents the corresponding
factor response data, which Figure 5 plots in graphical
form. Following the principles of the Taguchi method, we
assumed that a higher S/N ratio indicates higher product
quality. Therefore, Figure 5 shows the following optimal
parameter settings for the indirect extrusion of seamless
tubes: A2, sectional forms of a single 45o angle; B3, 0.65
eccentricity ratio of the die; C3, ram velocity of 0.5
mm/sec; and D3, billet temperature of 482 oC.
Analysis of Variance
(a)
(b)
419
Metal Forming
load of 2505160 N, and 0.000602 mm-1curvature of the
extruded billet.
Conclusions
This study utilizes finite element software to simulate
the plastic deformation behavior of aluminum alloy
(A6061) during the three-hole indirect extrusion of seamless aluminum alloy tubes. Results show that (1) the optimal parameter settings for the indirect extrusion of seamless tubes: A2, sectional forms of a single 45o angle; B3,
Table 1. Design parameters and levels for indirect extrusion of seamless tube.
Factors
Description
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Sectional shape
0.35
0.5
0.65
Velocity of ram
0.1 mm/sec
0.3 mm/sec
0.5 mm/sec
Temperature of billet
260
371
482
Table 2. Effective strain, effective stress, die load and curvature in aluminum alloy during indirect extrusion using nine different die designs
at first simulation.
Effective
Experiment
Effective
Mold/die load
A
B
C
D
stress
= 1/ (mm1)
Number (1)
strain
(N)
(MPa)
1
1
1
1
1
4.47
78
7510144
0.003099
2
1
2
2
2
5.10
40
4031434
0.002578
3
1
3
3
3
4.17
25
2521823
0.001378
4
2
1
2
3
5.70
25
2464871
0.003927
5
2
2
3
1
3.88
78
7452295
0.000543
6
2
3
1
2
4.89
40
3824543
0.000096
7
3
1
3
2
9.43
40
3950636
0.002507
8
3
2
1
3
3.11
25
2403578
0.001607
9
3
3
2
1
3.24
78
7575249
0.000708
Table 3. Effective strain, effective stress, die load and curvature in aluminum alloy during indirect extrusion using nine different die designs
at second simulation.
Experiment
Number (2)
Effective
strain
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
2
3
1
3
1
2
1
2
3
3
1
2
2
3
1
4.47
5.10
4.17
5.70
3.88
4.89
9.43
3.31
3.24
Effective
stress
(MPa)
78
40
25
25
78
40
40
25
78
Mold/die load
(N)
= 1/ (mm1)
7885651
3839461
2521823
2567574
7452295
3824543
3950636
2403578
7575249
0.002984
0.001480
0.000938
0.004677
0.000216
0.000437
0.002720
0.001871
0.001307
420
Worst
10
80
8000000
0.005
Best Value
3
20
2000000
0
QC
S
S
S
S
Rel wt
15
15
15
55
Metal Forming
Table 5. S/N ratio for indirect extrusion of seamless tube.
A
Exp. 1
Exp. 1
Mean
S/N ratio
34.48
34.81
34.645
30.792
57.06
69.62
63.34
35.905
79.78
84.62
82.2
38.286
48.6
40.09
44.345
32.816
64.01
67.6
65.805
36.355
87.83
81.58
84.705
38.54
48.76
46.42
47.59
33.542
79.82
76.49
78.155
37.853
63.25
56.67
59.96
35.517
62.305
35.512
Total mean
Table 6. Factor response table for indirect extrusion of seamless
tube.
Control
factor
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Effects
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
34.994
35.904
35.637
0.91
32.383
36.704
37.448
5.065
35.728
34.746
36.061
1.315
34.221
35.996
36.318
2.097
Sectional
shape
Eccentricity
ratio of the die
Velocity of
ram
Temperature
of billet
A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3
Factor
Sum of
S qrs.
DOF
Variance
Percent
1.311
0.655
2.3%
44.869
22.434
79.23%
2.804
1.402
4.95%
7.647
3.823
13.50%
Total
56.633
References
[1] P. Ulysse, R.E. Johnson: Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
73 (1998), 213-225.
[2] P. Ulysse: International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture,
39 (1999), 1047-1064.
[3] P. Ulysse: International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 44 (2002),
319-341.
[4] J.M. Lee, B.M. Kim, C.G. Kang: Materials and Design, 26 (2005),
327-336.
[5] Z. Peng, T. Sheppard: Materials Science and Engineering A, 407
(2005), 89-97.
[6] C. Elisabetta, M. Luca, G. Claudio: AIP Conf. Proc. -Materials Processing and Design: Modeling, Simulation and Applications, 908
(2007), 419-424.
[7] D.C. Chen, J.Y. Chen, K.C. Wun: The 8th Asia Pacific Conference on
Materials Processing, Guilin-Guangzhou, China, 2008, 951-957.
[8] W.Y. William, C.M. Creveling: Engineering methods for robust
product design, Addison-Wesley, Boston (1998).
[9] N. Belavendram: Quality by design, Prentice-Hall, New York (1995).
421
Metal Forming
Introduction
Prediction of material behaviour of metals during and
after hot metal working processes requires the knowledge
about microstructure parameters. The measurable microstructure parameters such as grain size, dislocation density
and grain misorientation represent the state of the material
behaviour in micro scale. Energy of plastic deformation is
mostly given out in form of heat energy and a small part of
it is stored in the material by increasing the density of
dislocations and consequently grain boundaries. Evolution
of microstructure properties during hot deformation of
aluminium alloys generally occurs in two phases: dynamic
evolution during the forming process and static evolution
during cooling and annealing process after the deformation.
Grain growth occurs by migration of grain boundaries in
order to minimize the stored energy of boundaries. During
this process the total length of boundary size decreases and
the average grain size decreases [1]. Physically based
approaches for modelling of static microstructure evolution are commonly based on minimization of the stored
energy of plastic deformation by increasing the size of the
grains. In work of Chen [2] phase field modelling is used
to model the grain growth process. Vante et al. [3] have
presented a physical model based on particle stimulated
nucleation, nucleation from cube bands and nucleation
from grain boundary regions to predict the recrystallized
grain sizes and textures of a hot deformed aluminium alloy.
In the current work aluminium alloy 6060 is considered
for experiment and simulation. In aluminium alloy 6060
due to low hot worked dislocation densities no dynamic
recrystallization occurs during the extrusion process [4]
and the increasing energy of plastic deformation causes the
refinement of grains during the forming process. The
models based on grain growth are not able to predict this
grain refinement. Sellars and Zhu [5] have presented a
physically based model which relates the microstructure
evolution during the hot deformation to the state variables
such as temperature and plastic deformation.
The model presented in the current work is based on the
saturation of microstructure parameters after reaching
steady-state forming condition. Microstructure parameters
are modelled as internal state variables depending on rate
of plastic deformation and temperature (indirectly). In the
422
following sections this model and its application for simulation of microstructure development during extrusion
process are presented.
Material Model
From a phenomenological viewpoint, the behavior of
polycrystalline aluminum alloys during technological
processes like extrusion is fundamentally thermoelastic
and viscoplastic in nature. For simplicity, we begin by
assuming that the material behavior is isotropic. More
generally, the distribution of grain orientation, grain size,
and grain shape, will result in anisotropic behavior. For the
time being, we assume that the high homologous temperatures involved result in a reduction of the strength of anisotropy due to these factors. In this case, the stress state in
the material can be modeled via the thermoelastic Hooke
form
(1)
for the Kirchhoff stress in terms of the elastic left logarithmic stretch
. Here, represents the elastic bulk
modulus,
the elastic shear moduli,
the thermal expansion, and the heat capacity, all at the reference temperature . In addition, is the absolute temperature.
Further,
is the deviatoric part of
. Neglecting any deformation-dependent damage and
assuming inelastically incompressible von Mises flow, the
evolution of
is given by the (objective) associated
flow rule
(2)
in terms of the inelastic right Cauchy-Green deformation
and accumulated equivalent inelastic deformation .
Here,
is the von Mises effective
stress measure determined by the Kirchhoff stress. In the
current thermodynamic approach, this determines the
evolution of
via the Zener-Hollomon form
Metal Forming
(3)
[5]
in
terms
(7)
where
is the saturation value. On this basis, decreases from its initial value
to 1 at a rate determined by
.
Parameter values used for Al 6060 in the current work
are
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
and
. In
addition, for the temperature equation, we require the
value of the coefficient of thermal conductivity
for the Fourier model, as well as that
of the heat capacity. In addition, the
rate of heating is given by
(8)
in terms of the continuum rate of deformation via the
Taylor-Quinney approximation and Taylor-Quinney coefficient . In the current work,
is assumed. It has
been shown in [6] that is in fact not a constant but rather depends on strain and strain-rate to varying degrees.
In the following, this coefficient will be treated as constant
as there is no experimental data relevant to the determination of for the materials of interest here.
Experimental and Simulation Results
The above model is now applied to the numerical simulation of the thermomechanically-coupled extrusion process of aluminum alloy 6060. This model is implemented as
user material subroutines (UMAT) in the commercial FE
software ABAQUS. Temperature has a significant influence on microstructure evolution. During extrusion process heat can be generated by plastic deformation and frictional interactions or transferred inside the material and
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
= 0.3 mm/s
423
Metal Forming
than other areas. Finer grains have higher density of dislocation and stored energy. These grains have a higher
chance of static recrystallization and grain growth during
annealing process. The coarse grain structure on the outer
surface of the experimental results of Figure 2 proves this
fact.
424
Metal Forming
This work presents a physically based model for microstructure evolution of aluminium alloys in combination
with a thermoelastic visco-plastic material model for simulation of material behaviour during hot metal forming
processes such as extrusion. The simulation results are in
good qualitative agreement with experimental results obtained by EBSD micrographs of a partly extruded aluminium block. By controlling static microstructure evolution,
more accurate experimental results for dynamic evolution
will be presented in the upcoming work.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to appreciate the financial support of Transregional Collaborative Research Center
Process-integrated manufacturing of functionally graded
structures on the basis of thermo-mechanically coupled
phenomena" (TRR30) funded by the German Research
Foundation (DFG).
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
425
Metal Forming
2)
Bournemouth
Static recrystallisation has a significant influence on many of the properties of the extrudate, and since the final microstructure controls the
properties of extrudate, it is essential to predict these variations occurring during the processing of the material. This paper outlines the
method used to predict such as properties using a physical model based on dislocation density. FEM analysis is used to predict the development of the structure during the extrusion process. The evolution of the substructure influencing static recrystalisation is studied. The
metallurgical behaviour of axi-symmetric extrusion and that of shape extrusion are compared and results are presented.
Keywords: Solution soak, FEA, Aluminium alloys, AA2024
Introduction
Aluminium and its alloys have acceptable plastic deformation characteristics for any of the conventional metallurgical processes, such as rolling and extrusion. A range
of commercial Al-Cu-Mg alloys (the 2XXX designation)
was developed to replace 'Dural' and AA2024 and AA2014
are now the most widely used alloys of this system. In this
communication we shall take as our example the alloy
2024. The response of 2024 to artificial aging is accelerated by strain hardening of the heat-treated material and is
available in a number of naturally and artificially aged
tempers that reflect several degrees of strain hardening.
The composition of AA2024 is shown below in Table 1.
Table 1. Typical composition of AA2024.
Alloy
Cu
Si
Mn
Mg
Fe
2024
4.5
0.6
1.5
0.2
the subsequent effect on properties. Thus during the extrusion and soak cycle of AA2024 the stored deformation
energy within the extrudate ensures that some static recrystallisation usually occurs after the extrusion and soaking process and can extend to 100 percent of the material
in some cases.
The structure of the extrudate is dependent on the total
thermo-mechanical cycle but the most important consideration in terms of properties is the subgrain size and orientation which very much determines the metal response
to the solution and ageing sequence. The reader should
recall that the subgrain size is related to the processing
parameters and has been established for AA 2024 by
Sheppard and Subramaynian [1] to be:
-1 = 0.082 lnZ- 1.89 for direct extrusion. In this form is
the subgrain diameter and Z is the temperature compensated strain rate given by;
H
Z = exp
GT
(1)
Metal Forming
extrusion. It is clear that there is a discontinuity in the
proof stress and ultimate stress values which is not the
result of any gradual variation of extrusion temperature.
The high strength or low Z regions correspond to the
partial or un-recrystallisation substructures shown in the
previous section whilst the low strength levels are associated with completely recrystallisation structures. The problem then is to ascertain whether the increase in strength is
due solely to substructural strengthening or is a result of
the preferential precipitation occurring at subgrain
boundaries. Recent work [4] has shown that for AA2024
alloy both high and low temperature extrudates exhibiting
retained substructures and fully recrystallisation structures
respectively have identical ageing characteristics indicating that although preferential precipitation does occur it
has little effect on the attainment of peak strength. This is
perhaps to be expected since the evidence indicates that
the amount of heterogeneous precipitation at subgrain
boundaries and dislocations is not as great as the precipitation within subgrains. Hence we would expect the strength
to vary with lnZ and this indeed can be detected in Figure
2 although there are insufficient data points to suggest
empirical relationships. At higher values of Z the strength
increases presumably due to finer grain sizes but never
achieves the levels possible when processing using low Z
conditions. It is interesting to note that there are differences in the variation of properties between direct and
indirect extrusions: the indirect extrusions showing less
variation in properties. This can be directly attributed to
the more homogeneous nature of the structure produced
when proceeding by the indirect route. Thus we may conclude that as far as tensile properties are concerned there is
some advantage in processing at as low a Z as possible
consistent with the attainment of a satisfactory surface.
Figure 1. Microstructure of extrudate at 200 m magnification after
solution soaking at 500 C followed by water quenching, a) extruded at 350 C, 0.5 h soak, longitudinal; b) extrudedate 350 C,
0.5 h soak, transverse ; c) extruded at 450 C, 0.5 h soak, longitudinal.
In this paper we attempt to demonstrate that FEM coupled with a physical model can predict the structural features discussed. These are the formation of the grain size,
the volume fraction recrystallisation and the subgrain size
and misorientation.
427
Metal Forming
Experimental Procedure
The FEM programs, FORGE2 and FORGE3 were used
in the present study. The hyperbolic sine function was
programmed into the FEM to describe the material behaviour. The constitutive equation can be written as shown in
Eq. (1),
1 /n
2 /n
1 Z
Z
Ln + + 1
A
A
(2)
Billet
Temp
o
K
683
623
723
The predicted result for the volume fraction recrystallised (Xv) shows a slightly rising value along the extrudate
surface, as can been seen from Figure 5. This phenomenon is simply a result of the extrudate temperature rising
as extrusion proceeds which has been observed in both
practical and in much previous work. The procedure to
deal with the grain boundary migration term has been dealt
with as further discussed below. It should be noted that the
experimental measurement, which is 27.37%, is an average value around the periphery of the extrudate at a distance of one-third from commencement of extrusion. It is
difficult to compare the variation of the predicted Xv with
the averaged experimental measurement but the point
shown in the Figure 5 at y230 mm would be in the steady
state region as defined by Subramanyan [5]. It will be
observed that any point in this figure after 100 mm of the
extrudate would yield a satisfactory correlation. Since the
variation of Xv during the extrusion is small, the value
selected at the point can be regarded as the mean value
along the extrudate. From the comparisons and analyses
above, the conclusion can be drawn that the simulations
using FEM are effective in predicting the metallurgical
kinetics of aluminium extrusion processes at least in the
two-dimensional case.
428
Metal Forming
Figure 5. Predicted Xv in longitudinal direction of extrudate surface and selected point for experimental comparison.
For the shaped section, estimation of the depth of the recrystallisation layer was more difficult than in rod experiments, since the layer was no longer uniform. With FEM
simulation, the distribution of the volume fraction recrystallisation factors can be predicted and extracted more
easily. It has been found that both in previous experiments
and FEM simulations the recrystallisation layer was
thicker for more complex sections owing to larger temperature rises. As can be seen in Figure 6, (The dimension
of the section is shown in Figure 7), at the positions where
the deformation is more complex, that is, where the strain
and the temperature are higher, the volume fraction recrystallisation is also higher. Significantly there are large differences in the values of Xv and Drex for the differing
extrusion temperatures which will lead to important differences in the critical properties as discussed above.
We must also consider the effect of the soak temperature
since it has long been recognised within the extrusion
industry that this factor significantly affects the volume
fraction recrystallised and the recrystallised grain size
(Drex) as well as the textural features of the product. When
Tsoak is equal to Tdef then the function must be numerically
equal to 1 which would be the case if we considered thefuntion Tsoak/Tdef. Therefore we have increased the t50
term by the multiplicand (Tsoak/Tdef)-7.5 to yield practical results which agree with the observations covering a
wide range of extrusion conditions.
Conclusion
429
Metal Forming
Introduction
Backward extrusion process is a type of bulk metal
forming operation. In this process the die is forced toward
a stationary billet, which is located in a container. Since
there is no relative motion between the billet and container,
bakward extrusion needs less forming load and energy,
compared with the forward extrusion process under the
same process condition. However, various die profiles can
be employed for performing this operation.
It was claimed [1] that the geometry of the plastic deformation zone had important role in uniformity or nonuniformity of the product. The contact area and distribution of stress, strain and strain rate all depend on the die
geometry. Hence, the profile of extrusion die could have a
main role on the uniformity of the product.
It was shown that the strain rate was certainly influenced
by the die geometry [1]. Wifi et al. [2] employed incremental slab method in order to optimize the die geometry
for minimum extrusion force requirements. This technique
was also used by other investigators to design the extrusion dies with optimum curvature [3-5]. Several investigators [6,7] combined the slab method and upper-bound
technique for specifying the desired extrusion die shapes.
Conical, elliptical, hyperbolic and cosine die profiles were
also studied by Huang et al [8] employing upper-bound
method. They investigated the effects of die shape on the
flow pattern and required extrusion load. Other researches
[9,10] have also been conducted regarding the influences
of extrusion ratio, friction and the length of the die land on
the necessary force in axisymmetric forward extrusion.
In this paper, the effects of die shape on the required
load and the product uniformity in plane-strain backward
extrusion are explained. For experimental part of research
work, extrusion tests with tapered dies were carried out for
various extrusion ratios and bar lengths under dry
conditions. At the next stage of the present investigation,
the finite element simulations of the process were carried
out under the same conditions as those in extrusion
experiments. An excellent agreement was found between
the numerical and experimental results. For this reason,
more FE simulations were performed with other types of
die profiles. The numerical findings showed that among
various die geometries examined in this research work, the
430
Metal Forming
significantly. For this reason, it was necessary to apply
bulge correction factors to the calculated axial stresses
[12]. The stress-strain curve of the material together with
the relevant Hollomons equation is illustrated in Figure 2.
The ring tests were conducted in order to find the shear
friction factors for two different frictional conditions. The
first one was dry condition, which was maintained between the billet and the main die surfaces. The second ring
test was carried out with a Vaseline-based mixture as lubricant. This lubricant was applied to the front and back
parallel surfaces of the billet to provide nearly zero friction
condition at these surfaces, which were in contact with the
container and the cover plate (Figure 3), the latter not
shown in the figure. This was necessary to create a planestrain condition for the main extrusion tests. The ring tests
showed shear friction factors of 1 and 0.1 for the dry condition and the above-mentioned lubricant, respectively.
These tests were conducted at room temperature with an
initial ram velocity of 0.23 mm/sec.
Stress (MPa)
tests. It is clear from this figure that the greater the extrusion ratio, the larger is the required forming load. Each
curve is monotonically increasing until the die is filled
with the material. Since the die length was kept constant,
the lower extrusion ratio resulted in a higher volume for
die filling. For this reason, the occurrence of the steady
extrusion load is postponed for lower extrusion ratios.
Both sets of billet represented similar effects for the extrusion ratio.
Die
Container
Billet
LA2.5
LA2
Strain
Displacement (mm)
(a) specimen A
LB3
Load (KN)
LB2.5
LB2
Displacement (mm)
(b) specimen B
431
Metal Forming
Numerical Simulations of Process
LB2
Load (KN)
LA2
LA2.5 (Simulation)
Displacement (mm)
(a) Billet A and re=2.5
Load (KN)
LA2.5
Load (KN)
Displacement (mm)
(a) re=2
LB2.5
LB3 (Simulation)
LB3 (Experiment)
Displacement (mm)
(b) Billet B and re=3
Displacement (mm)
(b) re=2.5
Figure 7. Comparisons between numerical and experimental loaddisplacement curves for two typical tests.
LA3
LB3
Displacement (mm)
(c) re=3
432
Test
code
LA2
LA2.5
LA3
LB2
LB2.5
LB3
Experimental load
(kN)
67.31
72.53
91.15
67.98
72.26
89.21
Finite-Element load
(kN)
58.43
72.12
84.44
58.43
72.12
84.44
Error
(%)
13.2
0.6
7.4
14.0
0.2
5.3
Second order
Length of Die
Load (KN)
Linear
Exponential
Profile
Metal Forming
cant fluctuations in the numerical load-displacement curve,
the deformed FE model was remeshed, at least, after each
5mm displacement of the die. Figure 9 illustrates typically
the extruded FE model with the exponential die profile
before and after remeshing operation. It is clear that how
the sharp angles and high aspect ratios of the elements are
removed by remeshing operation.
Load (KN)
EA2
LA2
PA2
A=0.00
B=0.50
C=1.00
D=1.50
Load (KN)
EB3
B
C
A=0.00
B=0.49
C=0.99
D=1.49
EB2.5
EB2
C
B
A=0.00
B=0.61
C=1.22
D=1.83
B
D
Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
C
B
C
B
References
[1] S.K. Lee, D.C. Ko, B.M. Kim: International Journal of Machine Tools
and Manufacture, 40 (2000), 1457-1478.
[2] A.S. Wifi, M.N. Shatla, A. Abdel-Hamid: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 73 (1998), 97-107.
[3] M. Bakhshi-Jooybari, M. Saboori, S.J. Hosseinipour: Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 177 (2006), 596-599.
[4] M. Noorani-Azad, M. Bakhshi-Jooybari, S.J. Hosseinipour, A. Gorji:
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 164 (2005), 1572-1577.
[5] M. Saboori, M. Bakhshi-Jooybari, M. Noorani-Azad, A. Gorji:
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 177 (2006), 612-616.
[6] C.T. Kwan: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 122 (2002),
213-219.
[7] M. Bakhshi-Jooybari, M. Saboori, M. Noorani-Azad, S.J.
Hosseinipour: Materials and Design, 28 (2006), 18121818.
[8] G.M. Huang, J.P. Wang, H.D. Lee, C.S. Chang: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 209 (2009), 4351-4359.
[9] P. Tiernan, M.T. Hillery, B. Draganescu, M. Gheorghe: Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 168 (2005), 360-366.
[10] M. Schikorra, L. Donati, L. Tomesani, M. Kleiner: Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 191 (2007), 288-292.
[11] F. Fereshteh-Saniee, P. Varshovi-Jaghargh: Steel Research
International, 79 (2008), 427-434
[12] F. Fereshteh-Saniee, F. Fatehi-Sichani: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 177 (2006), 478-482.
433
Metal Forming
Application of Powder Pad and Die Design with Ribbon-Shaped Chamber for Direct
Extrusion of Multi-cell Tube Using Porthole die
Jung Min Lee1), Jung Hwan Lee1), Dae Cheol Ko2), Dong Hwan Kim3), Byung Min Kim4)
1)
Industrial Technology Support Division, KIMS, Changwon / Korea, monkey1976@kims.re.kr; 2) ILIC, Pusan National University, Busan /
Korea; 3) Department of Mechanical Engineering, International University of Korea, Jinju / Korea; 4) Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Pusan National University, Busan / Korea
This paper describes the applications of ab Al powder pad and extrusion die design with a ribbon-shaped chamber to develop a direct
extrusion process of a multi-cell tube with 0.45 mm in thickness using a porthole die. In this study, the Al powder pad was used to reduce
an initial forming pressure during extrusion. The ribbon-shaped chamber was also designed to induce a material welding from the middle of
mandrel to the ends in order and to restrain an excessive material flow at the ends of mandrel. To determine the proper thickness of the Al
powder pad, extrusion tests for the different thicknesses of the powder pad were performed. Also, the material flow of the ribbon-shaped
chamber was estimated by FE simulation. Finally, the extrusion experiment of the multi-cell tube was conducted to confirm the efficiency of
the powder pad and the ribbon-shaped chamber.
Keywords: Multi-cell tube, Porthole die, Powder pad, Extrusion
Introduction
The recent trend of the multi-cell tubes (Al or Cu alloy)
for heat exchanger focuses on the lightweight and high
strength structures. Their structures are therefore becoming thinner and more complicated and multi-cellized [1-7].
In the direct extrusion of the multi-cell tube using a porthole die, the typical failures are fractures and deflections
of the mandrel teeths ends which form the tube cells as
shown in Figure 1. The material flow in the circle-shaped
chambers bottom of a conventional porthole die is shown
in Figure 2 [1]. The material welding is the first to occur
at the ends of mandrel teeth. At this point, material is intensively flowed into the ends of mandrel and then very
high forming pressure builds up at their ends [1]. This
material flow is the main cause of mandrels fracture.
Therefore, to ensure the mandrel strength in terms of die
design, it is important for the material welding to occur
from the middle of mandrel to the ends in order.
Material
flow
Formation of high
deformation energy
Mandrel
pressure can be also one way to prevent the mandrel fracture in the direct extrusion. To extrude the multi-cell tube
in this study, we introduced two methods: one is the die
design with the ribbon-shaped chamber to control the
material welding and another is the powder pad to reduce
the initial forming pressure, which is attached in front of a
bulk billet in extrusion. To determine the appropriate
thickness of the powder pad, extrusion tests for the various
thicknesses of the pad were performed. Also, the material
flow of the ribbon-shaped die was verified by FE simulation. Finally, the extrusion test of the multi-cell tube was
conducted to confirm the validity of two methods.
Determination of Powder Pad Thickness
The powder used in this study is Al 99.9% with a particle diameter of 150-200m ranges. Cylindrical-shaped
pads for an extrusion test were produced by cold compaction, which was carried out using a compressive mould
with a 70 mm diameter and 200 ton press, and pressed to a
theoretical density of 70%. The powder pads were produced to 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mm thick to investigate the
effect of pads thickness on extrusion pressure (Figure 3).
Diameter : 70mm
Die bearing
Mandrel
Welding plane
Material
flow
Welding of material
Figure 2. Material flow in conventional porthole die with circleshaped chamber [1].
40mm 50mm
Extrusion capacity
400 ton
Exit speed
10 m/min
400-450 C
450 C
Billet size
70 200 mm
The initial billets used for the tests were Al 1100 and the
compacted powder pads were attached in front of the bilsteel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
722
629
588
550
599
615
500
450
10
20
30
40
50
16.0
40
16.0
35.0
27.0
8.0
40
700
692
660
624
625
605
580
560
0
10
20
30
40
50
20
(b) Backer
Diameter of Porthole
40
55
23
19
52
15
4
R4
46
Porthole
12
20
Upper die
20
Welding chamber
15
19
34
16
66
66.5
13
66.5
260
260
250
6
R2
46
57
621
600
32 25
620
645
70
640
25 20 15 10
P 0.38 X 4 = 1.52
0.22
R1
00
720
t : 0.45
R2
3
685
600
680
Unit : mm
650
400
R 0.1.5
P 22.5 X 8 = 180
P 0.38 X 6 = 2.28
750
700
3.1
Lower die
Bottom of welding
chamber : ribbon shape
Metal Forming
The FE simulation of the hot extrusion process was carried out in the 3D non-steady state until material started
passing through the die bearing. A quarter of the die was
simulated, taking into account the asymmetrical structure.
The tools were defined as a thermo-rigid, and the billet a
thermo-plasticity. The initial mesh system of the billet and
tools for extrusion simulation is presented in Figure 8.
The total number of elements of the initial billet and tools
were 226205 and 150191, respectively. To enhance the
efficiency of simulation, several windows of higher element densities were applied, especially around the die
orifice. The minimum size of an element was 0.2 mm. The
general conditions of the FE simulation are shown in Table 2. The FE simulation was performed using DEFORM
3D [11].
Die
(Porthole Die
Holder, Backer)
Billet
Punch
Dividing stage
Welding stage
Forming stage
Container
Figure 8. Initial mesh system of the billet and extrusion die for FE
simulation.
Table 2. Conditions of FE simulation for multi-cell tube extrusion.
Material of billet
Al 1100
Material of tool
AISI H13
500 C
480 C
70 m/min
99.9%
Room temperature
20 C
0.6
10
Dimension of billet
154.2 80 mm
Forming stage
Welding stage
Upsetting stage
Dividing stage
Weld plane
Results of FE Simulation
The extrusion load-stroke curve and the forming process
of the billet with variations of punch strokes are presented
in Figure 9. The upward tendency of the load curve highly
depended on the die geometry. In the figure, section A is
the upsetting stage, in which the extrusion load slowly
rises as the billet fills the gaps between the container and
billet. Section B and C are the dividing stage where the
billet is divided into two at the bridge and is filled into the
portholes. In these sections, the extrusion load maintains a
steady state without rising until the divided billet reaches
the bottom of the chamber. Section D is the welding stage
in which the split billet welds together in the mandrel after
the billet is completely filled in the welding chamber and
porthole. Finally, in section E (the forming stage), the
welded billet comes out of the die bearing to form the final
shape after passing the mandrel [1,12].
The material flow in the chamber during the welding
and forming processes are illustrated in Figure 10. As
predicted above, the material welding appeared from the
436
Stroke : 10.12mm
Stroke : 10.54mm
Stroke : 11.03mm
Die
bearing
Stroke : 10.12mm
Welding plane
Stroke : 10.54mm
Stroke :
11.03mm
Metal Forming
respectively. The extrusion velocity at the die exit was set
up for the condition of the preceding FE simulation, 70
m/min. In extrusion
Mandrel
Die bearing
Powder pad
(10mm)
Welding chamber
Figure 11. Billet and porthole die for multi-cell tube extrusion.
2.0 um
Welding line
1.0 um
Welding line
sion without failures. In addition, the welding line in central walls which form the cells of the tube was not observed.
However, the powder pad can actually lead to the contaminations or the strength reduction of the extruded tube's
welding seams in the industrial practice. Moreover, it has
the welding problem of billet to billet in the continuous
extrusion. Therefore, its application is still limited in terms
of both quality and quantity of the extruded part. To ensure
the validity of the powder pad in the industrial practice,
the experimental verification of the extruded tube is
needed, including the internal pressure test for estimating
the seam strength, tensile test and SEM observation. This
problem will be in a subsequent report.
Conclusions
This paper is designed to apply the Al powder pad and
the ribbon-shaped chamber for a direct extrusion process
of a multi-cell tube. To confirm the validity of these methods, the rod extrusion test for the various thicknesses of
the Al pad and FE simulation were performed. The results
are as follows:
1. The use of powder pads reduces the extrusion pressure
at initial ram stroke and the maximum extrusion pressure during extrusion decreases from 5% to 10% compared with billets without a powder pad.
2. The extrusion pressures of billet with powder pads
trends to slightly increase with an increase in thickness
of pads. Also, the powder pad over 50 mm thick lead to
a higher extrusion pressure than that of bulk material.
3. The ribbon-shaped chamber gives the restrain of the
excessive material flow in both ends of mandrel, while
this can induce the welding problem of the tubes seam.
To ensure the welding quality of the extruded tube, it is
necessary to determine the proper dimension of the ribbon-shaped chamber for the assurance of mandrel
strength and the good welding strength of the tube.
References
[1] J.M. Lee, B.M. Kim, C.G. Kang: Material & Design, 26 (2005), 327336.
[2] X. Wu, G. Zhao, Y. Luan, X. Ma: Material Science & Engineering A,
435-436 (2006), 266-274.
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Murotani: Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity,
38-36 (1997), 517-521.
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Metals, 49 (1999), 296-301.
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Society for precision Engineers, 4-3 (2003), 36-41.
[11] DEFORM 3DTM, SFTC, 1995.
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[13] A. Oosterkamp, L.D. Oosterkamp, A. Nordeide: Supplement to the
welding journal, (2004), 225-231.
437
Metal Forming
Influence of Plastic Deformation on Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Annealed ZL102 Alloy
Jianmin Yu1), Zhimin Zhang1), Lihui Lang2), Baohong Zhang1)
1)
North University of China, School of Material Science and Engineering, 030051Taiyuan / China, minyu889@163.com;
sity, School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, 100191Beijing / China
2)
Beihang Univer-
Extrusion of the annealed ZL102 alloy has been performed at five extrusion ratios of 15, 30, 45, 60 and 75 in the temperature range from
300 C to 460 C. Microstructures and mechanical properties of ZL102 alloy after homogenization have been investigated through SEM and
OM microscopic, and the metallographic and fracture surface structure have been observed. The experimental results show that precipitated phase tends to be more homogeneous with the increase of the extrusion temperature at a certain extrusion ratio. In general, the
tensile strength of the alloys increases gradually, but the elongation of the alloys decreases gradually. At 380C, the eutectic silicon phase
presents lamellar morphology with uniform distribution, which makes the curve singularity. Furthermore, with the temperature increasing
further, the microstructure of the eutectic silicon is refined gradually. At a certain extrusion temperature, with the increase of extrusion ratio,
the grain is refined gradually, and the microstructure of the eutectic silicon grows up gradually with uniform distribution, causing the increase of elongation and decrease of tensile strength of the alloy. The impact toughness shows an upward trend after declining firstly in the
overall downward trend. When the extrusion ratio is 15, the impact toughness of the alloys reaches its maximum value1.7Jcm-2. Tensile
fracture surface of samples has characteristics of the cleavage plane and dimples, therefore the fracture belongs to the mixture fracture of
toughness and brittleness.
Keywords: Plastic deformation, ZL102 alloy, Extrusion ratios, Mechanical properties, Microstructure
Introduction
As a sort of the most important structural material, AlSi
cast alloys have been widely used in automobile, aviation
and aerospace industry because of its low bulk density,
high strength, excellent castability and processability [1,2].
However, the current comprehensive properties of common Al-Si as-cast alloy still cannot meet the requirements
of industrial production; therefore many researches on ascast Al-Si alloy from different aspects are being conducted
in order to improve its comprehensive properties. Mechanical properties of Al-Si cast alloys depend not only on
chemical composition[3] but, more importantly, on microstructure features like morphologies of -Al dendrite,
eutectic Si particles and other intermetallics that present in
the microstructure. The microstructure of ZL102 cast alloy
is a eutectic mixture composed of coarse needle-like silicon and Al-based solid solution. Such alloys have poor
mechanical properties, and are unsuitable for heat treatment strengthening. It is generally acknowledged that
grain refinement, modification and heat treatment are the
three major processes to improve the microstructure and
properties of Al-Si casting alloys [4-7]. The effort to improve the properties of the -Al phase in Al-Si alloy, to a
great extent, focused on refine of the grain of -Al phase.
But the mechanical properties of Al-Si alloy depend
largely on the morphology and distribution of eutectic
silicon in the microstructure. The eutectic silicon phase in
the Al-Si alloys precipitates with coarse needle or lath-like
morphology, which dissevers the matrix and leads to the
decrease of mechanical properties of Al-Si alloys, especially for its ductility [8]. The effective way to improve the
mechanical properties of Al-Si alloys is to change the
morphology of silicon phase, so as to weaken the morphologys impact on the matrix. However, the improvement of mechanical properties is limited through modification and heat treatment [9]. The materials made by severe
plastic deformation usually have ultra-fine grained micro438
Metal Forming
160
155
150
145
140
135
ER15
ER30
ER45
ER60
ER75
130
125
120
280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480
Extrusion Temperature/
75
24
134.4
15.6
120
22
El ongat i on /
120
120
120
120
165
Tensile Strength/MPa
20
18
16
14
ER15
ER30
ER45
ER60
ER75
12
280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480
Ex t r us i on Temper at ur e/
Toughness/J cm -2
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
15
30
45
60
75
Extrusion Ratio/
Figure 4. Toughness value in different extrusion ratios.
Metal Forming
deformation is 420 C, the extrusion ratio for acquiring
optimum strength is 15, and the extrusion ratio for acquiring optimum elongation is 75. Figure 4 illustrates the effect of different extrusion ratios on the impact toughness
of the ZL102 alloy at the temperature of 420 C. It show
that the impact toughness of annealed ZL102 alloy decreases firstly and then increases as the extrusion ratio
increases at 420 C. When the extrusion ratio is 15, the
alloy impact toughness reaches its maximum value, k=1.7
Jcm-2, and will reach its minimum value, k=1.2 Jcm-2
when the extrusion ratio increases to 60. Although the
alloys toughness will increase a little (1.4 Jcm-2) as the
extrusion ratio increases to 75, the toughness has decreased by 21% compared with that when the extrusion
ratio is 15. It thus claimed that the optimum impact toughness of the annealed ZL102 alloy can be obtained when
the extrusion ratio is 15 under the experimental conditions.
Microstructure. Figure 5 shows the microstructure of
annealed ZL102 under different extrusion ratios at 420 C.
When the extrusion ratio is 15, lamellar eutectic silicon
phase disperses in the matrix (Figure 5(a)). When the extrusion ratio is 30, the second phase increases significantly
(Figure 5(b)). As the extrusion ratio continually increases,
the silicon particles gradually change from granular to
plate-like, strip and block pattern, though a large number
of uniform dispersive distribution silicon particles gradually reduced(Figure 5(c), (d) and (e)). Coarse silicon phase
dissever the matrix severely, resulting in the decrease of
alloys strength. Silicon particles in the alloy are brittle
second phase and not easy to deform, and plastic deformation occurs mainly in the Al matrix. Since -Al grains after
deformation are flattened, the grain surface area increase
and show streamlined distribution. The separation of silicon particles from -Al cross-section forms micro holes,
which expand constantly and change to interconnect.
Since the arrangement orientation of the holes is the
same as the flow lines direction of silicon particles, obvious banded structure can be observed in the microstructure.
Because the extrusion direction parallels to the direction of
flow lines, the dimples formed by the separation of the
silicon particles from -Al, which are not easy to connect
with each other, and the alloy stretches along the flow
lines, with a result of a better formability [11].
Generally, work-hardening and dynamic recovery processes occur during the deformation of metallic materials
under high temperature, and the two processes are alternate [13]. In plastic deformation, dislocation multiplication
and annihilation are related to recovery. When deformation
degree is not great, the dislocation density is small and the
internal energy accumulated in metal is also small. During
this period, the dislocation annihilation rate is less than the
multiplication rate, and the recovery effect is not obvious.
As the deformation increases, the dislocation density continues to increase and the internal stored energy continues
to increase too. When the deformation reaches a certain
440
Metal Forming
mal effect, which causes the temperature of extrusion
billet to rise and thus increasing the formability of alloys.
(a) Macro-fracture
(b) =45,T=420C
Figure 6. Macro and micro-fracture photograph of annealed ZL102
aluminium alloy after extrusion.
Fracture Scanning. Figure 6 shows the macro and micro-fracture photographs of tensile specimen of the annealed ZL102 alloy after extrusion. From the macromorphology of tensile specimen, the fracture is dark gray
without metallic lustre, and no granular morphology can
be observed. The fracture edge has a larger shear lips, and
the fracture plane is at an angle of approximately 45 with
the tensile axis, and the fracture is sharp wedge-shaped
with obvious necking phenomenon (Figure 6(a)). Tensile
fractures have deep and uniform dimple with obvious tear
edges and it belong to ductile fracture. Micro-fracture
scanning shows that there are a large number of small
dimples consisting of cleavage plane and cup-cone shaped
(Figure 6(b)) that means the fracture belongs to transgranular dimpled rupture. The cracking mainly occurs
between the primary silicon and matrix interfaces, originating mainly from brittle fracture of the primary silicon
particles, and partly from the junction between silicon
phase and the matrix interface. The fracture has the characteristics of the cleavage plane and dimples, indicating
that the fracture is a mixture fracture of toughness and
brittleness [15].
Conclusions
The mechanical properties of Al-Si alloy depend largely
on the morphology and distribution of eutectic silicon in
the microstructure. One of the most effective ways to improve the properties of Al-Si alloys is to change the shape
of silicon phase and decrease its weakening effect on the
matrix by plastic deformation. The influence of different
extrusion ratios and temperatures on the mechanical properties and the microstructure morphology of silicon particles in the ZL102 alloy were studied, and the following
results were obtained:
1. Under experiment conditions, optimal temperature for
deformation is 420 C, The optimal extrusion ratio for
improving the strength and impact toughness of the annealed ZL102 alloy is 15, and the optimal extrusion ra-
441
Metal Forming
Influence of multiple plastic deformation on microstructure and mechanical properties of 7A04 ultra-high strength aluminium alloy by isothermal compression experiments in different deformed passes by a 6300KN extrusion press was examined. Experiment results show that
elongation reaches its maximal value 9.25% after the first deformation. It is obvious that fibrous tissues appeared along the metal flow
direction in the deformed 7A04 ultra-high aluminium alloy, with heterogeneous distribution of precipitated (MgZn2) phase in the matrix,
which results in lower strength (Rm=335 MPa, Re=212.5 MPa). As the time of deformation increases, precipitated phases grow gradually
and the plasticity of alloys decreases dramatically, which reaches its minimal value 5.17% after the fourth deformation. With (MgZn2)
phase disperses gradually, the strength of the alloy increases gradually, and reaches its maximal value 386.7 MPa after the fourth deformations. It is proved that 7A04 high-strength aluminium alloy has better synthetic mechanical properties after two or three times of deformation.
Keywords: Multiple plastic deformations, Ultra-high strength aluminium alloy, Mechanical properties, Microstructure
Introduction
The Al-Zn-Mg-Cu series alloys are one of the most important structural materials because of its high strength-toweight-ratio, attractive specific stiffness, durability, low
cost, and pretty formability. It is applied broadly in aviation, aerospace, civilian industry and other fields and holds
an important place in aviation industry as one of the major
structural materials [1-3]. Especially, the aviation industry
puts forward higher requirements for 7xxx series alloy in
strength, toughness and stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
resistance. The tensile strength of conventional high
strength aluminum alloy is lower than 650 MPa, and while
the strength increases, elongation decreases dramatically;
the lower fracture toughness seriously restricts the application of ultra-high strength aluminum alloy. Recent years
have seen more and more progresses in the research of the
alloy, including newly designed alloy composition, optimization of existing heat treatment process parameters,
new heat treatment process, and relative mechanism. Researches in these fields have attracted the interests of many
researchers in 7xxx series alloys [4-6].
The Al-Zn-Mg-Cu series ultra-high strength aluminum
alloy has been developed by increasing the contents of Zn
and Cu and reducing that of Fe and Si. In order to adjust
the ratio of Cu/Mg, enhance the ageing strengthening,
toughness and fatigue life, restrain recrystallization, and
improve the quenching susceptibility and SCC resistance
of the alloy, researchers replaced Cr and Mn with Sc and
Zr, and adjusted the grain boundary precipitation by T77
ageing process in the hope of improving the SCC resistance and exfoliation corrosion resistance [7]. When the
material composition is certain, the process determines the
microstructure and the property of the alloy. Broadly
speaking, in the series of 7xxx alloy, the shape and characteristics of matrix precipitated phase (MPT), grain boundary precipitated (GBP) and intergranular precipitation-free
zones (PFZ) determine the property of alloys [8, 9].
It is important that control the shape and distribution of
the second phase. Studies show that the strength of alloys
442
mainly depends on MPT and continuous network distributed GBP decrease the properties of alloys [10]. Song
found that when precipitated phase is of phase and welldistributed, it is beneficial to hinder dislocation movement
in the process of deformation, resulting in high toughness
and SCC resistance properties [11]. Through choosing
optimal heat treatment process parameters, it combines the
three properties well in order to make the alloy have the
best comprehensive property. Many researches have been
done through heat treatment in order to control different
distribution of precipitates.
Common heat treatment process for 7xxx alloy includes
homogenization, solution treatment and ageing treatment.
Solution treatment and ageing treatment have great effects
on strength, toughness and SCC resistance [12]. Typical
aging process includes peak aging (T6), two-stages aging,
retrogression and re-aging. In the research of long-time
aging of 7475 alloys, Yan [13] found two age-hardening
peaks, namely Double Peak aging process. Double Peak
aging makes up the defects that peak aging (T6) has weak
SCC resistance and two-stages aging brings about the
decreasing of strength, plasticity and toughness in different degree, which makes the alloys have high-strength,
high-toughness and high-SCR properties and its parameters are easily controlled. Chen, Song, etc. verified that
two-peaks aging process has universality in 7xxx series
alloys [14].
The results of the study of Peng and Ning for the influence of cold deformation degree after aging on the reaging microstructure and properties of 7A04 alloys show
that thermomechanical treatment is an effective way to
improve both the plasticity and strength of alloys simultaneously [15]. In the development of high strength aluminium alloy, strength, toughness and corrosion resistance
usually cannot be taken into account at the same time. To
form fine-grain strengthening is an effective way to increase strength greatly without any loss of the ductility and
toughness of the metallic material. When the size of the
crystalline grain is small enough, the strengthening effect
caused by grain refining will exceed the effect of process
Metal Forming
Experiment Results and Analysis
400
380
360
Strength (MPa)
Mn
Cr
Fe
Si
Oth-
Al
ers
5.97
2.08
1.68
0.29
0.15
300
280
260
0.39
0.12
0.005
Bal
Yield strength
Tensile strength
240
200
Deformation passes
Figure 1. Influence of deformation passes on strength and elongation.
Elongation %
8
6
4
2
0
Deformation passes
Mg
320
220
Experiment
Zn
340
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Deformation passes
Figure 3. Influence of deformation passes on impact toughness.
Mechanical Properties. Figures 1 and 2 show the mechanical property curves of after different times of deformation. It is obvious that, after the first deformation, the
tensile strength is 335 MPa, yield strength is 212.5 and
elongation reaches its maximal value 9.25%; with the
increasing of the deformation passes, tensile strength and
yield strength generally tend to increase. After the fourth
deformation, the value reached the highest, tensile strength
and yield strength is 386.7 and 310 MPa respectively but
the plasticity is the lowest, 5.71%. After the fifth deformation, tensile strength and yield strength reduce to 364 and
275 MPa respectively, and the plasticity increased to
443
Metal Forming
7.75%. The graph indicates that with the increasing of
deformation, the difference value between tensile strength
and yield strength is diminishing gradually from the first
deformation of 122.5 MPa to the third deformation of
65MPa, then the value increases with the deformation,
reaching 90 MPa at the fifth deformation. It is obvious
that 70% deforming amount with one time forming can
acquire better mechanical properties, and the difference
value between tensile strength and yield strength reaches
the highest, namely 122.5 MPa with the widest forming
scope, maximum elongation 9.25% and the lowest yield
strength 212.5 MPa, which is more suitable for plastic
processing. But at the third and the fourth deformation, the
difference value between tensile strength and yield
strength are minimum with the narrowest forming scope
and the lower elongation, which is not suitable for plastic
processing.
Figure 3 shows that with the increasing of the deformation, the value of the impact toughness of the alloys is
firstly decreasing and then increasing. After one time compression, the value of impact toughness is the highest
17.87 J/cm2 and then decreases with the deformation pass
increases; it is minimum at the third deformation pass,
namely 9.29 J/cm2. With the deformation pass increases,
impact toughness increase gradually and reaches 13.48
J/cm2 at the fifth deformation.
Microstructure. Figure 4 is microstructure graph of the
alloy after serveral times of deformation. In the experiment, Zn/Mg=2.87>2.2, so the phase transition in the
precipita-tion process of the alloy is (supersaturated
solid solution)-GPregion-(MgZn2)-(MgZn2)[6]. The
mechanical property of the alloy is mainly determined by
MPT. Figure 4 shows that there are obvious elongated
fibrous tissues distributed along the metal flow direction.
d) Fourth deformation
444
Metal Forming
absorbed by the materials in the process of cracking is
little. As the deforming pass increases, the plasticity and
impact toughness decrease. It is shown from the metallographic microstructure that in the process of deforming,
many pitchy and black brittle phases are produced and
with the deformation increases, these phases enlarge
gradually which is the immediate cause of decreasing
plasticity and impact toughness.
After deforming, there are numerous dislocation cells in
tissues and they are in the state of GP region. In the following process of heat deformation, precipitated phases
basically dissolve in the matrix; solute is redistributed
together with dislocation movement and dislocation cell
structures during the interactions. After the fifth deformation, elongation of the alloys can be improved greatly. The
reason is the reciprocity between dislocation rearrangement and solute redistribution, and dislocation has the
capability of removement owing to the interaction between
GP region and dislocation.
Conclusions
1. Under the present experiment conditions, after the first
deformation, the yield strength of 7A04 alloy is minimum 212.5MPa, and the difference between tensile
strength and yield strength is maximum 122.5 MPa,
therefore deformation range is the widest, which are
more suits for plastic forming. After the fourth deformation, the difference between tensile strength and
yield strength is minimum 65 MPa, with the narrowest
deformation range, which is not suit for plastic forming.
2. After the second or third deformation, better comprehensive mechanical properties can be obtained.
3. As the deformation times increase, the grain size of
matrix precipitated phase (MgZn2) decreases after the
fourth deformation and the amount increase gradually.
The grain becomes dispersible and well-distributed.
445
Metal Forming
Metal Industries Research & Development Centre (MIRDC), 1001 Kaonan Hwy, Kaohsiung / Taiwan, MID@mail.mirdc.org.tw;
Forming Tech. Corp., 2545 Farmers Dr, Columbus, OH 43235 / USA
2)
Scientific
An Al 6061 precision small rail is used as the research target for both FE Analysis and experiment. The compression tests are done to
obtain the material database and apply to FEM. Three formulations, including Transient updated Lagrangian (UL) formulation, Steady state
Eulerian (SS) approach, and ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian) approach, are applied with the material database to study analytical
results of extrusion processes, and are compared with the actual experiment which is done through 350 US Ton direct extrusion press. The
parameters such as extrusion load, temperature, ram speed, strain stress, etc are compared. The results of simulations show that the
predicted load correlates well with the loads obtained from the extrusion experiments. This good correlation between simulated and experimental loads shows the importance of using accurate material database like the flow stress input data. The advantages of FEM technique
in accurately predicting extrusion loads and deformed extrudate have been demonstrated and validated by an industrial extrusion example.
We could also think about the future effort, like more validations, user friendliness, computational efficiency, and coupling of micro-structure
and thermal-mechanical models.
Keywords: Al 6061 precision small rail, Extrusion, Compression test, FEM, Updated Lagrangian formulation, Eulerian approach, Arbitrary
Lagrangian Eulerian approach
Introduction
FEM (finite element method) is widely used for various
industrial cases, including forging, rolling, casting, extrusion, etc to predict if the designs are appropriate [1,2].
Nevertheless, extrusions which have great extrusion ratio
(the area reduction ratio from billet to extrudate), complex
shapes (i.e. shapes with a lot of fins, extreme contrast of
thickness) and sharp corners pose tough challenges for
FEM.
Typically, three formulations are used to extrusion simulations: (1) Transient updated Lagrangian (UL) formulation, where the mesh is attached to the deforming billet,
can produce some results that are difficult or impossible to
obtain from other methods with long runtimes. (2) Steady
state Eulerian (SS) approach, in which the mesh is fixed, is
fast with no transient information, and the thermalmechanical stationarity may not be well established in
reality. (3) ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian) approach,
which falls somewhere between the other two methods. It
is efficient for this class of problems [3-4], since the frequent remeshing inevitable in UL can be eliminated, and
some of the shortcomings of SS can also be circumvented
since the procedure is incremental in nature.
In this study, Al 6061 precision small rail is used as the
research target for both FE Analysis and experiment. The
compression tests are done to obtain the material database
and apply to FEM. The formulations above are applied
with the material database to study analytical results of
extrusion processes, and are compared with the actual
experiment which is done through 350 US Ton direct extrusion press. The parameters such as extrusion load, temperature, etc are compared. The results of simulations
show that the advantages of FEM technique in accurately
predicting extrusion loads and deformed extrudate have
been demonstrated and validated by an industrial extrusion
example. We could also think about the future effort, like
more validations, user friendliness, computational effi-
446
Metal Forming
528mm2
1.42kg
(a)Top view
(b) Front View
Figure 3. Front end of extrusion (200 mm billet).
400
350
350
299
300
250
217
175
200
150
205
127
100
50
0
100
160
200
Figure 6 shows the results of experiments. The maximum load is 220 SI tons for the 100 mm billet (max. extrusion pressure is 127 kg/cm2), and is 299 SI tons for 160
mm billet (max. extrusion pressure is 175 kg/cm2). When
we use 200 mm billet, the max load is 350 SI tons (max.
extrusion pressure is 205 kg/cm2). Obviously, the billet
length directly affects the load because of the friction with
the container wall. In real industrial cases, shorter billets is
widely used if the load is severe or the quality is difficult
to control. If the quality is proved and the press capacity is
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
447
Metal Forming
DEFORM-3D Simulation and Comparison between
FEM & Experiment
DEFORM-3D Simulation. DEFORM-3D, widely used
in various forming researches, is used to simulate the precision small rail extrusion to get the load prediction. Three
kinds of simulation formulations mentioned above are
used in this research and the results are compared with the
actual experiments.
In the simulations, all settings except billet length are
the same as those in Table 1. When setting up the simulation, the flow stresses are first input from an existing material library. The friction factor at the interface between the
billet and container is set to 1, while 0.4 is used on the die
surface and bearing channel. The extrudate distortion is
also calculated.
Billet length is chosen to be 160 mm only. Without mesh
deformation and re-meshing, SS approach is applied to get
the extrusion results in a short time. The SS simulation is
run until the deformation reaches a steady state solution.
At that time, nodal velocities, temperatures and elemental
strains of the billet are obtained.
To view all the deformation history (Figures 8 and 9),
including the front end shape and the trend of load changing, UL formulation is used. At the start of the process, the
billet is compressed in the container and the five legs were
extruded. The outer legs are longer than the inner leg at
this point. These five legs then enter the welding chamber
where the four outer flows converge. During this process,
the flow of these outer legs is impeded and the inner leg is
allowed to freely extrude. For this reason, the central leg
ends up longer than the outer four. The press load increases substantially as the welding chamber filled, and
the extrudate begin to form. The internal ribs are the final
feature of the cross-section to form as the extrudate come
out of the die.
Considering both time issue and some deformation history, ALE is also applied. ALE simulation is run with the
same mesh system as SS is. Figure 11 shows the temperature prediction of inner plane of the extrudate of ALE, and
Figure 12 shows that of surface of the extrudate of ALE.
Of course, varying element sizes are used in different
regions no matter which method is use, as shown in Figure 13. In this way, the deformation details are captured
more accurately and the computation resources are utilized
more effectively.
448
Metal Forming
1
350
299
260
0.95
270
255
250
0.9
0.90
200
0.87
0.85
0.85
150
100
0.8
SS
Precision (%)
300
ALE
UL
Actual
experimrnt
Conclusions
449
Metal Forming
Introduction
Radial extrusion is a forming process in which one or
two opposed punches move axially causing radial flow
into die cavity or into an annular space. Component featuring a central hub with complex flange geometry, such as
tube fittings or differential gears, are typical parts that can
be produced advantageously by radial extrusion without
the need of secondary machining operations [1]. Many
process designers have studied the radial extrusion processes by extensive experimental work or finite element
simulations. Extensive experimental work performed by
Andersen [2] led to the operational limits and revealed the
existence of four different modes of deformation in the
radial extrusion of tubes. Schtzle [3] in his experimental
work determined operational limits for AISI 1006 steel in
radial extrusion of cylindrical solid billet with double
action tooling. Gouveia [4] anticipated ductile fracture on
workpiece surface in radial extrusion processes by FE
analysis and compared to the experimental results. From
the previous works [5-7], the principal design factors of
radial extrusion process were found such as gap height, die
corner radius, shape of perform, friction etc. These design
factors have great effects on the material flow and product
quality in terms of surface cracks of flange.
Generally, systematic classification of the cracks or defects, which occurs in various cold forgings, is as follows;
a) formed cracking which occurs according to the degree
of end constraint of specimen or is caused by the depression of material; b) ductile fractures caused by stress-state
and deformation history, and c) dimensional error caused
by shape of a mold and lubrication condition [8]. In the
forming process of flange, most defects mainly come out
to be ductile fracture, which propagate from the flange
edge to the shank when the tangential (hoop) stress becomes too large for the workpiece material [9]. Such defects of flange can affect the designed die shape, process
condition and even product reliability.
In the present study, the radial extrusion process has
been numerically analyzed and compared to the experimental results in order to see the effects of process parameters such as die corner radius, gap height, and friction
450
factor on the forming limit of flange. Surface stress profiles were also predicted along the workpiece surface to
investigate the relationships between forming limit and
surface load of workpiece, especially those between surface expansion and the formation of surface crack at
flange tip and to explain the surface deformation patterns
in detail in terms of surface expansion, pressure distribution along the tool/workpiece interface, relative sliding
velocity between tool and workpiece, and sliding distance
of workpiece on the tool surface. The main objective of
this study is to explain the forming limit of flange in radial
extrusion in terms of different surface loads of workpiece
such as ratio of axial to circumferential strain and surface
expansion. A commercially available FEM tool, i.e. Deform2-DTM [10], has been used for numerical analysis,
which is programmed in rigid plasticity theory [11].
Analysis of Radial Extrusion
Geometrical Parameters in Analysis. The initial billet
and final product including die geometry are shown in
Figure 1. The figure shows the principle of process, geometrical parameters used in this work, and material points
adapted to measure surface load characteristics on workpiece and tool surfaces. For the numerical analysis in this
study, a common aluminum alloy, AA 3105, was selected
and the flow stress of the model material at room temperature is found in the reference [12], which was authors
early experimental work. Friction factor at the
tool/workpiece interface in experiments was found as 0.1
using a mixture of common grease and MoS2 [13]. The
major process parameters are identified as gap height(s),
relative stroke (hst/D0; D0: initial billet diameter), and the
die corner radius(r), respectively. The figure also depicts
the material points on the surface of die and workpiece
employed for horizontal coordinate as an abscissa in the
figures to describe the relationships of surface stresses
such as surface expansion (SE=A/A0; A: current surface
area, A0: initial surface area), contact pressure(P), sliding
velocity (SV), and sliding distances (SD), respectively.
Metal Forming
D0
CL
hst
1
2
3
4
5
7 8
9 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
16 mm
40 mm
1.25
0.1
2, 4, 6, 8 mm
1, 3, 5 mm
= 280 . 3 0.17
MPa
(1)
A single-action hydraulic press of 50 tonf frame capacity was used for the experiments of the radial extrusion
process in this study with the ram speed of 1mm/sec.
FE Analysis. In the radial extrusion process similar to
upsetting process, the diameter of the billet at the bottom
section increases as the process goes on. Simulations of
radial extrusion process were carried out by a commercially available FE code programmed in rigid-plasticity.
Simulations have been conducted with a solid cylindrical
billet of 40.0 mm in height and 16.0 mm in diameter until
the relative stroke (hst/D0) reaches 1.25. Due to the nature
of symmetry, one half of the specimen was represented to
construct a 2-D model. A total of 3,000 quadrilateral elements were employed to model the specimen. The punch
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
(a) r = 1 mm
(b) r = 3 mm
(c) s = 4 mm
(d) s = 6 mm
Figure 3 shows the effects of process parameters employed in experiments on the deformation patterns in terms
of sticking, separating, and cracking. As can be seen easily
in the figure, the global deformation pattern is categorized
into three cases such as sticking, separating, and cracking,
respectively, according to different process parameters, i.e.
die corner radius and gap height. It can be said from the
figure that the sticking state maintains at the beginning of
the process regardless of the process parameters selected
and then the workpiece material separates from the lower
flat die as the punch stroke increases. As the punch stroke
increases further, the cracking occurs at the flange tip. This
tendency is amplified as the gap height decreases as well
as the die corner radius decreases. However, it can be seen
easily in the figure that the gap height is the more influencing parameter than the die corner radius.
451
Metal Forming
150
s = 2, r = 1
(separating, cracking)
s = 2, r = 3
(separating, cracking)
s = 2, r = 5
(separating, cracking)
s = 4, r = 1
(separating, cracking)
s = 4, r = 3 (separating)
s = 4, r = 5 (separating)
s = 6, r = 1 (sticking)
s = 6, r = 3 (sticking)
s = 6, r = 5 (sticking)
s = 8, r = 1 (sticking)
s = 8, r = 3 (sticking)
s = 8, r = 5 (sticking)
452
90
60
m = 0.1
relative stroke (hst/D0) = 1.25
30
0
3.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Distanace from center in original billet [mm]
s = 2, r = 1 (separating, cracking)
s = 2, r = 3 (separating, cracking)
s = 2, r = 5 (separating, cracking)
s = 4, r = 1 (separating, cracking)
s = 4, r = 3 (separating)
s = 4, r = 5 (separating)
s = 6, r = 1 (sticking)
s = 6, r = 3 (sticking)
s = 6, r = 5 (sticking)
3.0
2.5
120
2.0
m = 0.1
hst/D0 = 1.25
cracking
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
s = 8, r = 1 (sticking)
s = 8, r = 3 (sticking)
s = 8, r = 5 (sticking)
5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Distance from top in original billet [mm]
Figure 4. Surface expansions for various gap heights and die
corner radii on bottom (top) and lateral surface of workpiece
(bottom), respectively.
Metal Forming
Normalized sliding distance (SD/hst) Normalized sliding velocity (SV/VDIE) Normalized contact pressure (P/Y)
30
s = 2, r = 1
25
s = 8, r = 1
s = 2, r = 5
20
s = 8, r = 5
15
10
m = 0.1
hst/D0 = 1.25
0
2.5
s = 2, r = 1
s = 2, r = 5
1.5
s = 8, r = 1
s = 8, r = 5
s = 8, r = 1
s = 8, r = 5
m = 0.1
hst/D0 = 1.25
0
10
15
20
25
Circumferential strain ()
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
s = 2, r = 1
s = 2, r = 3
s = 2, r = 5
0.2
0.0
0.0
40.1
41.6
42.7
Conclusions
m = 0.1
hst/D0 = 1.25
0
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
[Experiment]
Flange Diameters (mm)
0.5
r (mm)
453
Metal Forming
Introduction
Reducing the weight by substitution of conventional materials such as steel is one main target of technical improvements, especially in the automotive sector. In this
field exists a high potential for compound and composite
materials which allow using the best properties of the
combined materials. The application of light-weight materials, such as aluminum and magnesium, is of increasing
importance. However, a widespread application demands a
better understanding of these materials and their behavior.
This concerns production processes of semi-finished products as well as the products themselves.
Therefore the SFB-Project 692, also called HALSHigh-Strength- Aluminum based- Lightweight materials
for Security components, was initiated in 2006 at the
Chemnitz University of Technology.
In one subproject compounds made of aluminum and
magnesium are investigated. These compounds are manufactured in a hydrostatic co-extrusion process. Previous
works analyzed the compounds regarding the interface
quality [1,3,4] and the interface strength [2]. This paper
shows the further important results of the subproject.
454
Metal Forming
In the first step a FEA-model was generated and calibrated in FEA-system simufact.formingGP 9.0, formerly
known as MSC.Superform. The parameters exit speed,
equivalent of plastic strain, the force displacement curve
and the geometry of the strand especially the start of
strand with ahead streaming magnesium were calibrated in
the simulation. The parameters for calibration were the
friction, heat exchange coefficients and material description yield stress. Until now, based on security and technical aspects, it was not possible to measure the temperature during the process. Thus, cooperation between the
analyzing departments and the Extrusion Research and
Development Center in Berlin was initiated additionally,
which works on co-extrusion of magnesium and aluminum
too [5]. There are the possibilities to get much more process values. The results of pressings experiments by Extrusion Research and Development Center were used to verify the temperature field in the processes and also regard
to the temperature the yield stress model-parameters. For
these called parameters the results between the experiments and the FEA-analysis are similar and so a calibrated
state for the extrusion process simulation was reached.
The main results, process force and process temperature,
for a simulation of an extrusion process (start temperature
300 C) with AlMgSi1 and AZ31 are presented in the
following pictures, Figures 4 and 5.
In Figures 7 and 8, the contact shear stress and the geometry of the former die are opposed to the new die (materials: AlMgSi1/AZ31, Hensel-Spittel formulation). It can
be seen that the contact shear stress in the improved, new
die is significantly reduced compared to the former die.
For a better understanding the fact was analyzed furthermore in detail. For the real flow behavior a yield stress
model according to Hensel and Spittel is used. Thus the
yield stress depends on the plastic strain, plastic strain rate
and the temperature. The parameters for this model based
on yield data from literature and were fitted by the department of materials engineering.
455
Metal Forming
cable compound is higher. For the former die, this fact is
exemplary comprehensible in Figure 11.
Thus it is possible to determine and separate the important influencing parameters. Therefore the effects are far
clear. And thus the results are transferable to the processes
with the real flow behaviour of the materials.
Three kinds of rigid plastic compound combinations
are investigated. At first a combination of 50/120 N/mm
(50 N/mm for the outer material) is exemplary for the real
combination of Al99.5 and AZ31, at second 120/120
N/mm for the real combination AlMgSi1 and AZ31 and at
last 200/120 N/mm for AlMg4.5/AZ31. As already said,
the investigations do not reflect the real values, but they
show the ratios regarding the yield stress and the die geometry.
The different material combinations are analyzed. It
became evident that the ratio of materials has a strong
effect on the contact shear stress especially in the exit area
of the strand. For the combination 50/120 the contact shear
stress was lower than for the other combinations. The
argumentation is that for softer outer material the contact
shear stress is smaller and therewith the chance of impec-
456
Figure 11. Shear stress for three rigid plastic material combinations in the exit area of the strand (former die).
Figure 12. Contact shear stress for one rigid plastic material
combination in the exit area of strand (all dies).
Figure 13. Contact shear stress and geometry of the optimized die.
Figure 13 shows the contact shear stress for the optimized die design during the simulation with the materials
AlMgSi1/AZ31 (yield stress formulation according to
Hensel-Spittel).
Further investigations deal with analysis of the ratios of
diameters of the different materials and the gradient of
velocity between the compound partners. As noticeable in
Figure 14 the geometry has an impact on the velocity
gradients during the process. And it is not only the effect
Metal Forming
of the materials and the die angles; it is an effect of the
radius of the die, too.
Figure 14. Exit speed of strand/ velocity of the different die designs.
billet
Dvelocity
Today the developing of the quality criterion is not finished yet. The final aim is to find a limit based on a value
in percent.
Figure 17. Structure to evaluate the co-extrusion process.
The authors acknowledge the German Research Foundation (DFG) for supporting this work carried out within the
framework of project SFB 692.
References
[1] K. Kittner, B. Awiszus: Key Engineering Materials, 424 (2010), 129135.
[2] T. Lehmann, M. Stockmann, J. Naumann: FME-Transaction. 37-1
(2009), 1-8.
[3] K. Kittner, B. Awiszus, T. Lehmann, M. Stockmann, J. Naumann:
Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik (Materials Science and
Engineering Technology), 40-7 (2009), 532-540.
[4] B. Awiszus, K. Kittner: Proc. 9th International Conference on Technology of Plasticity, Gyeongju, (2008), 258-259.
[5] J. Muehlhause, S. Gall, S. Mueller: Key Engineering Materials, 424
(2010), 113-119.
457
Metal Forming
Introduction
A large proportion of the failures in metallic materials is
due to the fact that the basic principles for their application
have been ignored. Failure analysis is a process that is
performed in order to determine the causes or factors that
have led to an undesired loss of functionality. The contribution of the failure analysis results to the advancement of
the scientific foundation of extrusion tools design optimization is still quite limited [1-4].
The analysis of failures of metallic components is an extremely important aspect of engineering. Establishing the
causes of failures provides information for improvements
in design, operating procedures, and the use of components. The objectives of a failure analysis can vary however in many cases the investigation is often performed to
prevent a recurrence of the failure [5-7].
Valuable information has long been known to exist in
the fracture surfaces of metals, and through the years various approaches have been implemented to obtain and
interpret this information [8]. The objective of the failure
analysis process described in this report is to determine
type and origin of fracture observed on tools broken during the hot aluminum extrusion process.
Visual Examination and Fractography [3]
Fractography is the term coined by Zapffe in 1944 following his discovery of a means for overcoming the difficulty of bringing the lens of microscope sufficiently near
the uneven surface of a fracture to disclose its details
within individual grains [8]. The purpose of fractography
is to analyze the fracture features and to attempt to relate
the topography of the fracture surface to the causes and /
or basic mechanism of fracture.
Broken hot aluminum extrusion dies come in all shapes
and sizes, and they are used in many different environments, which complicate interpretation of failures. An
extrusion die that was used and then stored in a moist or
high temperature environment with heavy corrosion deposits can sometimes be more challenging to evaluate than
458
Metal Forming
presented in Figure 1. The hollow die consists of a die
mandrel and die cap encapsulated by a die ring and is
supported by the bolster. During extrusion metal flows
through the hollow die ports, welds in the welding chamber, and exits simultaneously through the die opening and
around the mandrel forming a hollow shape.
Figure 3. Fracture face details (beach marks and shear lip) observed on support tongue separated from hollow die cap.
Fracture face presented in Figure 4 shows all attributes of brittle fracture faces. This face is characterized by very little plastic deformation and by radial
ridges that emanate from the crack origin area at the
right edge of the fracture surface. The ridges, also
called river marks, run parallel to the direction of the
crack propagation, and a ridge is produced when two
cracks that are not coplanar become connected by a
tearing of the intermediate material.
459
Metal Forming
Heat treatment
Manufacturing
Service conditions
Die design
Metal Forming
Die design. The crack origin on all evaluated die caps
was localized in the same area at the entrance side to the
die cap, suggesting some heavy force applied to the top
surface of the tongue as pictured in Figure 5. Detailed
analysis of the hollow die assembly (including hollow die
mandrel and hollow die cap) was conducted.
Analyzed die design has a very special arrangement of
the hollow die mandrels as presented in Figure 7. The gap
is present between one of the mandrels and the hollow die
cap. The gap should close during the hot aluminum extrusion process. The closing force should be high enough to
keep both parts in contact during extrusion and preventing
aluminum from entering the contact area. On the other
hand, the closing force should be light enough to prevent
the supporting tongue from cracking.
In this case the gap length was too small. The die was
designed assuming that the hollow die mandrel and hollow
die cap would deflect identically upon loading. In general
the hollow die mandrel deflected more than hollow die cap.
5. Remaining dies were quarantined while fractured hollow die caps were returned to the supplier for evaluation.
Die Design Remarks
The hollow die design process is quite rigorous. The die
designer should follow the set of rules established for most
types of hollow die designs. The following rules should be
added to the die designer tool box:
1. The way the hot aluminum extrusion tools are supported
is as important as the tool design. Improper support can
lead to premature tool failure and even the best tool design is not sufficient when abused.
2. It is very important to evaluate fractured part as a part of
assembly for possible interactions leading to premature
damage. In the described case analysis of fractured die
cap alone would lead to false results.
3. Hollow die mandrel and die cap deform differently
under the same loading conditions and this fact must be
reflected in the gap design between the top of the
tongue and the bottom of the mandrel. In most cases,
the mandrel will deflect much more than die cap.
Conclusions
Summary of Evaluation
The objective of failure analysis described in this report
was to determine type, origin and direction of fracture
observed on tools broken during the hot aluminum extrusion process. Fracture face analysis indicated that the facture originated at the top of the hollow die cap tongue. The
direction of the extrusion was found to be parallel to the
direction of extrusion.
Based on observed fracture face details one can propose
the following sequence of events leading to observed hollow die cap fracture:
1. Die manufactured and accepted for production based
on correct profile dimensions after the die trial on the
press.
2. Dies ordered and accepted for production without die
trials on the press.
3. Some cracking initiated and started to propagate in the
die cap tongue area (see several beach marks in Figure
3), fatigue phase of the fracture.
4. Several die caps fractured at the die cap tongue area
before reaching 20% of expected service life, brittle
phase of the fracture.
461
Metal Forming
Effect of Ti Addition on Tensile Properties of C-Mn Steels Subjected to ECAE and Heat
Treatment
Akira Yanagida, Keisuke Ishikawa, Kensaku Okazaki, Akira Azushima
Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, 79-5, Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama/ Japan, yanagida@ynu.ac.jp
The SPD (severe plastic deformation) process is used to produce lightweight parts with high strength and for minimum environmental
impact. However, the work-hardening capabilities of metals heat-treated by the SPD are still inferior to those of metals with coarse grains.
With aim of improving the work-hardening capability of C-Mn steels, three different Ti-alloyed carbon steels are prepared to investigate the
effect of Ti addition on the tensile properties after the ECAE (equal channel angular extrusion) process and the subsequent heat treatment.
From the results of two-pass ECAE processed with route C and subsequent heat treatment at 600 C for 30 s to 300 s, it is confirmed that
the addition of Ti is effective for improving the strength and work-hardening capability.
Keywords: ECAE (Equal channel angular extrusion), Ti-alloyed steel, Tensile strength
Introduction
The SPD (severe plastic deformation) process is used to
produce lightweight parts with high strength and for minimum environmental impact. The high strength is obtained
by grain refinement, but the ductility of metals after SPD
becomes very low. To improve the ductility of metals
processed by SPD, they undergo subsequent annealing [1].
The authors [2,3] previously investigated into the effect of
the heat treatment at a temperature of 600 C after the
ECAE (equal channel angular extrusion) process for various low-carbon steels. From the results, it was found that
the tensile strength decreased and the total/uniform elongation increased with increasing heat treatment time in all
carbon steels. However, the work-hardening capabilities of
heat-treated SPD metals are still inferior to those of metals
with coarse grains. An effective method of improving the
work-hardening capability is to introduce effective obstacles preventing dislocation motion in the ultra fine grain
interior. Park et al. reported that the isothermal transformation due to the precipitation of vanadium during ECAE
and subsequent annealing was effective in improving the
thermal stability. The overall tensile properties of the steel
were improved by the uniform distribution of nano size
vanadium precipitates, which yielded an extensive interaction with lattice dislocations inside ultra fine ferrite grains
[4].
To improve the work-hardening capability of C-Mn
steels, three different Ti-alloyed carbon steels were prepared for investigating the effect of Ti addition on the
tensile properties after ECAE and heat treatment.
all materials are shown in Table 1, and the optical microstructures of the as-received specimens are shown in Figure 1. The initial microstructure of 0.1%Ti steel consists
of ferrite and pearlite, 0.2%Ti steel consists of ferrite and
carbide precipitates at the grain boundaries and 0.5%Ti
steel consists of acicular ferrite. The ferrite grain size is
relatively larger for the Ti-alloyed steel in Figure 1(a) and
(b); it is considered that the amount of TiC precipitates
during hot rolling and subsequent cooling is relatively low.
Thus, it is also assumed that the amounts of Ti in the solute are moderate for each Ti-alloyed steel.
Table 1. Chemical composition of material (mass%)
Material
Si
Mn
Ti
0.5%Ti
0.22
0.20
1.33
0.010
0.005
0.50
0.23%Ti
0.10
0.21
0.30
0.012
0.0007
0.23
0.10%Ti
0.16
0.21
0.41
0.009
0.0007
0.10
S15C
0.15
0.06
0.32
0.014
0.016
S25C
0.25
0.18
0.49
0.019
0.028
25m
25m
Experimental Conditions
Materials. The experiments were carried out using
0.1%Ti, 0.2%Ti and 0.5%Ti steels. These steels were prepared as 30 kg ingots using a vacuum melting furnace.
Each ingot was homogenized at 1270 C for 1 h and hot
rolled to a plate of 12 mm thickness, 180 mm width and
about 200 mm length. Commercially available hot-rolled
bar of 0.15%C (S15C) and 0.25%C (S25C) steels were
also used for comparison. The hot-rolled specimens were
machined in the rolling direction to dimensions of 7 mm
square and 30 mm length. The chemical compositions of
462
25m
Metal Forming
ECAE Process and Heat Treatment. In the sequence
of side extrusion, the specimen was extruded by rotation it
180 at each pass, as shown in Figure 2. The sideextrusion process corresponds to route C. ECAE was carried out at a constant ram speed of 2 mm/min with a
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) spray film as a lubricant.
In these experiments, a constant latent pressure of 150
MPa was applied to the specimens [5]. The die angle
was 90 and the outer was 0, because pressure was applied to the back of the specimen. For the present experiments the strain per pass was 1.15 [6].
Constant speed
Work piece
Back pressure
1000
90
ND
TD
ED
120 s
200 s
600
400
ECAE
60 s
300 s
As received
800
1000
800
400
0.1
1000
20 s
30 s
60 s
600
As received
200 s
300 s
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Nominal strain
0.4
0
0.0
0.5
80 s
800 ECAE
200 s
300 s
600
As received
400
200
200
200
0.4
120 s
400
0.2
0.3
Nominal strain
600
0
0.0
ECAE
800
As received ECAEed
200
1000
0.1% Ti
0.2% Ti
0.5% Ti
S15C
S25C
180
Spacer
0.1
0.2
0.3
Nominal strain
0.4
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Nominal strain
0.4
463
Metal Forming
0.25
800
0.20
600
0.15
400
0.10
200
YS
TS
0.1% Ti
0.2% Ti
0.5% Ti
50
100
300
Elu
0.05
800
600
400
0
0.0
0.00
350
Comparison with plain carbon steels. The representative nominal stress-strain curves after the heat treatment of
0.1%Ti and 0.5%Ti steels under various conditions are
shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively. For comparison,
the curves for 0.15%C and 0.25%C steels after heat treatment are also shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively.
Work-hardening is observed in the Ti-alloyed steel, however the plane carbon steels do not exhibit work hardening. It is confirmed that the addition of Ti was effective for
improving the strength and work-hardening capability.
0.1% Ti S15C
ECAE
ECAE + Annealing
ECAE + Annealing
As received
200
25m
1000
0.1
0.4
1000
800
600
400
0.5% Ti S25C
ECAE
ECAE + Annealing
ECAE + Annealing
As received
200
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Nominal strain
0.4
Microstructures. Figures 8 and 9 show optical microstructures in the side plane (The TD plane in Figure 1)
parallel to the extruded direction of the Ti alloyed steels
after ECAE and heat treatment, respectively. The shape of
25m
25m
0.2
0.3
Nominal strain
1000
25m
(c) 0.5%Ti steel
25m
25m
464
Metal Forming
the grains is restored their initial shape after ECAE and
heat treatment, so for the original elements to be restored
at even pressing via route C [7]. As shown in Figure 8, it
was found that ECAE was conducted without the formation of cracks in the secondary phase or inclusions. No
definitive difference in the optical microstructure due to
annealing for 30 s at 600 C and can be observed in Figure
9. However, the degree of etching of the inner grains is
slightly reduced compared with that before annealing. It is
supposed that the evolution of the dislocation structure
occurs during annealing. For reference, TEM micrographs
of the side plane of 0.15%C steel after ECAE involving
one, two and four passes, after four-pass ECAE following
by heat treatment at 600 C (YS = 750 MPa) are shown in
Figure 10. Ultra fine grains and unrefined grains are observed after one-pass ECAE structure as shown in Figure
10(a). The fraction of refined grains increases with the
number of passes. Ultra fine grains with a major axis
length of 0.5 m and a minor axis length of 0.3 m are
formed by four-pass ECAE of as shown in Figure 10(c). A
mixture of static recovery, slightly larger grains and unrecovered grains is observed after heat treatment as shown in
Figure 10(d), in which average grain size remains less than
0.7 m. It is estimated that the grain size of Ti-alloyed
steel after ECAE and heat treatment is almost same level
of plain carbon steel, and to obtain ultra fine grains over
most of the workpiece, ECAE involving at least two
passes is required.
Discussion. To examine the effect of ECAE on the improvement of work hardening, the heat treatment at 600 C
200nm
200nm
(a)
(b)
200nm
200nm
(c)
(d)
Figure 10. TEM micrographs of 0.15 %C steel after ECAE
involving (a) 1 pass, (b) 2 passes , (c) 4 passes and (d) four-pass
ECAE following by heat treatment at 600 C (YS = 750 MPa).
465
Metal Forming
Introduction
Recent investigations have shown that equal channel
angular pressing (ECAP) [1], as one of the most feasible
severe plastic deformation techniques to date, can form
ultra-fine grained structures and effectively improve properties and forming ability of metals and alloys through
grain refinement [2]. Compared with traditional processes,
ECAP has lots of advantages such as introducing exceptional high strain without changing the cross section of
workpiece.
Many processing parameters can affect the deformation
microstructures resulted from ECAP. They are the pass
number through the die, which corresponds to the total
accumulated strain applied to the material; the deformation
route, which involves rotating the billet between passes;
the pressing temperature and so on.
As a kind of near alloy of high aluminum equivalency,
TA15 (Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V) titanium alloy has the merits
of alloy and + alloy, moderate room temperature and
high temperature strength, good thermal stability and perfect welding performance [3]. TA15 titanium alloy is
widely applied in large aircraft construction because it can
work for a fairly long time at the temperature of 500 C.
The majority of the previous reports on the microstructural evolution in ECAP were related to pure aluminum,
pure copper, pure titanium and aluminum alloys [4,6,7]. In
this work, the microstructure developed in TA15 titanium
alloy by ECAP was examined for the first time, and the
effects of the above processing parameters were studied,
which aims at providing process evidence for the fabrication of ultra-fine grained materials.
466
Metal Forming
counterclockwise around its axis between adjacent passes),
respectively. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 or more were selected as the
pressing pass numbers, and 900, 925 and 950C (in +
phase region) as the pressing temperatures. Then microstructure observation to ECAPed TA15 alloy was achieved
by optical metallurgical microscope (OM).
The samples quenched rapidly in water after extrusion
were used to carry out transmission electron microscope
(TEM) observation. For the TEM experiment, the samples
were thinned by chemical electrolyte and HITACHI H800
transmission electron microscope with the accelerating
voltage of 175 kV was taken as the experimental instrument.
N =
N
[2 cot( + ) + csc( + )]
2
2
2 2
3
(1)
467
Metal Forming
In addition, recrystallization growth of microstructure
during ECAP at high temperature should be taken into
consideration. More pressing passes means longer total
time at high temperature, which will result in weakening
the refinement effectiveness. From Figure 4(d), grain
growth occurred partly after 16 ECAP passes.
Influence of ECAP Route. Various ECAP routes influence grain refinement by altering the shear plane and the
shear direction in workpiece. Different processing routes
in ECAP introduce different slip systems during the pressing so that they can lead to significant differences in the
microstructures produced by ECAP.
The shear deformation homogeneity of internal deformation cells of alloy cannot be achieved by pressing
through route A. The major difference between route Bc
and C is that the same shear plane is involved in each pass
in route C, while the shear deformation occurs on two
different shear planes in route Bc. So route Bc can gain
uniform shear deformation more easily than route A and C,
besides no aggravating distortion.
Consequently, the microstructure of the sample processed through route Bc (Figure 5(b)) was more homogenous, better refined and equiaxed than that processed
through route A (Figure 5(a)) and C (Figure 5(c)). Equiaxed grains with the size of 1-3 m and typical equiaxed
microstructure with the equiaxed percentage composition of about 85% were produced by ECAP using route Bc.
Whats more, it was found that the influence of pass
number comprehensively depended on the selected route.
Combining optimized microstructure and advanced processing efficiency, the optimal parameters of ECAP route
and pass number for TA15 alloy were BC and 4.
468
Influence of ECAP Temperature. Lower pressing temperature of ECAP means more difficulties in metal forming and even pronounced shear bands and shear fractures
are produced. Nonetheless, it should be emphasized that to
achieve better grain refinement, lower processing temperature is recommended. High temperature can promote dynamic recrystallization process which causes larger grain
sizes. In summary, under the premise of homogenous
Metal Forming
deformation, lowering pressing temperature can reduce the
influence of recovery and recrystallization growth on grain
refinement.
The optical micrographs of TA15 alloy processed using
route C for 2 passes at the temperature of 900, 925 and
950 C are shown in Figure 6. With increasing pressing
temperature, the equiaxed phase became smaller in number obviously as is shown in Figure 6 and the secondary
lamellar phase began to be separated out as is shown in
Figure 6(c). Grains had not been well refined because of
the possible recrystallization growth of grains since the
sample was processed at the higher temperature.
From Figure 6(a), overwhelming equiaxed grains (even
up to 90%) with the size of 1-5 m can be found distinctly.
Considering that materials with refined, equiaxed and
homogeneous microstructure have remarkable enhancement in strength, corrosion resistance, fatigue properties
and superplasticity, 900 C is taken as the optimal ECAP
temperature parameter for TA15 alloy.
TEM Observation. Figure 7 shows the TEM micrographs of samples in quenching condition after ECAP.
Because of no annealing softening, a large number of
tangled dislocations which were produced by severe shear
deformation can be seen clearly (Figure 7(a)).
Furthermore, -Ti was close-packed hexagonal structure
at the pressing temperatures below T, so the slip systems
of it were less than those of other structures and the de-
469
Metal Forming
Department of Design, Manufacture and Engineering Management, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow / UK, andrzej@strath.ac.uk; 2)
Advanced Forming Research Centre, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow / UK; 3) Department of Manufacturing Techniques, Warsaw University of Technology, Poland; 4) Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven / Belgium
Severe plastic deformation is one of the most promising methods of refining grain structure in metallic materials. However, practical applications of this technology are rare because of the lack of industrially acceptable continuous severe plastic deformation processes, especially
those suitable for plates and sheets. To address this problem a newly invented method of incremental equal channel angular pressing was
used to process 250190 aluminium alloy sheet strips. The paper describes the method, tool and press configuration, process parameters
and the results of experimental trials, which prove the feasibility of incremental equal channel angular pressing for processing sheets.
Keywords: Severe plastic deformation, Equal channel angular pressing, Ultrafine grained metals, Aluminium sheets
Introduction
There is increasing interest in metals with submicrometer grain sizes, so-called ultrafine grained metals,
because of a range of improved properties they exhibit.
These include, for example, higher strength, improved
ductility (for magnesium alloys), improved superplastic
properties, better biocompatibility or improved micromanufacturing capability [1,2].
However, ultrafine grained metals are not readily available. They can be produced by using a powder metallurgy
route or, directly from coarse grained metals, by so-called
severe plastic deformation [3,4]. The latter method seems
to be especially attractive because it uses techniques which
are related to standard metal forming processes and, therefore, should be suitable for mass production. Despite this,
most severe plastic deformation processes so far are laboratory-scale, experimental processes, which can produce
only small samples of ultrafine grained metals for metallurgical and mechanical tests.
(b)
(c)
Metal Forming
thin and wide billets because only the sides of the billet
provide the effective dragging force (top side and the bottom side friction forces cancel each other unless they experience different friction conditions).
Accumulative roll bonding is the first severe plastic deformation process which deals with sheets while retaining
sheet thickness. In accumulative roll bonding, the sheet is
cut into two pieces, which are then cleaned (brushed),
stacked and warm rolled together to the initial thickness.
The final success of the process critically depends on the
quality of the bond created during rolling. This requires
increasing the rolling temperature which, however, cannot
be too high to avoid grain growth. The final sheet is a
sandwich of thin layers, with rolling texture, so it does not
represent fully homogeneous body.
Repetitive corrugation and straightening comprises
bending of a straight plate with rotating cogwheels and
then restoring the straight shape of the plate with smooth
rolls. The repetition of the process is required to obtain
large strain and desired structural changes. Despite this,
there is an issue of strain inhomogeneity and also efficiency, due to bending rather than shearing being the main
deformation mechanism.
To address some of the above problems, a new severe
plastic deformation process, called incremental ECAP (IECAP), was proposed [11,12]. I-ECAP is suitable for
processing bars, plates and sheets. Initially, it was tried for
bars [13] and plates [14]. The purpose of this paper is to
present the recent results obtained for sheets. The following chapters will describe the general principle of I-ECAP
and its laboratory implementation, which enabled processing of aluminium sheets.
Fixed die
Fixed die
Punch
Die
471
Metal Forming
stressed tools were made of high speed steel, hardened to
60 HRC.
To enable processing of less ductile materials, a die
heating system was incorporated. It consisted of a 1.5 kW
band heater mounted around the die, near its top, and two
aluminium heating blocks, each one equipped with a 0.25
kW heating cartridge, put on top of the die. The location
of heaters followed the idea of heating the tools near the
deformation zone rather than along the whole feeding
channel. Tool temperature was measured with a 0.5 mm
diameter thermocouple inserted in a hole near the deformation zone. A PID temperature control system was used.
The tools and the heating elements used are presented in
Figure 6.
472
Metal Forming
(a)
(b)
Figure 8. Aluminium alloy sheets subjected to I-ECAP: (a) as
processed after 1 pass; (b) polished with sand paper after 6
passes.
ND
RD
Figure 9. Grain structure in the longitudinal cross section of IECAPed aluminium sheet revealed by EBSD (after 6 passes).
473
Metal Forming
Introduction
Superplasticity is a materials ability to undergo very
large (exceeding as much as 1000%) plastic deformation.
To increase formability attempts are made to produce
superplastic materials. In order for a material to pass to the
superplastic state, the following conditions must be satisfied:
474
Al [%]
Fe [%]
Mn [%]
Zn [%]
Pb [%]
Cu [%]
10,5
2,7
1,9
0,09
0,002
rest
Different methods of producing severe plastic deformation were considered and equal channel angular pressing
(ECAP) was chosen because the specimens obtained in
this way are relatively large and it is easy to carry out the
experiment and control the temperature. The analysis was
supported by finite element method. This method has
become more and more popular in CAD/CAM system in
metal forming processes [13,14].
Metal Forming
Methodology
second angular
channel
1.2-1.4
0.7-1
0.9-1.2
0 -0.25
2,1-2,6
0,7 -1,1
1,2 -1,6
0.25-0.7
Microhardness Measurements
Examinations of the microhardness of the deformed materials show an increase in hardness along the whole
length of the pressed specimen relative to the starting
material (Figure 4). The ingots hardness was in the range
from 160 to 140 HV, whereas the hardness of the pressed
materials is more uniform and is about 200 HV. No significant changes in pressed specimen hardness between the
particular passes are observed. However, slight microhardness inhomogeneity appears in the cross section of the
specimen after the first pass. This is probably mainly due
to deformation non-uniformity (Figure 5).
250
200
Hardness [HV]
150
Liniowy
(castddd)
cast specimen
Liniowy
(speciment
1xss)
specimen
after 1 pass
specimen
after 4 passes
Liniowy
(speciment
4xdd)
specimen
after 3 passes
Liniowy
(speciment
3x cc)
specimen
after 2 passes
Liniowy
(speciment
2xdd)
100
50
0
0
4
6
Length of sample [mm]
10
475
Metal Forming
Tensile Test of Sample Deformed by ECAP Process
Tensile test specimens with a length of 8 mm and a diameter of 3 mm (Figure 6) were made from the postECAP specimens. The axis of the specimen for tensile test
coincides with the axis of specimen for ECAP. Tensile
tests were carried out at a temperature of 20C and a constant strain rate of 0.025 s-1 in an Instron testing machine.
In all the deformed test pieces necking preceded failure,
which is indicative of good material plasticity (Figure 7).
The test results show that the specimens cut out from the
ingot cast have a lower flow stress and limit strain than
specimens after one and two passes, however, for specimen pressed four times suddenly the decrease in limit
strain was observed.
Up to a strain of 0.05 the stress strain curves of all
samples coincide it testifies that there is no hardening
process in the material during the pressing of aluminium
bronzes BA1032 through the angular channel at a temperature of 400 oC. It is very curios because according to
previous author research no recovery process in aluminium bronzes BA1032 starts below 450 oC. Therefore, this
ductility improvement can be explained only by changes
in microstructure in the ECAP process [12].
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Tensile test pieces (a) before and (b) after tensile test.
1000
Stress [MPa]
800
600
400
cast speciment
speciment after 1 pass
speciment after 2 passes
speciment after 4 passes
200
0
0
0,1
0,2
Strain
0,3
0,4
0,5
Metal Forming
Place where metallographic
photographs were taken
477
Metal Forming
Institute for Production Engineering and Forming Machines, Mechanical Engineering Department, Darmstadt University of Technology,
Darmstadt / Germany, goertan@ptu.tu-darmstadt.de; 2) Institute for Physical Metallurgy, Materials and Earth Sciences Department, Darmstadt University of Technology, Darmstadt / Germany
A new severe plastic deformation process is developed to produce bulk ultrafine grained (UFG) materials by combining the conventional
equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) with the incremental bulk forming method rotary swaging. The developed tool system to severely
deform the material consists of two forming rotary swaging tools which contains four forming sections in a single forming pass. Round bars
made of copper (Cu 99.9) with a diameter of 20 mm are used in the first investigations. It was possible to reprocess the samples with the
developed process repeatedly. The developed process is capable of inducing a significant grain refinement through subgrain development.
The required press forces are under 10 kN which is considerably low compared to other SPD processes. Therefore, equal channel angular
swaging (ECAS) has promising features for a continuous severe plastic deformation method.
Keywords: Severe plastic deformation, Incremental forming, Rotary swaging, Ultrafine grained materials, Equal channel angular pressing
Introduction
Ultrafine grained (UFG) materials have promising mechanical properties such as combination of high strength
and high ductility [1], improved fatigue behavior [2] and
high dynamic strength [3]. There are several known severe
plastic deformation (SPD) processes which are capable of
producing UFG materials. Among others, equal channel
angular pressing (ECAP) is the most investigated SPD
process due to its scalability properties [1, 4].
During ECAP, a rod-shaped material is pressed through
a die which has two or more channels with same crosssection intersecting in a certain angle. Since the crosssection of the channels is the same, the processed rod has
theoretically the initial geometry after forming. After several passes through the same tool, ultrafine grains are
induced in the material. However, this process is mainly
limited to relatively short part lengths due to the high press
forces, which are caused by the high friction forces and the
induced high strain. There have been many attempts to
develop continuous SPD processes. Nevertheless, the
reported continuous methods are incapable of producing
cross-sections larger than a few mm2 [5, 6]. Therefore,
these processes are uneconomical and the industrial utilization is still limited to few applications. A new continuous process is required for the commercialization of SPD
processes [7].
Rotary swaging is an incremental forming method,
mostly used to process tubes, bars and wires. During the
swaging process, dies, which are arranged concentrically
around the workpiece, perform high frequency radial
movements with short strokes. Due to the oscillating
movement of the dies, the forming takes place in many
small processing steps, which enables high forming ratios
in a single forming step. Additionally, as the contact time
between dies and the workpiece is very short, the friction
is minimized during the forming process [8].
In the present study, an innovative SPD process is developed to produce bulk UFG materials by combining the
conventional ECAP process with the incremental forming
method of rotary swaging.
Equal Channel Angular Swaging (ECAS) Process for
Continuous Production of UFG Materials
478
Metal Forming
Force Requirement. The forces in axial as well as in
radial direction are measured during the ECAS process.
For the measurements, the geometry of the samples is
fitted to the channel geometry by plunge swaging. Afterwards, the copper bar is pushed with a constant speed of 3
mm/s through the oscillating tools while applying a constant counter force of 5 kN on the samples end. The measured forces acting on the Tool A in radial direction and
acting on the feed equipment in axial direction are shown
in Figure 4.
479
Metal Forming
= K ( 0 + )n for ( 0.5)
= 356.8 MPa for ( > 0.5)
where
(1)
(2)
(371.22 MPa),
is the
Figure 6. Shear deformation patterns obtained from (a) experiment and (b) (c) FE calculation.
480
Metal Forming
Conclusions
481
Metal Forming
Effect of Pass Route and Pass Number of Equal-Channel Angular Extrusion on Structure and Strength of Lotus-Type Porous Copper
Shinsuke Suzuki1),2), Juan Lobos Martin1,3), Hiroshi Utsunomiya4), Hideo Nakajima1)
1)
The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Osaka / Japan; 2) Present. Waseda Institute for Advanced Study,
Waseda University, Tokyo / Japan, suzuki-s@aoni.waseda.jp; 3) Present: Departmento de Fisica de la Materia Condensada, Facultad de
Ciencias, University of Valladolid, Valladolid / Spain; 4) Division of Materials and Manufacturing Science, Graduate School of Engineering,
Osaka University, Osaka / Japan
Lotus-type porous copper with long cylindrical pores aligned in one direction was processed by the Equal-Channel Angular Extrusion
(ECAE) with a die with a channel angle of 150. The effects of the pass route and the pass number on the compressive yield strength and
the Vickers hardness were investigated. Three kinds of pass routes were adopted; route A (no rotational change of sample rod between
passes), route BC (axial rotation of 90 of the sample rod between passes), and route C (axial rotation of 180 of the sample rod between
passes). Although the porosity slightly decreased after every pass, the porous structure remained after the process. The Vickers hardness
and the compressive yield strength of lotus copper increased with an increase in the pass number till 4 passes. The maximum specific yield
strength was the same level as that of non-porous copper processed by the ECAE by accumulation of strain. The specific yield strength
decreased due to the Bauschinger effect via route C on the 5th pass. The cracking occurred in the sample rod via route A and BC on the 5th
pass. Inhomogeneous hardness distribution was found in lotus copper processed by the ECAE. The Vickers hardness in the outer region
was higher than that in the central region.
Keywords: Lotus-type porous copper, Equal-channel angular extrusion, Yield strength, Vickers hardness, Work hardening
Introduction
Recently, porous metals are expected to be used as various structural and functional materials, since they exhibit
various characteristics such as an inherent low density and
large surface area, which differ from non-porous metals.
Therefore, porous metals are actively investigated to be
used in many fields, such as light-weight materials, catalyst carriers, vibration damping materials, impact energy
absorption materials, etc. [1].
Among various kinds of porous metals, metallic foams
with a porosity higher than 90% are applied to soundabsorbing materials and crash boxes for automobiles due
to its sound absorbing and impact shock absorbing properties, respectively. Sintered porous metals with a low porosity fabricated through powder metallurgy are used as filter
materials due to the permeability of fluid.
On the other hand, lotus-type porous metals (lotus metals) [2] and Gasar metals [3] with long cylindrical gas
pores aligned in one direction with a medium porosity,
exhibit superior mechanical properties to isotropic porous
metals. Since stress concentration does not take place in
the parallel direction to the pore growth direction, the
specific strength does not change in this direction even
when the porosity increases [4]. Therefore, lotus metals
are expected to be applied in various fields from lightweight structural materials to functional materials.
Lotus metals are usually used as cast materials. In order
to improve the mechanical strength severe plastic deformation is necessary. However, the pores in lotus metals
could be collapsed by plastic deformation such as rolling.
In order to solve this problem the present authors clarified
that the Equal-Channel Angular Extrusion (ECAE) [5,6] is
effective to strengthen lotus metals, maintaining the porous structure [7]. In the ECAE process, a sample rod is
extruded through a die with two crossing channels of equal
diameter. This process introduces shear strain to the sam-
482
ple rod at the corner of the channel and can increase the
strain by repeating extrusion. Copper was selected as a
sample material, because the fabrication method of lotus
copper was already established [8] and copper has an excellent ductility for plastic deformation. As a result, we
found that the ECAE is an effective method to increase the
hardness of the metallic part of the lotus copper by work
hardening, maintaining the porous structure [7].
However, the details of the effects of the processing parameters on the mechanical properties were not investigated. In the present work, the effect of the pass route and
pass number of the ECAE on the structure and strength of
lotus copper was investigated in order to understand the
cause of improvement in the strength.
Experimental
Lotus copper slabs were fabricated by continuous casting technique [8]. Electrolytic cathode copper (99.99% Cu,
Sumitomo Metal Mining Co. Ltd.) was melted by radiofrequency induction heating in a graphite crucible in a
mixture gas of hydrogen (0.5 MPa) and argon (0.2 MPa).
The transfer velocity of continuous casting was 20
mm/min.
The fabricated lotus copper slab was cut into cylinders
(8mm in diameter and 45 mm in length) with a sparkerosion wire-cutting machine (Model AQ325L-LN1W,
Sodick Co.) so that the pores were oriented parallel to the
axis. The porosity was 46.30.4%, which was calculated
by its measured weight and volume. The pore diameter
was 388131m, which was measured with a digital microscope (KEYENCE VHX-200) and an image analyser
(Mitani Co., Win ROOF).
The cylindrical sample was inserted into a sheath of 8
mm in inner diameter, 10.8 mm in outer diameter and 50
mm in total length, which was made of pure non-porous
copper in order to prevent cracking in the sample rod dur-
Metal Forming
ing the ECAE process.
For comparison, a non-porous copper slab was fabricated by continuous casting method at a transfer velocity
of 20 mm/min in an argon atmosphere (0.1 MPa). The
non-porous copper slab was cut into cylinders of 8 mm in
diameter and 45 mm in length.
Figure 1 shows a schematic drawing of the ECAE-die
with a channel angle of 150. The sample rods were extruded through the ECAE-die at a speed of 5 mm/min for
up to 5 passes. The sample rods were lubricated with lanoline.
Inner
corner
Outer
corner
Inner
corner
Outer
corner
Figure 2. Cross-sections of as-cast lotus copper and lotus copper
after 3rd pass via each route perpendicular to extrusion direction.
After the 2nd pass, three kinds of pass routes [9] were
adopted, depending upon different axial rotation between
passes as shown in Figure 1. In route A, the sample rod
was not rotated, keeping the same orientation as the previous pass. In route BC, the sample rod was rotated by 90
axially from the previous pass. In route C, the sample rod
was rotated by 180 axially from the previous pass. The
porosity and the mechanical properties of the lotus and the
non-porous copper were measured after each pass.
The Vickers hardness was measured on the metallic
parts by a hardness tester (AKASHI MVK-III). The testing
force was 0.5~1 N and the testing time was 20s. 10 points
on the same cross-section were tested.
The compression tests were carried out based on the JIS
H7902 [10] using a universal testing machine (INSTRON
5582) at a crosshead speed of 0.15 mm/min. The compression direction was parallel to the extrusion direction, hence
parallel to the pore growth direction. The nominal compressive stress was calculated by dividing the compressive
force by the initial cross sectional area including pores.
The compressive yield strength was defined as the proof
stress 0.2% at the plastic strain of 0.2 % in this study. The
specific compressive yield strength *0.2% was obtained by
dividing the yield strength 0.2% by the density. Compression tests were performed three times for each processing
condition.
483
400
300
4 Pass
2 Pass
200
1 Pass
100
As-cast
35
30
25
20
15
Lotus (route A)
Lotus (route BC)
Lotus (route C)
Non-porous (route C)
10
5
0
10
20
30
Strain (%)
40
50
Non-porous
copper
Metal Forming
Lotus
copper
350
Route C
300
(3)
(5)
250
(4)
200
(1)
150
(5)
100
50 (0 pass)
0
20
(3)
(2)
(1)
(0 pass)
40
60
Porosity (%)
80
100
484
The specific compressive yield strength of the lotus copper after the 1st and the 2nd passes of the ECAE was
lower than that of the non-porous copper. Although only
shearing deformation took place during the ECAE of the
non-porous copper, buckling of metallic part, which reduces the shearing deformation, occurred during the
ECAE of the lotus copper. Therefore, the equivalent plastic strain in the lotus copper after the 1st and the 2nd
passes was lower than that of non-porous copper.
Then the specific yield strength of the lotus copper became similar to that of the non-porous copper after the 3rd
pass and showed the maximum value after the 4th pass.
The plastic strain was accumulated and work hardening
took place on every pass via route C.
Although the specific compressive strength of the lotus
copper processed via route A and BC was slightly smaller
than that of via route C, the tendency was similar among
these three routes until the 4th pass.
There were no data of the 5th pass via route A and BC
because of the cracking of the sample rod. The specific
yield strength decreased after the 5th pass via route C. In
order to discuss the decrease in the yield strength after the
5th pass, the distribution of hardness in the lotus copper
processed by the ECAE after the 5th pass was measured.
Figure 6(a) shows the change of the Vickers hardness of
the non-porous and the lotus copper as a function of the
pass number via route C. The standard deviations of the
Vickers hardness of the non-porous copper were small as
shown with the error bars on the whole of the crosssection in the perpendicular direction to the extrusion
direction. However, the lotus copper had an inhomogeneous hardness distribution on the cross-section.
The cross-section was divided into the areas of near the
central part (Z) and the outer circumference. Furthermore,
the outer circumference was divided into 4 areas (1-4) as
shown in Figure 6(b). The areas 1 and 3 faced the inner
corner of the channel on the passes of odd numbers and
even numbers, respectively.
Metal Forming
Conclusions
Vickers hardness, HV
(a)
120
110
100
90
:Non-porous
:Lotus (Area 1)
:Lotus (Area 2)
:Lotus (Area 3)
:Lotus (Area 4)
:Lotus (Area Z)
80
70
60
(b)
Inner
corner
(2nd and
4th
passes)
2
3
4
Pass number of ECAE
4
3
Z
2
Inner corner
(1st, 3rd
and 5th
passes)
485
Metal Forming
486
Material
1.2, 10
Diameter / mm
Annealing
temperature / K
Annealing
time / min
573
30
2
d
R / P = 1 1 100 %
d 0
2
d
d1 R
Rtt = 1 n 100 %
d 0
d0
100
True stress / MPa
Introduction
80
6
60
Die
40
Wire
20
0
10
15
True starin / %
20
25
Metal Forming
80
60 Al
40
20
0
0
Al-Diamond die
Al-WC die
Cu-Diamond die
Cu-WC die
20
40
60
80
Total
Reduction
Total
reduction
Rt // %
%
99
PZ
A1 Y
ln
A0
A1
2
3
1
(1)
(1)
6
Exit
2.0
l
D.D
1.5
WC Die
1.0
Entry
0.5
0.0
Diamond
0.2
R/P = 20%
R/P
= 6 Exit
0.4
0.6
0.8
Die contact ratio l/L
1.0
Mother
wire
Rt=18%
Rt=56%
Rt=83%
Rt=94%
WC die
200
180
160
140
120
Cu
100
Diamond die
487
Metal Forming
Single drawing
(Rt=94%)
(Rt=99.8%)
Alternate drawing
(R(Rt=94%)
t=99.8%)
0.026
0.022
0.01
0.02
0.03
Nominal strain
0.04
0.05
(a)
Dimple
Shear lip
50m
50m
Vickers hardness / HV
75
Surface
Center
Surface
60
Mother wire
Rt=38%
Rt=78%
Rt=92%
300m
300m
300m
300m
300m
300m
300m
70
65
single
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
alternate
Single drawing
(a)
(b)
Alternate drawing
55
50
-250-200-150-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance of measurement from center / m
488
100m
(a) Single drawing
100m
(b) Alternate drawing
Metal Forming
Single drawing
Alternate drawing
XRD intensity
(111)
(100)
(311)
(222)
(220)
15
20
25
30
35
2 / deg
40
45
Single drawing
Alternate drawing
Single drawing
Alternate drawing
5Pass
2Pass
0.37
D.D
0.45
0.4
0.36
CL
0.35
D.D
1.6
1.0
0.8
D.D
1.3
0.9
0.8
CL
0.75
D.D
Conclusions
The drawing of aluminum wires used for a wiring
harness using diamond and WC dies and operational
drawing conditions was carried out, and the drawability
and surface properties of the drawn wires were examined.
The effectiveness of the alternate drawing for yielding
highly ductile aluminum wires by both experiments and
FEM analysis was also discussed. The following results
were obtained.
1. The drawing stress of the wires for the diamond die was
approximately 15-20% smaller than that for the WC die,
and the wire drawn with the diamond die exhibited high
drawability and good surface properties.
2. The tensile strength and breaking strain of the wire
obtained by alternate drawing were approximately
15MPa lower and 20% higher than those of the wire
obtained by single drawing.
3. The additional shear strain on the surface layer of the
wire generated by the alternate drawing was
approximately 20% lower than that by the single
drawing. In addition, alternate drawing makes it
possible to suppress the work-hardening of wires.
4. The alternate drawing is effective in manufacturing
aluminum wires used for wiring harnesses, which must
be highly ductile.
References
1.1
CL
489
Metal Forming
Faculty of Metals Engineering and Industrial Computer Science, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakw / Poland, majta@metal.agh.edu.pl; 2) Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakw / Poland.
The main assumptions and processing details of the new wire drawing method (AAD angular accumulative drawing) are presented. Special
emphases are given on the inhomogeneity of the deformation and resulted mechanical properties. There are many potential advantages
that can be obtained from this new drawing process. The basic idea of the AAD process is deforming metals to much higher plastic strains,
compared to the conventional wire drawing, and by introducing high grain refinement, achieving much higher tensile strength and ductility what can be especially beneficial for alloys that are not characterized by complex compositions. In order to carry out the study of the AAD
process, a special die design was made such that an ordinary drawing bench could be used. Additionally, a study using computer simulation of the strain and the stress distributions that exist in the drawn wire has been carried out. Presented results show that it is possible to
produce wires with higher values of accumulated deformation energy with a lower area reduction. Applying the annealing process, both
high strength and increased ductility were achieved in the drawn wires. Also, it is shown that the effect of strain path in the AAD process
could be effectively controlled using computer simulation.
Keywords: Wire drawing, Mechanical properties, Computer modeling, Angular accumulative drawing, Deformation inhomogeneity
Introduction
Cold drawn low carbon steel wires are very popular
constructional products with a wide field of applications.
Recently, multi-pass cold rolling or drawing up to large
strains leads to ultrafine-grained materials with high
strength that could be very attractive from the economical
point of view [1-5]. The angular accumulative drawing
(AAD) process is a new method to produce wires with
high plastic strain inhomogeneity, what in consequence
leads to increased deformation energy accumulated in the
drawn product. This multi-pass drawing is a forming process with the aim of obtaining a high plastic strain accumulation as an effect of various sources of deformation. Such
a history of deformation evolves high mechanical inhomogeneity [2,6,7]. After drawing and annealing (at 500
o
C) mechanical properties measurements and microstructure analysis on the cross sections of the wires were performed to obtain the differences existing with respect to
the conventional wire drawing process. It was observed
that applied in this process strain path directly affects the
microstructure changes in the final product.
(a)
(b)
Experimental Procedure
The material used in this study was low carbon steel
(0.06C/0.37Mn/0.01Si/0.14Cu/0.07Cr/0.06Ni) supplied as
wire rod with homogenous, equiaxed ferrite microstructure.
The 6.5 mm diameter wire rods were drawn to wires of 4.0
mm diameter by applying total strains of 0.45 and 0.38 in
first and second pass respectively and 0.14 in calibration
pass (Table 1). Drawing was carried out at slow speed
(0.05 m/s) to eliminate the effect of the heat generated by
working. In order to carry out the study of the AAD process, a special die design was made such that an ordinary
drawing bench could be used (Figure 1). The reduction of
area, the strain induced in the outer part of the wires, due
to bending/unbending processes and the desired shear
deformation were the main sources of strain accumulation
in the final product of the AAD process. As a result the
490
cross-sectional distribution of the strain was very inhomogeneous. Different plastic strain inhomogeneity were obtained as a result of three different combinations of the die
positioning, i.e. linear, alternate, and stepped (Figure 2).
The wires were drawn in two passes through the set of arc
drawing dies using three different processing routes:
Route I. The drawing die positioning was linear; the
wire orientation was kept the same from one pass to the
next (Figure 2(a)).
Metal Forming
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2. Drawing dies positioning in angular accumulative drawing: alternate, Route II (a), stepped, Route III (b).
Microstructures. Optical microscopy (on both longitudinal and cross sections) and EBSD analysis (on longitudinal sections) reveal differences in the microstructure
obtained after three processing routes. The dependence of
grain shape and size with the processing route and annealing temperature is clearly seen in Figures 5 and 6. The
lamellar boundary structures elongated to drawing direction were observed in all cases. However, the spacing of
Figure 5. Longitudinal microstructures of drawn wires, near surface. Route II (a), Route III (b). Annealing at 500 oC.
491
Metal Forming
(b)
(c)
(d)
(b)
(e)
(f)
492
Figure 8. Flow curves of drawn wires, using different dies positioning and annealed wires. Annealing temperature: 500 oC (a), 800
o
C (b).
Metal Forming
(a)
(b)
(c)
obtained directly from a tensile test [8]. The point of necking corresponds to the point of tensile instability. The
plastic deformation begins in a tensile test when the stress
in the sample reaches the critical value. The plastic strain
causes local reduction of a cross sectional area, thus the
deformation of the material will be continued when stress
increases. Uniform plastic deformation occurs as long as
the true stress is below the value of work hardening rate
( d / d < ). When the two quantities are equal, the
uniform deformation stops and necking begins. This method is known as Considre criterion (necking criterion) [9,
10, 11]. It is clearly shown in Figure 9 that high deformation inhomogeneity and resulted microstructure development in specimens drawn in Route II and Route III cause
significant increase in ductility. The uniform elongation
significantly increased and reached a value 0.111 after
annealing in case of alternate, and 0.119 in case of stepped
dies positioning.
The authors are grateful to the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education for the financial support (grant
no. N N508 3982 37).
References
[1] V.M. Segal: Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 197 (1995), 157.
[2] J. Len, C.J. Luis: Materials Science Forum, 526 (2006), 19-24.
[3] U. Chakkingal, A.B. Suriadi, P.F. Thomson: Scripta Materialia, 39-6
(1998), 677-684.
[4] X. Huang, N. Kamikawa, N. Hansen: J. Mater. Sci., 43 (2008), 73977402.
[5] D. Jia, K.T. Ramesh, E. Ma: Acta Materialia, 51 (2003), 3495-3441.
[6] J. Majta, J. Luksza: Archives of Metallurgy, 37 (1992), 187-200.
[7] L. Sadok, J. Luksza, J. Majta: J. Mater. Proc. Technol., 44 (1994),
129-141.
[8] J. Majta, K. Doniec, K. Muszka: Mater. Sci. Forum, 638-642 (2010),
1977-1982.
[9] G.E. Dieter: Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA,
(1986).
[10] A. Considre: Mmoire sur lemploi du fer et de lacier dans les
constructions. Paris, (1886).
[11] Z.S. Basinski, M.S. Szczerba, J.D. Embury: Philos. Mag. A, 76, 4
(1997), 743-749.
493
Metal Forming
Major in Applied Mechanics, Graduate School of Fundamental Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo / Japan, talisman@asagi.waseda.jp; 2) Department of Applied Mechanics and Aerospace Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo / Japan
Two-dimensional FEM analysis was carried out to investigate the effects of drawing conditions on the drawn diameter in cold wire drawing.
The mechanism of diameter variation was elucidated to involve elastic deformation of the die, undershoot, diameter thickening during drawing and unloading springback. The undershoot was caused by the separation of the bar from the die at the beginning of the bearing zone
during drawing, and it was the main reason for the variation in the drawn diameter. It was experimentally confirmed by measuring the bar
diameter near the boundary between the approach and bearing zones. It was found from results of FEM analysis that the undershoot was
generated by plastic deformation at the surface of the bar. This phenomenon is thought to be a result of two factors: the tensile residual
stress in the axial direction at the surface of the bar near the boundary between the approach and bearing zones, and the drawing stress of
the drawn bar. As a result, the axial stress at the surface exceeds the yield stress, and plastic deformation was generated. Thus, a low
approach semi-angle in the second die is effective to reduce the residual stress and the diameter variation was reduced.
Keywords: Diameter of drawn bar, Cold drawing
Introduction
Recently, precision-forged products used in automobiles
and office equipments are required to have a high dimensional accuracy. The target dimensional tolerance is within
the range of 0% to +0.17% of the drawn diameter. However, in the conventional processes, the drawn diameter
becomes thicker or thinner than the die diameter. Occasionally, the diameter exceeds the bounds of permissibility.
In addition, the diameter variation is caused by changes in
the drawing conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the factors that cause diameter variation.
Lueg investigated the effect of the reduction and approach semi-angle on drawn diameter by the deformation
of a die [1,2]. Tanaka attempted to control the drawn
diameter by controlling the back-tension [3]. However,
thus far there have not been any systematic studies to
clarify the mechanisum of diameter variarion of drawn
bars.
Previously, the effect of back-tension, reduction and mechanical properties of the material on the drawn diameter
of a bar was experimentally investigated [4]. In this study,
the effect of cold drawing conditions on the drawn diameter of a bar was theoretically investigated with FEM analysis. First, the mechanism of the diameter variation was
clarified. Second, the main factors affecting the diameter
variation were specified. Finally, the stress and strain state
of the deformation zone during drawing was investigated.
Then, based on these results, a method to reduce dimensional errors and increase productivity was proposed.
Analysis Model and Experimental Method
The MSC Marc FEM simulation software was used in
this study, and a two-dimensional axisymmetric model
was employed in this drawing simulation. The standard
analytical conditions were employed, as shown in Figure
1, Tables 1 and 2. The die case and chip were assumed to
be elastic bodies, and the bar was assumed an elastoplastic
body. The die diameter D was 12 mm, the bearing length L
was 6 mm, and boundary R between the approach zone
and the bearing zone was 6 mm. The coulomb friction
494
coefficient was 0.05. Boundary R was subdivided to prevent the bar from passing through the die. Carbon steel
(0.2%) was used as the cold-drawn material.
*Closeup of boundary R
Drawing direction
Case
Chip
Bar
Approach
zone
Bearing zone
Boundary R
Axis of symmetry
Figure 1. Two-dimensional axisymmetric model employed in simulations.
Table 1. Material properties underb standard drawing conditions.
n
E
F
kN/mm2
N/mm2
Case
210
0.3
----------Chip
640
0.21
----------Bar**
193
0.3
1100
0.15
**True stress-true strain curve is approximated as F n
Table 2. Analytical standard conditions.
Die diameter D mm
12
7
Approach semi-angle degree
Bearing length L mm
6
Boundary R mm
6
Reduction in area Red %
10
0.05
Friction coefficient
Metal Forming
Result and Discussion
Die
dD
100
[%]
d
(1)
0.20
0.10
FEM
Experiment
0.090
-0.10
20
10
Reduction Red /%
30
0.10
0.00
-0.20
-0.30
= 0.250
FEM
-0.10
445
520
578
590
512
576
778
807
AISI 1048
0.20
AISI 1035
0.15
AISI 1020
0.10
0.05
AISI 1010
0.00
0
10
15
20
Reduction Re / %
25
30
0.065
0.00
AISI 1048
0.25
-0.05
= 0.140
Drawing direction
Universal tester
Experiment
50
100
150
200
Effective back-tension stress eb /N/mm2
495
Metal Forming
ing tests were carried out with AISI 1010 material, reduction in area Red = 10% and approach semi-angle a = 13
degrees. These drawing conditions easily generated the
undershoot, especially in tandem pass drawing. Drawing
was stopped halfway, and then, the bar was drawn out
backwards and the bar diameter near boundary R was
measured. Figure 7 shows the measurement results of the
bar diameter. The bar is shown without touching the bearing zone. Thus, undershoot was confirmed by the experimental method.
Drawing direction
Die shape before drawing
b
0.10
Die
0.00
Bar shape
e
d
Bar
c
Bearing end
Bearing area
-0.10
0
5
10
Distance from boundary R l /mm
15
Main Reason for Variation in Diameter. Representative results are shown in Figure 6. The total diameter
thickening ratio showed a peak in the case of varying
reduction. When the back tension increased, the total diameter thickening ratio increased. Undershoot 2 showed a
peak in the case of varying the reduction. When the back
tension and approach semi-angle increased, the undershoot
greatly increased. Other factors (elastic deformation of die
, diameter thickening during drawing and unloading
springback ) were constant in each case. This implies
that the undershoot was the main reason for variation in
the drawn diameter.
12.100
Diameter of bar d / mm
0.20
12.080
Die
12.060
12.040
12.020
12.000
40m
11.980
5m
11.960
11.940
110
Observed area
Die
400 N/mm2
500 N/mm2
0.10
0.00
-0.10
Bar
-0.20
300 N/mm2
0
20
Reduction Re / %
40 0
100
200
Back-tensioneb / N/mm2
Measurement of Undershoot. The undershoot was confirmed by the experimental method. The bar diameter near
boundary R was experimentally measured using a laser
micrometer with a repeat accuracy of 0.15 m. The draw-
496
130
115
120
125
Displacement X /mm
z
960
896
-236
r
-22
-16
-268
426
449
-219
eq
852
790
398
Drawing direction
500 N/mm2
600 N/mm2
I
II
III
200 N/mm2
r
200 N/mm22
600 N/mm2
300 N/mm
400 N/mm2 500 N/mm2
2
600 N/mm
z
400 N/mm2
500 N/mm2
700 N/mm2
Metal Forming
generated the plastic deformation. Under all conditions,
the plastic deformation zone at the surface of the bar extended in the drawing direction from the beginning of the
bearing zone. Thus, the main reason that affected the undershoot was considered to be the generated plastic deformation at the surface. When a larger undershoot was
generated, the plastic deformation zone was larger than in
the standard model.
Undershoot
Surface
Bar
Center
= 9 deg.
Center
Drawing stress
r
Surface
Residual stress
r
Surface
Center
Drawing direction
Larger undershoot
Standard model
Bar
Drawing direction
Plastic deformation
Die
Die
Conclusions
The conventional drawing process produces dimensional errors in the drawn bars, which might cause defects
in products. Therefore, FEM analysis was used to investigate the effects of cold drawing conditions on the drawn
diameters of bars.
1. The final resulting diameter of the drawn bar was determined by the elastic deformation of the die, the
undershoot, the diameter thickening during drawing and
the unloading springback.
2. The main factor that affected the drawn diameter was
the undershoot, and this was confirmed by the experimental method.
3. The undershoot was generated by large plastic deformation of the surface of the bar at the beginning of the
bearing zone.
References
[1] Leug: Sahl u. Eisen, (1941), 1169-1172.
[2] Leug: Sahl u. Eisen, (1960), 343-350.
[3] F. Sekine, N. Enomoto: Proc. 5th ICTP, (1996), 595-598.
[4] H. Kubota, Y. Tanaka and M. Asakawa : Proc. 57th Japanese Joint
Conference for the Technology of Plasticity, (2006), 267-268.
[5] M. Akiyama: Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 34- 4 (2007), 360-368.
[6] P. Renz, W. Steuff, R. Kopp: Wire Journal International, (1996), 64.
497
Metal Forming
Prediction Model of Axial Residual Stress in Multi-Pass High Carbon Steel Wire
Drawing
Dae Woon Kim1), Sang Kon Lee2), Byung Min Kim3), , Jin Young Jung4), Deok Young Ban4)
1)
Graduate School of precision manufacturing systems division, Pusan National University, Busan / Korea; 2) PNU-IFAM JRC, Pusan National University, Busan / Korea; 3) School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan / Korea, bmkim@pusan.ac.kr; 4)
Technical Development Center Technology Research Center, Kiswire, LTD., Pohang / Korea
Multi-pass drawn high carbon steel wires obtained by the multi-pass wire drawing process are widely used for a variety of products. In the
drawing process, the wires are introduced a great amount of plastic deformation that is heterogeneous through the cross-section, and
surface temperature is rapidly increasing by friction much more then the temperature at inner wires. Those generate, on unloading, axial
tensile residual stresses at surface of multi-pass drawn steel wires. The tensile residual stresses generated on surface are one of the problems. Because the residual stresses deteriorate the mechanical strength and failure properties, prediction of residual stresses is important
to avoid unexpected fracture. Therefore, in this study, the influence of the material property, the process variables (semi-die angle, bearing
length, reduction ratio) and high surface temperature on the axial residual stress was investigated through elasto-plastic FE analysis.
Based on the result of FE analysis, a prediction model which can predict the total axial residual stress on the surface of multi-pass drawn
wire was established. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed prediction model was verified through the multi-pass drawing experiment.
After the drawing experiment, the axial residual stress was evaluated by using X-ray diffraction.
Keywords: High carbon steel wire, Multi-pass wire drawing, Axial residual stress, Surface temperature, X-ray diffraction
Introduction
The high carbon steel wire is generally produced by
multi-pass wire drawing. When the wire passes through
die, the most of plastic deformation is induced on surface
so that the deformation occur heterogeneously through the
cross section of wire. It brings about tensile residual stress
on the surface [1].
The residual stresses on the surface can be separated
three components such as axial, hoop and radial. The axial
and hoop residual stress become tensile stresses. Particularly, it is found that axial tensile residual stress is the
largest stress on wire. In case of the residual stress, it leads
to mechanical properties deterioration. Those could be the
reason of degrading the quality of multi-pass drawn wire
[2,3].
Therefore, it is so important to minimize the axial tensile
residual stress. Prior to reduce it, the quantitative prediction of generated axial residual stress after wire drawing
should be investigated. So far, a variety of researches have
been investigated about axial residual stress in wire. However, there have been many researches about influences of
each variable like reduction of cross section, semi die
angle, bearing length and bearing shape on residual stress
for single pass drawn wire. Whereas, it has seldom been
investigated researches about the evaluation and prediction
of the residual stress on multi-pass drawn wire with combination of various process variables and the influence of
surface temperature [4-8].
Hence, in this study, the axial surface residual stress of
high carbon steel multi-pass drawn wires were assessed
with process variable combinations and surface temperature through elasto-plastic FE analysis. At first, to evaluate
the effect of heterogeneous deformation with process variable combinations, the FE analysis of multi-pass wire
drawing with isothermal condition were conducted considering deformation hysteresis at each pass. With these
results, the residual stresses were measured to develop a
498
= B = B K ( ) n
(1)
where B is the Bridgeman correction factor, is the effective strain, K is the stiffness coefficient and n is the strainhardening exponent. Reduction ratio, semi die angle and
Metal Forming
bearing length were chosen as process variables. The process variables are given in Table 1. The variables range and
wire drawing conditions were established from industrial
wire drawing process.
650
AISI1082
Initial Diameter(mm)
5.5
Final Diameter(mm)
2.45
Total passes
Total reduction(%)
80.15
Semi-die angle ()
0.06 (constant)
460
1500
4.5o, 0.3D
1000
5.5 , 0.3D
6.5o, 0.3D
500
0.6
0.8
1.0
Effective Strain
1.2
1.4
(2)
Figure 2 shows that the comparison between the residual stress by the FE analysis and the prediction model in
the condition of 5.5o, semi-die angle and 0.45D, bearing
length. The errors between both stresses are within 2.5%
so the prediction model can be used to estimate the residual stress of the multi-pass drawn wire by the deformation.
Pass number
AISI 1082
Tip material
Initial Dia.
5.5 mm
Case material
AISI-D2
Final Dia.
4.90 mm
Initial Temp.
Friction ()
0.06
Atmosphere Temp.
30 oC
30 oC
Reduction ratio
20.63 %
Drawing speed
Bearing length
0.45D
Semi-die angle
WC
1,885 mm/s
5.5o
Wire material
1.6
AR ) def
0.4
400
0.2
450
Drawing speed(m/min)
0.0
500
300
Friction coefficient()
2000
FE analyis
Prediction model
550
350
600
Thermal conductivity
Heat capacity
Tip
48.0 N/sec/oC
59.0 N/sec/oC
4.0 N/mm2/oC
15.0 N/mm2/oC
Case
70.0 N/sec/oC
3.7 N/mm2/oC
Wire
499
Metal Forming
a
b
200
a : 23.1 C
b : 73.0 oC
c : 120.0 oC
d : 213.0 oC
e : 300.0 o C (Max. Temp.)
wire
250
die
B
Temperature
150
100
0.0
0.5
Center : A
1.0
Location of measurement
Surface : B
Temperature (oC)
300
Temperature at surface
250
Temperature at center
200
150
40
60
80
As shown in Figure 5, the residual stress of the nonisothermal condition is higher than that of the nonisothermal condition, because of the residual stress caused
by the rapid temperature drop on the wire surface. In the
non-isothermal condition, when the temperature becomes
uniform, the residual stress also shows constant value.
300
300
250
250
200
200
150
150
100
270
650
600
550
500
450
180
400
150
350
300
0
120
30
60
90
120
150
180
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
100
50
0
E T
3 (1 )
(3)
210
500
Surface temperature
Center temperature
Surface residual stress -FEA
Surface residual stress-Prediction
300
700
Temperature (oC)
750
127.1 C
350
0
500
20
132.0 C
350
50
100
50
Drawing experiment
Prediction of Residual Stress by Surface Temperature. For assessing the residual stress according to wire
surface temperature, FE analysis was carried out with the
various drawing velocities (885, 2885 mm/s) to obtain
different surface temperatures.
The different drawing velocity caused varied surface
temperatures as shown in Figure 6. In all cases, the uniform wire temperatures are almost the same value when
the wire reaches uniform temperature. Despite different
surface temperature, all uniform temperature keeps similar
value because the contact time between die and wire and
the amount of heat diffused into the wire change with
various drawing velocities.
o
Temperature ( C)
FE analysis
Temperature (oC)
300
AR ) total
E T
3 (1 )
(4)
Metal Forming
In this study, the axial surface residual stresses on
drawn wire were measured by XRD in order to verify the
effectiveness of the prediction model for the residual stress.
The microstructure of high carbon steel wire is a pearlite structure composed of ferrite and cementite. Especially,
even a few amount of cementite exist, it significantly influence on mechanical properties. However, as cementite
lamellar disperse diffracted X-ray, obvious peak was not
appeared so that cementite residual stress can not be measured by XRD [12]. Therefore, cementite residual stress,
2000 MPa, measured using neutron diffraction measurement was applied [13]. Therefore, the residual stress of the
residual stress of pearlite was calculated by following
prediction model [12]:
ij = (1 f ) ij + f ij
(5)
Residual stress(MPa)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Effective strain
1.2
1.4
1.6
Conclusions
501
Metal Forming
Effective Heating Conditions for High Speed Dieless Tube Drawing Process
Tsuyoshi Furushima, Yuta Noda, Ken-ichi Manabe
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo / Japan, furushima-tsuyoshi@tmu.ac.jp
Dieless drawing is a flexible metal drawing technique without any conventional dies and mandrels. In this study, the effective heating conditions for high speed dieless drawing process of metal tubes are discussed experimentally. Dieless drawing experiments are conducted
under effective drawing speed path control to restrain the instable deformation at an early drawing stage for SUS304 stainless steel with
outer diameter of 1.5mm and thickness of 0.3mm. The effect of basic feeding speed on drawing deformation behaviour is investigated. The
results indicate that the drawing limit decreases with increasing drawing speed. In addition, the effect of the local heating zone length on
deformation behaviour is investigated under various feeding speed conditions. As a result, it is concluded that the dieless drawing limit can
be enhanced by increasing the heating zone length. Consequently, it is important to increase the heating zone length for enhancing the
dieless drawing limit in high speed drawing range.
Keywords: Dieless drawing, High speed, heating condition, strain rate, local heating zone length
Introduction
A dieless drawing by the use of local heating and cooling devices of metal wires, bars and tubes is a flexible
metal drawing technique without any conventional dies
and tools instead of conventional die drawing. This technique can achieve a great reduction of materials in a single
pass by the local heating compared with conventional die
drawing. The dieless drawing has the advantages of a
non-contact, flexible metal forming process without the
use of conventional dies. The dieless drawing has remarkable advantages over the conventional die drawing technique not only improving the drawability, but also eliminating the use of expensive dies and lubricants.
The idea of dieless drawing technique was introduced by
Weiss et al. [1]. They applied the dieless drawing to steels
and Ti alloy rods, and achieved a reduction in area of 50%.
In addition, for some metal materials, the dieless drawing
has been applied by some researches [2-5]. In recent year,
the authors have applied the dieless drawing to superplastic metal tubes for the fabrication of microtubes [6,7].
From these previous reports, the dieless drawing technique
has wide applications. However, the dieless drawing has
some problems for practical application. It is difficult to
realize the dieless drawing process with high drawing
speed, because the local heating cannot be achieved at
high drawing speed range.
In general, the undesirable deformation which leads to
fracture occurs at early drawing stage when the local heating condition cannot be realized. In contrast, it was reported that the local heating is not necessarily required by
using effective drawing speed path control at early drawing stage to prevent the instable deformation in dieless
drawing process [8]. However, the effects of heating condition and drawing speed on deformation behavior have
not been discussed yet under effective drawing speed path
control condition at early drawing stage.
In this study, the effects of drawing speed and heating
conditions on deformation and heat transfer behavior were
investigated experimentally under the effective drawing
speed path control conditions at early drawing stage. The
deformation behavior such as deformation profile and
limiting reduction in area, particularly, at high speed draw502
A1
(1)
Cooling coil
A2
V1
V2
tube
Metal Forming
Drawing speed
Conventional path
V1
B
a
Control path
V2 A
Time
Figure 2. Schematic illustration of effective drawing speed path
control at early drawing stage in dieless drawing process.
Experimental Procedure
The materials used in the experiments were SUS304
stainless steel tubes of 1.5 mm outer diameter and 0.3mm
thickness.
Figure 3 show the schematic illustration and photograph
of the experimental setup. Two tables with chucks for
gripping tube can be moved independently at V1 and V2 by
controlling two servomotors of 750 W power. A high frequency induction heating device with a maximum power
of 2kW and a frequency of 2.2 MHz was used. The heating
coil was fixed. Three types of heating coils with different
heating length Lhb = 3, 20 and 40 mm as shown in Table 1
were used to investigate the effect of the temperature distribution on the deformation behavior of tube and its drawing limit. The stainless steel tubes were heated using the
heating coil, which provides a temperature of 950 oC. In
this experiment, the cooling device is not used. The dieless
drawing experiments were carried out at feeding speed V2
of 0.5, 1, 5 and 10 mm/s and reduction in area r of 0 to
60%. Here, the limiting reduction in area rmax is defined as
the reduction in area r at which the tube fracture occurs,
which specifies the forming limit obtained from the experiments.
Servomotor
Lhb
20
40
Drawing direction
1000
V2 =0.1mm/s
900
V1 =V2 r =0%
800
1 turn coil
V2 =10mm/s
700
Lhb =3mm
600
500
400
V2 =0.5mm/s
300
V2 =5mm/s
200
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Distance from center of maximum temperature /mm
Figure 4. Effect of feeding speed V2 on temperature distribution
under condition of 1 turn coil (Lhb=3 mm) in dieless drawing process.
Drawing direction
0.8
r =37.5%
0.75
V2 =5mm/s
0.7
V2 =10mm/s
0.65
0.6
0.55
V2
0.4
Lhb
0.45
Photograph of apparatus
8 turns
Heating coil
Tubes
3 turns
Lhb
Length of
L [mm]
heating coil hb
V2 =0.1mm/s
0.5
V1
1 turn
Type of
heating coil
Ballscrew
Temperature /o C
Effective Drawing Speed Path Control [8]. The nonsteady state deformation at the early drawing stages causes
undesirable deformation and fracture [9]. To restrain the
undesirable deformation at the non-steady state, the pulling speed V1 was gradually increased from initial pulling
speed, similarly to the feeding speed V2 to the target pulling speed V1. Figure 2 shows an example of the drawing
speed path controls used in the experiments.
1 turn coil
V2 =0.5mm/s
Lhb =3mm
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
X coordinate /mm
Figure 5. Effect of feeding speed V2 on deformation profile under
condition of 1 turn coil (Lhb=3 mm) in dieless drawing.
503
Metal Forming
Thus, the difference in flow stress between heated and
cooled areas becomes small with increasing drawing speed.
Therefore, it can be considered that rmax decreases with
increasing strain rate due to increasing feeding speed V2.
1 turn coil
50
Lhb =3mm
45
40
35
30
0.01
0.1
Feeding speed V2
10
100
/mms-1
rmax = 1 h c .
(2)
Effect of Heating Condition on Deformation Behavior. Figure 7 shows the effect of length of heating coil Lhb
on temperature distribution at feeding speed V2=0.5 mm/s.
It is confirmed that heated zone extends to drawing direction as Lhb increases. Figure 8 shows the effect of Lhb on
the deformation profile at feeding speed V2=0.5 mm/s. The
length of deformation zone extends with the increase of
Lhb. Figure 9 shows the relationship between limiting
reduction in area rmax and length of heating coil. The limiting reduction in area rmax is enhanced with increasing Lhb
under condition of feeding speed V2=0.5 mm. Additionally,
it is found that rmax can be enhanced in case of feeding
speed V2=10 mm at high speed drawing range. Therefore,
extending Lhb by design is the effective method to enhance
the drawing limit for high speed dieless drawing under
condition of effective drawing speed path control.
Drawing direction
1000
8 turn coil
900
Temperature /o C
55
800
V1 =V2 =0.5mm/s
r =0%
3 turn coil
Lhb =40mm
700
600
Lhb =20mm
500
1 turn coil
400
nh
h = K h
mh
(3)
c = K c n .
(4)
K h nh mh
= 1 A mh
K c nc
K n
A= h n
(5)
K c
rmax = 1
504
300
Lhb =3mm
200
Drawing direction
0.8
8 turn coil
0.75
Outer radius /mm
0.7
Lhb =40mm
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
1 turn coil
3 turn coil
Lhb =3mm
Lhb =20mm
V2 =0.5mm/s r =37.5%
0.4
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
X coordinate /mm
Figure 8. Effect of length of heating coil Lhb on deformation profile
under condition of feeding speed V2=0.5 mm/s.
Metal Forming
1 turn coil
50
Lhb =3mm
45
V2 =0.5mm/s
V2 =10mm/s
40
3 turn coil
35
Lhb =20mm
30
8 turn coil
Lhb =40mm
10
20
30
40
50
Length of heating coil Lhb /mm
Figure 9. Relationship between length of heating Lhb coil and
limiting reduction in area rl.
Conclusions
The effects of the drawing speed and heating conditions
on deformation and heat transfer behavior were investigated experimentally under the effective drawing speed
path control condition at early drawing stage. The following results were obtained:
1. The limiting reduction in area decreases with increasing
feeding speed V2 due to increasing strain rate at deformed area.
2. The extending the heating zone length under effective
drawing speed path control at early drawing stage is effective heating condition to enhance the drawing limit
for high speed dieless drawing process. .
The dieless drawing has had some problems for practical
application. It was difficult to realize the high speed dieless drawing process because the local heating cannot be
achieved at high speed drawing range. However, it can be
believed that the current issues described above can be
improved by the summary obtained from this study which
is to extending heating zone length by design.
References
[1] V. Weiss, R.A. Kot, Wire Journal, 9 (1969), 182-189.
[2] M. Alexander, T.W. Turner: Proc. Int. M.T.D.R. Conference, 15
(1974), 525-537.
[3] H. Sekiguchi, K. Kobatake, K. Osakada: Proc. Int. M.T.D.R.
Conference, 15 (1974), 539-544.
[4] R. Carolan, P. Tiernan, P. Commerford: Materials Science Forum,
447-448 (2004), 513-520
[5] K. Eynatten, J. N. Reissner: Proc. 34th Int. MATADOR Conference,
34 (2004), 187-192
[6] T. Furushima, K. Manabe: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 187-188 (2007), 236-240
[7] T. Furushima, K. Manabe: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 191 (2007), 59-63
[8] T. Furushima, K. Manabe: Journal of Solid Mechanics and Materials
Engineering, 3-2 (2009), 236-246.
[9] T. Furushima, K. Manabe: Materials Transactions, 50-1 (2009), 161166.
[10] M. Murahashi: Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of
Plasticity, 31-355 (1990), 978-983. (in Japanease).
V2
Deformation area
V1
V2
V1
505
Metal Forming
- elongation factor,
- drawing speed.
V
Introduction
Utilisation of ultrasounds for deformation of metals was
reported by many scientists: F.K. Garski, V.I Efomorov [1],
F.Blaha, B.Langanecker [2], W.P. Siewierdenko, W.W
Kubowicz, and A.W Stiepanienko [3]. The issue of ultrasonic vibrations influence on friction was, among others,
addressed by E.Lehfeld [4], A.Pasierb [5], K.Siegert,
A.Mock, J.Ulmer [6-8] and also V.C.Kumar,
I.M.Hutchings [9]. First examination of drawing process
with application of ultrasounds to sectional drawing die is
described at article [10]. Performed studies have proved
significant advantage of drawing process using ultrasonic
vibrations, over conventional drawing. The review of
literature [1-10] confirms beneficial effect of vibrations on
the process parameters. All studies reported in the literature are proving, that main aim of ultrasonic vibrations
utilisation is reduction of drawing load. The vibrations
putting the drawing die in motion can be of longitudinal,
torsional, radial and transverse nature. Longitudinal vibrations are generally used for the pipes and wires drawing
processes. It is possible to generate standing wave in wire
in the system of three drawing dies. The possibility also
exists to place vibrating drawing die in the node or antinode of standing wave.
506
Metal Forming
tions of monolithic drawing die in tandem arrangement of
the drawing dies. Longitudinally vibrating monolithic
drawing die is to serve mainly for liquidation of flash
formed after passing the wire through sectional drawing
die. The aim of drawing according to scheme IV is attempt
to associate ultrasonic stresses of back tension with simultaneous ultrasonic vibration of sectional drawing die half.
Monolithic drawing die vibrating longitudinally shall
mainly serve axial introducing of wire to sectional drawing die, vibrating perpendicularly to the wire axis. This is
the test planned for comparison of load drop against the
drawing process according to scheme III.
Figure 1. Drawing schemes with utilisation of transverse (perpendicular) and longitudinal ultrasonic vibrations. D sectional drawdirections of drawing dies
ing die, M monolithic drawing die,
vibrations.
Figure 3. Design of the drawing die used for testing. (a) front
view, (b) section.
The monolithic drawing die was mounted in concentrator of vibrations by means of screw joint. The monolithic
drawing die was produced of sintered carbide. Coaxial
opening in the magnetostriction converter and in the concentrator provided passing the wire through the drawing
die. Frequency and amplitude of longitudinal and perpendicular vibrations during all drawing schemes did not
change.
Parameters of Drawing Process
The following process conditions were selected for
drawing tests performed with use of ultrasonic vibrations:
Vibration frequency 20 kHz,
Vibration amplitude 40 micrometers for perpendicular vibrations, and 20 m for longitudinal vibrations,
507
Metal Forming
600
SCHEME I
V =1m/s, =1,3
400
(a)
300
200
100
0
2
(a)
250
SCHEME II
V =1m/s, =1,3
(b)
200
(b)
F [N]
350
300
250
F [N]
(b)
Time [s]
Results of Tests
150
100
200
150
50
(a)
100
50
Time [s]
0
0
Time [s]
(b)
SCHEME I
V =1m/s, =1,85
300
250
(a)
200
300
250
150
100
(c)
SCHEME IV
V =0,3m/s, =1,85
350
F [N]
F [N]
SCHEME I
V =1 m/s, =2,25
500
F [N]
(b)
(a)
200
150
50
100
0
0
Time [s]
508
50
0
0
10
12
14
Time [s]
Figure 8. Drawing load curve during drawing process with utilisation of longitudinal and perpendicular ultrasonic vibrations. = 1.85,
V=0,3 m/s. Curve (a) drawing with longitudinal and perpendicular
ultrasonic vibrations, Favg = 198,12 N; = 7,83 N, (b) drawing with
perpendicular ultrasounds, Favg = 226,68 N; = 4,91 N, (c) drawing without ultrasounds Favg = 352,90 N; = 7,97 N.
Metal Forming
300
(c)
SCHEME III
V =0,06m/s, =1,3
250
F [N]
200
(b)
150
(a)
100
50
0
0
10
Time [s]
Figure 9. Drawing load curve during drawing process with utilisation of perpendicular and longitudinal ultrasonic vibrations. = 1.3.
Curve (a) drawing with perpendicular and longitudinal ultrasonic
vibrations, Favg = 82.53 N; = 6.58 N, (b) drawing with perpendicular ultrasounds, Favg = 115.01 N; = 12.09 N, (c) drawing without
ultrasounds Favg = 254.81 N; =11.04 N.
Figure 10 presents differences in drawing load reduction percentages in drawing schemes I, II and IV in relation to drawing speed.
Reduction of drawing load [%]
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,2
1,4
1,6
V [m/s]
SCHEMAT I, =1,85
SCHEMAT II, =1,85
SCHEMAT I, =1,3
Summary
Ultrasonic excitation of the sectional drawing die forces
stress and strain scheme changes at negative spherical
stress tensor (forcing of active radial strains and reduction
of tensile stress in drawn wire). Such method of plastic
working results in significant reduction of drawing load,
thus providing considerable formability increase of the
material being drawn. In case of perpendicular vibrations
use, maximum reduction of drawing load, of the 80%
order, takes place at speed 0.06 m/s and = 1.3. It is
higher than in case of longitudinal vibrations use. Drawing
speed has significant influence in drawing process with
use of ultrasonic vibrations. The higher is the speed, the
lower is the share of vibration influence and consequently
the lower is reduction of drawing load. Frequency of
509
Metal Forming
2)
The mechanical formulation for large plastic deformation of metals is recalled in view of tubes or sheet hydroforming simulation. The main
features of the general purpose metal forming code FORGE3 are briefly summarized. Industrial tubes for hydroforming are generally thick
enough so that a solid approach must be preferred to a thin shell analysis. The three-dimensional discretization into P1+-P1 tetrahedral
elements with a mixed integral formulation allows us to model accurately the deformation of tubes in the thickness and is convenient for
remeshing and adaptive remeshing. More recent developments that can be used for treating specific hydroforming problems are presented:
computation of global fluid flow in function of the an imposed pressure, optimization of the process and damage analysis for predicting
possible rupture of the work-piece. Several examples of three-dimensional computations are presented to show the versatility of simulation
code.
Keywords: Plasticity, Finite Element Simulation, Hydroforming, Optimization.
Introduction
Mechanical formulation
For a more complete description of the scientific approach of FE simulation of metal forming process, the
reader may refer to [18].
510
= e + p
(1)
d
= e trace( e )I + 2 e e
dt
(2)
3
where is the deviatoric stress tensor, 0 is the yield
stress, is the equivalent strain rate and is the equivalent strain.
Different laws can be used to describe work hardening.
In order to represent accurately our materials, for example
the following forms:
0 ( ) = 00 (1 + a n ) or 00 ( + 0 )n
(4)
where material parameters are determined experimentally
according to a fitting technique.
At the interface between part and tool the friction shear
stress can be modelled by a Coulomb law:
Metal Forming
= f | n |
v
with | | 0
| v |
3
(5)
fluid
int
( div(v ) + p )p*dV = 0
(11)
x = X n N n ( )
(12)
(13)
R nU = ( + ) : n dV (p + p) trace(Bn ) dV
int
(Pfluid vn *)dS-
v*dS = 0
(9)
div(u ) + p ) p * dV = 0
(10)
Pfluid N n dS +
R mP = (
(8)
u = t v
u = Un Nn ( )
(7)
f n
v
N n dS = 0
v
div(u ) + p) M m dV = 0
(14)
(15)
511
Metal Forming
int
un dS
(16)
512
= /(1 D)
(17)
D =
D =
Ys
(1 D)
(1 D)
D = 0
with = 1, if T > 0
1
with = h , if T 0
3
if T <
(18)
1
3
(19)
Metal Forming
Measured
110 mm
1.65 mm
1.6 mm
1.8 mm
Simulated
107.88
1.66 mm
1.66 mm
1.87 mm
Example 2: Hydroforming of Cross Shape. In the following 3D simulation, the initial tube is hydroformed into
a cross shape. Lateral tools displacements are left free,
their role is just to guide the lateral movement of the tube.
The Coulomb friction is equal to 0.05. Figure 4 represents
the part at the end of the hydroforming process.
The main values are the height of the branch and useful
thickness, and their time evolution. Table 1 represents this
useful height and the thickness in 3 important regions of
the lateral cross branch: pole part in contact with the lateral tool, branch thickness and wrinkle thickness, at the
origin of the branch where local compression and therefore wrinkles are experimentally visible.
513
Metal Forming
Conclusions
514
We have presented a brief review of the main possibilities of our general purpose computer code for simulating
large deformation processes. Several three-dimensional
cases were introduced to show that the FORGE3 code is
able to treat realistic hydroforming industrial cases.
In the future several developments will be carried out in
the laboratory to decrease computer time in order to facilitate a more complete automatic process optimization, and
to predict not only the damage but the distribution of mechanical properties in the final work-piece.
References
[1] C. Hartl: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 167-2-3 (2005),
383-392
[2] E. Massoni, C. Aliaga: Simulation of Materials Processing: Theory,
Methods and Applications, Proc. NUMIFORM98, 6th Int. Conf. on
Numerical Methods in Industrial Forming Processes, Enschede, J.
Hutink, F.P.T. Baaijens (eds.), Balkema, (1998), 893-898.
[3] A. Aydemir, J.H.P. de Vree, W.A.M. Brekelmans, M.G.D. Geers,
W.H. Sillekens, R.J. Werkhoven: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 159-3 (2005), 303-310.
Metal Forming
[4] S.-I. Oh, B.-H. Jeon, H.-Y. Kim, J.-B. Yang: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 174-1-3 (2006), 42-55.
[5] H.K. Zadeh, M.M. Mashhadi: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 177-1-3 (2006), 684-687.
[6] J.-L. Chenot, E. Massoni: International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture, 46-11 (2006), 1194-1200.
[7] P. Ray, B.J. Mac Donald: International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 47-10 (2005), Pages 1498-1518.
[8] S.J. Yuan, C. Han, X.S. Wang: International Journal of Machine
Tools and Manufacture, 46-11 (2006), 1201-1206.
[9] X. Xu, W. Zhang, S. Li, Z. Lin: Thin-Walled Structures, 47-11
(2009), 1397-1403.
[10] C. Nikhare, M. Weiss, P.D. Hodgson: Computational Materials
Science, 47-1 (2009), 146-152.
[11] N. Abedrabbo, M. Worswick, R. Mayer, I. van Riemsdijk: Journal
of Materials Processing Technology, 209-1 (2009), 110-123.
[12] R.D. Lorenzo, G. Ingarao, F. Chinesta: Advances in Engineering
Software, 41-2 (2010), 336-348.
[13] M.H. Parsa, P. Darbandi: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 198-1-3 (2008), 381-390.
[14] E. Massoni: Proc. 5th International Conference and Workshop on
Numerical Simulation of 3D sheet forming Processes, NUMISHEET
Jeju Island, 1 (2002) , 249.
[15] M. Ben Tahar, E. Massoni, Proceedings of the 8th International
Conference on Numerical Methods in Industrial Forming Processes, 13-
515
Metal Forming
A New Hydroforming Die Design for Improvement of Die Corner Filling of Conical
Stepped Tubes
Majid Elyasi, Pouya Zoghipour, Mohammad Bakhshi-Jooybari, Abdolhamid Gorji, Seyed Jamal Hosseinipour, Salman Nourouzi
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, P. O. Box 484, Babol, Mazandaran / Iran, elyasima
@yahoo.com
A new die for improving the die corner filling in the hydroforming of conical stepped stainless steel tubes is proposed. The die set contains
one additional bush, compared with the common tube hydroforming dies. The forming steps of the tube in the new die set are such that
initially the tube is placed in the die, filled with liquid, and sealed with punches. Then, by increasing the internal pressure, the tube is bulged
and contacts the die walls that are fixed. By maintaining the internal pressure, the feeding punch and bush move until the die cavity is filled
completely. The proposed die was simulated and the filling of die cavity was investigated. In this simulation, the finite element software,
ABAQUS 6.8, has been used for simulation. In order to verify the simulation results, the new die was manufactured and some experiments
have been performed. The results obtained from the experiments verified the simulation results. The obtained results illustrated that the
new hydroforming die improves the die corner filling of conical stepped tubes compared with the previous research works. The noncomplexity of the die and low internal pressure are another advantages of this die.
Keywords: Tube hydroforming, Conical tube, Hydroforming die design
516
25
60
Tube
Bush
Fixed
punch
25
26
Feeding
punch
40
Fluid inlet
Introduction
Die
Figure 1. Dimensions and details of die and final part (unit: mm).
Metal Forming
The final mesh for tube has 70 elements along axial direction and 29 elements along circumferential direction of the
tube. The applied material model has elasticplastic behaviour with isotropic and kinematic hardening which
does not take the Bauschinger effect into consideration
and obeys Hollomon's rule. Also, the effect of anisotropy
was neglected during simulations. According to Coulomb
friction law, the friction coefficient between tools and
blank was considered 0.05 [10].
The parameters used in the simulation are listed in Table
1. Figure 2 shows the typical pressure path used in simulations and experiments. As can be seen in the figure, the
vertical path belongs to bulging step. At this step, the internal pressure is increased to a certain level while the
punches are fixed. The horizontal path relates to calibration step. In this step, while the pressure remains constant,
the axial feed is exerted and the tube is formed to the final
shape. In order to analyse the bulging in final forming
steps, the two steps were defined in the software.
Regulator valve
Feeding punch
Bush
Die
Fixed punch
Final step
Pmax A
Bulging step
Pressure
10
15
Young's
modulus
(GPa)
210
Flow stress
Poisson's
Density
(MPa)
ratio
(kg/m3)
0.3
8000
= 1650 0.58
Yield
stress
(MPa)
268
Experimental Procdure
The equipments utilized in the experiments are illustrated in Figure 3. The die is mounted on a DMG (Denison Mayes Group) universal testing machine with a capacity of 600kN. The speed of the machine was adjusted at
20mm/min during the experiments.
A hydraulic unit was used to produce internal pressure
and the maximum internal pressure could be set to maximum of 35MPa. Hydraulic oil was used as forming media
and also as the lubricant in the experiments. The working
pressure was regulated by a pressure relief valve.
Based on Figure 2, different pressure paths with maximum pressures of 18, 19, 20, 21MPa were examined at the
punch stroke of 15mm in simulations and experiments.
The obtained results from simulation and experiment are
shown in Figures 4 to 7. At pressure path with the maximum of 22MPa, the most thickness reduction and, thus,
bursting occurred in the tube in the stage of bulging. This
is shown in Figure 8. In the final step, the experiment was
not performed at 22MPa pressure path due to the bursting
occurred in the step of bulging.
When the internal pressure was set at 18MPa, as it is
shown in Figure 4(a), at the stroke of 15mm the tube wrinkled. This is because the axial feeding was not
proportional to 18MPa pressure and the material was
accumulated in axial direction. Figure 4(b) shows the
deformed tube obtained from experiment which confirms
the simulation result.
The internal pressure was then increased to 19MPa. Figure 5(a) shows the deformed tube obtained form
simulation under this state. As can be seen from this figure,
by increasing the internal pressure the number of wrinkles
was reduced but not eliminated completely. Figure 5(b)
also confirms the results of simulations.
As it is shown in Figure 6, by increasing the internal
pressure to 20MPa, the part was produced without any
wrinkle and the axial direction was proportional and the
sound part was obtained but the corner of the part was not
filled completely and the part has round corner in this state.
Following the increase of internal pressure to 21MPa,
the sound part was formed with sharp corner and the die
cavity was filled completely, according to Figure 7.
The thickness distribution of the workpiece in the new
hydroforming die obtained from simulation and experiment at the internal pressure of 21MPa and punch stroke
of 15mm is shown in Figure 9. As it is shown in this figure, there is a good correlation between the simulation and
experimental results. The maximum thickness reduction
517
Metal Forming
for the formed part is approximately 0.11mm at the maximum expanded zone of the part.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Deformed tubes with round corner obtained from: (a)
simulation and (b) experiment, maximum pressure=20MPa, punch
stroke=15mm.
(b)
Figure 4. Deformed tubes obtained from (a) simulation and (b)
experiment, maximum pressure=18MPa, punch stroke=15mm.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. Deformed tubes with sharp corner obtained from (a)
simulation and (b) experiment, Maximum pressure=21MPa, punch
stroke=15mm.
(b)
Figure 5. Deformed tubes obtained from (a) simulation (b) experiment, maximum pressure=19MPa, punch stroke=15mm.
518
Metal Forming
Thickness (mm)
0.51
0.49
0.47
0.45
0.43
Simulation
0.41
Experiment
0.39
0.37
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
60
Forming force (kN)
The profile of the tube obtained from simulation and experiment at the internal pressure of 21MPa and punch
stroke of 15mm is shown in Figure 10. As it is seen from
the figure, at the internal pressure of 21MPa the tube surface has reached the die wall completely. Also, it can be
seen both from the simulation and experimental results
that, the sound part was obtained with sharp corners in this
case.
The forming force obtained from simulation and experiment at the internal pressure of 21MPa and at the
punch stroke of 15mm, is shown in Figure 11. It can be
seen that by increasing the stroke at a constant pressure the
forming force increases. This is because by increasing the
stroke, the contact surface of the tube with the die wall,
and consequently, the friction force increases. Finally,
when the surface of the tube is in complete contact with
the die wall, the forming force reaches to its maximum
amount.
50
Experiment
40
Simulation
30
20
10
0
0
6
8
10
Punch stroke (mm)
12
14
16
Conclusions
A new die set is presented to improve the die corner filling in the conical stepped tube hydroforming. The results
obtained indicated that the new die improves the die corner filling. The non-complexity of the die and low internal
pressure are another advantages of this die. In addition, it
is shown that wrinkles appear by using different internal
pressures. Also, at different internal pressures in the preforming step, different shapes of wrinkle wave can be
obtained in final step. By comparing the deformed tube in
final step at pressures of 18, 19, 20 and 21MPa obtained
from simulation it is concluded that there is a safe zone
between pressures of 20 and 21MPa for forming the sound
workpiece.
By applying a proper pressure path and axial feeding in
the new die, a sound part with sharp corners can be obtained. In this case, the die cavity filling is filled completely.
References
25
20
15
10
Experiment
Simulation
0
0
20
40
60
80
Distance from tube end (mm)
100
120
[1] K.I. Johnson, B.N. Nguyen, R.W. Davies, G.J. Grant, M.A. Khaleel:
International Journal of Plasticity, 20 (2004), 1111-1137.
[2] M. Jansson, L. Nilsson, K. Simonsson: Journal of materials processing technology, 198 (2008), 14-21.
[3] M. Jansson, L. Nilsson, K. Simonsson: Journal of Materials Processing technology, 195 (2008), 3-14.
[4] G.T. Kridli, L. Bao, P.K. Mallick, Y. Tian: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 133 (2003), 287-296.
[5] Y.-M. Hwang, W.-C. Chen: International Journal of Plasticity, 21
(2005), 1815-1833.
[6] M. Loh-Mousavi, K. Mori, K. Hayashi, M. Bakhshi-Jooybari: Key
Engineering Materials, 334 (2007), 461-467.
[7] M. Elyasi, M. Bakhshi-Jooybari, A. Gorji, S.J. Hosseinipour, S.
Nourouzi: Proc. IMechE, Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture, 223
(2009), 821-827.
[8] M. Elyasi, M. Bakhshi-Jooybari, A. Gorji: Materials and Design, 30
(2009), 3824-3830.
[9] M. Bakhshi-Jooybari, M. Elyasi, A. Gorji, G. Alinezhad, S.J.
Hosseinipour, S. Nourouzi: Key Engineering Materials, 410411(2009), 335-343.
[10] G. Ngaile, S. Jaeger, T. Altan: Journal of Material Processing Technology, 146 (2004), 108115.
519
Metal Forming
Introduction
With the development of high reliability, high security
and light weight, the requirement for structure integrality,
structural style and occupied space are becoming more and
more strict. The crank-shaped tubes with ultra-small bending radius(r/D0.5) are often employed with the restriction
of the space. The materials of these tubes are usually aluminum alloys, titanium alloys and refractory alloys. At
present, the crank-shaped tubes with ultra-small bending
radius are usually manufactured by welding two punched
halves. Therefore, the reliability of structure is influenced
by the welding seams. Integral formation of the crankshaped tubes with ultra-small bending radius can not only
improve reliability, but also lighten weight and save space
[1,2].
The crank-shaped tube with ultra-small bending radius
can not be manufactured by conventional cold-bending
processes including roll bending, press bending and push
bending and hot-bending processes including induction
bending and laser bending [3,4]. The essential mechanism
of the bending methods mentioned above is tensile deformation in lateral wall and compressive deformation in
medial wall during bending. The relative bending radius
can not be designed small, otherwise the deformation is
too large to cause winkle and distortion [5-7].
M. Goodarzi studied the shear bending with mandrel for
Z-type tube [8]. But the quantity and shape is restricted by
this method.
In recent years, hydroforming is a new technique developed under the background of light weight. It has been
widely used in hollow components of aerospace and automotive [9-12]. In this paper, a shear bending with feeding
pressure method for manufacturing the crank-shaped tube
with ultra-small bending radius is proposed based on the
authors several-year study on hydroforming. The stress
state of tube is adjusted by pressure, axial displacement
and tangential displacement, by which the deformation is
controlled. The effect of the feeding pressure (the invariant
feeding pressure during the shear bending process) on the
shear bending process is investigated and the forming
520
Metal Forming
Simulation
6
5
1
2
(a) Filling
Finite Element Model. The dynamic explicit finite element program LS-DYNA is used during the simulation.
The finite element model is composed of a fixed die, a
movable die, left punch, right punch and tube, as shown in
Figure 3. Rigid shell element is employed for the dies and
the punches and Belytschko-Tsay shell element is employed for the tube. The number of the elements is 23102
and all elements are quadrilateral elements. The material
model is Hills isotropic elastic-plastic model conformed
to Mises yield rule. Friction agrees with the Coulomb
equation.
r0
Aluminium alloy is used in the simulation and experiment and the hardening rule is = K n . K is 469 MPa
and n is 0.34 obtained by the electronic tension test. The
outer diameter of the straight tube is 30 mm and the thickness is 1.5 mm.
(c) Calibration
p
p2
p1
0.8
t2 t3
Feeding pressure,
0 t1
0.7
8
7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
2
1
0.1
0.0
Figure 2. Shape and dimensions of part to be formed during simulation and experiment.
10
20
30
40
Axial/tangetial displacement, mm
Figure 4. Loading paths (relationship between the feeding pressure and the axial displacement) used in simulation.
521
Metal Forming
Results and Discussions. Table 1 shows the simulation
results of all loading paths. The wrinkle is occurred as the
loading path 1 is used and the corresponding feeding pressure is 0.15s. The crack is occurred as the loading path 8
is used and the corresponding feeding pressure is 0.75s.
The forming processes are performed successfully as the
loading paths 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 are used, which feeding
pressure is ranging from 0.2s to 0.7s. The maximum
thinning of the formed part is becoming serious with the
increasing of the feeding pressure. It is increased from
6.8 % of 0.2 s to 19.8 % of 0.7 s and increased by
191 %.
Table 1. Simulation results using different loading paths.
Loading path
Quality
Max. thinning
9.7 %
11.6 %
14.8 %
17.6 %
19.8 %
Failure mode
Wrinkle
6.8 %
Crack
(a) Wrinkle
(b) Crack
(a) Wrinkle of loading path 1
522
It can be seen from the simulation and experimental results that there is an interval composed of the loading
curves I and II, as shown in Figure 7. The interval is
called the forming zone in which the sound part can be
successfully manufactured. The feeding pressure p1min of
the loading curve I is presented the low limit of the feeding pressure, below which the wrinkle appears for the
insufficient support and excessive feeding. Therefore, the
interval between x-axis and the loading curve I is called
the wrinkle zone. The feeding pressure p1max of the loading
curve II is presented the upper limit of the feeding pressure, above which the crack appears for the high pressure
Metal Forming
and insufficient feeding. The interval above curve I is
called the crack zone. The loading curves I and II are usually obtained from simulation and experiment.
According to the deformation characteristic, the crankshaped tube can be divided into five zones: the sealing
zone I, the corner zone II (near the tube end), the shearing
zone III, the corner zone IV (near the tube center) and the
holding zone V, as shown in Figure 8 (a). The thickness
distribution varies in the axial and circumferential direction. The outer side is different from the inner side in the
axial direction, especially in the corner zone. The formed
crank-shaped tube of loading path 5 was selected and its
axial thickness of the outer side was measured and shown
in Figure 8 (b).
Feeding pressure,
Crack
loading curve
p1max
Forming
p1min
loading curve
Wrinkle
Axial/tangetial distance, mm
Figure 7. Process window of tube shear bending obtained from
the experiments.
It can be seen from the figure that in the sealing zone the
thickness is thickened and the value is becoming smaller
and smaller with the increasing of the distance from the
tube end. The tendency of thickness variation of two corner zones is different. The thickness of corner zone II (near
the tube end) is thickened for the compressive stress state
while that of the corner zone IV (near the tube center) is
thinned for the tensile stress state. The thickness of the
shear zone is a transition of two corner zones. The thickness of the holding zone is approximate to the original
thickness of the tube.
Conclusions
The shear bending with feeding pressure to form the
crank-shaped tubes with ultra-small bending radius is
proposed. The effect of the feeding pressure on the shear
bending is investigated. Sound part of aluminium alloy is
successfully manufactured. From the above study the
following results are obtained:
1. Shear bending with feeding pressure is feasible to
manufacture the crank-shaped tubes with ultra-small
bending radius by controlling the pressure, the axial
displacement and the tangential displacement.
2. There is an interval that sound part can be successfully
manufactured which composed of two loading curves.
When the feeding pressure is lower than the low limit,
the wrinkle will appear. When the feeding pressure is
higher than the upper limit, the crack will appear.
3. The crank-shaped tube can be divided into the sealing
zone, two corner zones, the shearing zone and the holding zone. In outer side, it is thickened in the sealing
zone, the shear zone and the corner zone (near the tube
end) while thinned in the corner zone (near the tube
center). It is approximate to the original thickness in the
holding zone.
Inner side
outer side
References
simulation
experimental
10
Thinning (%)
-10
-20
-30
-40
10
12
14
16
18
20
Measured points
[1] H. Yang, M. Zhan, Y.L. Liu, F.J. Xian, Z.C. Sun, Y. Lin, X.G. Zhang:
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 151-1-3 (2004), 63-69.
[2] M. Zhan, H. Yang, Zh. Q. Jian: Mechanical Science and Technology,
23-12 (2004), 1509-1514.
[3] H. Li, H. Yang, M. Zhan, R.J. Gu: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 177-1-3 (2006), 192-196.
[4] D.X.E.RX. Ning: Mechanical Engineer, 43-5 (2007), 219-222.
[5] M. Liewald, S. Wagner: State-of-the-art of hydroforming tubes and
sheets in Europe, Proceeding of Tubehydro2007, Harbin, China
(2007), 19-26.
[6] X.T. Xiao, Y.J. Liao, Y.S. Sun, Z.R. Zhang, Y.P. Kerdeyev, R.I. Neperish: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 187-188 (2007),
476-479.
[7] Y.S. Zeng, Z.Q. Li: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 1222-3 (2002), 237-240.
[8] M. Goodarzi, T. Kuboki, M. Murata: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 191-1-3 (2007), 136-140.
[9] F. Dohmann, Ch. Hartl: Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
60-1-4 (1996), 669-676.
[10] M. Ko, T. Altan: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 1083 (2001), 384-393.
[11] K. Manabe, M. Suetake, H. Koyama, M. Yang: Hydroforming
process optimization of aluminum alloy tube using intelligent control
technique, Proceeding of 1st ICNFT, Harbin, Chin, (2004), 490-495.
[12] S.J. Yuan, C. Han, X.S. Wang: International Journal of Machine
Tools and Manufacture, 46-11 (2006), 1201-1206.
523
Metal Forming
Introduction
The hydroforming process is simulated using the commercial finite element software, Abaqus/Explicit6.7. Before investigating different loading parameters, simulation
process must be verified with an available experiment
data. Hence, an experimental model that has been studied
by Hwang [4] is selected and simulated here. The tube has
a diameter, wall thickness and length of 72mm 298.5 and
2.8mm, respectively. Two axial punches and one counter
punch are used for this process. The material of tube is
Aluminum alloy 6063-T5. To consider the anisotropy of
the material, the Hills anisotropic plasticity model is assumed in the simulation. The shell element (S4R) is used
for the tube analysis and the die and punches are modeled
as being rigid entities. Loading curves used in simulation
are according to [4]. The model was analyzed with those
specifications and the obtained thickness distribution calculated from simulation model is compared with those
from Ref. [4]. It was found that there is a good agreement
between them.
524
Metal Forming
Definition of Internal Pressure Path and Determination of Lower and Upper Bounds. The effect of internal
pressure has been studied by many researchers. They have
focused on choosing an appropriate pressure curve versus
time in tube hydroforming. Cherouat [6] investigated the
effect of three different load curves for pressure and reported a successful forming by using a multiple stages
pressure curve. Hwang [4] has also used a similar form of
pressure curve with 3 stages contain yield, expansion and
calibration phases. In the current study, the total time experiment is assumed to be fixed value and therefore five
variables are sufficient to design the internal pressure
curve. They are the yielding, expanding and calibration
pressures and their required times. These five variables are
shown as Figure 1. Based on some experimental data, the
minimum and maximum limitation values are selected for
each variable as shown in Table 1 in rows 1-4. By iinvestigating the results from some more simulations it can be
shown that the amount of yield pressure may be fixed at
2.5 MPa. Hence, in order to design the pressure curve four
variables should be found.
Figure 2. Axial punch feeding versus time and its design variables.
Axial Punch Displacement Path. Axial punch displacement curve is very similar in many researches and
usually consists of two stages. In this study similar to what
assumed by Fan [1] and Altan [7], a two stages path is
used for axial punch. Because of the symmetry, the axial
punch path consists of two variables for displacement and
the time of first variable, Figure 2. They are as specified
in Table 1 (rows 5-7) with their minimum and maximum
bounds.
Counter Punch Displacement Path. The counter punch
is used to control the branch height and avoid over thinning at the branch in hydroforming process. It also controls the evolution of thickness at the top of protrusion.
Gelin [8] used this parameter for T-shape hydroforming
process. Teng [9] also investigated hydroforming of a 45
degree Y-shape tube and used the counter punch for preventing of excessive thinning. The counter punch displacement path is usually simple and the involved variables are the amount of displacement and the starting and
stopping times. Moreover, two variables are needed to
determine the amount of displacement which are the initial
and final places of counter punch, Figure 3. The difference between these two variables will show the movement
Y = 0 + i X i ,
i = 1, 2 ,......, n
(1)
i =1
Metal Forming
Thickness = 3.89 - 0.00341 Pexpan - 0.0244 Pfinal - 0.0219
Tyield - 0.00087 Texpan - 0.00544 Smiddle + 0.0122 Sfinal +
0.00019 Tmiddle + 0.00671 CPs - 0.0244 CPf + 0.00742 Tstart
+ 0.00213 Tstop
(2)
Height = - 15.5 + 0.387 Pexpan + 0.231 Pfinal - 0.329 Tyield 0.158 Texpan - 0.183 Smiddle + 0.513 Sfinal + 0.342 Tmiddle +
0.0636 CPs + 0.310 CPf - 0.190 Tstart - 0.131 Tstop
(3)
Stepwise linear regression model for thickness and height:
Thickness = 3.895 - 0.0244 Pfinal - 0.0219 Tyield - 0.0054
Smiddle + 0.0122 Sfinal + 0.0067 CPs 0.0244 CPf + 0.0074
Tstart
(4)
Height = -12.14 + 0.387 Pexpan + 0.231 Pfinal -0.33 Tyield 0.158 Texpan - 0.183 Smiddle + 0.513 Sfinal + 0.342 Tmiddle
+0.310 CPf - 0.190 Tstart - 0.131 Tstop
(5)
The adequacies of various functions have been evaluated using analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique. A
significant criterion for adequacy of model is correlation
factor (R2). This factor evaluates from 100% and if in a
regression analysis its amount approach 100%, that illustrates the better accuracy of the model. Correlation factors
for above regression models are tabulated in Table 6.
Based on ANOVA, the values R2 in linear model are over
85% for two outputs. This means that the model provide a
good representation of the actual process in terms of
Thickness and Height response.
For illustrative purpose, the distributions of real data
(simulation results) around regression lines for linear model are shown in Figure 4 for Thickness response. This
figure demonstrates a good conformability of the developed models with the real process.
(T
exp
Texp
(H
exp
H exp
=0
(6)
Optimization
To determine proper values of loading parameters, a set
of equations must be solved simultaneously. Analytical
and numerical methods may be used to solve these kinds
of problems. For instance, evolutionary algorithms which
are powerful optimization techniques widely used for
solving combinational problems. One of these algorithms
called, simulated annealing (SA), is used in this study to
seek out the best amount of parameters. Kirkpatrick [10]
526
Metal Forming
Conclusions
References
T-shape tube hydrofroming was studied and the optimization of loading parameters was investigated in detail
using a proposed approach. By using design of experiment
method thirty two loading paths upon Taguchi method
based on two levels experiment were designed. All cases
were simulated by using finite element method and the
desired outputs contain the minimum Thickness and maximum Height of protrusion were calculated. Mathematical
models for two objective functions are established by
using analysis of variance technique and regression. Simulated annealing (SA) algorithm was used to optimize objective functions versus desired loading parameters. The
comparison between the obtained results using the optimized loading paths and the experimental data showed
that, despite reduction of final required pressure, formability of the tube was improved.
Factor
Unit
Notation
Minimum (-)
Maximum (+)
Expansion pressure
MPa
P expan
7.5
12.5
Final pressure
MPa
P final
12.5
17.5
Yielding time
T yield
Expansion time
T expan
20
27
mm
Smiddle
50
60
mm
Sfinal
60
64
Tmiddle
20
27
mm
CPs
50
56
mm
CPf
75
81
10
Tstart
10
11
Tstop
20
30
Table 2. The matrix of DOE for loading parameters and the FE simulation results.
No
Pexpan
Pfinal
Tyield
Texpan
Smiddle
Sfinal
Tmiddle
CPs
CPf
Tstart
Tstop
T (mm)
H (mm)
2.51
38.23
2.47
36.36
31
2.41
42.15
32
2.35
42.34
Pfinal
Tyield
Texpan
Smiddle
Sfinal
Tmiddle
CPs
CPf
Tstart
Tstop
9.5
12.5
24.5
50
63.5
25.5
56
75.5
9.5
30
H
(mm)
39.91
Abaqus
T
(mm)
2.55
H
(mm)
40.8
527
Metal Forming
There are some differences in deformation characteristics between small diameter tubes and large diameter ones. Experimental results by
use of small diameter tubing with 8 mm in outer diameter and 0.8 mm in thickness are mainly discussed in this paper. It may be a feature of
hydrofroming with small diameter tubing that the bulged tubing withstands great deformation without failure. In this study, protruded long
branches were formed in cross-shaped tube hydroforming under a constant fluid pressure (holding pressure) and axial feeding. It was also
revealed as a result of experiment that holding pressure can be lower than 50% of the bursting pressure in the forming of small diameter
tubes. According to the other study, it will be higher than approximately 70% in the forming of large diameter tubes to obtain sound bulged
shapes. On the other hand, buckling will be occurred under loading of insufficient low pressure along with some amount of axial feeding. In
the forming of small diameter copper tubing and aluminium alloy tubing, approximately 40% of the bursting pressure was the lower limit for
the forming. On the other hand, the extent of axial force must be taken into consideration from the point of view of axial feeding. It was
measured in this study. However, in the case of cross-shaped tube hydroforming, tube wall thickness mostly increases and it makes the
problem difficult. The axial force is divided into three components, i.e., frictional resistance force, deformation force, and counter force
against internal pressure. The wall thickening affects all the three components and increases the frictional resistance force and deformation
force. The magnitude of internal pressure has an influence on the tube wall thickening. The lower the internal pressure is, the easier the
tube wall become thick in proportion to axial feeding. As a result of the experiment, it is revealed that the counter force will be less than
about 25% of the measured axial forces. In addition, friction coefficient between tube and die highly affected the axial force. A MoS2 spray
and PTFE sheets are used as lubricants in the experiment so as to examine the effects of friction on the axial force and tube deformation.
Keywords: Tube, Hydraulic bulging, Hydroforming, Small diameter, Cross-shaped tube, Thickness, Low pressure, Axial force, Friction
Introduction
There is no technical point of view on tubular small
products in the current technology of hydroforming. There
must be some latent needs for new small products in
medical and plumbing businesses. Painless injection needles, tube fittings for semiconductor manufacturing equipment, and fuel batteries may be hopeful examples. In the
past decade, hydroforming has been rapidly improved
under the strong demands in the automobile industry [1].
The main purpose of hydroforming has been weight reduction of cars. Relatively large size tubing with thin wall is
suitable for the car structural parts. For example, hydroforming has fulfilled severe specifications for light weight
chassis made of tubing. From that point of view, small
size tubes that will be used for flow paths are different
applications from the products that are supposed to have
high rigidity and strength. However, this technology has
some potential to be more expanded in small size tubular
applications.
Experimental results by use of small diameter tubes (8
mm in outer diameter and 0.8 mm in thickness) are discussed in this paper. There are some differences in deformation characteristics between large diameter tubes and
small diameter ones. Small diameter tubing tends to have
higher thickness / diameter ratios than large diameter one.
Experimental Conditions
Figure 1 shows the cross sectional image of cross-shaped
tube hydroforming. Figure 2 shows the experimental
apparatus for hydroforming of small diameter tubing.
Loading of internal fluid pressure and axial feeding is
required in cross-shaped tube hydroforming. The
maximum pressure that can be applied to tube specimens
528
Metal Forming
with this experimental apparatus is 180 MPa. As for the
maximum axial force, it is 60 kN. Figure 3 shows some
experimental results that were formed at the maximum
power of the experimental apparatus. A bright annealed
stainless steel JIS SUS304 tube with 6.35 mm in outer
diameter and 1.0 mm in thickness was too strong to do
experiments under various loading conditions. Hence, a
little larger diameter copper tubing and aluminium alloy
tubing were used in this study to clarify the deformation
characteristics of small diameter tubing.
0.8 mm
Initial length
64 mm
n-value
0.30 (Copper)
0.23 (Aluminium alloy)
K-value (=Kn)
Metal Forming
shown in the figure (a). On the other hand, Figure 7 shows
examples of the small diameter copper tubing. The amount
of sealing is as same as the case of the aluminium alloy
tubing. However, any wrinkle did not obviously occur
during the sealing feed stage even when using PTFE sheet.
It was clarified that adequate amounts of the sealing feed
depended on the lubricants and materials of tubing. The
friction coefficient between the tubular specimen and the
die must be smaller when using PTFE sheet in comparison
with using MoS2 spray only. The tubular material will be
easily moved toward the centre of the specimen by the
feeding from the tube ends when the friction is small.
However, there is a difficult problem to know the difference in the friction coefficients between the cases of the
aluminium alloy tubing and the copper tubing. Then, the
cause of the wrinkling during the sealing feed stage is still
open to question because there are possibilities in both of
the friction and the material properties.
530
Metal Forming
Figure 10 shows the cross-shaped aluminium alloy
tubes under low holding pressure. 30% of the bursting
pressure was also insufficient as the holding pressure. The
crack at the centre of the specimen might be a result of
lower ductility of the aluminium alloy than that of the
copper.
Figure 11 shows the maximum axial force for forming
feed. Effect of the friction between the tubular specimen
and die on the force must be relatively great. Here, the
axial force consists of three components, i.e., frictional
resistance force, deformation force, and counter force
against internal fluid pressure. It is difficult to know the
percentages of the frictional resistance force in the
measured axial force. The maximum counter force is the
only predictable one. It can be calculated by multiplying
the sizes of the cross sectional area of the original tubing
and internal pressure. According to the calculation, the
counter force will be less than about 25% of the measured
axial forces. It was clarified that the counter force is
smaller than the sum of the other two force components. It
leads to the tendency of the measured forces do not have
simple relationship to the holding pressure. If the counter
force dominated the measured forces, they would be in
proportion to the holding pressure. In any case, it is open
to question to estimate approximate values of the frictional
resistance force and the deformation force.
Figure 11. Maximum axial force for forming feed (8 mm O.D., 0.8
mm thick, forming feed 20 mm) .
Conclusions
Experimental results by use of small diameter tubing (8
mm in outer diamter and 0.8 mm in thickness) were
discussed. Copper tubing and aluminium alloy tubing were
mainly formed into cross-shaped tubes by hydroforming in
this study. There were some differences in deformation
characteristics between large diameter tubing and small
diameter one. The results were summarized as below.
1. It was revealed that internal fluid pressure can be lower
than 50% of the bursting pressure in the cross-shaped
tube forming of small diameter tubing. In the case of a
large diameter tube, it would be higher than
approximately 70% of the bursting pressure to obtain
flawless bulged shapes. Forming possibility under low
pressure may be a feature of hydoforming by use of
small diameter tubing.
2. It may be also a feature of the forming with small
diameter tubing that the bulged shapes can be shapes
with long branches.
3. The counter force against internal fluid pressure will be
less than about 25% of the measured axial forces.
4. The T-shaped tube hydroforming is more difficult than
cross-shaped tube hydroforming because of tube wall
folding during forming feed.
Acknowledgement
Some of the experimental results were obtained in the
study supported by the project Research for Promoting
Technological Seeds (Japan Science and Technology
Agency). In addition, the experimental apparatus is a
grant-aided property by MEXT sponsored CITYAREA
R&D Program (MEXT: Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports and Technology, CITYAREA: Cooperation of Innovative Technology and Advanced Research in Evolutional Area).
References
[1] M. Ko: Hydroforming for Advanced Manufacturing, Woodhead
Publishing, Cambridge England, (2008).
[2] A. Shirayori, M. Narazaki: Proc. 4th International Conference on
Tube Hydroforming, (2009), 121-126.
531
Metal Forming
Introduction
Tube hydroforming processes are used to form hollow
parts with different cross-sections by applying a high internal hydraulic pressure and additional axial feed at the
same time to force a tubular blank to conform to the shape
of a given die cavity. With the increasing requirements of
motor vehicles to reduce their weight to save energy,
lightweight construction of automobiles is now one of the
main fields of applications [1]. Tube hydroforming has
been one of the hot topics in plastic forming field now, due
to its non-replaceable advantages in making hollow variable cross-section tube components [2]. However, there
are still some defects such as wrinkling, buckling and
bursting during hydroforming process. The paths of internal pressure in the tube hydroforming are a key to preventing the occurrence of these defects [3]. The effects of
loading path on the formability of the materials were studied widely [4]. Recently, a pulsating hydroforming process
of tubes has been developed based on accurate computer
control and is known as one of the effective methods to
improve the formability [5].
Finite element method has been proved to be an effective method to determine the pressure paths [6]. Mori et al.
[7] have examined the mechanism to improve the formability by experiments and FEM of the axi-symmetric
hydroforming of tubes under monotonic increasing internal pressure and pulsating internal pressure. It was found
that the occurrences of bursting and buckling were prevented by the oscillation of pressure and the wall thickness
of the formed tube was also improved by the oscillation.
Mousavi et al. [8] have examined the effect of oscillation
of internal pressure on improving the formability and
shape accuracy of the products in the pulsating hydroforming process of T-shape parts by dynamic explicit FEM.
The deformation behaviour of the tube in the hydroforming is greatly influenced by the friction at the interface
between the tubes and dies [9]. Hama et al. [10] have
simulated a pulsating hydroforming process of an automotive part by FEM, and proved that the pulsating forming
has roughly the same effect as lowering the friction coefficient.
In the present work, experiments of tube pulsating hydroforming were carried out, aiming at the successful
532
Metal Forming
of axial punches was a constant of 0.5 mm/s.
Table 1 Materials parameters used in the simulation.
Parameters
Value
117.2
Poissons Ratio
0.3
63
0.48
K (MPa)
300
3
8.94
1.6
1.4
Thickness (mm)
Density (g/cm )
Force-transferring zone
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Deformation zone
Force-transferring zone
1.2
(a)
150
300
450
600
750
Distance from pont a1 (mm)
(a) Outer parting line
1.2
1.0
80
0.8
0.6
60
0.4
40
20
0
Force-transferring zone
Pressure P (MPa)
100
0.2
0.0
25
50
75 100
Time t (s)
125
150
Deformation zone
Force-transferring zone
Conventional load
Pulsating load
1.4
Thickness (mm)
120
1.6
(b)
150
300
450
600
750
Distance form point a (mm)
533
Metal Forming
534
t1
t2
25
t3
50
t4
s-1)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
150
-3
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
-3
-1
20
Axial force under conventional load path
20
Axial force under Pulsating load path
18
Plastic strain rate of node d
16 t1
15
14
12
10
10
t4
t3
t2
8
6
5
4
2
0
0
0
25
50
75 100 125 150
Time (s)
Figure 8. Curves of axial force vs. time when forming under two
kinds of loading paths.
-4
curve of the traditional mode, it even had a small downtrend during the forming time of t3. As the deformation
finished, the axial force in the two loading modes went to
the same value and trend.
Metal Forming
75 100 125
Time (s)
Figure 9. Curves of elastic strain of node d when forming under
two kinds of loading paths.
Thus it is believed in this paper that friction force reduction under pulsating loading path is caused by reduction of
the equivalent contact normal force by cyclical springback
rather than decreasing of the friction coefficient.
Conclusions
Pulsating loading path can achieve a more uniform deformation with more homogenous thickness distribution
beneficial for preventing excessive local thinning and
improving the formability of the engine cradle.
The simulation results reveal that the reasons for more
homogenous deformation is that the contact friction force
between tubes and die namely flow resistance of metal is
reduced under pulsating loading path condition. The main
reason for friction force reduction under pulsating loading
path is that regular springback by pulsating internal pressure causes the reduction of equivalent contact normal
force.
References
[1] F. Dohmann, C. Hartl: Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
60-1 (1996), 669-676.
[2] M. Ahmetoglu, T. Altan: Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
98-1 (2000), 25-33.
[3] M. Koc: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 133-3 (2003),
276-281.
[4] P. Ray, D.-B. Mac: Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 41-2
(2004), 173-192.
[5] K. Mori, A.-U. Patwari, S. Maki: Proc. TUBEHYDRO 2003, (2003),
84-91.
[6] M. Imaninejad, G. Subhash, A. Loukus: International Journal of
Machine Tools and Manufacture, 45-12-13 (2005), 1504-1514.
[7] K. Mori, T. Maeno, S. Maki: International Journal of Machine Tools
and Manufacture, 47-6 (2007), 978-984.
[8] M. Mousavi, K. Mori, K. Hayashi, S. Maki, M. Bakhshi: Key Engineering Material, 340-341 (2007), 353-358.
[9] K. Manabe, M. Amino: Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
123-2 (2002), 285291.
[10] T. Hama, M. Asakawa, H. Fukiharu, A. Makinouchi: Proc. TUBEHYDRO2003, (2003), 80-83.
535
Metal Forming
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin / China, gliu@hit.edu.cn;
chinery Company, Beijing / China
2)
Hydroforming of a Y-shaped tube by using tube blanks with a ratio of diameter to thickness of 183 is presented. Through experiments,
typical defects including wrinkles in feeding zone, thinning and cracking at the protrusion top, were discovered. Because of the super thin
thickness of the tube blank and the asymmetrical shape of the Y-shaped tube, it is very difficult to avoid the defects by controlling the loading path of pressure and axial feeding. Under a reasonable process design, the Y-shaped tube is produced successfully. FEM simulations
were carried out for analyzing the deformation during hydroforming of the Y-shaped tube. Thinning ratio distribution, stress and strain states
from different loading paths were presented. Then the approach for improving process and product quality are proposed.
Keywords: Hydroforming, Y-shaped tube, Wrinkle, Thin-walled tube
Experimental Study
Geometric Parameters of Y-shaped Tube and Tube
blank. Figure 1 shows the geometric parameters of Thinwalled Y-shaped stainless steel tube. The protrusion is
536
Thin-walled Y-shaped stainless steel tubes were frequently used in pipe systems of aircrafts. To be as lightweight as possible, thickness of the tubes is always designed to the smallest values according to strength and
stiffness demands. Many Y-shaped tubes have the ratios of
diameter to thickness (d/t) higher than 60, which are produced through stamping-welding or butt-welding in conventional processes. However, deformation during welding and low reliability of the welded tubes cannot meet the
demands of the development of aircrafts.
Hydroforming is supposed to be an available process for
manufacturing integral Y-shaped tubes without weld seams
and with the advantage of high reliability. Moreover,
higher reliability supplies possibility of reducing thickness
further and is helpful to lightweight.
Vollertsen et al. presented the formulas of estimation
forming critical pressure of burst and wrinkle for T-shaped
tube hydroforming [1]. Altan et al. conducted simulation
and experiments into hydroforming T-shaped tube of low
carbon steel welded tube blanks [2]. It was concluded that
too high protrusion will cause over-thinning and rupture
on the top of the protrusion. Manabe et al. developed a
fuzzy control system to optimize the loading conditions
and did trial with aluminum alloy tube blanks [3].
Compared with T-shaped tubes, usually Y-shaped tubes
are more difficult to be formed. Altan made an investigation into hydroforming of Y-shaped tube with angle of 60
by using SUS304 stainless steel tube with d/t of 33.3 [4].
Yuan et al. investigated hydroforming of a Y-shaped tube
of stainless steel with d/t of 21 and presented the thickness
law of Y-shaped tube hydroforming [5].
With hydroforming, the bigger the ratio of diameter to
thickness, the more difficult it is to avoid defects including
wrinkles and crack. In the paper, hydroforming process of
a Y-shaped tube by using tube blanks with d/t of 183 is
presented and analyzed.
angled to the tube axis by 62, the diameter of the protrusion d=83t. A kind of stainless steel tube blank with thickness (t) and outer diameter D=183t is used to manufacture
the Y-shaped tube. The mechanical properties determined
by tensile test are s=234 MPa and =50%.
Introduction
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
Left punch
Right punch
Counter punch
0.05
0.00
-15 -10 -5 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
The loading path 3 was designed for a two-steps hydroforming process with an additional preform step, as shown
in Figure 4.
The preforming was carried out by using a counter
punch with an inclined frontier as shown in Figure 5.
Results of Experiments. Figure 6(a) shows the sample
formed by the loading path 1. There are wrinkles on the
main tube. It means that the pressure in path 1 is too low
to avoid the wrinkle defect.
Metal Forming
Left punch
Right punch
Counter punch
0.05
0.00
(c) Preform
(d) Sound part
Figure 6. Experimental results of Y-shaped tube.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
FEM Simulation
Finite Element Model. The pre/post software DYNAFORM was used to build model to do simulation. The
finite element solver is LS-DYNA. By using the advantages of symmetrical shape, only half of the objects were
modeled, as shown in Figure 7.
0.15
0.30
-15 -10 -5 0
0.10
0.05
Left punch
Right punch
Counter punch
0.00
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
(a) Preforming
0.15
(a) Wrinkle
0.10
0.05
Left punch
Right punch
Counter punch
0.00
-15 -10 -5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
The tooling surfaces are discretized with rigid quadrilateral shell elements. The tube is discretized with elasticplastic quadrilateral shell elements and is assumed as isotropic material model. The work hardening law of material
is =Kn. The strength coefficient value K=1405 MPa and
the work-hardening exponent n=0.5. For this study a coefficient of friction =0.03 is retained between the tube and
die surface corresponding to the lubricant and die surface
condition.
Thinning Ratio Distribution of Y-shape Tube. Thinning ratio is the ratio of thickness reduction amount to the
original thickness. Figure 8(a) shows the thinning ratio
distribution of Y-shaped tube formed under the loading
path 1 when the internal pressure reached 40 MPa. It can
be seen that the top of the protrusion has marked thinning.
And the largest thinning ratio is 35.9%. The feed areas of
the end tube and both sides of fillet transition regions
experience various degrees of thickening. The bottom of
the left side tube thickens most seriously with the minimum thinning ratio of -32.4%.
Figure 8(b) shows the thinning ratio distribution of Yshaped tube formed under loading path 2 when the internal
537
Metal Forming
pressure reached 50 MPa. The thinning ratio distribution is
similar to the loading path 1, and the thickening at the left
end of the tube is most seriously, and its minimum thinning ratio is -33.1%. The top of protrusion has the smallest
thickness with the largest thinning ratio of 42.4%.
Figure 8(c) shows the thinning ratio distribution of Yshaped tube formed under loading path 3. The simulation
results present a sound part with the maximum thinning
ratio of 35.8% and minimum thinning ratio of -33.5%.
A
A B
D
E
G
H
Thinning ratio / %
A= 35.9
B= 28.5
C= 20.9
D= 13.3
E = 5.6
F = -1.9
G= -9.5
H= -17.2
I = -24.8
J = -32.4
B C
G
Thinning ratio / %
A=42.4
B= 34.2
C= 25.8
D= 17.4
E= 8.9
F= 5.2
G= -7.8
H= -16.3
I = -24.7
J =-33.1
C
D
E
F
G
H
0
d
z
0
d
t
0
Thinning ratio / %
A= 35.8
B= 28.1
C= 20.4
D= 12.7
E= 5.1
F= -2.6
G= -10.3
H= -18.0
I = -25.7
J = -33.5
538
1
(a) Simulated under loading path 1
d
t
0
d
z
0
d
Point 1
Point 2
Figure 10. Stress traces at typical points for sample with loading
path 1.
Analysis of Stress and Strain for Sample with Wrinkles and Crack. As shown in Figure 6(b), both wrinkles
and crack appeared on the same sample.
From simulation, stress loci of point 1 and point 2 are
shown in Figure 11. It can be seen that during hydroforming with loading path 2, the stress-strain states are similar
to those in loading path 1, but the value of axial and
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
circumferential tensile stress at point 2 is much higher than
those from loading path 1. The higher tensile stresses
induce more severe tensile strains along axial and circumferential directions. Therefore, though the pressure is still
not high enough to avoid wrinkling at point 1, it is high
enough to induce cracking at point 2 on the protrusion. It
illustrates that it is impossible to form thin-walled Yshaped tube through one-step forming process.
0
d
z
0
d
t
0
0
d
z
0
d
t
0
d
t
0
d
z
0
d
Point 1
Point 2
Conclusions
Point 1
Point 2
d
t
0
d
z
0
d
Figure 11. Stress traces at typical points for sample with loading
path 2.
Acknowledgment
The authors thank for financial support by Program for
New Century Excellent Talents in University (NCET-070237).
References
[1] F. Vollertsen, T. Prange, M. Sander: Proc. 6th ICTP, (1999), 11971210.
[2] M. Ahmetoglu, K. Sutter, X.J. Li, T. Altan: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 98 (2000), 224-231.
[3] K. Manabe, M. Suetake, H. Koyama, M. Yang: Proceedings of the
First ICNFT, ( 2004), 73-78.
[4] S. Jirathearanat, Ch. Hartl, T. Altan: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 146 (2004) 124-129.
[5] D.M. Cheng, B.G. Teng, B. Guo, S.J. Yuan: Materials Science &
Engineering A, 499 (2009), 36-39
0
d
z
0
d
t
0
d
t
0
d
z
0
d
Point 1
Point 2
(a) Preforming
539
Metal Forming
Department of Mechanical and Computer-Aided Engineering, National Formosa University, Yunlin / Taiwan, sylin@nfu.edu.tw;
ment of Mechanical and Computer-Aided Engineering, National Formosa University, Yunlin / Taiwan, rjp325817@yahoo.com.tw
2)
Depart-
This study investigates the hydro-formability of a forming process of bellows with various numbers of convolution using a hydro-forming
technology that can successfully achieve lighter weight and higher strength, rather than utilizing the conventional method with the multi-step
technique through complicated procedures that leads to undesirable time-consuming and high cost. Cylindrical tubes are used as a billet
via the expansion of internal high pressure of liquid medium inside the tube and the compression movement of the punch at the ends of the
tube simultaneously, which forces the tube billet material deformation flowing into the die cavities and creates the convolution profiles. Finite
element method is applied to investigate the forming characteristics of bellows with various numbers of convolution by changing some
process parameters such as punch velocity, hydraulic pressure, dimensional ratio of the crest height to the outer radius, etc. and examine
how the bellows minimum tube wall-thickness and formability are influenced by these process parameters. It shows that both the number of
convolution and dimensional ratio have a significant effect on the hydro-formability of bellows. The difference of the tube thickness increases as the number of convolution increases. Those poor formability situations easily result in defect occurrence comparatively. In addition, fracture and fold defects are easily exhibited corresponding to larger and smaller dimensional ratios, respectively.
Keywords: Bellows, Hydroforming, Minimum wall-thickness, Formability
Introduction
Bellows with intrinsic and unique shape have characters
of absorbing shock and avoiding heat/cold deformation.
The bellows is widely applied in industry, e.g. the translation pipes, electrical power parts, and automobile parts.
The conventional manufacturing process of bellows is
very complicated and consumes a lot of time and cost. The
resulting price is inevitably high. Therefore, in the industry area, everyone continues investigating new forming
technology to approach the capabilities of fast forming and
low cost.
One can save considerable time and cost by use of the
hydroforming technology on manufacturing bellows.
However this technology is still under development in
recent years, and remains many problems to be solved and
optimized. It is expected that, by the above approaches,
the practical application can be realized in industry.
Ahmetoglu and Altan [1] reviewed the fundamentals of
tube hydroforming technology and discussed how various
parameters, such as tube material properties, pre-form
geometry, lubrication and process control affect product
design and quality. Lin and Kwan [2] combined the FEM
and neural network to predict an acceptable product of
which the minimum wall thickness and the protrusion
height fulfill the industrial demand on a T-shape tube hydroforming process. Jain et al. [3] established the merits of
applying external counter pressure in tube hydroforming.
It is observed that the counter pressure will provide back
support to the tube material. Excessive thinning and premature wrinkling could be prevented. Thus, larger tube
expansion could be achieved. Lee [4] applied FEM technique to deal the tube bulging and folding processes as
well as the springback stage. The explicit time integration
method was used for analyzing the tube-bulging and folding processes. Meanwhile, the implicit time integration
method was used for the springback stage. Combination of
these two different time integration methods was widely
accepted for simulating the forming and springback stages
consecutively. Wang et al. [5] developed a new forming
540
Metal Forming
Dimensional ratio
Number of convolution n
2, 3, 4
(a) p=120MPa
(b) p=130MPa
(c) p=140MPa
Figure 2. Relationship between bellows minimum wall-thickness
and punch velocity under various conditions of internal pressure,
dimensional ratio and number of convolution.
541
Metal Forming
(a) v=0.6mm/s
(b) v=0.8mm/s
(c) v=1.0mm/s
Figure 3. Relationship between bellows minimum wall-thickness
and internal pressure under various conditions of punch velocity,
dimensional ratio and number of convolution.
Refer to the above results, it can take a common conclusion that the higher internal pressure causes a faster expansion rate, and then the tube thickness becomes thinner. For
common situation, the higher internal pressure is, the easier material expansion is. At this situation, the material has
not sufficient time flows inward reaching the middle region of the bellows when punch velocity is lower, and then
Tmin becomes thinner. Contrarily, if the punch velocity is
sufficiently high, the material may deform and supply
rapidly and has an opportunity to reach the middle region,
and then Tmin does not become thinner as just mentioned
above. Therefore, all process parameters and their interactions will influence the variation of the bellows thickness.
It can not use single parameter only to control or estimate
the tube wall-thickness distributions. Consequently, a
successful hydroforming always depends on the suitable
combinations of the process parameter arrangements.
In the proposed study, some defect occurrences in bellows hydroforming have been ever encountered during
forming process. The common defect of bellows hydroforming consists of two types: fold and fracture. The results introduce that the fold occurred easily when dimensional ratio is about 0.25 which provide a relatively
smaller die cavity filling space and will cause some difficulties of material inflow and then the materials are usually concentrated around the ends of tube. Consequently,
the fold will be induced if the material is supplied continuously by the punch. The results also illustrate that the
fracture occurred easily when dimensional ratio is about
0.35 which provide a relatively larger die cavity filling
space in contrast to the above situation and will increase
the mobility of materials flow. Based on the principle of
volume constancy, the fracture will be induced subsequently by a lack of material supply if the forming pressure keeps providing.
(a) p=120MPa
(a) v=0.6mm/s
(b) v=0.8mm/s
(b) p=130MPa
(c) p=140MPa
Figure 4. Relationship between bellows minimum wall-thickness
and dimensional ratio under various conditions of internal pressure,
punch velocity and number of convolution.
542
(c) v=1.0mm/s
Figure 5. Suitable range of process parameters for making fully
filled in die cavities of bellows for n=2.
Metal Forming
543
Metal Forming
Introduction
There are many applications for the metal bellows in
different industries. Numerous papers have dealt with
various aspects of bellows. Broman et al. have determined
dynamic characteristics of bellows by manipulating certain
parameters of the beam finite elements [1]. Jakubauskas
and Werner have considered the transverse vibrations of
fluid-filled double-bellows expansion joints [2]. Also some
investigations on the fatigue behavior of expansion joint
bellows have been carried out by Becht [3] and Zhu et al.
[4].
However, few papers have studied the manufacturing
process of the metal bellows. Lee has carried out parametric study on some of the forming process parameters of the
metal bellows by finite element method [5]. Faraji et al.
have investigated bellows forming process parameters
effect on final bellows dimensions and quality by finite
element analysis and experimental tests [6]. Asnafi and
Skogsgardh have introduced an analytical model for tube
hydroforming process and checked the model by experiment and finite element modeling [7,8]. Figure 1 shows
schematic illustration of bellows forming process. Metal
bellows is formed in two stages (tube bulging and folding)
from thin wall tube. In the tube-bulging process, the
equally spaced circular plate dies are set to surround the
wall of the tube and the internal oil pressure is increased
up to a proper value and no axial feeding is applied. In the
folding process, while the internal oil pressure is maintained to a constant value, the axial force is applied along
the longitudinal direction of the bulged tube in order to
complete the final shape of the metal bellows [6].
In this paper, an analytical model is introduced for bellows forming process analysis. From the results of this
work one can calculate the final bellows dimensions and
its thickness distribution. Experimental tests were carried
out to verify the model.
544
Theory
Deformation of initial tube in the bulging stage takes
place in elastic region with a small plastic deformation.
Whole of the deformation in the folding stage is plastic. As
mentioned above, metal bellows is manufactured in two
stages of bulging and folding from the initial tube. Internal
pressure is increased to upper value in bulging stage while
no axial feeding is applied. In the folding process, while
the internal pressure is maintained to an upper value (Pf),
the axial force is applied along the longitudinal direction
of the bulged tube [6]. One ring of the bellows is considered in the model because of symmetry (Figure 2). As
shown in figure 2 Consider a tube as a ring of the bellows
which is subjected to an internal pressure, P.
Metal Forming
(6)
z /
z /
(7)
ln
Figure 2. Forming stages of one ring of the bellows (a) bulging
(b) folding.
r ln
i
0
(8)
ti
t0
(9)
1/ 2
(1 2 )
P i
ti
(15)
P i
Py
2 y t 0
(16)
3 0
(1)
ti
P i
(2)
2t i
r 0
(3)
where , z and r are circumferential, longitudinal and
radial stresses. The von Mises yield criterion (plane stress)
and the equivalent strain can be written as [7]:
(4)
(1 2 )1/ 2
and
1/ 2
(1 2 )
3
where
(5)
545
Metal Forming
length, thickness and radius. The footnote i in figure 6b
shows the instantaneous values.
K(MPa)
0.23
635
0
6.75
t0
0.1
Mechanical properties
(Kg/
UTS(MPa)
E(Gpa)
m3)
386
92
0.34
8000
Dimension (mm)
td (Die ring thickness)
L0
0.5
10
Experiment
Plastic deformation occurred as a result of internal pressure. Plastic deformation consists of the last part of bulging and folding stages. In this step, Eqs. (1)-(10) are valid.
Substituting Eq. (10) in Eq. (15) yields
(17)
3
Assume that the tube material obeys the Ludwik
Hollomon hardening relationship:
K . n
(18)
Combining Eqs. (1), (5), (8), (17) and (18), one can write:
Pi
2 ti
. .K .( 4 / 3( 1 2 ) )n (ln i )n
0
3 i
(19)
(2 1) /(2 )
(20)
2 0.2331 t i
. .635.(ln i )0.233
4.5 MPa ( 3 )
6.75
i
(23)
t 0.1( 6.75 )
i
i
Solving this system of equations final outer radius and
minimum thickness of the bellows is obtained as follow:
i f 9.36 mm
t i t f 0.072 mm
Pi (
2 n 1 t i
) . .K .(ln i )n
i
0
3
(21)
ti t0 (
546
0
)
i
(22)
Metal Forming
References
[1] G.I. Broman, A.P. Jonsson, M.P. Hermann: International Journal of
Pressure Vessels Piping 77 -8 (2000), 445-453.
[2] V. Jakubauskas, D.S. Weaver: Journal of Fluids and Structures, 13-4
(1999), 461-479.
[3] C. Becht IV: International Journal of Pressure Vessels Piping, 77-13
(2000), 843850.
[4] Y.Z. Zhu, H.F. Wang, Z.F. Sang: International journal of fatigue, 28-1
(2006), 28-32.
[5] S.W. Lee: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 130131(2002), 47-53.
[6] Gh. Faraji, M. M. Mashhadi, V. Norouzifard: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 209-7 (2009), 3431-3437.
[7] N. Asnafi: Thin-Walled Structures, 34-4 (1999) 295330.
[8] N. Asnafi, A. Skogsgardh: Materials Science and Engineering A, 2791-2 (2000), 95110.
Experiment [6]
Error (%)
Final minimum
thickness (tf)
0.072mm
0.073mm
1.3%
Final outer
radius (f)
9.36mm
10.27mm
8.8%
Conclusion
A simple analytical model is introduced to model the
thin wall metal bellows forming process. Final crucial
dimensions such as the final outer radius and minimum
thickness can be calculated easily before any experiment
and finite element modelling is done. Results of this work
could be used to reduce cost and time for the process design and manufacture of thin wall and sensitive bellows
and can be applied easily by process engineers to design
an economized process.
547
Metal Forming
Introduction
Aluminum alloys sheet and tube have been widely applied as one of lightweight materials for automotives and
aircrafts to meet the demand of fuel saving [1]. Especially,
aluminum alloy tubes have gained more interest in manufacturing lightweight hollow structures with complicated
cross-sections by hydroforming process [2,3]. Due to the
poor formability of aluminum alloys at room temperature,
it is a better approach to manufacture aluminum alloy
components by hydroforming at an elevated temperature
or warm hydroforming [4].
In the past decade, many experimental and theoretical
works have been conducted on the fundamentals and processes of warm hydroforming, including formability and
FLD (Forming Limit Diagram) of various aluminum alloys at elevated temperatures [5-7], heat transfer behaveior, temperature field [8,9], effect of loading parameters on
thickness distribution and defects [10-14]. However, the
friction in feeding ends of an aluminum alloy tube at elevated temperatures is bigger than that at room temperatures [15]. The bigger friction would result in obvious
thickening at the ends of tube. Normally, the thickening
ratio is up to 30%. The other reason for severe thickening
is that the metal at the ends of tube can easily yield and
come into plastic deformation because all area of the tube
is at high temperature by the warm hydroforming with
isothermal heating. Therefore, it is difficult to form tubular
part with large expansion ratio and the thickness distribution is not even in the formed part.
To overcome this problem in traditional warm hydroforming with isothermal heating, an effective warm hydroforming is proposed by axially different heating zones in
this paper. The axially different heating zones means that
the temperature is non uniform along the tube axis and
there is a temperature difference between the tube ends
and its central zone. Effect of the temperature difference
was investigated on hydroforming process by coupled
thermo-mechanical FE simulation. One special heating
tool was designed and manufactured to implement warm
hydroforming experiment. Finally, an aluminum alloy
tubular part with expansion ratio 70% was obtained in
experiment.
548
Feeding
zone
T1<T2
Upper die
Warm fluid
Tube
Punch
Lower die
Cooling water
Heater
Temperature sensor
Metal Forming
Geometry and Material of Tubular Part
The shape and dimensions of a tubular part to be formed
is shown in Figure 2. The diameter of the tube at two ends
is 65mm and the diameter in the forming zone is 110mm.
The expansion ratio of this part is 70%.
The material used in simulation and experiment is aluminum alloy 5A02. Its chemical compositions are given in
Table 1. The outside diameter and thickness of the original
tube blank are 65mm and 1.5mm, respectively. After extrusion, the tube was annealed at 415C for 2 hour and
then air-cooled.
Table 1. Chemical composition (Wt. %) of 5A02 aluminum alloy
tube.
Si
Fe
Cu
Mg
Al
0.16
0.0012
2.22
Balance
p
= 0 1 +
C
0.12
(1)
Heat capacity
(C)
(10-5/C)
(W/m C)
(J/kg C)
25
155
903
100
2.42
159
963
200
2.49
163
1005
300
2.58
163
1047
The temperature (T1) in the feeding zone and the temperature (T2) the forming zone was assigned as listing in
Table 4. In this simulation, one way thermal contact was
selected, and the fraction of mechanical work converted
into heat was set to zero because of the quasi-static of
hydroforming. The inner surface heat transfer with environment was allowed, and the environment temperature
was set to fluid temperature. There is no heat transfer with
outer environment.
Table 4. Temperature differences used in FE simulation (C).
T1
T2
220
220
70
150
220
200
20
220
The loading path, i.e. the relationship of internal pressure and axial feeding, is as shown in Figure 4. The axial
feeding of punches reaches 40mm while the internal pressure is preserved in value of 4.8MPa. After that, internal
pressure is increased to 20MPa for calibration.
C (s )
25
1549
1.266
100
1734
3.714
150
2768
4.006
220
5269
5.165
260
16680
12.887
-1
Punch
Tube
Forming zone
Feeding zone
549
Metal Forming
Temperature Distribution and Profiles of Workpiece.
shows the temperature distribution and profile of
workpiece at various stages. For T=70 C, the temperature in forming zone is in the range of 210-220 C, the
temperature in feeding zone is in the range of 150-160 C,
the high temperature covers just in forming zone. For
T=200C, the temperature gradient of the workpiece in
axial direction is very large. The temperature in forming
zone varies from 150 to 210 C, the temperature in feeding
zone is lower than 50 C, and the high temperature is very
narrow.
Pressure (MPa)
Figure 5
21
20
19
18
17
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
Feeding (mm)
Insulation
(a)
T=70C
K L MO
(b)
T=200C
A C E IK
(c)
(d)
T=70C
T=200C
(C)
N
P
Q
R
G
M
Q
R
O
KI E C A
Feeding of 30mm
N
O
P
Q
R
G
K
O
R
AC E I M Q
A= 50
B= 60
C = 70
D= 80
E = 90
F =100
G=110
H =120
I =130
J =140
K =150
L =160
M =170
N =180
O=190
P =200
Q=210
R=220
OM LK
Q M I ECA
(C)
A= 50
B= 60
C = 70
D = 80
E = 90
F =100
G=110
H =120
I =130
J =140
K =150
L =160
M =170
N =180
O=190
P =200
Q=210
R=220
After calibration
Figure 5. Temperature distribution and profile of tubes obtained by
FE simulation.
For T=70 C and the feeding is 30 mm, two large wrinkles were formed in the forming zone of the workpiece
and there is one small wrinkle between the two wrinkles.
The diameter of the large wrinkles is 86.6 mm and the
diameter of small one is 79.5 mm. After calibration, the
tube is expanded to the die cavity surface completely. For
T=200 C, the conical part of the forming zone is difficult to be deformed because of the low temperature.
Therefore, the deformation is located in central area of the
550
Heater
Cooling water
Temperature sensor
Metal Forming
There is an optimal temperature difference between the
forming zone and the feeding zone for certain shape and
material of the part to be formed. When the temperature
difference is higher, the deformation easily occurs in the
central area of the forming zone. After calibration, there is
severe thinning in the forming zone and the conical part of
the tube can not contact the die cavity surface. When the
temperature difference is lower, the folding defect occurs
in the center of tube during calibration stage.
For the aluminum alloy 5A02 tubular part formed in this
study, the optimization temperature difference is 70 C. A
sound part with large expansion ratio 70% was successfully formed with homogeneous thickness distribution.
The maximum thickening ratio in the feeding zone is only
2.6%, which is very less that in isothermal warm hydroforming by uniform temperature.
(a) Feeding of 20 mm
(b) Feeding of 30 mm
Acknowledgement
This paper was financially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (item number: 50525516,
50975061). The authors would like to take this opportunity
to express their sincere appreciation.
References
(c) Final formed tubular part
Figure 7. Hydroforming at different feeding stages.
Figure 8 is the thickness distribution of the final formed
part along axial direction. The maximum thinning ratio is
28.7% in the forming zone of the final formed part. However, the maximum thickening ratio in the feeding zone is
only 2.6%, which is very less that in isothermal warm
hydroforming by the uniform temperature. The thickness
is relatively homogeneous in the final formed part although the large expansion ratio is up to 70%.
45
T=70C
40
35
Forming zone
Profile
30
Feeding
zone
25
Transition
zone
Transition
Feeding
zone
zone
20
15
10
5
0
-5
60
80 100
Conclusions
It is proved by simulation and experiment that warm hydroforming by axially different heating zones is an effective method to avoid excessive thickening in the feeding
zone. The main advantage of this process is the friction
coefficient is small in the feeding zone due to lower temperature and the large expansion can be achieved due to
bigger elongation of metal at higher temperature.
551
Metal Forming
Metal Forming Department of Tecnalia Technological Corporation, Derio / Spain, lvadillo@labein.es; 2) R&D Group, Honda Engineering
Europe, Ltd., Swindon / United Kingdom; 3) Planning and Innovation Hot Stamping, Volkswagen AG, Kassel / Germany
Tecnalia has developed the Applasting process with the support of Honda, who has a deep knowledge in the technology (thanks to the
already industrialised serial production of aluminum subframes by hot tubes blowing) and Volkswagen. The main results of the study will be
explained in the paper. The 3D simulation in Ls-Dyna software has been validated. Prototype parts were manufactured by Applasting out of
a Usibor1500P boron steel tube of 63,5 mm diameter and 1,75 mm thickness provided by the company Arcelor-Mittal. The minimal radius
obtained in the part was 3,5 mm at only 2 MPa internal pressure. The quenching method for hardenable boron steel tubes will be discussed
in the paper. The Usibor1500P tubes after heating, Applasting and quenching process have a hardness that reaches 1530 MPa, therefore
its use for reducing part thickness and therefore automotive CO2 emissions make this technology be very promising.
Keywords: Tube, Boron, Forming, Steel, Quenching
Introduction
Nowadays there is a high demand of car weight reduction related to the need of CO2 emissions decrease. Many
automotive manufacturers are aimed at the use of new
steel brands which can compensate the lower sheet thickness with a high mechanical response. This is the case of
the hot stamped parts, already industrialized and with an
increasing number of OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) and Tier1 suppliers aimed at the production of
UHSS (Ultra High Strength Steel) parts by using this
method.
This technology has been mainly aimed at producing
steel sheet parts in the body-in-white of the car, such as
Tunnels, B-Pillars, A-Pillars, etc. In this paper this solution
will be applied to tubular specimens. Tubular shapes have
additional advantages such as rigidity provided by the
closed section geometry. In the case of the A-Pillar, a tubular geometry makes it possible to have a part with smaller
cross section, which reduces the visibility field avoidance
provided by this structural part made of sheet.
Welding different sheet metal parts in order to obtain a
closed geometry leads to a high production cost that can
be decreased by using an initial tubular blank and thus
reducing the number of parts, the number of tools and the
logistic costs added to this.
The Applasting process consists of changing the shape
of a tubular specimen at high temperature by means of an
external effort. This external pressure provided by a press
or other mechanical or hydraulical installation is compensated by the inner gas pressure inserted in the tubular
specimen. The main technological advantage of the Applasting process is the possibility of obtaining small radius
in the final parts and therefore more complex geometries
by means of a very low forming pressure, well away from
the high pressure rates used in processes such as hydroforming or in other tube hot blowing projects [1,2].
(1)
2D Simulation Model
In order to get a better understanding of the tube deformation process, a simulation work was done with LSDyna software. The objective of the simulation was to
552
Metal Forming
The following conclusions were drawn from the simulation work:
4.
5.
6.
(2)
Pressure
H (mm)
Radius (mm)
1 MPa
33.8
2.798
2 MPa
33.8
2.608
3 MPa
34.1
2.520
4 MPa
34.7
2.520
Experimental Tests
The simulation of the Applasting process was validated
by a set of experimental tests that reproduced the simulation paths followed.
The Applasting process includes several stages that are
summarized in the following lines:
1. Tube heating by conduction
2. Gas inner pressure in the tube
3. Forming process
4. Die cooling and therefore tube quenching
5. Tube extraction
In Figure 4, the Applasting experimental unit is shown
[3]. It consists of:
1. hydraulic production press Loire-Safe 800 Tn.
(3000 x 2000 mm table);
2. electrical clamps for the tube and transformer as
electrical furnace to heat the tube by conduction;
3. pressure plant: a gas tank with an electrovalve used
to control the tube inner gas pressure;
553
Metal Forming
During the experimental tests it was observed that a difference between the upper and lower radius in the final
tube shape was obtained. This did not happen in the 2D
simulation cases that had been run, as shown in the next
Figure 5, where upper and lower radius in the tube were
equal during the whole forming process.
t=0s
t=0.233s
t=0.583s
t=0.934s
Figure 8. Simulation results: final geometry and radius (test nr. 1).
The results of these 3D simulations matched the experimental ones as it is addressed in the following figures.
Height
Altura (mm)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-45
Perfil
Soldadura
Matriz
Lmites de esquinas
TOP
1
E1
E2
14
FPD
FPT
13
E4
12
11
10
E3
BOTTOM
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distancia
Distance (mm)
t=0s
t=0.233s
t=0.583s
t=0.934s
554
The results included in Table 2 show a very good agreement between the radius values obtained by simulation
and the measured ones, except for tests 4 and 6. Regarding
the tube thickness, in Table 3 it is shown that the simulation values are slightly higher than the measured ones.
Metal Forming
Table 2. Radius comparison.
Conclusions
In this paper the fundamentals of the Applasting process
for producing hardened formed UHSS tubes were addressed. The 3D simulation with the software LS-Dyna
was validated by comparison of final radius and thicknesses with the tubes formed during the experimental
Applasting tests performed at Tecnalia facilities. For a
target rectangular geometry of 30mm x 70 mm it was
possible to obtain an external radius of 3.5 mm using an
internal tube pressure of only 2 MPa. The hardness obtained using cooling water channels in the die for quenching the boron alloyed steel tube reached the value of 1530
MPa.
The Applasting technology is a promising method for
producing body-in-white components, obtaining tubular
hardened parts that allow the desired thickness reduction
in order to decrease car weight. Further studies will be
devoted to produce an industrial part. Target parts for this
technology are, among others, A-Pillars, bumpers, rails
and rear axles.
Process Control
Acknowledments
References
[1] R. Neugebauer, et.al.: CHS2 Congress (2009), Lulea, Sweden.
[2] Patent JP 2003-154415, Aisin Takaoka (2003).
[3] J.I. Zarazua, L. Vadillo, M.A. Gutierrez, V. Uthaisangsuk: IFU Congress (2008), Stuttgart, Germany.
[4] I. Aranguren, M. Santos, S. Varela, B. Gonzlez, B. Fernndez: CHS2
Congress (2009), Lulea, Sweden.
555
Metal Forming
2)
Institut fr Werkstofftechnik,
The qualities of products depend on properties of the semi finished goods used for their production. Therefore the production of the half
finished products is part of the process chain. In tube forming processes, the making of the tube is consequentially influencing the properties of the finished product. A two stage forming process consisting of a modified U-O forming of the tube and subsequent radial draw bending is used to optimize the fatigue properties of the resulting product e.g. a cross tube bar of a trailer coupling made of metastable austenitic
stainless steel. The fatigue properties are optimized by controlling the amount of deformation-induced martensite in the forming process.
Investigations were made using laboratory experiments as well as theoretical calculations in order to quantify the dependencies among
fatigue behaviour, strains and martensite formation based on the individual phases of the forming operations.
Keywords: Process chain analysis, Radial draw bending, Austenitic stainless steel, Deformation-induced martensite, Fatigue properties
Introduction
Mostly, products made using forming technologies are
produced in complex process chains. To predict the properties of these products, it is necessary to analyse the entire
process chain. The study presented deals with the discontinuous manufacture process of a tube by means of a
modified U-O method, as well as the rotational draw bending of the tube, Figure 1. This two step process is aimed at
the production of a cross tube of a trailer coupling as an
example of a cyclically loaded component. While forming
metastable austenitic stainless steels, a diffusionless phase
transformation from austenite to martensite induced
by plastic deformation can occur. Because of the strengthening effect of the martensite phase, this transformation
can be used to enhance the monotonic and cyclic strength
properties of a structural part while forming it. The susceptibility of the austenite phase to undergo a transformation
depends on the amount of plastic deformation, the strainrate and the temperature in the forming process as well as
on the chemical composition of the material. Therefore, in
this study a closed-loop control of the relevant process
variables is established to obtain accurate amounts of
martensite and hence to establish the requested mechanical
properties.
Process Chain
The product is a tube bend made by a complex process
chain including the following production procedures:
U-forming (stretching) and cutting flanges
O-forming and welding
radial draw bending of the tube
The forming operations of the process chain are shown
schematically in Figure 1.
For a reliable prediction of the Very High Cycle Fatigue
(VHCF) behaviour, the relation between the number of
cycles to failure and the corresponding stress amplitude
related to the martensite percentage has to be investi556
Metal Forming
tensile strains. The measured strain distributions are
shown in Figure 3.
(app. 35 %). The calculations where carried out with constant blank holder force of 480 kN resulting in an initial
contact normal pressure of 15 N/mm. Hence, a closedloop control with the blank holder force as actor and the
travel-in sensors signals as inputs allow to control the
strains as a function of the stroke of the punch.
Although the effective true strains are very similar, measurements of the martensite fraction gave a bigger martensite percentage in the area of the intrados. The smallest
amount was detected in the region of the neutral fibre. The
measuring points are shown in Figure 4, and the results
are given in Table 1.
Process Chain Control. The process chain control program needs to be connected to two databases. One contains the relations between the martensite fractures and
strains depending on strain paths. The other one contains
the strains and strain paths in dependence of the bending
conditions.
Martensitic Transformation and Fatigue Behaviour
Modeling of Martensite Formation and Mechanical
Behavior in Austenitic Stainless Steel (AISI304). For a
closed-loop control of the martensite content it is indispensable to define a quantitative relationship between
process parameters (mainly strain and temperature) and
the martensite content. Many models are available in the
literature to describe the formation of martensite in forming processes, e.g. [1-5]. Most of these models are based
solely on empirical observations and few of them are
based on physical mechanisms. In the present study the
Tomita/Iwamoto model (TI model) [6] is used. It is based
on a microstructural mechanism and is therefore believed
to offer a broader validity than empirical models. It calculates the rate of martensite formation from the actual shear
band volume fraction. Here the expression shear bands
sums up microstructural defects such as stacking faults,
twin boundaries and martensite. Many TEM studies of
deformation-induced martensite showed that martensite
nucleates primarily at intersections of these shear bands
[7,8]. The TI model assumes that the number of new martensite embryos depends on the number of shear band intersections and the number of shear band intersection
again is calculated from the actual shear band volume.
Two material dependent quantities are needed for the
model: the rate of shear band formation SB and the probability p that a martensite embryo is formed at a shear
band intersection. Both quantities are assumed here to be a
function of the temperature. The probability p is assumed
to be also a function of the martensite content, based on
the idea that a shear band intersection can show less optimal crystallographic and chemical properties for a martensitic transformation with increasing martensite content.
After fitting the unknown constants in the model to experimental data from tensile tests with online martensite
and temperature measurements, the model allowed to
calculate the martensite contents at different strain rates
557
Metal Forming
-40C, 0.5%/s
experiment
calculated
0.8
0C, 0.5%/s
0.7
0.6
10C, 0.5%/s
0.5
0.4
23C, 0.05%/s
0.3
0.1
23C, 2%/s
10
20
30
40
50
plastic engineering strain
60
70
w0
= R p 0 , 2% (T )
0
(2)
(3)
Here m is the strain rate sensitivity coefficient, is the
strain rate and Rp0,2% is the 0.2% proof stress. Two constants had to be fitted to experimental data. All other constants are known from literature or known material properties. The calculated flow stress for the phase mixture
(+) in comparison to the experimental data for a tensile
test is shown in Figure 8. A good accordance between
calculated and experimental stress-strain curves like in
Figure 8 can be found for all tensile tests with specimen
temperatures between 0 and 75 C. At tensile tests
at -40C the model overestimates the flow stress, what
may be due to the formation of the softer martensite
phase. The model enables to quantify the strengthening
effect of the martensite phase as the difference between
the flow stress in a (hypothetical) purely austenitic phase
from the flow stress in the phase mixture + (see
Figure 8). According to the model used, the strengthening
effect of the martensite phase is small at low martensite
volume fractions.
558
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
0.5 %/s 0C
0,1
0,2
0,3
true plastic strain
10
0
0,4
0
0
100
'+ (measured)
'+ (calculated)
(calculated)
martensite (measured)
23C, 0.5%/s
0.2
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
martensite [vol-%]
1
0.9
Since the rotational draw bending process leads to a deformation perpendicular to the U-O forming, tensile tests
were carried out by deforming test specimens in two directions perpendicular to each other. They showed a considerable decrease in the rate of martensite formation after the
change of the direction of deformation. This behavior is
attributed to the fact, that regions with a high amount of
shear band intersections that were formed in one direction
might not be favorably oriented for a martensitic transformation under load in the perpendicular direction. It is
therefore reasonable to assume that only a portion of the
shear band volume that is formed in one direction is relevant for the martensite formation in the perpendicular
direction. Assuming different volume fractions of shear
band and martensite volume fractions showed that for a
volume fraction of 57% formed in the first deformation
step the aforementioned model results in a very good prediction of the experimental results for the martensite formation
Fatigue Behavior Depending on Martensite Content.
In order to determine the optimal martensite content concerning the High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) and the VHCF
properties fatigue tests were carried out with specimens of
different martensite contents and different subsequent
predeformation conditions. Specimens were fatigued either undeformed or monotonically predeformed in one or
two (perpendicular) directions. The one direction predeformed specimens were strained up to a true strain of 0.14
at two start temperatures resulting in two different martensite phase fractions (27 and 54 vol-%). The two step predeformed specimens were strained up to different strains,
resulting again in the same two different martensite fractions (again 27 and 54 vol-%). For the fatigue experiments
the following testing systems were used: a resonance pulsation system (Rumul Testronic) operating at ~90 Hz and
an ultrasonic test system (BOKU, Vienna) working at a
frequency of ~20 kHz. All fatigue experiments were executed fully reversed in load control with active cooling by
compressed air. Because of the transient material behaviour, the ultrasonic fatigued specimens were first cycled up
to cyclic saturation with the resonance pulsation system,
where a constant load amplitude can be guaranteed despite
of strong cyclic softening and hardening processes. All
fatigue specimens were electrochemically polished. More
experimental details can be found in [10].
In Figure 9, the results of the fatigue experiments in the
undeformed and one direction deformed condition are
shown. Resonance pulsating specimens (90 Hz) were
denoted as run-outs at 108 cycles and ultrasonic specimens
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
V ' = 54 vol-%
V ' = 27 vol-%
V ' = 0, undeformed
empty symbols:
f ~ 90 Hz
crossed symbols:
f ~ 20kHz
HCF VHCF
= run out
10
10
10
cycles
10
10
Figure 9. S-N curves for one-step deformed specimens with different martensite contents.
Metal Forming
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
V' = 54 Vol-%
V' = 27 Vol-%
= run out
5
10
10
10
10
10
cycles
Figure 10. S-N curves for two-step deformed specimens with
different martensite contents.
Conclusions
1. Examination of the process chain showed, that the strain
distributions in the tube bending procedures are widely
determined by the geometry of the bow.
2. Hence, to control the process chain means to control the
properties of the tube to be bent.
3. The influence of the O-forming process is small and can
be neglected.
4. The U-forming process offers the possibility to control
the strain distribution with respect to the circumference
of the tube to be produced. Therefore, the draw in of the
blank is measured and the friction force under the blank
holder is used as actuator.
5. Microstructure-based approaches for modelling the martensite formation and mechanical properties in forming
processes were presented.
6. It was shown that cyclically loaded sheet metal structures made of metastable austenitic stainless steel
should not contain a martensite fraction above 27 vol-%
for optimal HCF and VHCF properties and an acceptable notch sensitivity.
7. Flow stress, the direction or the amount of predeformation are not determining the HCF and VHCF behaviour,
but the martensite content.
The authors wish to thank the German Research Foundation (DFG) for the funding of this project.
References
[1] G.B. Olson, M. Cohen: Metall. Trans A, 6A (1975), 791.
[2] T. Tsuta, J.A. Cortes: JSME International Journal, 36- 1 (1993) 63-72.
[3] A. Hnsel: doctorate thesis, ETH Zrich, Switzerland (1998).
[4] B. Springub, B.-A. Behrens, E. Doege: Steel Research Int., 75-5
(2004), 475-482.
[5] M. Onyuna, H. Oettel, U. Martin, A. Wei: Advanced Engineering
Materials, 6-7 (2004), 529-535.
[6] Y. Tomita, T. Iwamoto: International Journal of Mechanical Science
37-12 (1995), 1295-1305.
[7] K. Spencer, J.D. Embury, K.T. Conlon, M. Veron, Y. Brechet: Materials Science and Engineering A, 387-389 (2004), 873-881.
[8] A. Das, S. Sivaprasad, M. Ghosh, P.C. Chakraborti, S. Tarafder:
Materials Science and Engineering A, 486-1-2 (2008), 283-286.
[9] A. Perlade, O. Bouaziz, Q. Furnemont: Materials Science and Engineering A, 356-1-2 (2003), 145-152.
[10] C. Mller-Bollenhagen, M. Zimmermann, H.-J. Christ: Proc. 10th
International Fatigue Congress FATIGUE 2010, to be published in
Procedia Engineering, submitted.
[11] C. Mller-Bollenhagen, M. Zimmermann, H.-J. Christ: International
Journal of Fatigue, 32 (2010), 936-42.
559
Metal Forming
Investigation of Pressure Path Effect on Thickness Distribution of Product in Hydroforming Process of SS316L Seamless Tubes
Hasan Khanlari1), Majid Elyasi2), Mohammad Bakhshi-Jooybari2), Abdolhamid Gorji2), Behnam Davoodi1), Ghorban
2)
Mohammad Alinegad
1)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Tabriz University, Tabriz / Iran; 2) Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of
Technology, P. O. Box 484, Babol, Mazandaran / Iran, elyasima@yahoo.com
Tube hydroforming has been widely used in industry to manufacture hollow components. Thickness uniformity is one of the key factors that
affect the performance of hydroformed parts. Pressure path is one of the effective parameters on thickness distribution in hydroforming
process. In this paper, the effect of pressure path on thickness distribution of product in tube hydroforming was studied by finite element
simulation and experiment. It is concluded that by increasing the pressure, the tube thinning increases in expansion area and the tube
thickening decreases in feeding area. In the wrinkled parts, thinning in wave crest of wrinkling is more than that of wave trough.
Keywords: Tube hydroforming, Pressure path, Finite element simulation
Fixed
punch
Feeding
punch
Die
560
Fluid inlet
R3
Tube
20
Pf
10
Pi
0
Lf
20
Li
10
Axial
feeding/mm
Axial
feeding
Hydroforming Process
24
Pressure
/MPa
Pressure/MPa
Figure 1 shows the schematic of the bulge hydroforming process that was used in this paper. In this process, the
tube forms by internal fluid pressure and axial feeding.
Figure 2 shows the typical pressure path used in this research. As shown in the figure, the internal pressure increases to initial pressure (Pi), before the movement of the
feeding punch. Then, while the feeding punch moves up to
initial feeding (Li), the internal pressure increases to final
pressure (Pf). Finally, by remaining the internal pressure,
the feeding punch moves until the end of process and final
feeding (Lf). Therefore, the mentioned pressure path has
four parameters. These parameters consist of initial pressure (Pi), final pressure (Pf), initial feeding (Li) and final
feeding (Lf). From the preliminary investigations, it was
revealed that the effect of final pressure on thickness dis-
100
26
tribution of the product is more than that of the other parameters of the illustrated pressure path. Therefore, in this
paper, only the results of the effect of final pressure on
thickness distribution of product are presented.
Figure 3 shows the pressure paths that were used for investigation of the effect of final pressure (Pf) on the thickness distribution of product. The considered final pressures consist 18.5, 19, 19.5, 20 and 20.5 MPa. In all these
cases, Pi, Li and Lf were considered to be 14 MPa, 9 mm
and 20 mm, respectively.
Pressure
/MPa
Pressure
Introduction
20
16
.Pf. 20.5MPa
.Pf. 20MPa
.Pf.19.5MPa
.Pf. 19MPa
.Pf.18.5MPa
12
8
4
0
0
12
16
20
Metal Forming
Experimental Procedure
The die was mounted on a universal testing machine with
a capacity of 600kN. A hydraulic unit was used to produce
internal pressure and the maximum internal pressure could
be set to 35MPa. Hydraulic oil was used as forming media.
The working pressure was regulated by a pressure regulator valve. An optical profile projector and an ultrasonic
thickness meter were used for measuring of the profile and
the thickness distribution of the parts, respectively. Tube
tension tests were performed for determination of mechanical properties of the tube. The mechanical properties
and dimensions of the initial tubes are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Material properties of tube.
Density, Kg/m3
8000
192
Poisson's ratio, v
0.3
260
= 1650 0.58
250
0.5
26
Tube
Die
Distance from tube center /mm Distance from tube center /mm
Small wrinkle
20
Wave trough
15
Wave crest
10
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
20
15
10
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
20
15
10
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
Small wrinkle
20
15
10
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
20
15
10
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
561
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 6. Deformed parts obtained from experiment for Pf = (a)
18.5, (b) 20 and (c) 20.5 MPa.
562
Simulation
Expriment
20
15
10
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
Metal Forming
19
18
17
16
15
18.5
19
19.5
20
Pressure /MPa
Figure 8. Bulge radius of part at center of expansion area obtained
from simulation.
Expansion area
Right half
Left half
0.55
Feeding area
0.45
0.35
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
Part thickness
thickness /mm
/mm
Part
Partthickness
thickness /mm
/mm
Part
Partthickness
thickness /mm
/mm
Part
(a)
0.55
0.45
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
225
250
(b)
0.55
0.45
0.35
75
100
125
150
175
200
0.55
0.45
non-uniformity
0.35
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
Non-uniformity of thickness
distribution /mm
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
18.5
0.45
0.35
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
Conclusions
50
0.55
Tt
Tc
0.35
Simulation
Experiment
Wave trough
Wave crest
Part thickness
thickness/mm
/mm
Part
Part thickness
thickness /mm
Metal Forming
19
Pressure /MPa
19.5
0.46
0.45
0.44
0.43
0.42
18.5
19
19.5
20
Pressure /MPa
Figure 11. Average thickness of part in expansion area obtained
from simulation.
563
Metal Forming
School of Automotive, Industrial and Mechanical Engineering, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk / Korea, mvksh@daegu.ac.kr;
Components Service Center, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Gwangju / Korea
2)
Automotive
Process design is carried out for a press forming of a coupled torsion beam axle in the rear suspension assembly based on the result of the
finite element analysis. The analysis simulates the two-stages stamping process with the initial design and it fully reveals the unfavourable
mechanism which develops inferiorities during forming. In this paper, a new design guideline is proposed to modify the process and tool
shapes for a single-stage forming process. With the improved tool design, prototypes are fabricated after several try-out processes. Results
of the durability tests show that the design requirement of the part is satisfied and the effective weight reduction is achieved.
Keywords: Tool design, Coupled torsion beam axle, Tube press forming, Finite element analysis, Durability
Introduction
Today's automobile technologies focus on development
of stronger lightweight materials such as high-strength
steel, structural foam, aluminum and magnesium alloys as
well as the development of the forming process of members using new techniques such as hydroforming, hot press
forming, the tailor-welded blank, etc.
This paper deals with stamping process design of the
coupled torsion beam axle (CTBA), which plays the role
of a rear cross member in small sized sedans and is a part
of the vehicle's rear suspension assembly. Instead of press
forming with a 5 to 6 mm single thick plate into a V-beam
shape to be used in small sedans, a new method is currently developing to manufacture the axle as an all-in-one
part by deforming the cross section from a hollow tube
through tube press forming, as shown in Figure 1. This
method reduces the weight of the axle by 10-20% compared to products made of the single thick plate. Tubular
products are currently manufactured by a two-stage press
forming process[1,2] or by a hydroforming process[3,4].
Kim[5] tried to develop the tube forming process for coupled torsion beam axle with the finite element analysis, but
the shape defect was not successfully eliminated.
This paper uses a finite element analysis to develop a die
design for tubular coupled torsion beam axle products. The
problems of the initial design are identified through the
analysis and a guideline for the modified design is then
suggested. This paper proposes a die design in which products can be made through a single-stage forming process
in order to reduce the number of processes and costs compared to the conventional method. A prototype is fabricated based on the modification guidelines for the die
design and durability performances of the prototype are
564
Metal Forming
(a) A-A'
(b) B-B'
(c) C-C'
(d) D-D'
Figure 7. Shape of cross sections of tools and tube with initial
design after OP10 stage.
(a) Stroke =
(b) Stroke =
(c) Stroke =
(d) Final stroke
77.1mm
89.8mm
100 mm
Figure 8. Subsequent deformed shape of cross sections C-C'
according to punch stroke with initial design during OP10 stage.
565
Metal Forming
(a) A-A'
(b) B-B'
(c) C-C'
(d) D-D'
Figure 12. Finite element model of tube and tools with modified
design.
(a) Stroke =
(b) Stroke =
(c) Stroke =
(d) Final stroke
32.6mm
67.5mm
100.2 mm
Figure 14. Subsequent deformed shapes of tube according to
punch stroke with modified design.
into the desired shape. Figure 9 illustrates the final deformed shapes of the cross sections after the second forming stage. It is confirmed from the figures that the shape
defect that appears in the first stage remains within the
torsion region and the intermediate region.
The design issues found in the initial design can be categorized as follows:
(1) The tube is not fixed when it is fed to the lower die
at the early stages of forming and it deforms simultaneously as it moves down together with the movement of the
punch, which makes stable forming difficult.
(2) When deformation of the tube proceeds as the punch
comes in contact with the tube, the plug is not sufficiently
inserted into the tube and causes a shape defect such as the
floating phenomena at the intermediate region.
(3) The width of the punch and the die is smaller than
the maximum width of the outermost region of the tube,
which is expanded due to deformation and leads to early
contact and unfavourable reverse bending during forming.
This causes shape defects such as buckling and collapse of
the tube at the torsion region and the lower part of the
intermediate region.
(1) The side part of the lower die is open in the latitudinal direction before the forming process and moves
inside to serve as a pad simultaneously as the punch
moves down. Figure 10 illustrates the relative motions of
the die and the tube in the modified design. Cam mechanisms are adopted to synchronize the motions of the die
components in order to effectively control the movement
of the punch and the relative motions with other die components. The tube settles on the bottom of the lower die
before forming because the pad on the side part of the
lower die is wide open in the latitudinal direction. The pad
moves toward the inside along the latitudinal direction
during forming and ensures that the width of the final
product is formed to satisfy the specified dimension.
(2) The motion of the plug is also synchronized with the
punch and thus the plug starts to be inserted into the tube
before the punch contacts with the tube, thereby avoiding
any shape defect.
(3) By increasing the width of the punch and the pad, the
modified design avoids early contact and unfavourable
reverse bending as well as the existence of excess metal
due to a lack of forming space.
566
Metal Forming
(a) Stroke =
(b) Stroke =
(c) Stroke = (d) Final stroke
32.6mm
67.5mm
100.2 mm
Figure 16. Subsequent deformed shape of cross section E-E
according to punch stroke with modified design.
567
Metal Forming
State Key Laboratory of Rolling and Automation, Northeastern University, 3-11 Wenhua Road, Shenyang / China, zhangzicheng9068
@yahoo.com.cn; 2) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1 Minami-Osawa, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo / Japan
The TRIP steel tube is a new kind of high-strength steel tube expected to be used in the hydroforming process. It has a good combination
of strength and elongation in the axial direction. In order to study the hydroformability of the TRIP steel tube, firstly, its circumferential mechanical properties should be made clear. The ring tensile test is an effective method for obtaining the true stress vs. true strain curve and
the anisotropy coefficient value (r-value) of tube in the circumferential direction. In this study, a new kind of ring tensile test equipment was
developed to investigate the circumferential mechanical properties of the TRIP steel tube. According to the geometrical and mechanical
relationships, the instantaneous load along the circumferential direction can be obtained. The instantaneous vertical distance of the gauge
section bob point is measured by an optical camera. The instantaneous gauge section length can be calculated by the instantaneous vertical distance according to the geometrical relationships. To confirm the reliability of this method, the simulation of the ring tensile test was
carried out. By analyzing the true stress vs. true strain curve used in the simulation process and the one obtained by calculation using this
method with simulation results, it was found that they agree to each other very well. It means that this method is reliable. As a result, the
true stress vs. true strain curve of the TRIP steel tube in the circumferential direction was obtained. By the strain grids, the r-value was also
obtained.
Keywords: Circumferential mechanical properties, TRIP steel tube, Ring tensile test, Anisotropy coefficient value, Seamless tube
Introduction
Recently, in order to meet the weight and safety requirements in automotive industry, the steels with higher
strength and better formability were receiving an increasing attention. The transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)
steel is one of the appropriate steels to meet these goals for
its good combination of high strength and toughness [1-4].
On the other hand, using the hollow structures made from
the tubes with special forming process, such as hydroforming process, replacing the solid or welding ones is one
effective way to reduce the vehicle weight. Considering
these two factors, Zhu et al. [5] developed the seamless
TRIP steel tube. This TRIP steel tube is expected to be
used in the hydroforming process, which exhibits a high
strength and total elongation in the axial direction. In order
to investigate the hydroformability of the TRIP steel tube,
its mechanical properties in the circumferential direction
should be firstly made clear.
A ring tensile test is one of the tests to obtain the hoop
tensile properties of tube-shaped structures with a ring
specimen [6]. To reduce the bending moment, Arsene and
Bai [7] proposed a central piece-inserted ring tensile specimen. Referring to Arsenes ring specimen [8], Bae et al.
[9] suggested the load-displacement conversion relationship of ring specimen (LCRR) to easily conduct a ring
tensile test. Bong-Kook Bae et al. [6] investigated the
effects of the clearance, notch and size of a ring specimen
on the LCRR by finite element analysis. However, until
now, there are rare researchers focusing on directly acquiring the true stress vs. true strain curve and the anisotropy
coefficient value (r-value) of the tube in the circumferential direction by ring tensile test. In the present study, a
new kind of ring tensile test equipment was successfully
developed to obtain the true stress vs. true strain curve and
r-value of the tube in the circumferential direction. A new
set of devices similar to the one developed by Arsen et al.
568
[8] and new designed specimen were successfully fabricated. According to the geometrical and mechanical relationships, the strain and stress in the circumferential direction were calculated. To confirm the reliability of this
method, the simulation of the ring tensile test was also
carried out. As a result, the true stress vs. true strain curve
of the TRIP steel tube in the circumferential direction was
obtained. By the strain grids, r-value was also obtained.
Experiment
Experimental Equipment and Material. The schematic of the equipment and specimen is shown in Figure 1
and the specification of them was listed in Table 1. The
chemical composition and mechanical properties in the
axial direction such as ultimate tensile strength (UTS),
yield strength (YS) and total elongation (EL) of the TRIP
steel tube are given in Table 2. The ring tensile test was
carried out with a constant velocity of 2.5mm/min at room
temperature using a conventional tensile testing machine
equipped with the ring tensile test devices, as Figure 2
shows. A spray-type lubricant composed of PTFE and
organic molybdenum was used. The ring tensile test devices and the specimen were assumed as a symmetry along
X and Y axis and a mirror symmetry through the plane
perpendicular to Y axis and centered on X axis. Figure 3
shows the half geometrical model of ring tensile test. The
instantaneous load along the circumferential direction was
obtained according to the geometrical and mechanical
relationships. The instantaneous vertical distance of the
gauge section bob point was measured by an optical camera. The instantaneous gauge section length was obtained
by calculation with the instantaneous vertical distance
according to the geometrical relationships. The anisotropy
coefficient (r-value) was calculated by the strain grids
preinscribed on the outside surface of the specimen.
Metal Forming
dp
Camera
Central bracing
dc
L
Ring
specimen
Pin
(b)
(a)
Figure 2. Tensile test machine equipped with ring tensile test devices.
Values / mm
21.5
1.5
10
33
6.25
10
0.15
0.2
T1
T2
Si
0.15
1.34
Table 2. Chemical composition and mechanical properties in axial direction of TRIP steel tube.
Mn
P
S
Al
Nb
Ti
UTS
YS
EL
1.44
0.009
0.004
0.04
0.029
0.024
650 MPa
300 MPa
34.4%
0.23
0.74
(3)
T1 / T2 = e ,
- RA R 2 A2 - ( A2 + B 2 ) ( R 2 - B 2 )
0
0
0
0
0
0
, (5)
= arccos
2
2
A0 + B0
where A0 = R + D sin(90 / 2) ,
B0 = D cos(90 / 2) .
569
Metal Forming
variable numbers, therefore, the average stress in the
gauge section can be obtained.
Determination of Strain. As is well known, in a conventional tensile test the gauge section of the specimen is
straight; the gauge section instantaneous length can be
measured directly by an extensometer during the test.
However, in the ring tensile test the gauge section is
crooked, so it is difficult being measured by an extensometer directly. In this study, the instantaneous vertical distance (L) of the gauge section end pints was measured by
an optical extensometer with a camera during the tensile
test, as Figure 2 shows. According to the geometrical relationships shown in Figure 3, the gauge section length was
calculated with the vertical distance of the gauge section
end pints.
According to the geometrical relationship shown in Figure 3, the following equation can be obtained.
l = 2 ( BN + BP),
(6)
(b)
(a)
1mm
1mm
1mm
Ring
specimen
X
X
Z
Y
can be obtained.
(7)
BP = R / 180 ,
BP
BN =
) (
sin ( ) 2
Pin
Specimen
Figure 4. FE simulation model of ring tensile test.
570
3 = arcsin( 3 R ) arcsin( 2 R ) , ,
n = arcsin( n R ) arcsin( n 1 R ) .
(10)
L1 = 1 R , L2 = 2 R , L1 = 3 R , ,
(11)
Ln = n R = (arcsin( n R ) arcsin( n 1 R )) R .
Metal Forming
Results
Original curve
Calculated curve
of
TRIP
steel
Parameter
Values
638 MPa
325 MPa
30%
1315
0.34
Anisotropy exponent r
0.79
tube
in
Conclusions
For the purpose of investigating the circumferential mechanical properties of the TRIP steel tube, a set of new
devices for ring tensile test was successfully fabricated. In
order to reduce the influence of friction on the final result,
one method for calculating the stress and strain was developed and its accuracy was also verified by FE simulation.
The main conclusions of this study were summarized as
follows.
1. The true stress vs. true strain curve and r-value of the
TRIP steel tube in the circumferential direction were
successfully obtained.
2. The devices for ring tensile test and the calculation
method of stress and strain developed in this study can
be used to investigate the circumferential properties of
the tube.
Acknowledgements
True strain
Figure 6. Comparison of calculated true stress vs. true strain
curve and original one.
References
True strain
Figure 7. True stress vs. true strain curve of TRIP steel tube in
circumferential direction.
[1] X.D. Wang, B.X. Hung, L. Wang, Y.H. Rong: Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions A, 39A-1 (2008), 1-7.
[2] B.C. De Cooman: Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials
Science, 8-3-4 (2004), 285-303
[3] E.V. Pereloma, I.B. Timokhina, K.F. Russell, M.K. Miller: Scripta
Materialia, 54 (2006), 471-476.
[4] K.I. Sugimoto, T. Muramatsu, S.I. Hashimoto, Y. Mukai: Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 177-1-3 (2006), 390-395.
[5] F.X. Zhu, Z.C. Zhang, L.Q. Chen, K. Manabe J.L. Xue: Proc. Int.
Conf. on Tube hydroforming (2009), 62-66.
[6] B.K. Bae, S.K. Cho, C.S. Seok: Materials Science and Engineering A,
483-484 (2008), 248-250
[7] S. Arsene, J. Bai: Journal of Testing and Evaluation, 26-1 (1998), 2630.
[8] B.K. Bae, J.M. Koo, C.S. Seok: Transactions of the Korean Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 29-7 (2005), 555-562.
[9] C.S. Seok, B.K. Bae, J.M. Koo, J.S. Park, Y. Huh: Key Engineering
Materials, 297-300 (2005), 440-445.
[10] Z.C. Zhang, K. Manabe, F.X. Zhu, M. A. Mirzai, T.H. Li: Proc. Int.
Conf. on Tube hydroforming, (2009), 95-100.
571
Metal Forming
Development of 4-way Pipe Stress Reduction Machine for Improved Submerged Arc
Welding Pipe Dimensional Accuracy and Reduced Residual Stress
Dong-Hak Kim1), Man-Bin Moon1), Hyo-Sub Kim1), Dong-Choon Hur2), Jea-WooYang2)
1)
HYUNDAI HYSCO Technical Center, 265, Yeompo-dong, Buk-gu, Ulsan / Korea, dhkim@hysco.com;
Onsan-eup, Ulju-kun, Ulsan / Korea
2)
This paper deals with development of a 4-way press stress reduction machine to improve dimension accuracy of submerged arc welding
pipes. FEA simulation was used to verify therotetical machine capacity because pushing distance and pressing force are main factors
deciding machine capacity. The 4-way pipe stress reduction machine has four tools surrounding the pipe and pressed against the pipe by a
hydraulic press. Pushing results in improved pipe roundness and less residual stress can be achieved because of the Bauschinger effect. If
the pipe has less residual stress, cut sections rarely suffer distortion and high dimensional accuracy can be obtained without any pipe loss.
In addition to dimensional accuracy, this machine does not require any washing equipment such that both installation space and cost can
be reduced. Dimensional accuracy and residual stress were evaluated by FEA simulation and these results were compared to prototyping
parts.
Keywords: 4-way pipe stress reduction machine, Submerged arc welding pipe, FEA simulation
Introduction
Submerged arc welding pipes have been widely used in
oil & gas carriers, maritime structures, architectural industries and plumbing throughout the world. However, this
type of pipe has shortcomings associated with dimensional
accuracy and residual stress because of plastic deformation
and the effects of welding heat. Therefore, pipe makers
have used sizing process after bending and welding
processes. However, the conventional sizing process is
limited in terms of dimensional accuracy and removal of
residual stress requires a huge installation cost and causes
environmental problems. Accordingly, this paper deals
with an economically efficient sizing process which can
further reduce residual stress and obtain higher dimensional accuracy. A manufacturing process for Submerged
Arc Welding pipe is shown in Figure 1. Normally, blank
length is about 6 meter at mass production and width depends on target pipe size. Both blank edges are cut using
edge milling process to fit the target pipe diameter and to
provide a better surface for welding. After edge milling,
the blank is bent into a round pipe during a bending process. There are generally two methods to bend pipe: roll
bending and press bending. In the paper, only press bending is considered because pre-sizing processes are concerned as references to simulate the resultant stress and
roundness of sizing. Post bending helps that the blank
improves roundness of both edges to achieve superior
weld quality because press bending is limited to bending
of blank edges. During these bending processes, stress is
applied to the blank due to work hardening and plastic
deformation. The bent blank, after press bending and post
bending process, is tightened to remove the gap between
both blank edges during Submerged Arc Welding. It is
tack welding process. Normally, this process gives high
temperature to melt pipe and welding wire it remains residual stress and distortion for bent blank. Such as, residual stress and deformation should be removed to obtain
dimensional accuracy and maintain roundness after cutting.
After sizing, pipe should be evaluated though ultrasonic
and radiation test methods.
572
(e) Sizing
Metal Forming
quired to adjust the press location according to material
properties and roundness. Adjustment of the press location
must be performed by an operator because pipe deformation is occasionally changed by material properties and
roundness. Accordingly, high productivity and roundness
accuracy cannot be obtained. Furthermore, irregular residual stress distribution occurs in connection with contact
position of the tools. However, the O-ing sizing machine
dose not require and cleaning process because scales do
not remain scratches and defects on the pipe surface. Accordingly, installation cost is relatively lower than with a
full body cold expansion machine.
Material
Properties
Pipe Size
Yield stress
Tensile stress
Diameter
Thickness
542.9 MPa
621.0 MPa
762mm
11.1t
w Gw
s y
XXUX
Yt
z Gt
XX^_U`G
dGO O ZWY\U[PTXXUXPVY
w GZW
_W
To obtain the advantage of both the full body cold expansion machine and O-ing sizing machine, we introduce
a 4-way pipe stress reduction machine shown in Figure
2(C). This machine has four tools outside of the pipe that
simultaneously apply equal pressing force to the pipe,
reducing residual stress as well as pipe diameter. This
machine doesnt need any pipe cleaning equipment and
can easily be automated so that installation costs are considerably lower than with the full body cold expansion
machine and productivity is much higher than with the Oing sizing machine. After sizing, a pipe roundness about
0.45-1.2% is obtained.
X[
Y[W
XW\
|TzG
vGi
iGGGG
GGG
GG
573
Metal Forming
roll compress the edge of the blank which is deformed
again to improve welding condition.
iGGwGi
mGaXtV
| y
nGy
s Gy
i G GwGi
m GaXt VG
z GyGX\WG
z yGYWW
nGy
Sizing Process Modeling and Simulation Using 4Way Pipe Stress Reduction Machine. A sizing process is
necessary to improve the roundness and to remove the
residual stress, as shown in Figure 10. This process has
four tools positioned around the pipe which press the outer
surface of the pipe with proper force. This force is also
calculated by LS_Dyna 971 as well as sizing depth. Tools
are placed around the pipe and push to 1 or 2 mm above
the target diameter. While the tools push the pipe, roundness of the pipe is adjusted and residual stress is changed
as shown in Figures 11 and 12. According to pushing
depth, roundness accuracy and residual stress, after pushing force is released, are slightly different even though
final residual stresses of both conditions are same as 100
MPa shown in Figure 12 and Table 2. Accordingly, pushing depth should be adjusted to achieve higher roundness
accuracy and diameter. Furthermore, diameter of the pipe,
before sizing, should be adjusted related to shrink size.
| wGwOmP
z wGw
z wGw
s wGwOmP
574
Figure 10. FEA simulation model for sizing with 4-way pipe stress
reduction machine with sizing depth 2 mm (Tools push 22 mm).
Metal Forming
Table 2. FEA simulation result of sizing process (Press force of
1000 ton).
Resultant stress (Mpa)
Sizing
Depth
Before
Sizing
1mm
350 ~ 470
2mm
Roundness
(%)
After
sizing
100
0.0 ~ 1.4
100
0.1 ~ 1.0
Post
sizing
Diameter
(Max,mm)
Diameter
(min,mm)
Deviation
(M-m)
Rate(%)
Diameter
(Max,mm)
Diameter
(min,mm)
Deviation
(M-m)
Rate(%)
Post
cutting
Diameter
(Max,mm)
Diameter
(min,mm)
Deviation
(M-m)
Rate(%)
765.5
765.5
768.5
768.5
767.0
759.5
758.0
756.0
755.0
755.5
6.0
7.5
12.5
13.5
11.5
0.8
1.0
1.7
1.8
1.5
761.0
761.0
761.5
761.5
761.5
759.0
758.0
757.0
756.0
757.0
2.0
3.0
4.5
5.5
4.5
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.6
763.0
762.0
761.0
762.5
762.5
758.0
759.0
759.5
758.0
758.0
5.0
3.0
1.5
4.5
4.5
0.7
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.6
Conclusions
Prototyping and Roundness Check. A prototyping machine was produced and roundness was evaluated by
HYUNDAI RB. The pipe used for evaluation had a diameter of 30 inches, wall thickness of 9.5t and a length of 6M.
The pipe was cut into 1 meter sections. Pipe roundness is
shown in Table 3. After the pipe is cut, roundness accuracy is similar to post sizing roundness accuracy. some
cutting zones have better roundness accuracy than post
sizing pipe. This means that residual stress does not influence pipe roundness and residual stress normally acts
inside of the pipe so that roundness is slightly improved.
FEA simulation is used as an efficient tool for verification of a 4-way pipe stress reduction method and supplies
fundamental data. This machine achieved 3-fold increase
in press bent pipe roundness accuracy. Residual stress after
sizing has more influence upon pipe distortion so that the
pipe maintains its roundness accuracy after cutting. This is
a very important factor to decrease production costs for
suppliers and the pipe loss for customer.
References
[1] J.S. Park, D.W. Kim, Y.W. Chang: KSTP (2005), 336-339.
[2] D.C. Hur, J.W. Yang: Development of 4-way Pipe Stress Reduction
machine (2009).
[3] J.W. Yang, J.T. Lee: Residual stress evaluation for dimensional accuracy after pipe cutting (2009).
[4] API 5L: Specification for line pipe (2004), 68.
575
Metal Forming
Feasibility of Sinking with Rotary Swaging for High Pressure Gas Cylinders
Heng-Sheng Lin1), Chia-Jung Lin2), Yuan-Chuan Hsu1), Jiing-Herng Lee3), Bean-Yin Lee1), Yu-Chiang Chen4)
1)
Department of Mechanical and Computer-Aided Engineering, National Formosa University, Hu-Wei / Taiwan, hslin@nfu.edu.tw; 2) Mosa
Industrial Corporation, Hu-Wei / Taiwan; 3) Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Formosa University, Hu-Wei / Taiwan,
hslin@nfu.edu.tw; 4) Graduate Institute of Mechanical & Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Formosa University, Hu-Wei / Taiwan
The conventional forming process applies transfer dies in sinking the open end of high pressure gas cylinders. The amount of sinking deformation is divided to several forming stages to avoid fracturing on the open end and buckling on the cylinder body. Therefore, the adjustment of the transfer dies becomes complex, die parts are increased and die cost becomes expensive. Moreover, process annealing is
required to relieve the workpiece of excessive strain hardening from the preceding deep drawing process. Rotary swaging is a type of
incremental deformation. Strain hardening is minimal and its die setup is simple. In this work, tool trials and finite element simulation were
conducted to investigate the tube-end thickness, hardness distribution and effective strain of three forming sequences to evaluate the
feasibility of sinking cylinders with rotary swaging. It shows that thickness is similar from the transfer dies and rotary swaging. Hardness
tests indicate hardness level of rotary swaging is less than that of transfer dies. Sinking of rotary swaging with un-annealed preforms is
feasible and has better hardness distribution on the workpiece.
Keywords: Sinking, Rotary swaging, Transfer dies, High pressure gas cylinders
Introduction
The application of high pressure gas cylinders has become broad in the daily life. For example, cream whippers,
soda siphons and various utilities need high pressure gas
cylinders as their gas chargers to provide the needed
source of high pressure. For the sake of portability, the
volume of these gas cylinders has to be minimal and onepiece deformation process is required in order to obtain
better strength and cost economy.
The conventional forming process [1] applies transfer
dies in producing the gas cylinders as shown in Figure 1.
A circular blank is first deep-drawn with several stages to
a cylinder of large length-to-diameter ratio. The open end
of the drawn cylinder is trimmed and annealed and subsequently sunk with transfer dies. The annealing is to relieve
the workpiece of excessive strain hardening from the foregoing deep drawing process. The amount of sinking has to
be divided to several stages to avoid fracturing on the open
end and buckling on the cylinder body. Therefore, the
adjustment of transfer dies becomes complex, die parts are
increased and die cost becomes expensive.
576
Metal Forming
Results and Discussion
Sizing zone
CL
Forming zone
Thickness
(mm)
1.6
1.58
1.6
1.6
1.68
Reduction
of Area (%)
32%
33%
32%
32%
29%
Hardness. A typical hardness distribution of the sinkpreform is shown in Figure 5. The average Vickers hardness numbers, before the annealing, on the inner and outer
cylinder surface are 18013 and 17812 Hv, respectively.
While those after the annealing are 11412 and 1105 Hv,
respectively. The effective annealing zone reaches to 12
mm from the tube end.
Figures 6 and 7 show a typical hardness distribution of
sinking of transfer dies (Sequences A) and rotary swaging
(Sequences B) with annealed preforms, respectively. Hardness distribution of the annealed sink-preform on the outer
cylinder surface is also included as the baseline. Both
processes show workpiece hardness increases after sinking
and the one with rotary swaging is smaller than that with
transfer dies. This indicates the incremental forming
exhibits less strain hardening on workpiece. However, the
influence of feeding rate on hardness was insignificant.
Figure 8 shows a typical hardness distribution for sinking with an un-annealed preform (Sequence C). There is
no significant difference between the un-annealed preform
and the swaged workpiece, which indicates the feasibility
of sinking with un-annealed preform. Moreover, the subsequent cleaning can be omitted. The distribution also
shows that the variation of hardness number is less on the
outer surface than that of inner surface. This is because the
outer surface of workpiece contacts with the swaging dies,
whereas the inner surface is free of contacts. Another advantage of sinking of rotary swaging with un-annealed
preforms is that a more even hardness distribution can be
achieved. The drop in hardness near the transition between
the forming zone and cylinder body, occurred in Sequences A and B, can be avoided.
577
Metal Forming
578
Metal Forming
Conclusions
From the measurements of outlet thickness and hardness
distribution as well as DEFORM-2D simulation of the
effective strain, the following conclusions can be drawn.
1. The outlet thickness is similar in sinking with transfer
dies or rotary swaging. The thickness increases slightly
as the feeding speed decreases in rotary swaging.
2. The simulation shows that the inner surface had higher
effective strain than that of outer surface. Vickers hardness tests also indicate the hardness is greater on the inner cylinder than that of outer cylinder in sinking. Because the outer surface contacts with the swaging dies
and the inner surface is free of contacts, the variation of
hardness is less on the outer surface than that of inner
surface.
3. Hardness of rotary swaging (Sequence B) is less than
that of transfer dies (Sequence A) in sinking annealed
preform. The hardness of sinking with un-annealed preform (Sequence C) shows no significant difference between the un-annealed preform and the swaged workpiece. The results indicate the feasibility of sinking with
un-annealed preform.
4. Another advantage of sinking of rotary swaging with
un-annealed preforms is that a more even hardness
distribution can be achieved. The drop in hardness near
the transition between the forming zone and cylinder
body, occurred in Sequences A and B, can be avoided.
5. Rotary swaging provides an alternative method in sinking high pressure gas cylinders. With its advantages of
simple die design and saving the lead for annealing, the
method is an optimum process for products of high variety and low volume.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the financial support of
the National Science Council of the R.O.C. under the NFU
Contract 96AD14 and Mosa Industrial Corporation in
providing the samples.
References
[1] Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Vol. 4, 8th Edition,
(1969), 189.
[2] S.-J. Lim, H.-J. Choi, C.-H. Lee: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 209 (2009), 283-288.
[3] D. Gilroy, Tube Pipe J., 9-3 (998), 40-46.
[4] D.Y. Jang, J.H. Liou: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 74
(1998), 74-82.
579
Metal Forming
The tube bending process adding the axial pushing force has been suggested by researchers and engineers for suppression of flatness
that is the defective phenomenon of bent tubes. The authors have been considering in previous research works the mechanism of the
suppression of flatness and confirm that the flatness was successfully suppressed by the axial pushing force with sufficient pressure die
force by using steel tube. When the bending radius R0 is larger than 2.5 times of diameter d0, the flatness can be suppressed under 3.0%.
However, the effect that the difference of the initial thickness of tube in this process method is not clarified. Therefore, in the present research, FEM and experiments were conducted by changing the initial thickness of the STK590 (JIS) tube from 2.0 to 3.2 mm for a diameter
of 27.2 mm. As a result, when the axial pushing force is over 215 MPa while the initial thickness is between 2.3 and 3.2 mm, buckling occurs. When the axial pushing force is over 143 MPa while the initial thickness is 2.0 mm, wrinkle occurs and it is the limit of processing.
However, when the initial thickness of circular tube is between 2.3 and 3.2 mm while the axial force is 143 MPa, the flatness could be suppressed within 4.0% for any thickness.
Keywords: Bending, Tube bending, Draw-bending, Rotary-draw-bending, Flatness, Suppression of flatness, STK590 tube, Axial pushing
force, booster die, booster
Introduction
When a circular tube is bent under moment without constraints from tools, extrados and intrados of the bent tube
are dented in cross section while the portion vertical to the
line connecting the extrados and the intrados moves outward, and the tube is flattened. The flattening phenomena
occur because a tube is deformed so as to minimize the
necessary energy for bending. When the bent tubes are
used for the pressure piping, the flattening would lead to
degradation of fracture toughness or shortage of life time.
The cross section of the flattened tube is repeatedly deformed to a circular shape by inner pressure. The tube wall
will be subjected to repetitive tensile and compressive
stress. When tubes are used as pressure tube to transport
pressured liquid in construction machines, circularity is an
important quality to be achieved. Some bending methods
have been adopted for the suppression of flattening as
follows. (1) External force or pressure is applied on the
inner surface of the tube using oil, low-melting-point
metal and mandrel. (2) External force or pressure is applied on the outer surface of the tube using tools which
includes wiper die. (3) Axial force is applied on the tube
end by booster die [1,2]. Especially, a bending method
using a mandrel is the most effective for suppression of
flattening. However, the use of the mandrel needs knowhow on the conditions such as the special mandrel shape
and its insert position. More than anything, using the mandrel causes the increase of the cost for equipment.
In order to suppress the flattening suppression without
mandrel, the authors have been trying the mandrel-less
method that adds the axial compressive force in the axis
direction of tube during bending a tube [3-5]. The results
clarified by the previous research were mainly as follows.
I) An addition of the axial force of 30% of the tensile
strength of the tube could suppress the flatness down to
1.3% of tube diameter under the condition that thickness
ratio to diameter t0 / d0 is 8.4% and the bending radius is 3
580
#2
#1
#6
#7
#8
Fa
Fs
#9
Fs
#4
#5
Metal Forming
axial direction force Fa is applied on tube end. Axial direction force Fa and side force Fs and Fs are controlled by oil
release valve in oil cylinder.
Table 1 shows the dimension and mechanical properties
of the tube. Ordinary medium carbon steel pipe, STK590
(JIS), is selected as tube material. The tube is an electric
resistance welded (ERW) pipe. Parameters for experimental bending are shown in Table 2. Axial pushing force Pa
was determined based on the tensile strength B
(=717MPa). Accordingly, axial pushing ratio (a/B) was
from 10% (71.7/717) to 30% (215/717). A teflon-sheet
with 0.5mm thickness is inserted between the tube-outside
surface and the pressure die, for the suppression of friction
and scratch on the surface.
Fa
-100MPa
-400MPa
716.75
0.61
2241
3.2
27.2
350
-1200MPa
+700MPa
+500MPa
+300MPa
+ 100MPa
t 0=2.9mm
y /mm
0
x /mm
0
x /mm
0
x /mm
Df =
dmax dmin
(1)
d0
Dmin =
d0 dmin
(2)
d0
Dmax =
dmax d0
(3)
d0
Td =
tout tin
t0
Tmin =
t0 tin (5)
t0
Tmax =
tout t0 (6)
t0
(4)
-5
0
x /mm
0
5
x /mm
a/B=20%
-5
0
5
x /mm
a/B=20%
0
x /mm
0
x /mm
0
x /mm
a/B=20%
5 -5
5
y /mm
t 0=3.2mm
y /mm
d0
Initial tube
5 -5
a/B=0%
dmin
Bent tube
a/B=0%
-5
a/B=0%
-5
dmax
a/B=20%
5 -5
a/B=0%
-5
t 0=2.6mm
0
x /mm
y /mm
t 0=2.3mm
-5
y /mm
a/B=0%
y /mm
Outside
y /mm
Inside
y /mm
t 0=2.0mm
y /mm
y /mm
3.0
90
30.6
0, 72, 143, 215,
0, 10, 20, 30
2.0, 2.3, 2.6, 2.9, 3.2
45.9
50
0.0148
Teflon sheet
+900MPa
-800MPa
+150MPa
a/B=20%
5 -5
581
Metal Forming
0.10
Axial pushing ratio
Flatness D f
0.08
a/B=0%
0.06
Axial pushing ratio
0.04
a/B=20%
Thickness
ratio H0
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.24
0.02
0.00
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
Normalized bending radius R n
Figure 6. Effect of pushing force on flatness ratio Df during changing thickness ratio obtained by simulation.
0.10
Dmin,
0.08
a/B=0%
0.06
0.04
Dmin,
a/B=20%
0.02
Thickness
ratio H0
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.24
Dmax, a/B=0%,20%
0.00
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
Normalized bending radius R n
Thickness distribution T d
0.30
0.25
a/B=0%,
0.20
Thickness
ratio H0
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.24
0.15
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
Normalized bending radius R n
0.20
0.15
Tmax, a/B=0%
Tmin, a/B=0%
0.10
Thickness
ratio H0
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.24
Tmin, a/B=20%
0.05
0.00
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
Normalized bending radius R n
Figure 9. Effect of pushing force on the ratio of decreased thickness Tmin and the ratio of increased thickness Tmax during changing
thickness ratio obtained by simulation.
582
Metal Forming
Inside
50
() Buckling
() Success
30
20
10
0
0.12
0.17
0.27
Flatness D f
Flatness D f
60
120
-20
Thickness
ratio H0
/deg.
Mesuremen
t
Position
0.15
0.17
0.19
0.21
0.24
0
20 40 60 80 100 120
Axial mesurement position ' /
Pa= 20 %
t0=3.2mm
0.22
30
Pa= 20 %
Pa = 0 %
Thickness ratio H 0
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Pa= 20 %
t0=2.6mm
Figure 10. Forming limit with axial compressive ratio and initial
thickness.
0.18
Thickness
30 0
0.16
60
ratio H0
0.14
/deg.
0.15
120
0.12
0.17
Mesuremen
0.19
0.1
t
0.21
Position
0.08
0.24
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-20
0
20
40
60
80 100 120
Axial mesurement position ' /
Figure 11. Effect of thickness ratio on the flatness as a function of
axial pushing ratio a/B=20% by experiment.
Pa= 0 %
40
Outside
R
t0=2.0mm
0.10
D f
(X)Wrinkle
Pa = 0 %
Exp. a/B=0%
0.08
0.06
Exp. a/B=20%
0.04
FEM a/B=0%
FEM a/B=20%
0.02
0.00
0.12
0.17
0.22
0.27
H 0
Figure 14. Effect of thickness ratio on flatness Df as a function of
axial pushing force by experiment and FEM.
583
Metal Forming
Department of Mechanical Engineering & Intelligent Systems, University of Electro-Communications / Chofu, Japan, kuboki@mce.uec.ac.jp; 2) Amada Co., Ltd., Isehara / Japan; 3) Corporate R & D Laboratories, Sumitomo Metal Industries Ltd., Amagasaki /
Japan
Straightening is an important process, which is positioned at the very end of production lines in industry. Straightening determines the final
shape in longitudinal direction and cross section as well as the distribution of residual stress. In particular, rotary straightener is an effective
method with high productivity for long products of bar rods and tubes. The working conditions for the rotary straightener are usually determined based on the interpretation of technicians in practical production lines. In the present research, a complete FEM model, named "Trial
3", was built up adopting the implicit scheme for the purpose of precise estimation of tube straightening in three-stand straightener. Four
types of modeling were tried overall and comparison was made. While Trial 1, 2 and 3 adopted the implicit scheme, Trial 4 adopted the
explicit scheme. In Trial 3 of complete model, all the rolls are reproduced and no prescribed displacements are assigned just as actual
straightening. Trial 4 of explicit scheme has the same setting to Trial 3. Trial 4 of explicit scheme showed poor results and stress and strain
histories are quite different from those in the other models. Trial 1, 2 and 3 have shown similar results except a phenomenon whereby only
Trial 3 shows axial shrinkage and radial expansion.
Keywords: Straightening, Three-stand straightener, Crash, Offset, Ovality, FEM, Implicit scheme, Explicit scheme
Introduction
Tubes are widely used because of its efficiency in reducing weight with keeping high bending stiffness and torsional stiffness. Due to increasing demand for high functionality of the tube-device performance, high dimensional accuracy are required for tube material. However,
even if tubes seem straight at first glance after forming
processes of long tubes, such as tube drawing and roll
forming, warp occurs inevitably. Therefore, with the aim
of improvement of the accuracy, straightening process is
put at the final stage of the process lines [1].
The working conditions for the rotary straightener are
usually determined based on the interpretation of technicians in practical production line. As both elastic and plastic deformations coexist in tubes during straightening and
the phenomena are complicated, it is hopeful that some
theoretical approaches are applied for the clarification of
the straightening mechanism. Many research works have
been tried for this objective. Asakawa [2] and Mutrux [3]
tried to apply FEA to solid-bar straightening with deciding
the deformed shape in advance, the precision of which is
not guaranteed. Although it would be practical and precise
to some extent for solid bars, it may not be true to tubes, as
the tube would be crashed in cross section and the crashed
shape will not be determined in advance. Furugen composed a basic analysis for tube straightening considering
axial deformation at first, followed by the consideration of
cross-sectional deformation [4].
In the present research, complete FEM models have
been built up adopting the implicit scheme for the purpose
of precise estimation of tube straightening in three-stand
straightener. A model using explicit scheme has been also
composed for comparison. FEM simulations show some
complex stress distribution, which has not been observed
in basic analysis in literature. As a result of comparison
between the FEM models, the application guidelines of
each model are shown depending on the precision required
for the analysis.
584
1st stand
2nd stand
Crash C
3rd stand
Forming direction
Offset 0
Concave roll
Upper roll
Dmax
l
Lower roll
Crash c = Dmax -H
Crash c=0
c/2
Crash c > 0
c/2
Composition of Straightener
The present research focused upon three-stand rotary
straightener as it is a basic and essential composition of
tube straightener, which is shown in Figure 1. The three
stands are positioned with distance S. Each stand includes
a pair of concave rolls. Upper and lower rolls are skewed
at roll angle u and d of around 30 degrees. The pair of
rolls at the 2nd stand is displaced in vertical direction from
the straight path line connecting 1st and 3rd rolls. This
vertical displacement of the 2nd rolls is called offset o.
The gap H between the two rolls at the 2nd stand is set to
be less than tube initial diameter D0 by crash c. The rotating rollers give both transverse and rotary displacement to
the tubes. In the straightening process, the tube is bent
corresponding to the amount of offset o and crashed by c
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
at the 2nd stand. As a result of these motions, the tube will
be subjected to repetitive deformation of bending and
unbending, and crash.
Models for FEA
As a tool for evaluation of characteristics and stressstrain behaviors in rotary straightening, a couple of FEM
models have been constructed. Elastic-plastic analysis was
carried out using the commercial code ELFEN, which was
developed by Rockfield Software Limited, Swansea. Tube
was treated as elasto-plastic material, while rolls were
assumed to be rigid surfaces. A von Mises' yield criterion
was adopted, and the normality principle was applied to
the flow rule. Constraints were dealt with by the penalty
function method. The F-bar method was applied to the
hexahedra element for overcoming volumetric locking
with simple brick-type elements [5]. The Coulomb friction
rule was assumed and the coefficient of friction was
chosen as 0.1.
Figure 2 shows the constructed 4 FEM models. "Trial
3", was built up as a complete model adopting the implicit
scheme for the purpose of precise estimation of tube
straightening in three-stand straightener. Compared to
Trial 3, other models were constructed as concise models
to shorten calculation time.
Trial 1
Reaction generated
by displacement
2nd rolls
X
Tube
Z
1st rolls
Y
2nd rolls
3rd rolls
Cylinders
Trial 2
f =
Dmax D min
D0
(1)
Z
Trial 3, 4
1st rolls
Material
Thickness t/mm
Length L/mm
Initial diameter D0/mm
Mesh division, Axial
Thickness
Hoop
1.6
930
34.0
43
(Min. length = 9mm/div.)
2
43
2nd rolls
3rd rolls
X
Z
585
Metal Forming
Comparison between Models
Analytical results were compared between the four
models in order to clarify the application guidelines depending on the precision required, supposing Trial 4 as the
most precise model.
Trajectory of One Point on Surface. Figure 3 shows a
trajectory of one point on tube outer surface with lower
roll. Here, only the results for Trial 1 and Trial 3 are
shown, as the results of Trials 2 and 4 are almost the same
as that of Trial 1. The trajectory draws spiral line. The
point rotates only 2.5 times in the diagonal roll length of
200 mm. As the difference between four models is small,
either model would be applicable for the calculation of the
trajectory.
150
0
-50
Trial 1
Lower roll
-100
-150
-200
Trial 2
Trial 4
-100
-50
zZ/ mm
/ mm
50
100
150
Ovalty f
0.08
0.06
c=1.2mm
o=0.87mm
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4
f0=0
0.04
-150
-100
-50
50
100
150
Outer diameter
34.02
Trial 3
34
Trial 2
33.98
33.96
33.94
33.92
c=1.2mm
o=0.87mm Trial 1
f0=0
Trial 4
33.9
1.603
Thickness
Trial 4
Trial 3
1.602
1.601
Trial 1
Trial 2
1.6
1.599
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
150
586
34.04
0.02
0
-200
Trial 3
50
X -x/ mm
/ mm
100
Diameter and Thickness during Straightening. Figure 5 shows change of average diameter and average
thickness during straightening. In the most precise model,
Trial 3, diameter slightly increases after straightening. This
is the phenomenon. The average thickness increases after
straightening. The increase of diameter and thickness
means the shrinkage of tube length. These phenomena are
not observed in basic analysis, though they are known to
occur in actual process line. However, this amount of
differences is not practically important in terms of product
specification.
There is a difference between models. The increase of
average diameter and average thickness is only observed
by Trial 3. The diameter and thickness is quite unstable in
explicit model, Trial 4. Therefore, Trial 3 should be used
for the precise evaluation of change in diameter, thickness
and length.
Stress and Strain History during Straightening. Figure 6 shows hoop stress change during straightening on
the outer surface of the tube. This is the result analyzed by
the most precise model, Trial 3. The graph is hoop stress at
point A which contacts with upper roll at the crash area of
Z=0. As the tube is crashed at by rolls, stress peak appears
twice in the one revolution, as is predicted by basic analysis [4]. As the cross section becomes oval at the crash area,
hoop stresses at point A and C contacting rolls are tensile,
those at B and D are compressive. Hoop stress on inner
surface has opposite distribution.
Figure 7 shows axial stress change. It is noteworthy that
axial stress also has two peaks in the one revolution, which
is not observed in basic analysis calculating axial stress
without considering hoop stress [4]. The two peak of axial
stress may be caused by hoop stress and crash behavior.
Figure 8 shows axial stress-strain history of point C in
Figures 6 and 7, defining is angular position in cross
section. When Z is 0, becomes -90 degrees. The explicit
model, Trial 4, shows quite different result, compared to
implicit model Trials 3.
Metal Forming
120MPa
Hoop stress
=360MPa
-120MPa A
B
fa =
Point A
200
0
-200
1 revolution
-400
-600
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
150
Axial
position
z / mm
Axial
positionZ/mm
Axial stress
z =120MPa
360MPa
-120MPa
Conclusions
600
400
Point A
200
0
-200
1 revolution
-400
-600
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
150
Axial
position
z / mm
Axial
positionZ/mm
400
600
= -180
Trial 3
200
0
600
400
Trial 4
= -180
200
0
Upper roll
-200
-200
-400
= -90,
-600
-0.004
(2)
600
400
Dmax D 0
D0
Z=0mm
-0.002
From
front
-400
Lower roll
=-90,
-600 Z=0mm
-0.004 -0.002
0.002
0.002
Axial strain z
Axial strain z
References
0.04
Trials 1-3
0.03
Trial 4
0.02
Experiment
0.01
o=0.87mm, f0=0
0
0
0.5
1.5
Crash c /mm
587
Metal Forming
Multi-Stage Deep Drawing Process for Rectangular Cup with Extreme Aspect Ratio
using 3003-H16 Aluminum Alloy
Beom-Soo Kang, Seong-Chan Heo, Ja-Kyung Ku, Jung-Won Park, Tae-Wan Ku
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan / S. Korea, longtw@pusan.ac.kr
Main goal of this study is to develop the techniques of process design and manufacturing for a rectangular deep-drawn cup with narrow
width and extreme aspect ratio. A multi-stage deep drawing process, which requires many intermediate operations such as blanking, deep
drawing, ironing and trimming, is employed to obtain the rectangular deep-drawn cup with length of 33.70 mm, height of 48.30 mm, and
width of 3.46 mm. To achieve this rectangular cup, the process design is performed by considering shape characteristics such as the aspect and drawing ratios, and then the contact sequence between the intermediate blank and the lower die is suggested as the simultaneous
contact condition. Using the result of the process design, 3-dimensional finite element analysis is carried out for each deep drawing process
from stage 1 to stage 5, respectively. Furthermore, a series of experimental investigations are also performed to verify the analyzed results,
and each deformed intermediate blank is compared with the results of the analysis and the experiments. Resultantly, it is confirmed that the
rectangular cup with the width of 3.46 mm can be successfully obtained by using the multi-stage deep drawing process.
Keywords: Multi-stage deep drawing process, Rectangular cup, Process design, Finite element analysis, Deep drawing and ironing tools
Introduction
Recently, rectangular deep-drawn cups with extreme aspect ratios have been widely used for multipurpose devices such as mobile phones and notebook computers, and
so on [1-3]. However, due to the unpredictable explosion
phenomena of battery packs in the mobile device usage, it
is necessary to develop a more precise and safer battery
pack, and associated rectangular cup. A multi-stage deep
drawing process for shaping a flat sheet into the required
cup configuration is suitable for manufacturing the rectangular cup without failures such as tearing, wrinkling and
earing [4]. The design of the process and the initial blank
is very important for prototyping the cup, tool design and
tooling also have to be performed accurately [5,6]. The
multi-stage deep drawing process consists of several sheet
metal forming processes such as blanking, deep drawing,
ironing, sizing and trimming. Therefore, the number of the
stages in the overall process often exceeds 10 [7-9].
Main goal in this study was to develop the rectangular
cup with final specifications such as length of 33.70mm,
height of 48.30mm, and width of 3.46mm, and then the
aspect ratio as defined by L/W (length/width) was 9.73
and the drawing ratio as defined by H/W (height/width)
was 13.95. To achieve this goal, the process design was
carried out, and then 3-dimensional FE analysis using LSDYNA 3D was also performed. Furthermore, based on the
results of the process design and finite element analysis,
tools such as the deep drawing punch and the lower die
from the stage 1 to the stage 5 were developed and applied
to the experimental approach for prototyping the rectangular cup. The deformed configuration in each forming operation from the stage 1 to the stage 5 was well matched
by comparison with the results of the analysis and the
experiments.
Process Design for Multi-Stage Deep Drawing
Multi-stage deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which the process requires several deep drawing
operations. For the successful realization of the multi-
588
Metal Forming
selected values of the intake angle on the major axis were
8 for the stage 2 and the stage 3, and 10 for the stage 4
and the stage 5, and the values on the minor axis were
15.2 for the stage 2, 16 for the stage 3 and the stage 4,
and 18 for the stage 5, respectively.
29.55mm63.40mm 5.95mm
4.97
10.66
Simultaneous
36.50mm48.45mm 4.95mm
6.79
9.79
Simultaneous
89.50mm39.30mm14.90mm
5.77
2.64
Sequential
33.70mm48.30mm 3.46mm
9.73
13.95
Simultaneous
Main process
Major axis
Minor axis
Blanking+Drawing Blankking+Drawing
Intake angle(degree)
Major axis Minor axis
-
15.2
Drawing+Ironing
Drawing+Ironing
8.0
Drawing
Drawing+Ironing
8.0
16.0
Drawing
Drawing+Ironing
10.0
16.0
Drawing+Ironing
Drawing+Ironing
10.0
18.0
Figure 3 shows the final specifications of the rectangular cup with the length of 33.70 mm, the height of 48.30
mm and the width of 3.46 mm, and the aspect ratio of
about 9.73. The process sequence of the conventional deep
drawing for the circular and the square cup has been designed by using the drawing reduction rate. But, the use of
this drawing reduction rate is often improper and limited
to the non-axisymmetric rectangular cups. To overcome
this limit, the equivalent blank diameter and its area by
considering the areas of the punch and intermediate blank
at each operation were adopted in this study. Furthermore,
because the main deformation behavior for shaping the
St
(1)
where xi is the current coordinate system, ij is the Cauchy
stress, is the current density, fi is the body force and the
comma denoting covariant differentiation. Also, St is the
traction boundary where the traction vector xi is specified.
The initial blank was designed as shown in Figure 5. It was
modeled by the elliptic blank profiles of three circular arcs
with each direction of the major axis (RM), the minor axis
(Rm) and an additional arc (Rblank). The thickness of the initial
blank was 0.6mm, and it was discretized by two layers of
eight-node brick elements along the thickness direction to
take into account the plastic deformation and ironing effects.
And then the finite element mesh for the initial blank was
constructed with 13,863 nodes and 9,000 elements. In addi589
Metal Forming
tion, the initial blank material was 3003-H16 aluminum alloy,
for which the flow stress was expressed as = 358 0.21 MPa,
and the material properties were summarized in Table 3. And,
Figure 6 show the FE models for these numerical simulations
of multi-stage deep drawing process from the stage 1 to the
stage 5. The FE model consisted of the deep drawing punch,
the lower die, the blank-holder for the stage 1, the knock-out
device as well as the intermediate blank.
Table 3. Mechanical properties of 3003-H16 aluminum alloy.
Sheet material
AA3003-H16
0.6
70
170
Poisons Ratio
0.33
Density (Kg/mm3)
2.7910-6
(a) Stage 1
590
(b) Stage 2
(c) Stage 3
(d) Stage 4
(e) Stage 5
Figure 7. Effective strain distributions of fully-drawn intermediate blank from stage 1 to stage 5.
Metal Forming
ration to the rectangular one. These forming and deep
drawing tools were applied to the experiments.
the side wall ironing and the drawing along the direction
of the minor axis. For the stage 5, this process was mainly
performed by the ironing process. Figure 9 shows the
overall deformed shapes from by FE simulation and the
experimental approach from the stage 1 to the stage 5, and
illustrates the experimental results. Furthermore, Figure
10 depicts the final product by using the tool sets developed in this study.
Conclusions
(a) Stage 2
(b) Stage 3
(c) Stage 4
(d) Stage 5
Figure 8. Development of each forming punch and lower die.
In this study, to obtain the sound prototype of the rectangular cup with the width of 3.46 mm and the aspect
ratio of 9.73, a systematic approach including the process
design, the rigid-plastic finite element analysis, and the
experiments for the multi-stage deep drawing process was
adopted. For the contact sequence of the intermediate
blank with reference to the forming surface of the lower
die, the simultaneous contact condition was suggested and
applied to obtain the sound deformation of the intermediate blank and the final prototype. Based on the results of
the process design, finite element analysis was carried out,
and validated the results of the process design. Furthermore, based on the process design and the numerical investigation, the tools such as the punch and the lower die
were developed and applied to the experimental approach
for prototyping the rectangular cup. Finally, it was ensured
that the deformed configurations in each deep drawing
operation from the stage 1 to the stage 5 were well
matched through comparison with the analytic and the
experimental results.
Acknowledgements
Experiments of Multi-Stage Deep Drawing. To prototype the rectangular cup, the experiment was carried out
using a progressive press. In the experiments, the stage 1
with the blanking and deep drawing was achieved through
the sinking process. The stage 2 was performed in the
drawing with the side wall ironing of the major axis and
the minor axis. And the stages 3 and 4 were needed to
achieve uniform thickness of the intermediate blank under
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
[1] S.K. Esche, M.A. Ahmetoglu, G.L. Kinzel, T. Altan: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 98 (2000), 17-24.
[2] F.K. Chen, S.Y. Lim: International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 34 (2007), 878-888.
[3] C.H. Toh, S. Kobayashi: International Journal of Machine Tool
Design and Research, 25 (1985), 15-32.
[4] N. Kishor, D.R. Kumar: Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
130-131 (2002), 20-30.
[5] T.W. Ku, B.K. Ha, W.J. Song, B.S. Kang, S.M. Hwang: Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 130-131 (2002), 128-134.
[6] C.S. Park, T.W. Ku, B.S. Kang, S.M. Hwang: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 153-154 (2004), 778-784.
[7] T.W. Ku, Y. Kim, B.S. Kang: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 187-188 (2007), 197-201.
[8] B.S. Kang, W.J. Song, T.W. Ku: International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, doi:10.1007/s00170-009-2498-5.
[9] D.P. Flanagan, T. Belytschko: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 17 (1981), 679-706.
591
Metal Forming
Reduction of Wrinkling and Crack of Sheet Forming Based on Least Square Support
Vector Regression and Cross Validation Sampling Approach
Hu Wang, Guangyao Li
The State Key Laboratory of Advanced technology for vehicle design and manufacture, College of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering,
Hunan University, Changsha, 410082 China, wanghuenying@hotmail.com
A metamodel assist optimization method by integration of least square support vector regression and cross validationbased sampling
strategy is introduced to reduce wrinkling and crack of sheet forming. Compared with other metamodeling techniques, the least square
support vector regression is based on principle of structural risk minimization as opposed to the principle of empirical risk minimization in
conventional regression techniques. Therefore, the accuracy and robust metamodel can be achieved. The cross validationbased sampling
method is a new developed online design of experiment. The characteristic of this strategy is to generate new samples automatically according to responses of evaluations. The advantage of the proposed method is that number of samples and design space can be well
controlled. To minimize both of wrinkling, crack and thickness deformation efficiently, the proposed method is employed as a fast analysis
tool to surrogate the time-consuming finite-element procedure in the iterations of optimization algorithm. An example is studied to illustrate
the application of the approach proposed, and it is concluded that the proposed method is potential for sheet forming optimization problems. .
Keywords: Least square support vector regression, Cross validation, Metamodel, Sheet forming, Optimization
Introduction
Recent years, finite element analysis and optimization
techniques are extensively applied in sheet metal forming
process to improve design quality and shorten design cycle.
However, most practical engineering problems in this filed
involve combination of material or geometrical nonlinearities, complex geometries, and mixed boundary conditions.
Therefore, the computation burden is often caused by
expensive analysis processes to reach a comparable level
of accuracy as physical testing data. To overcome such a
challenge, metamodeling technique is often used. The
metamodeling technique has been elevated from various
engineering disciplines. They are then found to be a valuable tool to support a wide scope of activities in modern
engineering design, especially in design optimization.
Metamodeling technique evolves from classical design of
experiment theory, in which polynomial functions are used
as response surfaces, or metamodels. Other types of models include Kriging, radial basis functions, multivariate
adaptive regression splines, moving least square [1], There
is no conclusion about which model is definitely superior
to others. Recently, a new modeling algorithm called support vector regression was used and tested [2-3]. Recent
surveys showed that the support vector regression can
achieve more accurate and robust performance than most
of popular metamodeling techniques over a large number
of test problems. Compared with other metamodeling
techniques, the support vector regression is based on principle of structural risk minimization as opposed to the
principle of the empirical risk minimization in conventional regression techniques. Least square support vector
regression involves equality instead of inequality constraints and works with a least squares cost function [4].
This reformulation greatly simplifies the problem in such a
way that the solution is characterized by a linear system.
In this study, the least square support vector regression
is used to establish the metamodel. Furthermore, in order
to improve the efficiency of construction of the least
592
{xl , yl }lN=1
ples
with
(1)
(1)
xl R n , yl R
Min J ( w, ) =
w ,
subjected to
1 T
1 N
w w + l2
2
2 l =1
(2)
y l = wT ( xl ) + b + l , l = 1,2, N
(3)
nh
y ( x) = wT ( x) + b
(4)
Metal Forming
The weight vector w can be of infinite dimension, which
makes a calculation of w from Eq. (2) impossible in
general. Therefore, one computes the model in the dual
space instead of the primal space. The Lagrangian multiplier expression applied for Eqs. (4) and (5) is obtained as
( w, b, , a ) = J ( w, ) al wT ( xl ) + b + l yl (5)
l =1
w
l =1
N
(( w, b, , a) )
= 0 al = 0
(6)
b
l =1
(( w, b, , a ) ) = 0 a =
l
l
(( w, b, , a ) ) = 0 wT ( x ) + b + y = 0
l
l
l
a
1
=
I + I a y
where
y = [ y1 , y 2 , y N ]
(8.1)
I = [1,1, 1]
a = [a1 , a 2 , a N ]
(8.2)
i , j = ( xi ) ( x j ) for i, j = 1,2, N
(8.4)
(8.3)
K ( x, y) g ( x) g ( y)dxdy > 0
(10)
K ( xi , x j ) = ( xi ) T ( x j ), for i, j = 1,2, N
(11)
y ( x ) = a l K ( x, x l ) + b
(12)
l =1
X jN k = X Best
+ X Best
X kBoundary
j
j
X jN m = X Cj + X Cj X mBest
) ( R()X ( )
RX
+R X
Best
j
Boundary
k
Boundary
k
) ( R)(X ( ) )
R X +R X
C
j
Best
k
Best
m
(13)
(14)
) (
R (X )
R X Best
R X Best
j
j 1
Best
j
, (0,1)
(15)
The training sample set for the least square support vector regression is commonly generated by the neural net. If
such method is used to generate samples, the training
procedure might be difficult to convergence, especially for
large scale nonlinear problems due to the long
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
593
Metal Forming
hi hi
n
k
(16)
f h = f hi with f hi = e i 0
i =1
h0
where h0i , hei are the initial and final thicknesses of the ith
1
Major strain
w ( 2 )
Crack
s ( 2 )
w ( 2 )
1e
Wrinkling
s ( 2 )
S2
2e
Minor strain
w ( 2 ) = w ( 2 ) + s 2
where s is called the safety tolerance, take from the true
forming limit curve, s(2) and w(2) are the bounds of
safety domain. This tolerance is constant during the
optimization process and defined by engineers. Therefore,
the second objective function f is defined for each element
(1,2) by the tolerance between the actual strain 1
594
n
k
f = f i with
e =1
i
f = e ( e ) k for e > ( e )
1
s
2
1
s
2
k
i
e
e
e
e
f
(
)
for
(
=
<
1
w
2
1
w
2)
f i =0
otherwise
(
(
) [
) [
(19)
]
]
1640mm
133
0m
m
Die
Blank holder
Punch
Design Variables. The drawbead is one of important parameters to control the material. Very strong restraining
forces preventing sheet from drawing-in and may cause
necking, but insufficient forces may lead to wrinkling. The
drawbead geometry modeling will lead to a large number
of elements on the small radii of drawbeads, in addition,
positions and shapes of drawbeads require several modifications during forming tool design, so that drawbeads are
often replaced by equivalent restraining forces in the sheet
metal forming simulation. To avoid wrinkling, usually a
Metal Forming
predefined blank holder force is applied to the flange areas
of parts. When selected properly, the blank holder force
could eliminate wrinkles and delay crack in the drawn part.
Thus, the drawbeads and the blank holder force should be
the design parameters in this study.
Finally, the equivalent restraining forces and blank
holder forces are as design variables in this study and the
corresponding constraints of them are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Design variables and constraints, initial values (ERF:
equivalent restraining forces, unit (N/m), BHF: blank holder force
unit (KN), DV: Design variables; UB, Upper bound; LB, Lower
bound, IV, initial value).
DV
UB
LB
IV
ERF1
150
50
100
ERF2
150
50
100
ERF3
150
50
100
ERF4
150
50
100
BHF
150
280
215
ERF1
89.2
94.2
ERF2
100.8
98.2
ERF3
110.5
100.7
ERF4
98.8
95.1
BHF
232.8
246.2
Acknowledgments
595
Metal Forming
Prediction of Forming Limits Considering Temperature and Strain Rate Effects for
Magnesium Alloy Sheet Based on Local and Diffuse Plastic Instability Conditions
Woo-Jin Song1), Seong-Chan Heo2), Young-Seop Byun2), Tae-Wan Ku2), Beom-Soo Kang2), Jeong Kim2)
1)
Industrial Liaison Innovation Center, Pusan national University, Busan / Korea, woodysong@pusan.ac.kr;
Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan / Korea
2)
Department of Aerospace
The reasonable formability evaluation can be defined whether or not there is fracture or necking initiation in the final forming product. Since
tearing is a consequence of necking, which is a condition of local instability under excessive tensile stresses, it is an important issue to
predict the necking initiation before designing the details of forming processes. Especially, the magnesium alloy sheets have been restricted
in terms of the forming capability at room temperature due to the inherent limited slip planes. However, the magnesium alloy sheet materials have good ductility and drawability at the elevated temperature environment from 150 C to 300 C. Therefore, the forming limit should
be evaluated prior to the practical application of these materials in sheet metal forming processes. The formability in sheet metal forming
processes can be described by limit strains and stresses based on analytical approach or a series of the corresponding experiments. Analytical forming limits for the magnesium alloy in sheet metal forming, which can reflect temperature, strain and strain rate effect, are discussed in this paper. Experimental data of stress-strain relationship and flow stress model of the magnesium alloy sheet proposed by Takuda et al. (Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.164-165, 2005, pp.1258-1262) are used. To predict the initiation of necking
phenomenon, Swifts criterion for diffuse plastic instability and Hills criterion for local plastic instability are adopted based on Hills general
theory for the uniqueness to the boundary value problem. Forming limits are predicted in four kinds of temperature levels (150, 200, 250
and 300 C) at each pre-assigned strain rate level (0.2, 2 and 20 mm/s). It is concluded that these forming limits can play a feasible role to
design the sheet metal processes in the sheet metal forming industry.
Keywords: Magnesium alloy sheet, Plastic instability, Forming limit diagram, Temperature-compensated strain rate, Flow stress
Introduction
The reasonable formability evaluation can be defined
whether or not there is fracture or necking initiation in the
final forming product. Since tearing is a consequence of
necking, which is a condition of local instability under
excessive tensile stresses, it is an important issue to predict
the necking initiation before designing the details of forming processes. Especially, the magnesium alloy sheets have
been restricted in terms of the forming capability at room
temperature due to the inherent limited slip planes [1].
However, the magnesium alloy sheet materials have good
ductility and drawability at the elevated temperature environment from 150 to 300 C [1]. Therefore, the forming
limit should be evaluated prior to the practical application
of these materials in sheet metal forming processes.
The formability in sheet metal forming processes can be
described by limit strains and stresses based on analytical
approach or a series of the corresponding experiments.
The forming limit diagram (FLD), which concept was
initially suggested by Gensamer and matured by Keeler
and Backhofen [2] and Goodwin [3], provides useful empirical information of forming severity in the absence of a
neck or any kinds of defects [4]. The FLD models include
the diffuse instability criterion described by Swift [5] that
appears to qualitatively define the characteristic shape of
the strain-based FLC for positive minor strains. In addition,
Hill [6] explains the relationship between the r value of
the material and the angle between the through-thickness
neck direction and the uniaxial tension axis. Then, Stoughton [7, 8] discovered the effect of strain path and proposed
that it is necessary to use the forming limit stress diagram
(FLSD) in all forming operations, including the first draw
die, in order to get a robust measure of forming severity.
596
However, the research on the forming limits for the magnesium alloy sheets has been fewer reported until now.
In this paper, analytical forming limits for the magnesium alloy in sheet metal forming, which can reflect temperature, strain and strain rate effect, are discussed. Experimental data of stress-strain relationship and flow stress
model of the magnesium alloy sheet proposed by Takuda
et al. [1] are used. To predict the initiation of necking
phenomenon, Swifts criterion for diffuse plastic instability and Hills criterion for local plastic instability are
adopted based on Hills general theory for the uniqueness
to the boundary value problem. Forming limits are predicted in four kinds of temperature levels (150, 200, 250
and 300 C) at each pre-assigned strain rate level (0.2, 2
and 20 mm/s). It is concluded that these forming limits can
play a feasible role to design the sheet metal processes in
the sheet metal forming industry.
Stress-Strain Relationship of Magnesium Alloy Sheet
Flow Stress Modelling. Commercial magnesium-based
alloy AZ31 (Mg-3% Al-1% Zn) sheet are selected in this
paper. To obtain the stress-strain relationship, the uniaxial
tensile tests were carried out in four kinds of temperature
levels (150, 200, 250 and 300 C) at each pre-assigned
strain rate level (0.2, 2 and 20mm/s) [1]. A flow stress
model of this magnesium alloy sheet proposed by Takuda
et al. [1] was given by
= K n ( / 0 )
K=
(1)
3.24e05
406
t
n = 0.016log( / 0 ) +C ,
C=
62.0
+ 0.053
t
Metal Forming
Table 1. Effective strains at fracture in various temperatures and
cross head speeds [1].
Q
Z = exp
RT
Temperature [C]
2.0
20.0
150
0.62350
0.61058
0.51992
200
0.85372
0.56611
0.60482
250
0.98561
0.86899
0.96017
300
0.98681
0.97466
0.86478
0.2
1.000
f = 3.57598263 [ Z
-0.05014
(1)
3
d 1
d1 = 1 2
2
d =
Effective Stress
250
2008C
200
2508C
150
100
3008C
50
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Effective Strain
d2 =
0.8
1.0
d
1
2 2 1
where d1 , d2 and d3 are plastic strain incremental components along each principal directions.
Local Necking Criterion for Sheet. Hills local necking
1508C
250
300
2008C
200
2508C
150
100
3008C
50
0
0.0
0.2
(5)
d3 =[ d1 + d2 ]
300
1508C
(4)
= 12 +22
1 2
300
(3)
2.14644E14
105
m = + 0.303
t
f (,Y)
d
ij
Effective Stress
0.368
Effective Stress
(2)
0.4
0.6
Effective Strain
0.8
1.0
2008C
1508C
250
2508C
200
150
3008C
100
50
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Effective Strain
0.8
1.0
597
Metal Forming
criterion is introduced as the plastic instability condition
and then, onset of plastic instability is assumed to occur
when the following constraint is satisfied: d1 =1(d1 + d2) .
Assuming that the stress ratio remains fixed the deformation of the neck, d2 =2(d1 + d2) is also satisfied [11]. From
Eqs. (3) and (4) and the instability constraints mentioned
previously, the variation of the effective stress deduced as
(1+)
d =d
2 1/ 2
2(1 + )
(6)
where is the stress ratio, 2 1 . Thus, the following instability criterion in terms of sub-tangent Z for isotropic
materials is obtained
1 1 d
(1+)
=
= L
ZL d 2(1 +2)1/ 2 L
(7)
(2 1)2 + (2 )2
d =d
2 3/ 2
4(1 + )
0.8
0.8
0.8
Major Strain
1.0
Major Strain
Major Strain
1.0
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
300
300
100
200
300
400
Minor Stress
598
Major Stress
300
Major Stress
400
100
0.2
0.4
0.6
200 C
o
300 C
0.8
200
0.0
200 C
o
300 C
Minor Strain
Minor Strain
400
0
-100
FLC at necking
o
150 C
o
250 C
FLC at fracture
o
150 C
o
250 C
0.2
Minor Strain
(13)
( )
1.0
0.2
Major Stress
( )
c n / m
1 (
0 ) c 1 c
c 4
2 = K
2 + 1
2
(9)
0.6
(12)
c n m
4 1 ( / 0 ) c 1 c
= K
1 + 2
2
c
1
0.4
(i = L, D)
(8)
1 1 d (2 1)2 + (2 )2 D
=
=
D
ZD d
4(1 +2)3/ 2
0.2
in
2c = 1c
0.0
(11)
0.0
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
(10)
200
100
0
-100
100
200
Minor Stress
300
400
FLSC at necking
o
150 C
o
250
C
200
FLSC at fracture
o
150 C
100
o
250 C
300
200
100
0
-100
100
200
300
200 C
o
300 C
o
200 C
o
300 C
400
Minor Stress
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.3
in
0.6
150
0.0 0.2
0.4
r Stra
in
0.6
150
Mino
200
r Stra 0.0
in
0.2 0.4
0.6
150
[ oC]
ure
250
-0.8-0.6
-0.4 -0.2
400
0.2
erat
ure
[ oC]
Mino
200
350
300
0.4
Tem
p
0.0
r Stra
-0.8-0.6
-0.4 -0.2
erat
-0.3
Mino
250
0.2
0.6
Tem
p
200
Te m
-0.6
pera
250
0.2
300
0.4
ture
300
0.4
[ oC]
0.6
0.6
Major Strain
1.0
0.8
Major Strain
1.0
Major Strai
Metal Forming
400
r Stre
300
ss
400
150
-100
Mino
200
100
200
r Stre
400
150
250
-100
Mino
200
100
r Stre
200
ss
300
400
150
[ oC]
300
100
u re
[ oC]
Conclusions
ss
300
200
erat
250
fracture strains. These diagrams contain not only the forming limits for necking but also those for fracture. It is
noted in Figure 3 that the forming safe-area can be dominantly dependent on not necking initiation value but fracture value with respect to temperature and forming speed
in this material, since the limit strains are almost same in
all temperature and forming speed conditions. Meanwhile,
Figure 4 shows that the forming safe-area, which is affected with increasing temperature at each forming speed
level, can not be described properly by the limit stresses.
Forming limit surfaces based on the limit strains and
stresses with temperatures using the flow stress and fracture strain can be expressed in Figures 5 and 6.
Major Stres
ture
300
100
Tem
p
200
200
e ra t
u re
200
100
p era
Mino
Te m
-100
250
300
100
300
300
Tem
p
200
[ C]
300
Major Stres
s
Major Stres
400
599
Metal Forming
Investigation into Formability of Tailor Welded Blank Consisted of IF steel Sheets with
Different Thicknesses- Experiment and Simulation
Mahmoud Abbasi1), Mostafa Ketabchi1), Hamid Reza Shakeri1), Mohammad Hossein Hasannia2)
1)
Department of Mining and Metallurgy, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran / Iran, m.abbasi@aut.ac.ir; 2) Materials Research Center,
SAPCO, Tehran / Iran
Tailor welded blanks (TWBs) offer several notable benefits including decreased part weight, reduced manufacturing costs, increased environmental friendliness and improved dimensional consistency. Low formability and weld line movement during forming operation are main
limitations of these blanks. In this research, effects of forming parameters including thickness ratio (TR= thickness ratio of the thick sheet
with respect to the thin sheet), rolling direction with respect to the weld line and direction of major stress with respect to the weld line, on
formability and weld line movement of TWBs made of Interstitial Free (IF) galvanized steel were investigated. Based on the results,
formability maximized when the major stress and rolling direction were along the weld line. Simulation results verified experimental results.
Using simulation, the effect of one-piece and two-pieces blankholders on formability of TWB was studied. Results showed applying different
blankholder forces by application of the latter blankholder is an effective method for decreasing weld line movement and increasing
formability of TWBs with TR>1. It was also concluded that geometric discontinuities in the tailor welded blanks had the most important role
in decreasing formability and not the existence of weld region.
Keywords: Tailor welded blank, Formability, Weld line movement, Simulation, Forming parameters
Introduction
A Tailor-Welded Blank (TWB) consists of sheets of different thicknesses, grades, coatings and strength types
welded together to produce a single blank prior to the
forming process. TWBs offer the auto industry an excellent opportunity to reduce cost, decrease vehicle weight
and improve the quality of sheet metal stamping processes
[1]. Weld line movement and reduced formability are the
main limitation of forming these blanks. So, studying the
effect of forming parameters on formability and stressstrain distribution is important in order to maximize the
former and evenly distribute the latter as well as to
decrease weld line movement. Improving the formability
of TWBs and tools used to form those as well as simulating the forming process of TWBs, have been the ponit of
focus of many researches [2-4]. In this research, in
addition to experimental investigation of the effects of
forming parameters on formability, effect of the
blankholder force on formability (dome height, strain
distribution and weld line movement) was studied using
FEM. Also contribution of two parameters i.e., geometric
discontinuities and existence of the weld region, on reduction of formability of the studied TWBs with respect to the
monolithic sheet was determined.
Experimental Methods
The tailor welded blank material used in this study was
CO2 laser welded IF-galvanized steel alloy. Optimum
welding parameters was determined using Taguchi method
that is explained in details elsewhere [5]. Table 1 shows
the chemical composition of the steel used in this study.
All steel sheets with differetnt thicknesses (0.7, 1.2 and 1.5
mm) were collected from the same lot. To obtain true
stress-true strain data, tensile tests conducted using subsized tensile test specimens based on ASTM-E8 and special miniature tensile specimens [6], for monolithic sheets
and the weld region of the TWBs with TR=1.71, respec-
600
C
0.002
Cu
0.017
Si
0.004
P
0.015
Mn
0.149
S
0.007
All dimensions in mm
V
0.002
Ni
0.015
Cr
0.022
Al
0.033
Fe
99.682
R20
1.5
30
120
Figure 1. Specially designed tensile specimen used in this study
for obtaining mechanical properties of the weld.
Metal Forming
consisting of punch, blankholder and die were modeled as
rigid bodies. The corresponding properties/thicknesses
were also assigned to the two halves of the blank and the
weld region.
125 mm
200 mm
a)
b)
Try 1
Try 2
Try 3
240
200
160
120
80
-800
c)
400
800
-400
0
Distance
from
weld
center
(m)
Figure 4. Hardness variation across weld region, HAZs and parent
sheets for three blanks with TR=1.71.
d)
Figure 2. Schematic representations of samples used in experiments (Solid arrays indicate the rolling direction).
50 m
Weld region
100 m
Parent metal
601
Metal Forming
mm and the latter had a value about 29.5 mm. Effect of the
presence of weld region and geometric discontinuity on
reducing the dome height value of tailor welded blank
(with TR=1.7) compared to dome height value of 1.2 mm
thick sheet is shown in Figure 8.
50
40
30
20
10
0
Thin
TR3 Thick
TR1 TR2
=1 =1.71 =2.14
42.3 mm
40
39.8 mm
(b)
36.1 mm
30
29.5 mm
Figure 7. Fractured samples, (a) blank containing thickness variation similar to TWB without having actual weld region produced
through machining process, (b) tailor welded blank.
20
10
0
90
0
90
602
50
(a)
40
30
20
10
0
Geometry
Metal Forming
during the experiment while in simulation, necking was
used as the failure criterion. It can also be seen in Figure 9
that by using a two-piece blankholder and applying different forces (a force of 55kN was applied on the thin sheet
side and a 35 kN force on the thick side) the weld line
movement (about 5.5 mm) is lower than the condition of
applying the same force (35 kN) on both halves of the
blankholder (about 10.1 mm).
Displacement (mm)
11
Conclusions
10
9
(a)
(b)
(c)
8
7
Monolith blankholder-Simulation
Split blankholder-Simulation
Monolith blankholder-Experiment
6
5
8
10
6
4
Point number
Figure 9. Movement of the weld line from middle of TWB with
TR=1.7; (a) simulation- monolith blankholder, (b) simulation- split
blankholder and applying different blankholder forces, (c) experiment.
0
In Figure 10, the plots of strain distribution corresponding to the conditions mentioned above are shown respectively. The strain values correspond to the points on a path
normal to the weld line at punch travel distance of 30 mm.
It can be observed in Figure 10 if applying the same force
on blankholder for the same punch displacement, maximum value of strain is higher and strain distribution is less
uniform with respect to using the two- pieces blankholder.
0.35
Strain
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
(a)
(b)
Monolith blankholder
Split blankholder
0.00
4
0
8
12
16
20
Figure 10. Strain distribution
path normal to weld line at the
Pointonnumber
middle of TWB with TR=1.7; (a) using of one-piece blankholder
and (b) using of split blankholder.
0.30
0.05
603
Metal Forming
Department of Mechanical Design Engineering, National Formosa University, Huwei / Taiwan, linrc@nfu.edu.tw; 2) Postgraduate,
Department of Mechanical Design Engineering, National Formosa University, Huwei / Taiwan; 3) Institute of Mechanical Engineering,
National Yunlin University of Science and Technology , Douliou / Taiwan, g9811802@yuntech.edu.tw
In a double-square-slot deep drawing process, the ear defect caused by the 3D radius anisotropy and friction among the blank, punch and
die usually resulted in a non-competitive part. In this paper, the FE and neural network methods are proposed to predict the optimal initial
blank shape and die parameters for the sheet metal forming process. The method takes the difference between the finial deformed shape
and the target contour shape into account. Combined effects of the process variables (blank shapes, blank material thickness, punch and
die clearance and punch/die radius) on the drawability and strain of double-square-slot were studied. The FE method is used to simulate
4
the deep drawing process of the double-square-slot made of a hot roll steel. Totally L9(3 ) sets of different tool geometries were used to
prepare the training data for the neural network model. Once the model for the deep drawing process is established to relate the tools
shape parameters to the drawing stress-strain. A Simulated Annealing (SA) algorithm with a performance index is applied to find the optimal
blank shape for this complex deep drawing process.
Keywords: Deep drawing, FEM, Neural network method, Simulated annealing.
Introduction
Deep drawing is one of the most important processes
utilized for the shell forming. The factors that influence
the formability of 3D double-square-slot deep drawing
includes: (1) the orinital shell shape, (2) the thickness of
material, (3) the lubrication condition of workpiece, (4)
the radius of punch and die, (5) pressure of deep drawing.
These factors determine the result of the deep drawing
maximum punch load or stress-stain in drawing process.
Several numerical solutions for the deep drawing process
of non-circular components have been reported. Hasek and
Lange [1] gave an analytical solution to this problem using
the slip-line field-method with the assumption of planestrain flange deformation. Jong-Yop and Naksoo [2]
developed a roll-back method to predict the optimal initial
blank shape in the sheet metal forming process. The
method takes the different between the finial deformed
and the target contour shape into account. Yasuo [3] were
combined effects of process variable (blank shapes, tools
shape, blank material, and punch lubrication) on the
drawability of square cups. The combined effects of the
process variables were explained based on the force lines,
the types of fractured cups and the thickness strain
distribution. Lo and Lee [5] improved upon this potential
flow method by including the effect of friction and
material anisotropy. However, plastic-strain and material
hardening effects are ignored in this potential flow
approach.
Chung and Richmond [6] proposed a method of
designing blank shape using the ideal forming theory
which utilizes a deformation path corresponding to
minimum plastic work to produce the finial product. A
finite element code was developed to obtain the initial size
of the blank, the input being the finial shape of the product
and material properties. Barlat et al. [7] developed an
inverse approach coupled with mathematic programming
techniques for the optimum design of sheet forming parts.
Vijay et al. [8] proposed an effective algorithm based on
finite element simulation that is present for arriving at the
optimum blank shape for cup drawing. The methodology
604
Metal Forming
Slot Design of Optimum Blank Shape
(1)
i =1
Material
Die
y 0 = B0 + Bi xi + Bij xi x j + Bijk xi x j x k +
where
i =1 j =1
i =1 j =1 k =1
(2)
605
Metal Forming
drawing parameters. These polynomial functional nodes
are named normalizer (N), unitizer (U), white (W), singles
(S), double (D) and triples (T) node.
To build a complete abductive network, the first
requirement is to train the database. The information given
by the input and output parameters must be sufficient. A
predicted square error (PSE) criterion is then used to
automatically determine an optimal structure [13]. The
principle of the PSE criterion is to select the least complex
yet still accurate network as possible. The PSE is
composed of two terms, that is:
PSE=FSE+KP
(3)
Table 3 is to compare the errors of the prediction between the deep drawing maximum equivalent stress by the
network model and FEM-simulation of the deep drawing
process. The major predicting parameters of the cut blank
length have three difference size R=12mm, 13.5mm and
14 mm, t=0.3mm,0.4mm,0.5mm. The three sets of FEMsimulated results are excluded from the 9 sets of FEMsimulation data for establishing the model. This set of
data is used to test the appropriateness of the model
established above. We can see from table 3 the maximum
error(network- predicting/network) is approximately 5.4%.
Table 3. Neural network prediction of maximum Equivalent stress
and FEM simulation compared errors (it is not included in any
original 9 sets data base)
(4)
606
Metal Forming
Conclusions
References
[1] V.V. Hasek, K.R. Lange: Proc. 7th NAMRC, Ann Arbor, (1979), 6571.
[2] J.-Y. Kim, N. Kim, M.S. Huh: Journal of Materials Process
Technology. 101 (2000), 31-43.
[3]Y. Marumo, H. Saiki: Journal of Materials Process Technology. 80
(1998), 427-432.
[4] F. Liu, R. Sowerby, Journal of Materials Shaping Technology, 9
(1991), 153-159.
[5] S.W. Lo, J.Y. Lee: Journal of Materials Science Engineer. 120 (1998),
302-15.
[6] K. Chung, O. Richmond, International Journal Mechanical Science,
34-7 (1992), 575-591.
[7]O. Barlat, J. L. Batoz, Y. Q. Guo, F. Mercier, H. Naceur, C. KnopfLenoier: Proc. 1996 Engineering System Design and Analysis
Conference, ASME, New York, 75 (1996), 227-234.
[8] V. Pegada, Y. Chun, S.S. Santhanam: Journal of Materials Process
Technology. 125-126 (2002), 743-750.
[9] H. Park. J.W. Yoon, D.Y. Yang, Y.H. Kim: International Journal
Mechanical Science, 41 (1999), 575-591.
[10] G.J. Montgomery, K.C. Drake: Abductive Reasoning Network,
Neuro-Computing, 2 (1991), 97-104.
[11] R. Arrieux, C. Bedrin, M. Boivin: Proc. 12th IDDRG Congress,
(1982), 24-28.
[12] A.G. Ivakhnenko, IEEE Transaction on Systems, 1-4 (1971), 364378.
[13] A.R.Barron, ed. by S.J.Farlow, Marcel-Dekker, New York, (1984).
607
Metal Forming
The purpose of this research is to improve the quality of aluminum ironed cup surface in order to decrease the production time and the cost
of cup polishing. Adhesion between aluminum cup and die surface which causes galling is expected to be reduced by applying proper tool
surface coatings or treatments. Strip ironing and ball-on-disk tests are employed as physical simulation to select suitable types of surface
modification. Workpiece material is aluminum AQ1050 H14. The selected surface modification types were Nitriding, CrN-PVD, WC/C-PVD
and TiCN-CVD coatings. They were subsequently investigated by cup ironing process under industrial conditions. It is found that the die
coated with TiCN-CVD and WC/C-PVD layers provided satisfactory results. The adhesion problem can be decreased, whereas the galling
on the cups surface is reduced and the surface quality is superior to the cup obtained from the uncoated die.
Keywords: Cup ironing, Aluminum, Surface modified tool, Die coating, Adhesion
Introduction
Ball-on-Disk and Strip Ironing Tests. Workpiece material was aluminium sheet (JIS) AQ1050-H14 having thickness of 0.5 mm. The balls in ball-on-disk test and the dies
in strip ironing test were made of tool steel (JIS) SKD11
and hardened to 601 HRC. Types of coating films and
surface modifications are shown in Table 1 with their
coating or diffusing layer thickness and hardness. Ball-ondisk tests were performed using normal load of 1 N which
induced normal pressure of 445 MPa, almost the same
level as in ironing operation. The contact pressure occurring in ironing operation was obtained by FE analysis. The
tests were done using commercial tribometer of CSM
instruments. The diagram of strip ironing test is shown in
Figure 1. In order to measure the force required, the ironing equipment was mounted in the 250 kN universal testing machine.
608
Hardness4)
thickness (m)
(HV)
Non coated
720
Nitriding
150
1,100
Hard chome
28
1,000
VC-TD1)
3,070
TiCN-CVD
12
2,900
TiCN-PVD
3.8
2,400
TiN-PVD
3.3
3,000
CrN-PVD
2.9
1,750
WC/C2)-PVD
2.5
1,500
Note:
1) TD: Thermal Diffusion
2) WC/C: Tungsten doped DLC coating
3) The coating thicknesses were obtained from the observation of the
coating layer by SEM, while nitriding diffused layer was obtained from
the manufacturer.
4) Hardness of all surface modification types were obtained from the
manufacturers.
The die approach angle was 10o and the die bearing
length was 1.0 mm. The gap between back-up plate and
Metal Forming
dies was determined so as to reduce the sheet thickness at
the reduction ratio of 20%. The workpiece of the strip
ironing test was 15 mm width and 50 mm length (excluding the gripping length). The ironed strip surface roughness will be measured at the distance of 5, 25 and 45 mm
from the beginning. The sliding velocity of the ball against
the disk was 100 mm/min which is the same as the ironing
velocity in strip ironing experiment. Commercial lubricant
Castrol ILOFORM PN232 was used in all experiments
presented here, similar to the real production. The results
of ball-on-disk and strip ironing tests were analyzed and
discussed to select the surface modification types that have
high potential to be used in the real cup ironing operation.
Grip
Back-up
plate
Guide bearing
tion check. The average polishing time per cup will then
be compared to verify the effectiveness of die surface
modifications.
Circular blank
1st Step: Deep drawing
Deep-drawn cup
2nd Step: Redrawing + Ironing
Ironing direction
Final product
tf
Die
Workpiece
to
Figure 1. Diagram of strip ironing.
Cup Ironing Experiment. Cup ironing tests were performed by using the mechanical press machine for real
production of the cosmetic bottle cap. The forming operations were divided into two steps, i.e., 1) deep drawing and
2) the combined processes of redrawing and ironing as
shown in Figure 2. First, the blank was prepared to have
diameter of 57 mm. Then it was deep drawn by the punch
having diameter of 30.7 mm (drawing ratio = 1.8). The
clearance between punch and die was determined to be
0.55 mm (1.1to). Finally, the deep-drawn cup was ironed
and redrawn simultaneously to have the final inside diameter of 27.0 mm, the height of about 30.0 mm and the
wall thickness of tf = 0.35 mm (ironing ratio 35%).
Punches and dies used in both steps were made of coldwork tool steel (JIS) SKD11 and hardened to 601 HRC.
The approach angle and bearing length of ironing die were
determined to be the same as those of the die used in strip
ironing tests. The surface roughness of the final cup obtained was measured at the position shown in Figure 3.
The wall surface of the deformed cup can be divided into 3
different zones. From the figure, Zone A (0-5 mm from the
bottom) corresponds to the radius at the bottom of the
deep-drawn cup. Zone B (5-20 mm) seems like the orange
peel which corresponds to the free surface deformation
during the cup being deep drawn. Zone C (20-30 mm) is
luster because metal-to-metal contact between the workpiece and the die during ironing operation. The surface
roughness of the cups will be measured and analyzed for
each zone.
Each die was used to produce 100 cups. The cups were
then be polished by two skilled workers (50 cups each)
until their surface quality become acceptable by visualiza-
609
Metal Forming
610
WC/C
VC-TD
TiCN-PVD
TiN-PVD
CrN-PVD
Nitriding
TiCN-CVD
5 mm
25 mm
45 mm
4
3
2
WC/C
VC-TD
TiCN-PVD
TiCN-CVD
TiN-PVD
CrN-PVD
40
30
20
WC/C
VC-TD
TiCN-PVD
TiCN-CVD
TiN-PVD
10
CrN-PVD
Nitriding
Figure 5. Force required for strip ironing by using various surfacemodification types of dies.
Hardchrome
WC/C
VC-TD
TiCN-PVD
TiCN-CVD
TiN-PVD
CrN-PVD
Nitriding
Hardchrome
Non coat
200
Nitriding
400
Hardchrome
600
Non coat
800
5 mm
25 mm
45 mm
Hardchrome
1000
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
Non coat
1200
Non coat
WC/C
VC-TD
TiCN-PVD
TiCN-CVD
TiN-PVD
CrN-PVD
Nitridng
Hard chrome
0.04
0.08
going the surface modification. However, surface modifications of the dies are completed under industrial conditions; their surfaces are not undergone any special treatment to control the surface roughness afterward. It is
found that the roughness values of the coated dies, except
for WC/C, increased after coating or diffusing. The roughness values of the non-coated and WC/C coated die are
obviously smaller than the others. These factors also influence the surface quality of the deformed parts, especially
in the nearly dry condition.
Number of scratches
deeper than 0.5 m
0.12
Non coat
Friction coefficient ()
0.16
Metal Forming
0.08
0.06
WC/C
VC-TD
TiCN-PVD
TiCN-CVD
TiN-PVD
CrN-PVD
Nitriding
Hardchrome
Non coat
0.04
0.02
1.0
Non-coat
Nitriding
CrNTiCN-CVD
WC/C-
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Zone
Zone
Zone
Measuring position
Figure 9. Surface roughness of ironed cups.
0.8
0.6
0.4
WC/C
TiCN-CVD
CrN-PVD
Nitriding
Non coat
0.2
0
Nitriding
CrNPVD
TiCNCVD
WC/CPVD
Conclusions
Deep drawn
cup
Surface roughness at
Zone A (m)
0.12
0.10
No scratch found
in ironing direction
0.14
References
To further analyze the influences of surface modifications, the surface roughness of the parts at Zone A is depicted in Figure 10. It is found that the parts produced by
WC/C and TiCN-CVD coated dies have noticeably low
roughness values, while those obtained by CrN-PVD,
Nitriding and non-coated dies are almost at the same level.
Moreover, by visual observation of the cup surfaces, they
can be divided into two groups, i.e., parts with and without
visual scratches found as shown in Table 2. There is no
scratch found for the parts produced by using TiCN-CVD
611
Metal Forming
Institute of Metal Forming and Metal Forming Machines (IFUM), Leibniz Universitaet Hannover, Garbsen / Germany, eckold@ifum.unihannover.de; 2) Institute for Production Engineering and Forming Machines (PtU), Technische Universitaet Darmstadt, Darmstadt / Germany
Deep drawing is broadly implemented in sheet metal processing industry as one of the most important methods of forming. A promising way
to extend the maximum drawing ratio seems to be flexible blank holder systems. This paper presents the FE-based design of a blank
holder with hydro-elastic segments for a rectangular deep drawing part and the influence to the characteristical failure modes of deep drawing processes. In addition, first validation by experimental tests with standard drawing grade steel sheet metal is included.
Keywords: Deep drawing, Elastic blank holder, Maximum drawing ratio
Introduction
Nowadays, traditionally used rigid tools have gained a
high development status. Cost-intensive multistage forming processes result from the ongoing demand for deep
drawing parts of rising complexity made of high strength
materials [1]. For further process optimization, new tooling systems have to be developed.
In corner areas material flow causes tangential compressive stresses resulting in increasing local sheet thicknesses
[1]. Rigid tools induce higher surface pressure hindering
locally the material flow from the remaining flange. Control of blank holder force has been recognized as a highly
effective technique for improving formability in various
research activities [2-5]. Further investigations showed
that elastic blank holders in general [6,7] and those consisting of a metallic diaphragm under (controlled) oilpressure in particular [8] extend the process boundaries, e.
g. raise the maximum drawing ratio. Besides the enlargement of the process window this elastic blank holder concept exhibits some properties which can be enhanced, like
one global pressure and the applicability to complex part
geometries.
In the course of a currently executed project the Institute
of Metal Forming and Metal-Forming Machines (IFUM)
of the Leibniz Universitaet Hannover and the Institute for
Production Engineering and Forming Machines (PtU) of
the Technische Universitaet Darmstadt are developing an
improved blank holder system with hydro-elastic segments
for deep drawing processes. This system attempts to overcome the disadvantages of the single diaphragm blank
holder at lower costs by having hydro-elastic segments in
the areas of the highest raise in local sheet thickness.
Deep Drawing with Rigid Blank Holder
The sheet thickness in the flange area increases during
the deep drawing process. In the case of non-rotationally
symmetric geometries the distribution of sheet thickness is
highly inhomogeneous. Corner areas show higher thicknesses in contrast to straight edges. Lower sheet thicknesses effect lower contact forces, which often lead to
wrinkling. Increased blank holder forces can avoid wrinkling but at the same time lead to reduced material flow
and therewith to intensified thinning in critical corner
612
Initial blank
Die
Blank holder
Segmented hydro-elastic
blank holder
Figure 1. FEA model with rigid and exemplified segmented hydroelastic blank holder.
Metal Forming
Parameter-Value
Rigid / segmented
400 kN
Material
DC06
1 mm
Drawing ratio
1.63
Drawing depth
60 mm
Friction coefficient
0.07
Punch radius
13.5 mm
13.5 mm
455 mm
314 mm
Path 1
1,12
1.12
1,10
1.10
1,2
1.2
1,1
1.1
Blechdicke [mm]
1
1.0
0,9
0.9
1,08
1.08
0,8
0.8
1,06
1.06
Path 2
1.04
1,04
1.02
1,02
Drawing
die
radius
Flange
0,7
0.7
Legend
Side wall
Experimental
values
Result FEA
1.00
1,00
0,6
0.6
0.98
0,98
Long
edge
0.96
0,96
0.94
0,94
0
20
Short
edge
Corner
40
60
80
Projection path 1
Corner
100
Flange
area
Projection path 2
Figure 2. Sheet thickness along drawing die radius and the flange
at blank holder force of FBH = 400 kN.
10
10
20
20
30
30
Projection Abwicklung
path 3 [mm]
Pfad 1 [mm]
40
40
50
50
60
60
Figure 3. Comparison of FEA and experimental values for developing of sheet thickness in corner with rigid blank holder.
00
613
Metal Forming
edges. This can be recognized in the distribution of the
contact area displayed for the flange at 30 and 60 mm
drawing depth (see Figure 4). An optimal design of the
segmented hydro-elastic blank holder should lead to a
support of the sheet throughout the whole forming process and the whole flange surface.
Quarter model at a
drawing depth of 60 mm
Viewing direction
Flange
Corner
Drawing
die radius
Edge
Selected Simulation Results for Segmented HydroElastic Blank Holder. One characteristic failure mode of
the deep drawing process is wrinkling in the flange area.
The contour of the sheet blank in the flange area will be
considered for the evaluation of wrinkling. To simplify
matters, the contour (see Figure 6) is displayed only at
projection path 1 (see Figure 2). In Figure 6 shows a comparison between the contour of the sheet metal formed
with a rigid and with a segmented hydro-elastic blank
holder. The wrinkling shown for rigid dies is completely
suppressed with the segmented blank holder. The curve
shows a homogenous increase of the contour according to
the increase of the sheet thickness. Only the area of the
corner pocket shows a higher increase. The display of the
contact area (see Figure 6) shows an explicit increase of
the contact surface compared to the picture from the rigid
blank holder (see Figure 4). The amount of the contact
surface increases from 23.6 % for rigid blank holder to
46.3 % for the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder at the
end of the deep drawing process.
The pressure pockets are designed according to the contact area in the flanges as well as the local distribution of
the sheet thickness in the flange area. Through this, the
pressure pockets of the segmented hydro-elastic blank
holder are positioned in the corner area and in the straight
edges. The final design parameter of the pressure pockets
(see Figure 5) are optimized through a parameter variation.
a3
Corner pocket
a1 = 8 mm
b1 = 40 mm
t1 = 4 mm
The thickness of the pressure pockets underlies additional requirements concerning fatigue strength. Therefore,
the dimensions in sheet plane get optimized according to
the wrinkling in the flange as well as the stress values in
the blank holder. After several optimization loops with
different pressure loads (pressure applied to the pressure
pockets) the design shown in Figure 5 gives the best re-
614
Drawing depth
0.14
0,14
Rigid BH
b3
46.3 %
0.12
0,12
CAD Model
l3
65.9 %
30 mm
60 mm
l2
a2
29.6 %
30 mm
60 mm
b1
23.6 %
Drawing depth
b2
a1
0,1
0.10
0,08
0.08
Seg.hyd.-el. BH
0,06
0.06
0,04
0.04
0,02
0.02
Long edge
0.000
0
25
50
75
Corner
Short edge
Metal Forming
with hydro-elastic segments has been designed for the
existing deep drawing tool (Figure 7). Particularly, the
following general requirements have been taken into consideration during construction and design:
1. Especially in case of defect, the pressure pockets should
be exchangeable individually.
2. In the mounted blank holder, venting of the pressure
pockets should be possible easily.
3. The segmentation of the blank holder inserts should be
optimized in order to receive leak-proof interstices
within the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder.
Blank holder
inserts
Blank holder
intermediate plate
Blank holder
mounting plate
Diaphragm
Gasket
Inlet pipe
Pressure pocket
Figure 9. Design of pressure pocket, detail.
Drawing
die
Segmented
hydro-elastic
blank holder
Punch
Center
sleeves
As visible in Figure 7 the blank holder with hydroelastic segments consists of three layers:
1. Blank holder mounting plate.
2. Blank holder intermediate plate with inlet pipes.
3. Eight blank holder inserts with vent pipes.
Vent pipe
Pressure pockets
Inlet pipe
Screw
Aligning pin
Gasket
We would like to thank the German Federation of Industrial Research Associations (AiF) for funding this research
project EFB/AiF 15540 N1 Development of a segmented
hydro-elastic blank holder for deep drawing processes.
References
[1] E. Doege, B.-A. Behrens: Handbuch Umformtechnik Grundlagen,
Technologien, Maschinen, ISBN-10 3-540-23441-1 Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Heidelberg, (2007).
[2] Z. Wei, Z.L. Zhang, X.H. Dong: International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, 29 (2006), 885-889.
[3] Q. Chang, Y. Peng, D. Li, X. Zeng: Material Science Forum, 546-549
(2007), 285-288.
[4] W. Zhang, R. Shivpuri: Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 130 (2008), 041001-1-041001-8.
[5] K. Manabe, H. Koyama: International Journal of Materials and
Product Technology, 32-4 (2008), 476-490.
[6] S. Rittmeier: Systemuntersttzte Umformung, ISBN 978-3-86727419-7 CUVILLIER VERLAG, Gttingen, (2007).
[7] K. Roll, J. Hoffmann: Eine Mglichkeit zur Bercksichtigung der
elastischen Werkzeugeigenschaften bei der Blechumformsimulation,
4. LS-DYNA Anwenderforum, Bamberg, (2005).
[8] B.-A. Behrens, K. Hajduk: Entwicklung eines hydroelastischen
Niederhalters fr den Praxiseinsatz, Abschlussbericht EFB/AiF
13052, Hannover, (2004).
[9] P. Groche, C. Metz, M. Erturul: Steel Research International, 76-12
(2005), 883-889.
615
Metal Forming
Introduction
Deep drawing is among the oldest and most widely
used metal forming processes. This production method is
one of the most important technologies to produce compact and lightweight components from thin blank materials
particularly. But, some manufacturing defects that affect
the quality of the formed part arise. The principal defects
are wrinkling and tearing. In many cases, these defects can
be eliminated by adjusting the process parameters and
depend on material and process conditions. To control
these parameters are difficult by using conventional methods because they are related to the expertise of the workers
of the production plant. So, intelligent technologies have
received much attention in a wide range of metal-forming
applications in order to make a forming system with a
large flexibility without the need of skilful experts to
achieve higher product accuracy and product quality [1].
Nowadays, many researchers have focused their studies
on intelligent control of forming process. The research
work of Zhao et al. provides a theoretical and experimental basis for developing the study on the intelligent control
of the forming process for a large complicated shell part.
They have developed an intellectualized control system for
the deep drawing processing of an axi-symmetric shell
part [2]. Hsu et al. have developed a process control technique in sheet metal forming to improve part quality and
consistency. Their technique based on optimal punch force
trajectory. This control approach is applied to U-channel
forming [3]. Manabe et al. aim to develop a new adaptive
blank holder force control system for the circular cup
deep drawing process in other to improve the product
accuracy and the forming speed. For this propose, they
propose a new control algorithm including the artificial
intelligence (AI) identification of process parameters combined the elementary plasticity analysis model [4]. Garcia
has designed an integrated automatic control system in
order to avoid production breakdowns and to improve the
reliability of the stamping process and has tested it. His
system includes sensors, artificial vision and neural networks for the diagnosis and the prediction of the process
results [5]. Yagami et al. have proposed the algorithm for
616
Metal Forming
Therefore blank holder force is one of the most important
parameter for the process control. Also, the punch speed
can be considered to be more important than the other
process parameter. Blank holder force has much particle
area of usage to control in the deep drawing process. So,
different blank holder forces are necessary for every different case if we demand good quality products. This study
aims to use the variable blank holder force and speed for
controlling deep drawing process. Hence, FEM and ANFIS models are used together to determine suitable blank
holder force and punch speed.
Finite Element Simulation of Deep Drawing Process
The die set has been designed and has been modelled
and a number of finite element simulations have been
performed with various blank holder forces and punch
velocities. The commercial finite element code, ABAQUS/
Explitic, has been used to carry out the simulation. The
model geometry is symmetric in nature so only one
quarter model of the part has been simulated. Symmetry
boundary conditions are applied at the quarter edge of
blank. The punch and blank holder can move in the vertical direction while they are constrained in the horizontal
plane. The model, which consists of a rigid die, a rigid
blank holder, a rigid punch and a deformable blank, is
shown in Figure 1.
Metal Forming
Control system of deep drawing process. The data obtained from the numerical simulation solution of the deep
drawing process have been transmitted to the model of the
Neuro-Fuzzy system. The results of the ANFIS have been
utilized to design the control system. On of the principal
aims of the study is the optimum selection of process conditions. It is desirable that the sheet metal product is to be
both unwrinkled and without tears. This case requires that
the control algorithm can select values of the blank holder
force and punch speed corresponding to the good quality
part. The control scheme of the surface roughness has been
presented in Figure 6.
618
General results obtained from the solutions of the ANFIS are shown in Figure 7, where the values in the vertical
axis means high wrinkling and tearing risks to be close to
+1 and -1, respectively, and zero corresponds to good
quality parts. Also, the rules obtained from ANFIS are
presented more detailed in Figure 8.
Metal Forming
Conclusions
References
[1] K. Manabe, H. Koyama, S. Yoshihara, T. Yagami: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 125-126 (2002), 440-445.
[2] J. Zhao, H.Q. Cao, L.X. Ma, F.Q. Wang, S.B. Li: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 151 (2004), 98-104.
[3] C.-W. Hsu, A.G. Ulusoy, M.Y. Demeri: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 127 (2002), 361-268.
[4] K. Manabe, M. Yang, S. Yoshihara: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 80-81 (1998), 421-426.
[5] C. Garcia: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 164-165
(2005), 1351-1357.
[6] T. Yagami, K. Manabe, Y. Yamauchi: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 187-188 (2007), 187-191.
[7] K.Z. Ding, Q.-H. Qin, M. Cardew-Hall: International Journal of
Mechanical Sciences, 49 (2007), 1289-1308.
[8] H. Wang, E. Li, G.Y. Li: Materials & Design, 30 (2009), 2854-2866.
[9] J.G. Hu, J.J. Jonas, T. Ishikawai: Materials Science & Engineering A,
256 (1998), 51-59.
619
Metal Forming
Introduction
The need for high accuracy of the cylindrical cup for
automobile and electrical products tends to increase. In the
normal drawing process, there is earing occurring on the
edge of the cup, and undulating deformation on the side
wall of the cups which is developed by the planar anisotropy of the work material. The deep drawing characteristics are significantly influenced by the sheet material properties and by the working conditions, such as, clearance of
the punch and die, the geometrical shape of tools, lubrication, blank holding force and so on.
It is noticed that stretch-draw forming is effective to improve the height of drawing cups [1,2]. Muranaka and
Goto have determined that this method provided an effective method in order to improve the shape accuracy of
cylindrical cups [3,4]. However, the shape accuracy at the
cross section of cylindrical cups is not enough to apply it
to sealed containers and pressure bottles.
In the present study, two methods for stretch-draw forming which used unequal shapes of blank holder were developed to form the high accuracy. The stretch-draw forming processes were carried out using two types (type A and
B) of blank holders, which have a stepped hold face and
the other sides having a partitioned hold face. The wo
stretch-draw forming processes were carried out using two
kinds of materials with a different normal anisotropy. The
effects of mechanical properties, blank holding force and
the depth of steps of the blank holder on the shape and
deformation of cups are discussed. The effective forming
conditions for improvement of accuracy are proposed by
evaluating shape accuracy in terms of the roundness of
formed cups.
Die
Stepped blank holder
(up side down image)
Blank
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of stretch-draw forming equipment (using a stepped blank holder (type A)).
The schematic illustration of stretch-draw forming process using a partitioned blank holder (type B) is shown in
Figure 2.
Sub holding
Main
force
holding force
Main holder
Experimental Procedures
A hydraulic universal testing instrument having a capacity of 500 kN was used for the experiment. The punch
speed was kept constant at 50 mm/min for various drawing
conditions. A punch of 20 mm and a die of 25 mm in diameter were used.
Two Types (type A and B) of Blank Holders. The
schematic illustration of stretch-draw forming process
using the stepped blank holder (type A) is shown in Figure
620
The partitioned blank holder was separated in two sections which were the main holding area and sub holding
area. The main holder produced the principal holding force
for the blank by the four coil springs, and sub holding
blocks, which were inserted in the incompressible area of
Metal Forming
the stepped holder, produced the assisting force for holding by the distinct four coil springs.
The holding force ratio (RF), which is evaluated as
strength of holding force, is given by
RF =FM / FS
(1)
(a) A-1050
Material:SKH51
Die
90
(b) TP340C
Type A
=14
45
=13
h=15mm
0.5mm
0.5mm
Lubricant
Tensile
strength
(Mpa)
n-value
r-value
JIS
70.51
0.295
0.760
A1050
45
79.35
0.266
0.308
90
75.23
0.220
1.073
Material
AVE
75.03
0.260
0.714
JIS
403.21
0.205
5.130
TP340C
45
382.02
0.211
4.088
90
414.97
0.239
1.540
AVE
400.06
0.218
3.586
r *
0.609
-0.753
621
Metal Forming
This tendency is originated in the balance of shrink flange
deformation and stretch deformation caused by the steps in
the blank holder. If the stepping depth df is non-stepped or
small, the stretch deformation has an influence on the
roundness of the side wall. And if the stepping depth df is
an excessive case, a change of shape accuracy for roundness is caused by shrink flange deformation.
1.35
Rolling direction (degree)
0
45
90
1.05
0.90
240
0.75
0
210
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Roundness/m
180
150
1.35
120
1.05
60
0.0
0.90
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Roundness/m
Al Ti
250
compressive direction
45
0, 90
200
150
100
50
h=13
h=14
h=15
0.6
0.9
1.2
(a) df =0 mm
(b) df =0.6 mm
(c) df =1.2 mm
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
(a) A1050
0.3
0.75
300
90
Roundness/m
Thickness strain
1.20
TP340C
A1050
Roundness/m
Thickness strain
1.20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
(b)TP340C
Metal Forming
Effects of a Partitioned Blank Holder (Type B)
urface Roundness Results. The variations of roundness
with the holding force ratio (RF) in A1050 are illustrated in
Figure 10. It can be seen that the optimum value of holding force ratio exists at RF =0.25 for A1050. If the main
holding force (FM) is changed, there is the same tendency.
And the optimum main holding force (FM=1.8 kN) give
the minimum value of surface roundness.
160
120
100
0.3
80
FM=1.2kN
FM=1.8kN
FM=2.4kN
60
40
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
direction partitioned
45
090
stepped
non-step
0.2
0.1
1.00
0.0
0.0
-0.1
roundness / m
140
stepped holder for 58%. The height of the cup, which was
measured from the bottom of the cup to edge of earing, is
11% higher than normal drawing.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
-0.2
45
Rolling direction
0
-45
Figure 11. Examples of configurations of cross section (A1050).
149.0
Roundness /m
148.0
Roundness
Height of cup
147.0
146.0
145.0
64.0
63.0
62.0
61.0
60.0
20.4
20.0
19.6
19.2
150.0
18.8
18.4
non-step
stepped
partitioned
Figure 12. Examples of configurations of cross section (A1050).
-0.3
Conclusions
Since high accuracy of cylindrical cups is common in
sealed containers and pressure bottles, it is not easy to
produce a highly accurate cup without a high precision die.
And it is impossible to exceed the precision of a die. Furthermore, a high cost is necessary to employ the high precision die. Therefore, it is desirable to develop new processes of high accuracy cups. The stretch-draw forming
process with a stepped and partitioned blank holder was
developed, and the following results were obtained:
1. To obtain a uniform thickness strain in the cross section
of formed cups, it was effective that a stepped blank
holder was applied in the stretch-draw forming.
2. Roundness with compressing the non-earing directions
was smaller than that in compressing the earing
direction.
3. The optimum value for the depth of steps existed for the
roundness of the side wall.
4. The optimum value for the folding force ratio, and main
blank holding force existed for the roundness of the side
wall.
5. The biggest surface strain of formed cup and smoothest
direction of strain were obtained by using the partitioned blank holder.
References
[1] M. Niimura, N. Yoshihara: Journal of Japan Society of Technology of
Plasticity, 40 (1999), 250-254.
[2] M.A. Hassan, R. Suenaga: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 159 (2005), 418-425.
[3] T. Muranaka, Y. Goto: Proc.8th ICTP (2005), 575-580.
[4] T. Muranaka, Y. Kinuya, N. Ito: Proc. 9th ICTP (2008), 986-991.
623
Metal Forming
Fast Flanging Defects Predict and Process Optimization in Sheet Metal Forming
Zhibing Zhang, Yuqi Liu, Ting Du
State Key Lab of Material Processing and Die & Mould Technology, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan / China,
alen@fastamp.com
In both process and die design of automotive structural parts, a flanging process should be considered sufficiently in deep drawing process
design, even though which is often after the deep drawing process in process schema. However, it is difficult to predict the formability at the
flanging region using the explicit finite element method without necessary process parameters at a early design stage. In the paper, the
formability and 3D trimming line shape are predicted using the inverse finite element method in a short time at the local flanging region to
assist the process design. In addition, the flanging process parameters and defects prediction criterion are discussed. Finally, the flanging
processes parameters of a practical case are optimized with the process design assist method. The accuracy of the prediction is verified by
comparing with the experimental result.
Keywords: Inverse approach, Trimming line prediction, Flanging analysis
Introduction
In the automotive structural parts, there are many flanging regions with complex 3D shapes. It is very difficult to
predict the formability and to calculate the trimming line
shape in the earlier die design stage. In the multi-stages
stamping die process, the flanging process is often the last
process, so the flanging region should be unfolded on the
addendum at the previous die face design stage, and the
flanging formability should be predicted to avoid design
defects. At present, an effective way is to use the finite
element method for sheet metal forming to assist the process design to avoid major design defects.
As known, the flanging analysis can be carried out after
completing the analysis of the processes before flanging
process using the incremental finite element method. And
the simulation time is relatively long with the incremental
method. So it is difficult to use this method in early design
stage with frequent process changes and short product
manufacturing cycle.
The inverse finite element method is especially suitable
for the questions of part design and process design at the
earlier design stage, such as blank design and trimming
line, and flanging analysis, for its short calculation time,
little prepared input data, and relatively high calculation
precision.
In this paper, a structural part with process design defects is analyzed using the inverse finite element method,
the process conditions are also be optimized based on
analysis result and experimental data.
624
The process model with addendum is presented in Figure 2. The whole processes are deep drawing, trimming
and flanging. In most cases, the fracture developed at the
flanging region as seen in Figure 3.
Metal Forming
In the analysis model, 11995 quadrangular and triangular mixed elements and 12434 nodes are used in the simulation. Maximum thickness thinning is -40% at the same
place shown in Figure 5, and the excessive thickness
thinning is far exceeding the sheet metal thinning limit of
20%.
In order to analyze the causes of fracture using the inverse finite element method at the local flanging region,
and some process modifications are carried out to avoid
the fracture defect.
Simulation of Current Process. The inverse finite element analysis model is built at local flanging region (in
Figure 4). Only the sheet metal at local flanging region is
analyzed, and some adjacent surfaces on addendum are
prepared as reference face. The constraints are imposed at
the adjacent region between flanging region and its connections. The thickness of sheet metal, t is 1.5mm, the
material parameters are shown in Table 1.
E/G
Pa
207
0.28
625
Metal Forming
There are two main factors that lead to the flanging facture. For one thing, the flanging height is too big at the
current design process, for another thing, the V-shape at
the edge of the flanging region will lead to stress concentration easily with strength flanging deformation as show
in Figure 6. In the following steps, the simulation analysis
will aid the experimental design to optimize the process
design.
punch
Figure 9. Local FEM mesh on reference surface.
h1
(a) Current process
(b) After deep drawing process
Figure 7. Flanging height at different process.
In the deep drawing process, the sheet metal will undergo bulking deformation at the raising region firstly.
Then in the flanging process, the sheet metal will unfold
on a relatively flat face, so the sheet metal at edge of the
flanging region will no longer have a large tensile deformation, and the fracture can be avoided.
As shown in Figure 8, maximum thickness thinning is 21.9% at the fracture region that still exceeds the thickness
thinning limit of the sheet metal. The stress concentration
at the V-shape region still leads to fracture even with optimized flanging height.
626
l2 d12
=
l1 d1'2 '
(1)
where d12 and d1' 2 ' are the lengths of two nodes at the
two configurations, respectively.
Metal Forming
Conclusions
In the early stages of die design, the sheet metal flanging analysis method based on the inverse finite element
method can be a effective tool to aid the engineering for
design of parts and processes. The major design defects
which sometimes cannot be predicted with the experimental design can be avoided. In the flanging analysis method,
the formability of flanging deformation can be predicted,
and the trimming line can be calculated to aid trimming
die design. The addendum design parameters in the deep
drawing process before the flanging can also be analyzed
in the method.
Acknowledgements
This project is supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 50905067) and China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 20080440930).
References
627
Metal Forming
Development of hydrodynamic Deep Drawing Assisted by Radial Pressure for ConicalCylindrical Parts
Abdolh-Hamid Gorji, Hassan Alavi-Hashemi, Mohamad Bakhshi-Jooybari, Ghorban Mohammad-Alinejad, Salman
Nourouzi
Department of of Mechanical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Mazandaran / Iran, hamidgorji@nit.ac.ir
Forming conical parts are one of the complex and difficult fields in sheet metal forming processes. Because of low contact area of the sheet
with a punch in the initial stages of forming, bursting occurs on the sheet. Moreover, since most of the sheet surface in the area between
the punch tip and blank holder is free, wrinkles appear on the wall of the drawn part. Thus, these parts are normally formed in industry by
spinning, explosive forming and multi-stage deep drawing processes. In this paper, forming of pure copper conicalcylindrical cups in the
hydrodynamic deep drawing process was studied using finite element simulation and experiment. Also, the effect of pressure path on the
occurrence of defects and thickness distribution of the sheet was examined. It was concluded that at low pressures, bursting occurs on the
contact area of sheet with punch tip. At higher pressures, the cup was formed, but the wall thickness distribution depends on the pressure
path. By applying the desired pressure path, a conical-cylindrical cup with high deep drawing ratio was achieved.
Keywords: Sheet hydroforming, Conical cup, Hydrodynamic deep drawing, Finite element method
Introduction
Drawing of conical parts is considerably more difficult
than the deep drawing of cylindrical cups. Due to small
contact area of the punch with the blank at initial stages in
conventional deep drawing, high stresses are applied to the
workpiece which may cause bursting of the sheet. In addition, in forming of the conical cups through conventional
deep drawing, wrinkling occurs on the sheet wall because
the blank is free between punch and die [1,2]. Thus, conical parts are normally formed by multi-stage deep drawing
[1], spinning [3] or explosive forming [4].
Because of the large tensile stresses, small drawing ratio
per draw must be used when making conical components
in multi stage deep drawing. Also, the ratio of the sheet
thickness to the initial blank diameter influences the limiting drawing ratio (LDR) to a greater extent in conical deep
drawing than when drawing cylindrical parts. The LDR, in
addition, depends on cone angle and the ratio of the largest
to the smallest cone diameter [1].
Thiruvarudchelvan and Tan [5] developed the conventional deep drawing process for drawing of conical cups
using an annular urethane pad. In this technique, the tip of
the punch dose not touch the sheet metal at any stage of
drawing. This prevents early bursting of the sheet. These
researchers formed a conical copper cup with a thickness
of 1 mm. But their method has same drawbacks; not only
the punch and die should be manufactured according to the
shape of the cup, but also some wrinkles appear on the cup
wall. No further work has been reported in forming conical
cups by this technique.
Hydroforming is a recently developed technology that
has gained an increasing interest in automotive, aerospace
and gas industries. This technology comprises several
advantages compared with conventional sheet metal forming processes [6-9].
In recent years, many innovative sheet hydroforming
methods have been proposed such as aquadraw, hydromechanical deep drawing, hydrodynamic deep drawing
(HDD), hydrodynamic deep drawing assisted by radial
pressure (HDDRP) and hydromechanical deep drawing
628
Metal Forming
Pure copper with 2 mm thickness and 80 mm diameter
was used. The stress-strain curve of the material is shown
in Figure 4 that was obtained using the tension test. Oil
SAE10 was used as the forming liquid.
In the HDDRP, before the punch goes down, a small prebulging can be created on the sheet to improve the drawing
process [8]. A hydraulic unit was used to create the prebulging pressure. When the punch moves down, the blank
is forced into the die cavity filled with oil or other liquids.
A control valve was used for controlling the maximum
pressure. The liquid in the die cavity was pressurized so it
pushes the blank tightly onto the punch surface. After
reaching a maximum pressure, the control valve was
opened and the pressure remained constant during the
forming process. The liquid in the die cavity flees out
dynamically from the gap between the blank and the die.
At the same time, because the gap is very small, the liquid
fleeing out from this gap creates a pressure around the
outside rim of the blank. Therefore, it is impossible to
create high pre-bulging pressure in this die set. In this
research, 2 MPa pre-bulging pressure was applied.
The pressure path used in this study was selected as the
easiest one available in industry. This path was created by
the downward movement of the punch into the die cavity.
Figure 3 shows the typical pressure path used in this study.
In this path, OA is the initial pre-bulging pressure (2 MPa)
applied before the punch moves down. BC is the constant
maximum pressure. The liquid outflows from control
valve by applying this pressure. Due to the strain-rate
sensitive behavior of the viscous medium, the punch velocity has significant effect on the internal pressure generation [13]. Thus, in the pressure path of Figure 3, AB is
the linear pressure path and its slope was controlled
through changing of punch velocity.
ABAQUS 6.7 was used for the FE simulation. The material behavior was assumed to be isotropic as the experimental results have verified this assumption. Figure 5
indicates the FE model of this die set. Due to axial symmetry, 2D models were used. The blank was modelled as a
2D deformable axisymmetric with CAX4R element. The
die was modeled by a 2D axisymmetric analytical rigid
element, and because of the type of element selected, was
not meshed.
117 GPa
Poissons ratio
0.32
Yield stress, s
123 MPa
Flow stress
= 530.98 0.44
629
Metal Forming
Therefore, for each maximum pressure, several simulations were conducted to obtain the desired pressure path.
Figure 6 shows the desired paths corresponding to maximum pressures 15 to 60 MPa.
Figure 6. Desired pressure paths correspond to different maximum pressures, Pmax, obtained from simulation.
Figure 11 indicates the formed cup obtained from simulation and experiment corresponds to Pmax 30 MPa. Applying this maximum pressure at final stage causes complete
forming of the cup without necking defect and creates an
accurate geometry.
630
Metal Forming
the maximum pressure of 30 MPa and the more, the slope
will not change considerably. Thus, maximum pressure
more than 30 MPa does not have any positive effect on the
cup thickness in region B.
References
[1] K. Lange, (Ed.): Handbook of Metal Forming, (McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York), 1985.
[2] M. Kawka, L. Olejnik, A. Rosochowski, H. Sunaga, A. Makinouchi:
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 109 (2001), 283-289.
[3] C.C. Wong, T.A. Dean, J. Lin: International Journal of Machine Tools
& Manufacture, 43 (2003), 1419-1435.
[4] G.H. Liaghat, A.Darvizeh, D. Javabvar, A. Abdollah: Amirkabir
Journal, 50 (2002), 250-264 (in Persian).
[5] S. Thiruvarudchelvan, M.J. Tan: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 147 (2004), 163-166.
[6] S. Thiruvarudchelvan, F.W. Travis: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 140 (2003), 70-75.
[7] S.H. Zhang, Z.R. Wang, Y. Xu, Z.T. Wang, L.X. Zhou: Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 151 (2004), 237-241.
[8] L. Lang, J. Danckert, K. B. Nielsen: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 148 (2004), 119-131.
[9] L.H. Lang, J. Danckert, K. Brian Nielsen: Proc. IMechE. Part B:
Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 218 (2004), 845-85.
[10] X. Liu, Y. Xu, S. Yuan: Journal of Material Science & Technology,
24 (2008), 395-399.
[11] L. Lang, J. Danckert, K. B. Nielsen: International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 44 (2004), 649-657.
[12] T. Khandeparkar, M. Liewald: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 202 (2008), 246-254.
[13] M. Ahmetoglu, Y. Hua, S. Kulukuru, T. Altan: Journal of Materials
processing Technology, 146 (2004), 97107.
[13] H. Alavi-Hashemi, A. Gorji, M. Bakhshi-Jooybari: Finet element
simulation and experimental study of sheet hydroforming of conical
parts, int Conf, AMPT2009
631
Metal Forming
Introduction
Due to the usage of liquid, sheet hydroforming or hydromechanical deep drawing, as a flexible forming, has
found a wide variety of applications in the field of automobile and aerospace [1-3]. Compared with conventional
sheet metal deep drawing, advantages of hydroforming
include improved forming limit, enhanced surface quality
and reduced tool cost [4,5]. Up to now, more than three
hundred types of workpieces have been manufactured with
hydroforming in Sweden, Japan and Germany et al.,
among that the materials mainly included low carbon steel
and stainless steel, and the thickness range of sheet metals
is from 0.2mm to 3.2mm [6-8].
With the increasing importance of fuel saving, aluminum alloy and magnesium alloy have been applied as
lightweight materials for automotives and aircrafts to
[9,10]. Some aluminum alloy is widely applied in the field
of aerospace. Unlike low carbon steel, it has a poor formability with small anisotropy parameter r and low hardening index n[11]. Its poor formability became a bottleneck
to the application. In order to improve forming limit, some
hydrodynamic deep drawings assisted by radial pressure
have been proposed [12-14]. However, because the radial
pressure depends on the fleeing liquid from the chamber or
the chamber pressure, the radial pressure is equal to or
smaller than chamber pressure, and larger radial pressure
cannot be loaded. For hard to form material, it is still difficult to form a cup with large height-diameter ratio in one
stroke.
In order to overcome the above problem, a new process
of hydroforming with controllable radial pressure was
proposed. The controllable radial pressure means that the
radial pressure can be beyond the chamber pressure and be
controlled indefendently. Higher forming limit may be
achieved.
Principle of Hydroforming with Controllable Radial
Pressure
The schematic illustration of hydroforming with controllable radial pressure is shown in Figure 1. Based on conventional hydroforming, a controllable radial pressure Pr is
632
Punch
FD
FQ
Seal
Chamber
pr
pC
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of hydroforming with controllable
radial pressure.
Fe
Cu
Mg
Al
0.40
0.40
0.10
5.8~6.8
Balance
Metal Forming
Material thickness is 1mm. Mechanical properties determined by tensile test are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Mechanical properties of 5A06 aluminium alloy sheet.
Yielding
Strength
Elonga-
Anisotropy
Harden-
stress/MPa
limit/MPa
tion /%
parameter
ing index
160
340
18
0.85
0.23
From the above parameters, it can be seen that the formability is poor. Usually, limiting drawing ratio is about 2.2
(height-diameter ratio 1.1) for 5A06 aluminium alloy with
conventional hydroforming.
Effects of Radial Pressure on Limiting Drawing Ratio
and Stress Boundary Circle
Stress diagram is shown in Figure 2 for the deformation
area. In Figure 2, rp is punch radius, and Rb is the initial
blank radius. For the infinitesimal element, the angle is ,
the radius is R, the width is dR, and the thickness is t. An
infinitesimal equation can be described as:
( r + d r )( R + dR) r R + 2 t dR t sin
=0
(1)
dR
d r = ( r + t )
R
r = s Ln
Rb
K) s
rp
(7)
Rb
= e1+ K
rp
(8)
K
R0/rp
R0 =
R'
(9)
Pr
e s
Stress boundary circle
(2)
Rb
Pr
R
s ( Ln
If the blank radius is 120 mm, for different radial pressure 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 MPa, the radius of stress boundary is 116, 112.5, 105, 99 and 93 mm respectively at the
beginning of deformation. With the radial pressure
increasing, the radius of boundary circle decreases and the
compressive stress zone is enlarged, and the tensile stress
zone is reduced. When the deep drawing proceeds, the
stress boundary circle will decrease towards the center.
(5)
633
Metal Forming
F nx
F nY
Fn
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
30Mpa
20Mpa
10Mpa
5Mpa
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
200
150
100
50
0
-50
50
PC
-60
P
Figure 4. Schemetic
illustration of pressure loading.
-80
Tangential stress/Mpa
According to a few of simulations, an appropriate loading path of chamber pressure was determined by simulation. When the punch stroke is about 50 mm and the hemisphere is almost formed, the chamber pressure will keep a
constant 20 MPa. Effects of radial pressure on the forming
will be analyzed after the appropriate chamber pressure is
determined. The radial pressure aids to push the rim of
blank to flow into the chamber. Loading paths of radial
pressure were designed, as shown in Figure 5. The radial
pressure was 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 MPa, respectively.
40Mpa
Punch travel/mm
Figure 5. Loading paths of radial pressure.
Radial stress/MPa
Radial pressure/Mpa
-100
-120
-140
60
0MPa
10MPa
20Mpa
30Mpa
40Mpa
-160
-180
-200
-220
634
Metal Forming
The tangential stress is compressive completely in the
flange, as shown in Figure 6(b). With increasing of the
radial pressure, the absolute value of tangential compressive stress becomes larger. According to the above simulation results, it can be concluded that the decreased radial
stress and increased tangential compressive stress are
helpful for material deformation.
Experiment on Hydroforming with Different Radial
Pressures
Experimental Procedure. The experiment was performed with the hydroforming system developed by
Harbin Institute of Technology. The radial pressure is
controlled by a proportional valve, and the chamber pressure is controlled by a supercharger. It exist a seal between
the punch and the blank holder, which can aid to establish
the radial pressure. A seal is also installed on the upper
surface of the chamber, in order to control the chamber
pressure and the radial pressure independently.
In the theoretical results and simulation results mentioned above, from the view of stress, it can be concluded
that limiting drawing ratio can be enhanced, and thickness
can be uniform for the same blank under the radial pressure. The blank is put on the surface of the chamber and
the punch is penetrated into the blank holder after the
blank holder is closed. Then the blank is hydroformed
with the loading path as the same as one in the simulation.
4.0
Experimental results
Theoretical results
3.0
2.5
5
10
15
20
25
30
Radial pressure/Mpa
35
40
45
Experiment Results. Figure 7 shows the relation between limiting drawing ratio and radial pressure. It can be
seen that limiting drawing ratio 2.4 can be reached even
though the radial pressure is 5MPa, and limiting drawing
ratio 2.8 can be achieved when radial pressure is 40MPa.
The formed workpiece (drawing ratio 2.8) is showed in
Figure 7. However, non-hardening is assumed for the
deformation of flange, so experimental results are smaller
than theoretical results. The results show that the limiting
drawing ratio is improved because the state and magnitude
of stress is changed essentially by imposing the radial
pressure.
3.5
Conclusions
635
Metal Forming
Integrated Optimal Design Method for Drawing Limit of Stainless Steel in HydroMechanical Deep Drawing
Jang-Ping Wang1),2), Guo-Ming Huang1),2), Hsien-Der Lee1), Tsung-Han Wu1),2)
1)
Department of marine Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, 2 Pei-Ning Road,Keelung,Taiwan 20224, R.O.C.;
Centre of material Processing and Measurement, National Taiwan Ocean University, B0193@ntou.edu.tw
2)
Research
An integrated optimal design method for the maximum drawing length (drawing limit) of stainless steel in hydro-mechanical deep-drawing is
proposed. In this paper, three steps are adopted. The Finite Element Method based on the concept of the Taguchi technique is first used to
simulate the processes of deep drawing at the considerations of all the possible significant parameters to the drawing limit, and then the
parameters that have the convex curves on S/N diagram are chosen for optimal experimental designs according to the Taguchi
experimental Method. On the last step, the hybrid of the artificial neural network with the genetic algorithm is used to find the optimal value
from these parameters. With this solution, an experiment is fulfilled and compared. It is shown that the result obtained from the hybrid
method is good agreement with experiment.
Keywords: Taguchi technique, Taguchi-FE method, Hybrid of ANN with GA, Hydro-mechanical deep-drawing, Drawing limit, Stainless
steel
Introduction
The deep drawing of stainless steel is widely applied to
manufacture the parts of the automobile, aerospace and
electrical industries. Although the products of stainless
steel possess have good merits such as good surface finish,
high mechanical strength and rustproof property, the phenomena of easy fracture, earring and wrinkling [1] have
annoyed the industry of manufacturers for a long times. To
prevent wrinkling, the pressures were enforced on the
blank-holders [2] and improved by Yagami et al. [3] by
controlling blank-holder motions. It is also easily observed
that the increase of blank holder pressures will effectuate
the fracture coming early.
To increase the drawing length and minimize the thickness variation of the drawn cup, an experimental investigation of hydro-forming deep drawing was studied by Kandil
[4] and introduced by Thiruvarudchelvan and Travis [5] on
the consideration of pressures on the blank holders. It is
understandable that the costs of the experimental and empirical approaches by the try and error procedures are huge,
and they are also hardly to find the optimal solutions for
the die designs. To solve this problem, Taguchi technique
[6] is a powerful method used to find the optimal set of
experimental parameters. It gives significant reduction in
the total number of experiments or simulations [7,8].
Furthermore, a combination of finite element analysis (FE)
with Taguchi method called Taguchi-FE method was used
to simulate the forming of deep-drawing by Padmanabhan
et al. [9].
In the study of this paper, the Taguchi-FE method is
adopted to sift out the parameters that possess the convex
curves on S/N diagram. These parameters that have maximum values are further analyzed according to Taguchi
experimental method. In this stage, it is observed that three
parameters (punch velocity, thickness of blank and hydraulic pressure) with orthogonal array L9 (33 ) are selected for experiments. Finally, the results of experiments
are sent to the numerical system of hybrid of artificial
neural network (ANN) with genetic algorithm (GA) to find
the optimal solution. An experiment is fulfilled to compare
636
Metal Forming
Hydraulic
pressure
( kgf / cm 2 )
20
15
16 6.7 15.5 3.3 14.7 3.9 14.3
40
22
18.8 10.5 21.2 3.6 14.9 9.3 20.3
60
23.3
22.7 5.7 24 2.3 22.4 4.7 19.1
80
17.5
18.2 4.5 18.1 3.4 18.4 5.1 18.1
Note: DL,EL: the drawing length of FE simulation and experiment
DL-EL
ER =
100% ,Thickness=0.5mm
EL
4.6
7.7
12
5.3
Optimization Steps
Taguchi-FE Method. Taguchi-FE technique is a numerical simulation method that used the concept of Taguchi technique combined with FE simulation. On the
conditions of knowing friction coefficient, seven parameters such as fillet radius of punch and die, hydraulic pressure, blank holder force, drawing ratio, punch velocity and
thickness of blank are chosen and classified three different
levels. Table 2 is the list of selected parameters and their
levels. Eighteen simulations of FE need to carry out on the
orthogonal array L18 (37 ) that are designed with various
combinations of selected parameter levels for the above
seven parameters. FE simulations are carried out to predict
the drawing lengths of the blank sheets. Figure 4 shows
the schematic repesentation of the hydro-mechanical deep
drawing. The simulation conditions can be obtained from
experiments shown in Table 3. The variations of S/N ratio
with different levels obtained from the ANOVA of
selected parameters to the effectiveness of drawing lengths
are shown in Figure 5. In this figure, the r-axis represents
the values of S/N ratio and the angle of is divided seven
637
Metal Forming
regions that present the distributions of levels for each
selected parameters.
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
0.5
1.5
0.3
0.5
0.7
40
80
BHF ( kgf / cm )
10
20
30
Drawing ratios
2.18
2.01
1.84
Simulation model
Blank material
Youngs Modulus
SUS 304
2552.4 Mpa
Friction coefficient ()
0.25
Stress-strain equation
= 1395.275
0.394
Dd = 62.6 mm
Punch diameter ( D p )
Dp = 59.5 mm
Average normal
anisotropy, R
R=1.06231
638
3 1
0
+ 343.67Mpa
Die diameter ( Dd )
d p = 0.464 [11]
Metal Forming
Hybrid of ANN with Genetic Algorithm. Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) is used to establish the data base
between the input/output parameters. In this study, three
input parameters (hydraulic pressure, punch velocity and
thickness of blank) with one output (drawing length) are
used to train the system of data base. Once the convergence reaches a satisfactory minimum, the data base has
been built and can be used to find the maximum drawing
length. Genetic Algorithm (GA) is adopted to find the
optimal solution in the searching processes. The numerical
result is listed in Table 5.
Accomplishments
The solutions for various optimizations are listed in Table 5 for the comparisons. In this table, it can be observed
that the hybrid method gave the best agreement solution
with the experimental result. It is worthy to note that the
result of Taguchi-FE method shows the greatest error of
solution compared with the experiment. The influence of
hydraulic pressure to drawing length is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7(a) shows the drawing length as 27.4 mm at the
conditions of optimal parameters and Figure 7(b) as 23.8
mm at the same conditions but hydraulic pressure is zero.
It is demonstrated that the hydraulic pressure can improve
the drawing length of stainless steel.
Table 5. Comparisons of various optimal solutions with
experiment.
Selected parameters
Taguchi-FE
Taguchi
Hybrid
Exp.
Fillet radius of punch
8
8
8
8
(mm)
Fillet radius of die
8
8
8
8
(mm)
Thickness of blank
1
1
0.7
0.7
(mm)
Punch velocity
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.1
(mm/s)
Hydraulic pressure
40
40
43
43
2
( kgf / cm )
BHF ( kgf
/ cm
10
10
10
10
Drawing ratios
friction
coefficients( )
2.18
2.18
2.18
2.18
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
24.2
27.1
27.5
27.4
Conclusions
An integration of optimal design method for the predictions of the drawing limits in hydro-mechanical deep
drawing of stainless steel is proposed and studies in this
paper. It can be concluded as following:
1. The evaluation of friction coefficient used for FE simulations by the experimental approach shows good and
achievable effort.
2. In various optimal solutions, the Taguchi-FE method
presents the greatest error of solution compared with
the experiment. On the contrary, the hybrid method
according to the experimetal data base obtained from
the Taguchi experimental method prsents an excellent
approach.
/ cm 2
References
[1] W.F. Hosford, R.M. Caddell: Metal forming, Prentice-Hall internation, (1993).
[2] K. Yoshida, H. Hayash, I. Miyauch, Y. Yamamoto, M. Abe, R. Usuda,
R. Ishida, Y. Oike: Sci. Pap. Inst. Phys. Chem. Res. 68 (1974), 85-93.
[3] T. Yagami, K. Manabe, Y. Yamauchi: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 191 (2007), 187-191.
[4] A. Kandil: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 134 (2003),
70-80.
[5] S. Thiruvarudchelvan, F.W. Travis, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 140 (2003), 70-75.
[6] G. Taguchi, S. Konishi: American Supplier Institute, (1987), 3538.
[7] S.W. Lee: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 130-131
(2002) 47-53.
[8] M. Colgan, J. Monaghan: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 132 (2003), 35-41.
[9] R. Padmanabhan, M.C. Oliveira, J.L. Alves, L.F. Menezes: Finite
Elements in Analysis and Design, 43 (2007),1062-1067.
[10] A. Jaisingh, K. Narasimhan, P.P. Date, S.K. Maiti, U.P. Singh:
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 147 (2004), 321-327.
[11] P. Brozzo, B. DeLuca, R. Rendina: Proc. 7th Biennial Conference of
the International Deep Drawing Research Group, (1972)
639
Metal Forming
Introduction
Flexforming is a type of a hydroforming process in
which the sheet metal is forced to take the shape of a rigid
die by the action of fluid pressure, which acts through a
rubber diaphragm (Figure 1). The advantages of the process are that there is only a single rigid die providing low
die costs, the easy modification of the dies after design
changes leading to fast tryouts, and finally high quality
parts with less damage of the sheet (less wrinkling and
tearing occurs in comparison to conventional stamping).
The disadvantages are that special presses are needed to
withstand high pressures (up to 80 MPa) in the pressure
chamber and that controlling the final geometry of the part
is more challenging than in conventional stamping.
Flexform process is commonly used in the aircraft industry where many different parts have to be manufactured in small batches. The failure modes of the process
are wrinkling, tearing and springback. Semi-empirical
methods and previous experience are not sufficient to
predict these defects before forming [2,4]. Therefore,
some detailed numerical analysis is needed for the optimization of the process. Analysis of this process is done by
Hatipoglu et al. [1] in detail in which flange bending of
sheets are studied by doing some experimental and numerical work.
Friction between the sheet and die is one of the important factors affecting the quality of sheet metal forming so
that the clarification of the friction is essential. This study
aims to determine the friction coefficient between die and
sheet in flexforming process. Experimental work is done
by drawing a square pan at different friction conditions
and pressure values. Numerical forming analyses of the
640
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. (a) Formed sheet part and (b) flexform press used in
experiments.
The experiments were conducted at various friction conditions and pressure values. Table 1 lists those experiments. Friction condition "dry" means no lubricant is used
between the die and the sheet, whereas in the "oiled" condition a drawing oil is used. "Oiled+nylon" is the condition in which an oiled nylon is put between the die and the
sheet. All those conditions result in a different sheet geometry, which is characterized by flange edge profile. The
material used in the experiments is an aluminum alloy
2024-0 sheet with a thickness of 2 mm.
Metal Forming
Table 1. List of experiments conducted with different parameters.
Experiment No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Pressure Value
[MPa]
10
40
80
10
40
80
10
40
80
Friction
Condition
dry
dry
dry
oiled
oiled
oiled
oiled + nylon
oiled + nylon
oiled + nylon
Material
Al 2024-0
Al 2024-0
Al 2024-0
Al 2024-0
Al 2024-0
Al 2024-0
Al 2024-0
Al 2024-0
Al 2024-0
where
(2)
flange edge
sheet
diaphragm
die
The sheet is discretized with Belytschko-Tsay shell elements using 5 integration points through the thickness.
Constant stress solid elements are used for the mesh of the
diaphragm in which 8 elements are used through the
thickness. The boundary conditions are hinged peripheral
nodes of the diaphragm, the symmetry conditions at the
quarter planes and finally the pressure load on the diaphragm.
The materials in the process are Aluminum 2024 - 0 for
the sheet and rubber for the diaphragm. Uniaxial tensile
tests are conducted both for the aluminum (according to
ASTM E 8M) and the rubber (according to ASTM D 412).
The material properties obtained from test results are
summarized in Table 2. Power Law Plasticity model is
used for the aluminum which has elastoplastic behavior
with isotropic hardening and it is implemented by the
following equation [3]:
Material
Al 2024-0
Rubber
Yield
Strength
[MPa]
61
-
Elastic
Modulus
[MPa]
73100
6
Density
Poisson's
K
[tonnes/
n
A [MPa] B [MPa]
Ratio
[MPa]
mm3]
0.33
2.77E-09 347 0.246
0.499
1.00E-08
0.8
0.2
The challenging part in modeling this process is to define the contact parameters between two deformable and
one rigid body all being mutually in contact with each
other. The penalty method is used for the implementation
of the contact algorithm in which inner pairs of forces are
applied at those locations where penetrations are observed
at contacting bodies. Special scaling should be done for
the contact stiffness between the diaphragm and the die,
and also between the diaphragm and the sheet in order to
compensate the bulk modulus differences between these
materials. Coulomb friction model is used for contacting
parts. The friction coefficient between the die and the
sheet is changed by doing multiple runs ( =0.05 - 0.25).
Experimental and Numerical Results
= K n
(1)
Flange edge geometry is a good criterion for the comparison between the experimental and the numerical results since it experiences considerable change during
forming process. Table 3 lists the experimental and numerical results considering the maximum displacement of
the flange edge. From the table, it is seen that as the pressure increases and the friction decreases, maximum flange
edge displacement increases.
Experimental and numerical results could be matched
together (with an average error of 0.3 mm) to specify the
friction coefficient values that should be used in the simulations for the different friction condition cases. After
matching, it is found that for dry condition 0.25, for oil
condition 0.125 and lastly for oil+nylon condition 0.05
should be used.
Figure 4 shows the matching results between the experimental and the numerical work schematically. Photos
are taken to show the final sheet geometry of the experiments. For the evaluation of the numerical results, the
flange edge line is extracted from the deformed finite
element mesh and is shown with black plot.
641
Metal Forming
Table 3. Experimental and numerical results.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
max. flange edge displacement [mm]
friction
at 10 MPa
at 40 MPa
at 80 MPa
condition
OIL+NYLON
5.4
11
11.8
OIL
4
7.6
7.8
DRY
2.4
3.5
3.5
NUMERICAL RESULTS
max. flange edge displacement [mm]
friction
at 10 MPa
at 40 MPa
at 80 MPa
coefficient
0.05
5.4
10.4
11.8
0.075
5.1
9.6
10.7
0.1
4.9
8.8
9.5
0.125
4.5
7.8
8.1
0.15
4.3
6.6
6.7
0.175
4.1
5.6
5.6
0.2
3.7
4.6
4.6
0.225
3.5
4.2
4.2
0.25
3.3
3.6
3.6
Conclusions
Finite element analysis has been used to simulate the
flexforming process and to predict the final shape of the
sheet beforehand. The accuracy of the analysis depends
on the accuracy of the friction value that is entered to the
program. For this reason, a methodology is developed to
determine the friction coefficient between the die and the
sheet for the flexform process. Experiments are conducted
by drawing an aluminum square pan at three different
friction conditions (dry, oiled, oiled with nylon) and at
three different pressure values (10, 40 and 80 MPa) for
each condition. Then, the friction coefficient used in the
simulation is adjusted until the calculated response (flange
edge geometry) matches the measured data within a specified tolerance. Matching results specify the corresponding
friction coefficients of the friction conditions that should
be used in future work.
Acknowledgements
642
Metal Forming
Ageing Regulating Process For 2024 Aluminum Alloy Thin Workpiece Formed Using
Rubber Fluid Forming
Rong Min, Yongjun Wang, Ximing Gou, Junbiao Wang
Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Contemporary Design and Integrated Manufacturing Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical
University, Xi'an, Shaanxi / China, wyongjun@nwpu.edu.cn.
When thin-walled workpieces are formed using rubber fluid process, the workpieces usually have distortion due to the springback. A new
regulating method was proposed to eliminate this defect. The ageing regulating process was useful to reduce the springback of thin-walled
workpieces. In this work, the experimental devices were designed and manufactured. There were two kinds of aluminium alloy tested, W
state and O state (annealing state). The regulating coefficient had been inducted to reflect the effect of the regulating process. Though
measuring the radius of the regulated samples and the bended radius, the regulating coefficient of each sample were obtained. Finally, in
order to research the influence on the material mechanical property, the uniaxial tension test was performed to get the mechanical property change after the ageing regulating process. The relationship between the ageing regulating process parameters and the material
strength was investigated.
Keywords: Al-2024-O, Al-2024-W, Thin workpiece, Rubber fluid forming, Ageing regulating process, Regulating coefficient, Springback
Introduction
Unified Ageing-Creep Constitutive Equations. Uniaxial mechanism-based creep constitutive equations with
three state variables were established by Kowalewski [9]
in 1994.
= [ A / (1 2 ) n ]sin h[ B (1 H ) / (1 )]
(1)
H = (h / e ) (1 H / H * )
= ( K / 3)(1 ) 4
(2)
(3)
2 = D
where A , B , h , H * , K c and D are material constants and
n is given by.
n = [ B e (1 H ) / (1 )]cot h[ B e (1 H ) / (1 )] (4)
Springback of Thin-walled Workpiece after Ageing
Regulating Process. The age-hardening and creep deformation of ageing workpieces is evaluated using unified
creep-ageing constitutive equations. The springback can
be written as [5]:
f
)
0
(5)
643
Metal Forming
h/2
h/ 2
11 =
R = ( H 2 + 0.25 L2 ) / (2 H )
11 zdz
(7)
E
(11t 11c )[1, v, 0]
1 v2
(8)
Bolt
Upper
Die
Down Die
#2
18
0
24
Bended Sample
R2
R1
R0
Down Die
Aged Sample
#7
17
0
10
#8
18
0
24
100
333.33
No.
Temp
(C)
Time
(Hour
)
(9)
#9
19
0
48
(a) 170 C
(c) 190 C
(b) 180 C
(d) 10 hours
(e) 24 hours
(f) 48 hours
Figure 4. Ageing regulating of Al-2024-O samples
a) Experimental devices
b) experimental environment
Figure.2. Experimental device and experimental environment.
644
Metal Forming
when the sample was aged at 180 or 190 C. If the better
quality of the workpiece was required, the ageing time
should be longer. As shown in Figure 4(d) to Figure 4(e),
the sample aged in 10 hours, the regulating coefficient of sample aged at 180 C was the highest. When aged for 24
hours, when the bending radius was shorter than 50 mm,
the regulating coefficient of 180 C stage samples was the
highest. The regulating coefficient of other samples became higher with the temperature increasing. Aged for 48
hours, when the bending radius of sample was shorter
than 20 mm (including 20 mm), the regulating coefficient
aged at 180 C was the highest, the regulating coefficient
of other samples was higher with temperature increasing.
(a) 170 C
(b) 180 C
(a) at 170C
(c) 190 C
(b) at 180
(d) 10 hours
(c) at 190C
(d) 10 hours
(e) 24 hours
(f) 48 hours
Figure 5. Ageing regulating of Al-2024-W samples.
(e) 24 hours
(f) 48 hours
Figure 6. Uniaxial tension curves of Al-2024-O samples.
645
Metal Forming
(a) 170C
(b) at 180C
(c) 190C
(d) 10 hours
(e) 24 hours
(f) 48 hours
Figure 7. Uniaxial tension curve of Al-2024-W samples.
646
The ageing behaviour of regulating 2024 aluminium alloy thin workpieces was investigated. The following conclusions were reached as followings:
1. It was found that the regulating coefficient was influenced significantly by the relative bending radius of the
sample. When the relative bending radius increased, the
regulating coefficient decreased. The optimal ageing
regulating parameters for different relative bending radius were obtained by experiments.
2. It was also found that when Al-2024-O aluminium
specimens were aged at 180 C and the ageing time less
than 24 hours, the regulating coefficient increase unobvious. When Al-2024-O aluminium specimens were
aged for 48 hours and the ageing time was longer than
24 hours, the regulating coefficient also changed a little.
For Al-2024-W aluminium specimens, when aged at
190C and the ageing time was longer than 24 hours,
the increase of regulating coefficient was not obvious.
3. The mechanical property of Al-2024-O aluminium
specimens and Al-2024-W aluminium specimens were
investigated by uniaxial tensile tests. the experiment
show, for Al-2024-O aluminium specimens, when aged
at 170 and 190 C or for 24 and 48 hours, the yield
stress and tensile strength was increased. For Al-2024W aluminium specimens, when aged at 170 C and
180C or aged for 24 and 48 hours, the yield stress and
tensile strength was also increased. It was because the
microstructure of the material changed.
References
[1] X. Zhou, H. Chang, M. Dai: Journal of Beijing University of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2 (1992).
[2] Denise M. Hambrick, Inc.: 1.4 (1986), 649-664.
[3] Airbus A380 takes creep age-forming to new heights, Airbus Materials World, 2004,4.
[4] X. Zhou, H. Chang: Aeronautical Manufacturing Technology, 261-28
(1998), 19-23.
[5] Jeunechamps, K.C. Ho: International Journal of Mechanical Sciences,
48 (2006), 621-629.
[6] K.C. Ho, J. Lin, T.A. Dean: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 153-154 (2004), 122-127.
[7] W.D. Carden, M. Geng, D.K. Matlock: International Journal of
Mechanical Sciences, 44-1 (2002), 79-101.
[8] B.K. Chun, H.Y. Kim, J.K. Lee: International Journal of Plasticity,
18-5-6 (2002), 571-595.
[9] Z.L. Koealeski, J. Lin, D.R. Hayhurst: Investigation of a high accuracy uni-axial creep testpiece, (1995).
Metal Forming
Introduction
In recent years, several sheet hydroforming methods
have been introduced by researchers. Despite the advantages of these methods, they have some limitations. The
authors [1] already proposed a new die-set of sheet hydroforming method that is a combination of the standard and
hydromechanical [2,3] sheet hydroforming processes. The
proposed method has the advantages of both processes and
eliminates their limitations. In this method, a polyurethane
plate was used as a part of the die-set to control the blank
holder force. This paper outlines the Taguchi optimization
methodology, which is applied to optimize the effective
parameters in forming cylindrical cups by the new die set
of sheet hydroforming process. The objective for this investigation is minimization of the maximum thinning in
the critical zones of the formed cup.
Taguchis approach is totally based on statistical design
of experiments [4], and this can economically satisfy the
needs of problem solving and product/process design
optimization [5]. By applying this technique one can significantly reduce the time required for experimental investigation, as it is effective in investigating the effects of
multiple factors on performance as well as to study the
influence of individual factors to determine which factor
has more influence, which less [4, 5]. Taguchi creates a
standard orthogonal array to accommodate this requirement.
Experimental Procedure and Tooling
Sheet hydroforming process that is used in the current
paper is a combination of standard and hydromechanical
sheet hydroforming processes. The proposed technique has
the advantages of the two processes but eliminates their
defects.
Figure 1 provides a schematic illustration of the new
tool set-up; it consists of a punch, a blank holder, a die, a
pressure chamber, a polyurethane sheet, four screws, and
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
647
Metal Forming
The applied material is St14 steel sheet with 1mm thickness and its properties that were obtained by tensile test
are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Properties of the material.
Parameter
value
210
201
Density (Kg/m3)
7800
Strain-hardening coefficient
0.27
In order to optimize the forming parameters, the thickness distribution of the formed cups was investigated. In
this respect, the cups were cut from one of their symmetry
plane and the thickness was measured through the plane
perpendicular to that plane. The divided area of the cut
section is presented in Figure 3.
Design of Experiments
The present investigation uses Taguchi method, which is
a powerful design of experiments tool. This method provides a simple, efficient and systematic approach to determine optimal sheet hydroforming parameters. Conventional experimental design methods are too complex and
expensive. A large number of experiments have to be carried out to study the process. Taguchi method uses an
orthogonal array to study the entire process with only a
small number of experiments [6]. Moreover, traditional
experimentation involves one factor-at a time experiments,
wherein one variable is changed while the rest are held
constant.
It is also not possible to study all the factors involved in
the process and to determine their main effects (i.e., the
individual effects) in a single experiment.
The steps involved are [5]:
1. Identification of the response functions and the process parameters.
2. Determination of the number of levels for the process
parameters and possible interaction between them.
3. Selection of the appropriate orthogonal array.
4. Selection of the optimum level of process parameters
through ANOVA analysis.
5. Performing a confirmation experiment to verify the
optimal process parameters.
The input parameters chosen for the experiments are (a)
polyurethane hardness (shore A), (b) polyurethane thickness (mm), and (c) forming pressure (MPa). The range and
the number of levels of the design parameters are given in
Table 2.
648
parameter
polyurethane thickness (mm)
level 1
level 2
level 3
15
20
25
40
80
90
55
75
Metal Forming
Developing Design Matrix
In the present analysis, an L9 orthogonal array with
three columns and nine rows is used. This array can handle
three level process parameters. Therefore, only nine experiments are required to study the hydroforming process.
The experimental layout for the present work using the L9
orthogonal array is shown in Table 3. The coded value 1
represents the level 1, 2 represents the level 2, and 3 represents the level 3.
A statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA) was formed
to identify the process parameters that are statistically
significant. Based on ANOVA the optimal combination of
the parameters is predicted.
Table 3. Experimental lay out using L9 array.
Experimental
number
Parameter level
Experimental
results for thinmax
a
1
b
1
c
1
0.17
0.19
0.25
0.16
0.26
0.23
0.26
0.20
0.24
649
Metal Forming
level description
PU thickness (mm)
15
level contribution
1
-0.015
PU hardness (S.A)
65
-0.022
50
-0.022
650
Conclusions
The process parameters that affect the sheet hydroforming with the new die-set process have been studied using
Taguchi technique. The variables affecting the thickness
thinning according to their relative significance are the
forming pressure, the polyurethane hardness and the polyurethane thickness, respectively. The optimum forming
condition is said to be at forming pressure = 50 MPa, polyurethane hardness = 65 Shore A, and polyurethane thickness = 15 mm. It has been shown that, forming parameters
set at their optimum levels can ensure significant improvement in the response function.
References
[1] M. Hosseinzade, H. Mostajeran, M. Bakhshi-Jooybari, A. Gorji, S.
Nourouzi, S. J. Hosseinipour: Proc. IMechE Part B: J. Eng. Manufact. Uncorrected proove.
[2] S.H. Zhang, Z.R. Wang, Y. Xu, Z.T. Wang, L.X. Zhou: Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 151 (2004), 237-241.
[3] S. Thiruvarudchelvan, W. Lewis, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 88 (1999), 51-56.
[2] M. Alauddin, M.A. El Baradie, M.S.J. Hashmi: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology. 71 (2003), 456-465.
[3] M. N. Dhavlikar, M. S. Kulkarni, V. Mariappan: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 132 (2003) 90-104.
[4] A. Garcia-Diaz: Chapman & Hall, London, (1995).
[5] P. M. George, B. K. Raghunath, L. M. Manocha, A. M. Warrior:
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 145 (2004), 6671.
[6] M.J. Davidson, K. Balasubramanian, G.R.N. Tagore, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 200 (2008), 283287
Metal Forming
Introduction
Blow forming is a manufacturing process whereby the
gas pressure applied on a side of the sheet metal pushes it
into the opposite side and blow it into die so that the sheet
metal formed the die configuration. This process mostly is
used for superplastic materials forming to produce very
light and strong aerospace components. Superplastic materials are polycrystalline solids that exhibit the ability to
undergo large uniform strains at certain loading. The tensile ductility of superplastic metals typically ranges from
200 to 1000% elongation. Fine grain size of less than 10
micrometer, forming temperature greater than half the
absolute melting temperature of the material, and controlled optimum strain rate, opt , that the strain rate sensitivity exponent, m, attains a maximum value, are the principal requirements for superplasticity. The low flow stress
and high sensitivity of flow stress to strain rate are the
main features of the superplastic deformation. As high
elongations, complex parts can be formed in a single press
cycle and often multipart fabrications is decreased. But the
design of a superplastic forming process is more difficult
than conventional manufacturing operation. The important
factor is the prediction of the applied pressure path in
order to maintain the maximum strain rate near the optimum value throughout the whole forming process [1, 2].
In this paper, the optimum pressure path is determined in
superplastic blow forming process by finite-element modeling (FEM) and analytical methods, and the effect of die
angle and friction coefficient on the applied pressure is
studied.
Theoretical Model
The analytical approach is basically similar to Refs. [35] that developed for semi-conical die. The following
assumptions have been made during the theoretical modeling of the superplastic forming:
1. Elastic strain is neglected and strain hardening effects is
ignored
2. The plastic flow stress for the material is expressed as
= k m
p = ph = 2pr
(1)
2 pr h p
Ri
2 p h p
Ri
(2)
651
Metal Forming
proximately plane strain. From the Levy-Mises flow rule
and volume constancy, the effective stress e and the
effective strain rate e at the edge can be obtained respectively, as
3
er
2
e =
, = 2 = 2
e
er
eh
3
(3)
(4)
2 er he 2 e he
=
Ri
3R i
(5)
er
2 e
=
pr
3 p
h 1 h( i )
ln
=
t
t h( i 1)
combining Eqs. (1), (3), (5) and (6), the relation between
and h p ( i ) and he ( i ) at the instance of time t i can be expressed as [3]
h p (i )
he ( i )
2 ln ( he ( i ) he (i 1) )
=
3 ln ( h p ( i ) h p ( i 1) )
(7)
t i can be obtained as
h p (i )
h p (i 1)
=
exp(optimum .t )
(8)
2
(h h )
i 2 p e
(9)
Phase I. The following relations between radius of curvature, pole depth and contact angle can be obtained from
Figure 2:
(6)
Ri =
(D / 2) 2 re 2 + (H p re ) 2
R
r
+
2(
)
i
e
i = sin 1
2H p
(10)
The volumes of regions I and II (V I ,V II ) can be obtained from the geometric relationship as
h p (1 cos i )
V I = 2 R i 2 h p he
2
(2
sin
2)
cos
2)
i
i
i
i
i 2
i
D
j + j 1
V II = 2 h j .re ( j j 1 ) re sin
2
j =1
(11)
D2
4
(12)
2sin i
Metal Forming
(14)
y i = y j = y i 1 + y i
j =1
V III = 2 .y j R j .sin j .h j
(15)
j =1
D2
4
(16)
1
1
, n=
Kn
m
( optimum ) is proposed as
Pi
Youngs modulus, E
Strain rate sensitivity factor, m
100 MPa
0.4
591 MPa
75 GPa
0.6
(17)
Pi +1 = 1 ln max
optimum
= C n
Figure 3. Axisymmetric model of conical-bulging process: Simulation model (Right), Dimensions of the die and sheet (Left).
(18)
653
Metal Forming
significantly by increasing the friction coefficient, due to
the conical shape of the die. However the friction coefficient affects the pressure profile and higher friction coefficient values lead to an increase in the time within which
the pressure applied. With increasing the die angle the
maximum pressure decreases. Simulation analysis predicates maximum pressure grater than analytical method.
Figure 7 shows the place of maximum strain rate at
various times that obtained from simulation analysis. It is
seen that until the time of 178 s the maximum strain rate
take placed at the edge of the sheet. In other word, at the
outset of the process unlike the theoretical assumption the
maximum strain rate dose not occur at the dome. This
leads to prediction a grater thickness at the dome in simulation analysis than theoretical method and increasing the
maximum pressure.
Conclusions
The deformation behavior of superplastic blow forming
of the Aluminum alloy 5083 into a conical closed die was
considered by theoretical model and finite element simulation. The commercial software ABAQUS/Standard 6.8
was used as computational tool. In order to model the gas
pressure, an extended load under the sheet was used. In the
theoretical model nonuniform thinning and contact condition including the sticking and sliding friction modes between the sheet and die are considered. The pressure profile indicates good agreement between the theoretical
model and simulation prediction. The total forming time
increases with increasing friction coefficient, whereas it
decreases with increasing die angle. Generally, the results
show that the finite element method is a reliable method
for simulating and optimizing the SPF, since it allows the
prediction of important parameters such as, stress, strain,
strain rate, thickness distribution and forming time.
References
[1] M.H. Hojjati, M. Zoorabadi, S.J. Hosseinipour: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 205 (2008), 482-488.
[2] L. Carrino, G. Giulino, C. Palmieri: Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 143-144 (2003), 373-377.
[3] Y.M. Hwang, J.S. Yang, T.R. Chen, J.C. Hung, W.U. Wu: International Journal of Mechanical Science, 40-9 (1998), 867-885.
[4] Y.M. Hwang, H.S. Lay: Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
140 (2003), 426-431.
[5] Y.M. Hwang, H.S. Lay, J.C. Huang: International Journal of Machine
Tools & Manufacture, 42 (2002), 1363-1372.
[6] ABAQUS. Analysis User's Manual: Version 6.8.
Time=50 s
Time=100 s
Time=178 s
Time=255 s
654
Metal Forming
Experiment Determination of Two Unified Fracture Criteria for Hot Sheet Hydroforming
Bao-sheng Liu1), Li-hui Lang1), Sergey Alexandrov2), Hu Zhang1), Elena Lyamina2)
1)
School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, 100191, Beijing / China, liubaosheng@me.buaa.edu.cn;
tute for Problems in Mechanics of Russian Academy of Sciences, 101-1 Prospect Vernadskogo, 119526, Moscow / Russia
2)
Insti-
The fracture criterion proposed by Sergey and the fracture criterion based on the diagram of the equivalent stress and stress triaxiality
involve sheet and bulk forming in one diagram. In this paper, it is proved that the stress state of hot sheet hydroforming is a three dimensional stress state rather than a plane stress state, and two unified fracture criteria were determined by three typical tests of upsetting, wide
sheet bending and uniaxial tension at elevated temperatures.
Keywords: Unified fracture criterion, Sheet forming, Bulk forming, Hydroforming, Temperature, Experiment determination
Introduction
As an important measure for weight reduction, aluminium alloy is widely used in aviation and auto industries.
One concern is the exact prediction of fracture failure of
aluminium alloy, which often occurs before the necking
instability due to the low formability. The technology of
hot sheet hydroforming makes an effective way to meet
the demand of formability improvement or parts forming
with complicated shapes for light weight alloys. The
counter pressure coupled with the elevated temperature
brings out a great influence on the stress state in the process of hot sheet hydroforming, which shows the compound
features of both sheet forming and bulk forming.
Much experimental investigation has been done for
sheet and bulk forming. The most commonly used method
for sheet metal forming to predict failure is the forming
limit diagram (FLD) [1,2], the plot of which are the curves
with the comparison of the principal major strains vs.
minor strains in different strain state. The extension of
forming limit prediction for sheet forming is known as the
fracture forming limit diagram (FFLD) [3] and strain path
independent forming limit stress diagram (FLSD) [4], each
of which is also plotted with the fracture stains or stresses
measured. With respect to bulk forming, the axial compressible strain and circumferential tensile strain in the
upsetting test are the concerned parameters, which constitute the forming limit diagram used in bulk metal forming
[5]. The diagram based on the relation of hydrostatic stress
to equivalent strain is a general method for fracture prediction in the wide variety of forming operations such as
alligatoring in rolling, cracks in extrusion, tears in sheet
forming and so on [6,7]. Swifts diffuse instability [8] and
Hills localised instability [9] made the theoretical basis of
formability analysis. M-K model [10] described the
groove instability of the stretching region by assuming the
pre-existing inhomogeneity in the sheet. Ductile fracture
criteria [6,11,12] were proposed based on the concept of
the growth and coalescence of micro-cracks in plastic
materials, which were commonly investigated in bulk or
sheet forming. Damage models [13,14] predict failure
based on the assumption of void growth during plastic
deformation until the evolution of the micro-defects reaching a threshold valve.
However, those approaches are investigated in the field
of either sheet forming or bulk forming individually. If the
compound features of both forming strategies are considered in one criterion or diagram, those mentioned are not
exact to evaluate the formability in hot sheet hydroforming.
Sergeys fracture criterion [15] and the criterion with the
equivalent strain as a function of stress triaxiality ratio
[16,17] made quite a wide variety of forming processing to
exhibit the general features of fracture curves. In this paper,
the special feature of hot sheet hydroforming is analyzed,
and the diagrams of the two criteria are determined by
experiments at elevated temperature with single tension,
plain strain and cylinder upsetting.
Analysis of Stress State for Cylindrical Cup Wall in Hot
Sheet Hydroforming
In conventional cold and hot sheet forming processes
such and stamping, stretch forming, sheet bending and so
on, the stress at the thickness direction is at an infinitesimal quantity level compared with the in-plane principal
stresses. So the thickness stress is always neglected. The
theoretical analysis and FEM simulation are implemented
based on the assumption of plane stress condition. The
outer surface of cylindrical cup wall in the conventional
deep drawing is free surface. By contrast, the surface is
submerged in the hot oil and acted by the counter oil pressure in hot hydroforming. The thickness stress is significantly influenced by the pressure, which should be treated
as a significant factor. We can find the detailed analysis as
follows.
The cylinder wall near die corner in hot hydroforming
deep drawing is the transition zone from the region of
deformation to the region of load transfer. It is a representative zone to show the variation of thickness stress. In
Figure 1, the equilibrium equation in thickness direction is
given by
(1)
t R p (t + R ) t = 0
lowing equation
t
(t + R )
(2)
p +
t =
R
R
Actually, at the condition of t << R , the thickness stress is
655
Metal Forming
simplified as t p . In the axial z-direction (Figure 1),
the equilibrium equation is given by,
d z t
(3)
+
=0
dz
t
The unit pulling stress z for forcing the material in flange
to flow into the die is proved as [18],
(4)
z = ( r max + m )e + w
where r max is the radial pulling stress of the flange at
the die corner, m is the pulling stress caused by the
blank holder force, w is the bend resistant stress as
Zmax = (t + rd z ) t
t
a
2 Q
t
+ b b +
(1 + 1.6 ) + 2r + t b
m
dt
(5)
where rd is the die corner radius, is the friction coefficient, a and b are the material dependent constants, m is
the drawing coefficient, b is the ultimate strength of the
sheet and Q is the holder force.
is in the plane stress condition. This is the basic assumption obeyed in a wide kind of analysis in conventional
sheet metal forming. As the pressure rises to a large quantity, the thickness stress is very large. When the thickness
stress reaches the same order of magnitude with the inplane stresses, the stress state of cup wall is three
dimensional. At this condition, the assumption of
deformation in plane stress state is not suitable. The deep
drawing under large counter pressure shows the features of
bulk forming. With the variation of pressure, the stress
state of cup wall in hot hydroforming deep drawing
changes from plane stress state to three-dimensional stress
state. The process involves the features of both sheet forming and bulk forming. Another important factor is temperature. In hot hydroforming, yield stress Y and ultimate
stress b of metal are much less than those at room tem-
perature. The three principal stresses t , z and (Figure 1) are in the same order of magnitude. So the thickness
stress is a significant factor in hot hydroforming. The hot
sheet hydroforming is in three-dimensional stress state.
The fracture prediction in the processing should not be
limited in models of either sheet forming or bulk forming
individually.
2 =
1 + 3 ,
3 < 0 . We can get the following expres-
sions.
If > t , then = z + p , i = 3 ( z p )
(6)
2
If < t , then = 2 p z , i = 3 ( z p )
(7)
2
where i is the Mises equivalent stress. The relationships
of i , z , with t can be described in Figure 2.
656
3 t
+ = [ ( 1 ) + ( 1 + )] eq dt = 1 (8)
0
2
eq
where and are the material dependant constants, 1
is the first principal stress, is the hydrostatic stress and
= ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) / 3 , eq is the equivalent strain rate,
eq is equivalent stress and t is the time. At the assumption that the Levy-Mises constitutive equations and von
Metal Forming
Mises yield criterion are satisfied and principal directions
of strain rates are fixed, can be presented as
t
3 t
3 t
= 1
eq dt = 1 eq dt = 1dt = 1 > 0 (9)
0
2 0 eq
2 0 eq
where 1 is the first component of the stress deviator
tensor and 1 > 0 for incompressible material. In Eq.
(8), is separated by different processing, for general
form, which is
3 t +
(10)
= 1
eq dt
2 0 eq
1) Free surface fracture
a) If 2 = 0 , = 3 1 + 2 3 ;
= 5
(11)
For wide sheet bending, 1 = 3 , 2 = 0 , and 1 > 0 ,
2 = 1 / 2 , 3 = 0 . then
b)
(12)
= 3 1 + 2 3 = 3 1 2 3 = 1 =
For single tension, 2 = 3 = 1 / 2 and 1 > 0 ,
(13)
2 = 3 = 0 . Then = 2
= 3
1
dt eq = 2 2
Y eq
(14)
= 3
1
eq dt eq
Y
(15)
(16)
(1 < 0 )
where av = / eq
eq = 1
in
the
is
stress
uniaxial
triaxiality: av = 1 / 3 ,
tension,
av = 1 / 3
The three typical tests are fracture initiated at free surface. Both fracture criteria obey the assumption that the
wide sheet bending is considered as plane stress condition
in theoretical analysis, which is the special state as p=0 in
Figures 1 and 2. The significant characteristic of both
fracture diagrams (see Figures 5 and 6) is that workability
increased with elevated temperature.
Figure 5 shows a diagram plotted with as the function of . Each function makes one curve represent one
test. According to the special feature of each test, Sergey
[15] interpreted each typical process as an individual path
by curve. All the expressions of curves can be found in
criterion 1. Actually, the tests performed in this paper are
not enough to exhibit the whole diagram for criterion1.
The advantage of Figure 5 is to describe the characteristic
of fracture for sheet forming and bulk forming in one
diagram.
In Figure 2, we can find the following relation:
when > t , we have = z + p ;
av
3 ( z p)
p
.
or < t , then =
av
3 ( z p)
As p 0 ,
z + p
p
1 ,
av =
0;
av =
3 ( z p)
3 ( z p)
3
As p , av 1 ;
3
As p z , av .
657
Metal Forming
Conclusions
Hot sheet hydroforming has distinct features from conventional sheet forming in a stress state because of counter
pressure. The two fracture criteria covering bulk forming
and sheet forming are verified through the three tests of
upsetting, wide sheet bending and uniaxial tension at elevated temperature.
1. Hot sheet hydroforming is not exact to be solved as the
plane stress condition. If the thickness stress caused by
the counter pressure is too large to be neglected, the deformation of sheet material is in three dimensional
stress state.
2. The two fracture criteria are unified ones covering bulking forming and sheet forming. The fracture diagrams at
elevated temperatures are successfully obtained, which
are suitable to predict fracture in hot sheet hydroforming.
Acknowledgment
658
Metal Forming
Introduction
To increase the formability of Al-alloys, hot stamping
processes are often used. In the process, an Al-alloy is
heated to or close to its solution heat treatment
temperature to enable the hardening precipitates to be
dissolved within the primary -Al matrix. The temperature
at which SHT is performed is an important parameter,
since it gives significant changes in the microstructure of
the alloy and could lead to an improved capacity to
tolerate extensive plastic deformation without cracking, i.e.
to an improved formability of the material [1].
A typical thermal history profile during hot stamping
process is shown in Figure 1. The aluminum alloy blank is
heated to its solution heat treatment temperature (e.g.
525 C for AA6082) and deformed with a cold die set. The
formed part is then held within cold dies for rapid cooling.
There are two reasons for the formed part being held in the
cold dies: one is the rapid quenching to avoid the
formation of coarse phase precipitates, particularly at
grain boundaries; and the second is to avoid thermal
distortion of the formed part during quenching [2].
SHT (525C)
Temperature (C)
Hold within
cold dies
Time (sec)
Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing temperature history for hot
stamping process.
In order to find the ideal forming conditions for aluminum alloy sheets, the formability limit and the ductile
fracture initiation in sheet forming processes has to be
659
Metal Forming
= E(1 f d )( T P )
70
60
10 s-1
50
1 s-1
40
0.1 s-1
30
20
10
0
0 0.1
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
True strain
(a) Deformed at 500 C and different strain rates
70
60
450 C
50
500 C
40
525 C
30
20
10
0
0
Figure 2. Comparison of computed (solid curves) and experimental (symbols) stressstrain relationships for AA 6082 alloy deformed at different strain rates and temperatures.
P =
/( 1 f d ) R k n1
R =0.5B
1 / 2
= A(1 ) P C
d1
fd =D1 f d P
660
(1)
d2
(2)
n2
+ D2 P
d3
cosh(D3 P )
(3)
(4)
(5)
where P in Eq. (1) is the traditional power law viscoplastic flow formulation. The material hardening R in
Eq. (2) due to the plastic deformation is calculated according to the accumulation of dislocation density (Ref Eq.
(3)). In hot metal forming processes, at the late stage of
deformation, softening due to damage decreases the flow
stress, which can be modelled based on void nucleation
and growth mechanisms. The effective damage evolution
is defined in Eq. (4), where damage is 0 at the initial state
of the deformation. When the damage level reaches 0.7, it
is assumed that failure takes place for the material. The
constants k, B, C, E, D1 , D2 are temperature dependent
and A, d1,d2,d3, n1, n2 are material constants. E is the
Youngs modulus of the material. Eqs. (6)-(12) represent
the Arrhenius equation for temperature dependent parameters.
Q
K = K o exp R KT
g
Q
k = k o exp R kT
g
Q
B = B o exp R BT
g
Q
C = Co exp R CT
g
Q
E = E o exp R ET
g
Q
D1 = D1o exp R 1T
g
Q
D2 = D2o exp R 2T
g
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
where Rg is the universal gas constant and Q is the activation energy. The values of the constants in the equations
are determined from experimental data and are listed in
Table 2. Figure 2 shows the comparison of the experimental and predicted stress-strain relationships and fairly good
agreement has been achieved for all the temperatures and
strain rates investigated.
Process Simulation and Result Discussion
The determined unified viscoplastic damage constitutive
equations are input into the commercial FE code,
ABAQUS, via the user defined subroutine, VUMAT. An
axi-symmetric FE model, with dimensions, for the process
simulation is shown in Figure 4. This is a coupled thermomechanical FE process simulation and the physical and
thermal properties used for the FE analysis are given in [6].
The FE process modelling starts with applying the boundary and loading conditions on the model as shown in Figure 4. Once the punch moves toward the sheet, the first
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
contact occurs between the sheet and blank holder. The
blank holder pressure of approximately 3 MPa is applied
to ensure that no blank material can be drawn in during the
deformation process. The stroke applied is 50 mm in 0.08
sec (0.64 0.01 m/s) for the fast forming rate and 50 mm
in 0.3 sec (0.166 0.01 m/s) for the slow forming rate.
Table 1. Material constants for viscoplastic-damage constitutive
equations for AA6082.
Bo (MPa)
ko (MPa)
Ko (MPa)
QE (J/mol)
4.91
0.89
0.219
19286.726
QC (J/mol)
QB (J/mol)
Qk (J/mol)
QK (J/mol)
3393.4
11625.8
6679
27687.07
n1
n2
d1
d2
1.8
1.2
1.0101
d3
D1o
D2o
D3
0.5
10.32
5.49E-19
26.8
Q1 (J/mol)
Q2 (J/mol)
Eo (MPa)
Co
6408.4
119804.59
322.8191
0.26
Rg (J/K/mol)
13
8.314
661
Metal Forming
Top blank holder
R43
R8
R5
Blank
R40
Experiment
Damage
0.7e-11
0.2
0.5
0.7
(b) Predication
(a) Experiment
0.7
Damage
0.5
0.2
0.7e-11
Conclusions
A set of viscoplastic damage constitutive equations have
been developed and determined for AA6082. It is confirmed that the determined equations can be used to model
the viscoplastic flow behavior of AA6082 until failure.
The equations, coupled with the FE model, can be used to
predict the failure modes and necking locations of the
material at hot stamping conditions.
(b) Predication
Figure 5. Comparison of (a) experimental and (b) predicted failure
modes for the samples tested at a forming rate of 0.64 0.01 m/s
at the deformation temperature of 47510 C. The punch stroke is
32mm.
662
References
[1] M. Mohamed, A. Foster, J. Lin: Steel Research International, 79 (11)
(2008), 160-167.
[2] R.P. Garrett, J. Lin, T.A. Dean: International Journal of Plasticity, 218 (2005), 1640-1657.
[3] J. Lin, Y. Liu and T.A. Dean: International Journal of Damage Mechanics. 14, (2005), 299-319.
[4] J. Lin, T.A. Dean: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 143144 (2003), 281-285.
[5] J. Lin, Y. Liu, D.C. J. Farrugia, M. Zhou: Philosophical Magazine A,
85- 18 (2005), 1967-1987.
[6] A.D. Foster, M.S Mohamed, J. Lin, T.A Dean: Steel Research International, 79-11 (2008), 113-119.
Metal Forming
Resistance Heating of Side Wall of Cup for Warm and Hot Spline Forming
Kanji Ueno1), Ken-ichiro Mori2), Seijiro Maki3), Naotaka Arisawa2)
1)
Production Division, Jatco Ltd, Fuji / Japan, kanji_ueno@jatco.co.jp; 2) Department of Production Systems Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi / Japan; 3) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mie University, Tsu / Japan
A resistance heating process of a side wall of drawn cups for warm and hot spline forming was developed to manufacture gear drums. The
side wall of the cup was heated electrically by resistance heating to decrease the forming load and to increase the formability. Since the
cross-sectional area of the side wall is constant in the electrification direction, the heating of the side wall becomes uniform. The inhomogeneous contact between the electrode and side wall was improved by inserting copper foils in the interface, and thus the temperature distribution in the hoop direction became uniform. The uniformity of the temperature in the axial direction was improved by reducing the total
area of contact between the electrode and side wall and by increasing the number of contacts. The side wall of the cup was successfully
shaped into a gear drum by warm and hot spline forming using the resistance heating method.
Keywords: Sheet metal forming, Warm and hot spline forming, Resistance heating, Gear drum, Side wall heating, Steel cup, Temperature
distribution
Introduction
The use of high strength steel sheets continues increase
due to the drive to reduce the weight of automobiles [1].
Although the high strength steel parts have superior mechanical properties, stamping operations in this material
become difficult due to the high strength. As the strength
of the sheets increases, the forming load increases, and
thus the springback becomes large, particularly for the
ultra high strength steel sheets [2]. In addition, the formability of the ultra high strength steel sheets is low [3], i.e.
the elongation is about 10%.
The hot stamping process of quenchable steel sheets is
effective in solving the problems encountered in the forming of high strength steel sheets [4,5]. By heating the
sheets, the forming load is consistently reduced, the
springback is prevented and the formability is greatly
improved. In addition, the stamped parts are hardened by
the quenching with dies, and thus the ultra high strength
steel parts have a tensile strength of approximately 1.5GPa
and are obtained under a low forming load. The authors
[6,7] have developed a hot stamping process using rapid
resistance heating to prevent the temperature drop and the
surface oxidation.
Gear drums used in automobile transmissions are generally made from sheets. The sheet is deeply drawn into a
cup, and then a gear drum is formed by splining the side
wall of the cup. Although the use of the high strength steel
sheets is desirable to reduce the weight of the transmissions, it is not easy to spline the high strength steel cups
due to severe deformation. Warm and hot spline forming is
attractive for high strength steel cups.
In the present study, a resistance heating process for the
side wall of cups for warm and hot spline forming has
been developed to manufacture gear drums.
Resistance Heating of Tube by Whole Contact
Resistance Heating of Side Wall of Cup. The side wall
of the cup is heated for the spline forming. When the cup
is heated by a furnace, the heating efficiency is low, the
surface oxidation is large, and the dimensional accuracy of
Uniform
(a) Rectangle
Electrode
High
Low
(b) Trapezium
Electrode
Uniform
Electrode
(c) Side wall of cup
663
Metal Forming
range for uniform distribution and no deformation is p =
22 MPa and I = 3-7 kA.
Copper electrode
Distribution of Temperature. The distributions of temperature in the pipe by the resistance heating without and
with the copper foils for I = 5 kA and p = 22 MPa are
illustrated in Figure 3. When the edge of the pipe is in
direct contact with the electrode without foils, the distribution of temperature becomes non-uniform due to the inhomogeneous contact. The four copper foils were inserted
between the pipe and the electrode to ensure better compliance and contact, and thus the distribution of temperature in the hoop direction becomes more uniform. The
following experiments were performed for the insertion of
the copper foils.
4 copper
foils
The pipes after the resistance heating for different currents and contact pressures are shown in Figure 4. For I =
7 kA and p = 22 MPa, the distribution of temperature in
the hoop direction is uniform and the pipe is not deformed.
For the other conditions examined depending on the combination of current and pressure, the excessive current
melts the edges, the excessive pressure deforms the pipe,
and the distribution of temperature in the hoop direction
becomes non-uniform for the small pressure.
(b) I = 9 kA,
p = 22 MPa
20
4 5 6 7
Current I /kA
10
When both ends of the pipe are in inhomogeneous contact with the electrodes, the distribution of temperature in
the hoop direction is uniform, but the distribution in the
axial direction becomes non-uniform due to the radiation
of heat to the electrodes. The distribution of temperature in
the axial direction for p = 22 MPa is illustrated in Figure 6.
Although the difference of temperature decreases for the
increase in current, the difference is still large.
1000
Pipe
I = 7kA
800
5kA
600
3kA
400
200
Electrode
(a) No foil
(b) 4 copper foils
Figure 3. Distributions of temperature in pipe by resistance heating without and with copper foils for I = 5 kA and p = 22 MPa.
(a) I = 7 kA,
p = 22 MPa
Edge
Non-uniform heating melting
(c) I = 7 kA,
(d) I = 5 kA,
p = 24 MPa p = 20 MPa
5
10
15
20
Distance from centre z /mm
Figure 6. Temperature distributions in axial direction for p = 22
MPa.
1/1
800
1/2
600
Pipe
400
40
Electrode
22
Temperature /C
200C
400C
600C
800C
18
0
Electrode
Electrode
24
40
Steel pipe
38.1
Temperature /C
40
Copper plate
Copper electrode
26
Insulator
Current
200
0
1/2
45
5
10
15
Distance from centre z /mm
20
Metal Forming
temperature approaches uniformity. It is found that the
decrease in contact area with the electrode is effective in
improving the uniformity of temperature.
Uniformity of Temperature by Decrease in Contact
Area
10
Finite Element Simulation of Distribution of Temperature. By decreasing the contact area between the cup
and electrode, the uniformity of temperature is improved,
but the chamfer on both edges of the pipe brings about an
additional process and the cutting is not easy. Therefore,
the surfaces of the electrodes are indented to decrease the
contact area.
The distribution of temperature in the pipe and electrode
during the resistance heating was simulated by the commercial finite element software ANSYS. The parts of the
pipe and electrode are divided into shell elements due to
symmetry of temperature as shown in Figure 8. The contact between the pipe and electrode is assumed to be complete. The contact area rate c and length l between the pipe
and electrode were varied.
200C
400C
600C
800C
Pipe
(a) l = 1.34 mm
(b) l = 0.335 mm
Figure 10. Distribution of temperature in pipe and electrode calculated from finite element simulation for c = 10%
Pipe
39
6.7
(b) 1/36 model (c) Element mesh
(a) Apparatus
25
Die
38.1
28.6
200C
400C
600C
800C
100
0.9mm, 50
Copper copper wires
electrode
600C
800C
200C
400C
600C
800C
1.1
R5
Pipe
Electrode
38.1
22
20
Pipe
Electrode
200C
400C
600C
800C
1000C
800C
Punch
Copper electrode
Cup
Copper wires
Cup
100
Figure 12. Resistance heating apparatus of cup using electrodes
with copper wires.
(a) c = 100%
(b) c = 25%
(c) c = 10%
(d) c = 8%
Figure 9. Distribution of temperature in pipe and electrode calculated from finite element simulation for l = 0.335 mm.
665
R1
33.0
35.4
28.5
R2
R1
Metal Forming
Upper
(b) p = 24 MPa
26
22
Uniform heating, no
deformation
20
4 5 6 7
Current I /kA
10
I = 7kA
800
Temperature /C
22
Conclusions
A resistance heating process for the side wall of cups for
warm and hot spline forming was developed to manufacture gear drums. The warm and hot spline forming is effective in manufacturing high strength steel gear drum, and
the rapid resistance heating is a key to the warm and hot
forming processes.
References
200
5
Cup
400
10
15
Distance from top z /mm
20
25
Figure 16. Tools used for experiment of warm and hot spline
forming.
Acknowledgement
5kA
600
666
(b) Die
Edge
melting
(a) Punch
Upper
Non-uniform heating
18
16
0
Lower
The gear drum manufactured by the spline forming using resistance heating is shown in Figure 17. The gear
drum was successfully formed from the cup using the
resistance heating method.
24
100
Lower
80
(a) p = 20 MPa
Metal Forming
Numerical and Experimental Determination of Forming Limit Diagram for DIN 1623
St14 Steel
Farhad Haji Aboutalebi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Khomeini Shahr Branch, Isfahan / Iran, hajiaboutalebi@iaukhsh.ac.ir
The prediction of forming limit diagram in industries is one of the most important challenges confronting engineers and researchers. One of
the most famous methods in determination of forming limit diagram is Erichsen's cupped test. In this paper, a fully coupled elastic-plasticdamage model based on plane stress elastoplasticity theory was developed and implemented into an explicit code. For evaluation of the
model, Erichsen's cupped test was numerically simulated to predict forming limit diagram of DIN 1623 St14 steel. Meanwhile, empirical
tests were carried out to determine the forming limit diagram of the material experimentally. Comparison of the numerical and experimental
results showed good agreement and adaptation. Hence, it is concluded that finite element method combined with continuum damage mechanics can be used as a reliable and rapid tool to predict the forming limit diagram of sheet metals and is able to reduce the number of
costly trials.
Keywords: Forming limit diagram, Erichsen's test, Finite element method, Continuum damage mechanics
Introduction
Sheet metal forming processes are among the oldest and
most widely used industrial manufacturing operations. By
these processes, thin-walled parts of complicated shapes
such as automotive panels, and various size structural parts
can be produced. St14 steel (DIN 1623) is commonly
applied in the sheet metal forming industries because of its
remarkable formability and also its low price. For such
parts the prediction of the forming limit diagram (FLD) is
an important challenge confronting the design engineers.
One of the most common methods for determining the
FLD is Erichsen's cupped test. In this test, a number of
patterned strips of sheet metal which are fully clamped by
a blank holder are drawn by a hemispherical punch until
fracture occurs. By measuring the major and minor strains
near the fractured zone and plotting the results, a FLD can
be generated. Experimental investigations have revealed
that localized necking of sheet metals can be well described by FLD [1].
The FLD, being plotted in the coordinates of in-plane
principal strains; marks limit strains at a point in a sheet
metal. It has two sides, the left hand side (LHS) covers
uniaxial to plane strain tension and the right hand side
(RHS) covers plane strain to equibiaxial tension. Recently,
finite element methods (FEM) in conjunction with continuum damage mechanics (CDM) have played a significant
role in numerically predicting the forming limit in sheet
metal forming [2-4].
In this paper, a fully coupled elastic-plastic-damage
model based on plane stress elastoplasticity is developed
and implemented into an explicit code. By using the plane
stress algorithm which is valid for thin sheet metals, the
model is able to quickly predict both deformation and
damage behaviour of the parts. For evaluation of the
model, Erichsen's cupped test has been numerically simulated to predict the FLD of DIN 1623 St14 steel and empirical tests are carried out to determine the FLD of the
material experimentally.
(1)
1 D
1 Y
1 D r
(2)
Y =
(3)
2
eq
(1 + ) + 3(1 2 )( H ) 2
eq
2 E (1 D ) 3
2
P
where , eq , H , eq
and R are the yield function, equiva-
Metal Forming
r=
2
dD
2 E (1 D )
d p
(4)
mining the major and minor strains near the fractured zone
and plotting the results, FLD will be numerically predicted.
3 S
2 eq
(5)
Material Properties
In this investigation, St14 steel (DIN 1623) was selected
because of its wide application in sheet metal forming
industries. Standard tensile and Vickers micro-hardness
tests, [8], were performed to respectively identify mechanical properties and damage parameters for the material. Each experiment was repeated three times and the
values were averaged to improve accuracy and reliability.
Table 1 indicates the identified mechanical and damage
properties of the material.
Experimental Tests
A standard Erichsen's cupped test machine with a hemispherical punch of 60mm diameter was used to determine
the FLD of the material experimentally. The rate of displacement was adjusted to 0.4mm/s. The patterned strips
of sheet metal which are fully clamped by blank holder are
drawn by punch until fracture occurs. The strip specimens
after deformation are shown in Figure 2.
180
Poissons ratio,
0.3
159
Damage parameter, s
2.53
0.434
668
Metal Forming
FLD Results
Conclusions
669
Metal Forming
Influences of Sheared Surface Properties and Induced Strain on Hole Expansion Limit
of Steel Sheet
Yoshinori Yoshida1), Takahiro Ishiguro2), Nobuki Yukawa2), Takashi Ishikawa2), Zhigang Wang1)
1)
Faculty of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, Gifu University, Gifu / Japan, yyoshida@gifu-u.ac.jp; 2) Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya / Japan
The influences of process conditions of axi-symmetric shearing (piercing) of a steel sheet on the hole expansion limit were investigated.
Piercing experiments were conducted for stainless steel (SUS301, JIS) and high carbon steel (S60C, JIS) sheets changing the shearing
clearance between the punch and die. The relationship between the clearance and sheared surface properties, i.e. fractured surface
roughness and burr formation, was researched and Vickers hardness distributions immediately beneath the surface were also evaluated. A
hole expansion test was performed on the sheared blanks, while closely observing the influence of any sheared surface properties and
strain induced by the piercing on the hole expansion limit. The sensitivity of burr formation and work-hardening from the sheared edge to
the equivalent strain at the crack initiation was measured by performing a tensile test using image analysis. As a result, it was found that
the induced strain on the sheared surface was the most effective factor in the hole expansion limit. The limit increased with the increase of
the average asperity angle on the fractured surface.
Keywords: Shearing process, Piercing, Hole expansion limit, Tensile test using image analysis, average asperity angle, Equivalent strain at
crack initiation
670
the limit increased with the increase of the average asperity angle on the fractured surface.
Experimental Method
Piercing Experiment. Austenitic stainless steel SUS301
(Fe-18Cr-8Ni stainless steel in JIS) and high carbon steel
S60C (Fe-0.6%C steel in JIS) sheets were used for experiments. The sheet thickness t was 1.2 mm. Piercing
conditions are shown in Figure 1. The Blank used for
piercing was a square with 80 mm length sides. The punch
diameter was 16 mm constant and the shearing clearance
was changed by changing the die hole diameter in the
ranges of C=5.0, 10, 15 and 20% of the initial blank thickness (%t). After piercing, a burr appeared on the die side
of the sheared edge of the blank. For the purpose of comparing the piercing method, wire-cut blanks were prepared
by using an NC wire cutter.
CL
Punch
Introduction
Blank holder
Specimen
16 c
t=1.2
Die
W=80
Hole Expanding Test. Figure 2 shows the hole expanding test apparatus. A sheared blank is fixed with a blank
holder and die, the expansion of the hole edge is conducted by means of a conical mandrel until the first crack
appears at the holes edge. The angle of the conical mandrel is 60. The hole expansion limit is defined by the
following equation,
Metal Forming
=
Dh D0
100
D0
(1)
where D0 and Dh are the initial hole diameter and the diameter at the first crack initiation, respectively. This test is
conducted based on JFST1001 (The Japan Iron and Steel
Federation Standard) in which a burr should be on the
opposite side of the mandrel (upper side). However, on a
hole expansion in which a burr comes in contact with the
mandrel is also conducted (lower side). In addition, a test
in which deburring was done using emery paper was performed (with no burr) for investigation of burr formation
effects to the hole expansion limit.
w
,
w0
eq =
2 2
w + t 2 + l 2
t = ln
t
,
t0
(2)
l = ( w + t )
(3)
Blank
holder
Blank
holder
Blank
Die
(2)R (3) w
Mandrel
Vickers Hardness Evaluation. Induced strain immediately beneath the sheared surface affects the hole expansion limit. A sheared blank was cut and polished, then
Vickers hardness distribution was evaluated at 100 m
intervals along the direction of the radius (see Figure 3).
The evaluation was conducted along three lines; (1) the
line at 100 m distance from shear droop side surface
(shear droop side), (2) the line in the middle of thickness
(middle) and (3) the line at 100 m distance from the burr
tip (burr side).
Annealing was also conducted to remove workhardening. In this process, the temperature was initially
raised to 650 C and kept there for 30 minutes. After that,
furnace cooling was performed.
100m
600m
100m
100m
8.
70
60
(4) t
21
Die
Thickness side
CCD Camera
50
40
30
20
10
10
15
20
25
Clearance / %t
Metal Forming
In total, the hole expansion limit of S60C is better than
that of SUS301 in this experiment. The degree of dependence of burr formation of SUS301 is strong and the effect
of burr position is almost the same between them.
50
40
30
100
with burr (upper side)
with burr (lower side)
without burr (upper side)
without burr (lower side)
10
10
15
20
as sheared
25
Clearance / %t
20
40
20
10
15
Clearance / %t
20
25
100
as sheared
annealed
80
60
40
20
50
250
Vickers hardness/HV
300
40
30
20
SUS301 (without burr)
S60C (without burr)
10
20
30
/ deg.
10
15
Clearance / %t
20
25
200
150
100
burr side
middle
shear droop side
50
60
60
Rz
10
annealed
80
60
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Figure 9 shows the relationship between the average asperity angle on a fractured surface and the hole expansion
limit. The hole expansion limit increases with the increase
672
Metal Forming
position. The difference of the hardness is about 100 HV
between the sheared surface and the inside of the material
for both materials. Induced strain was confirmed in an area
0.4 mm wide along the sheared edge.
Sensitivity of Burr Formation and Work-Hardening.
Figures 13 and 14 show tensile test results for SUS301
and S60C. The vertical axis shows the equivalent strain at
the first crack initiation. The crack initiation occurred at
the burr on the sheared edge for the test piece with a burr.
In the condition where a burr was absent, the crack initiated at the fractured surface. Diffusion and local necking
appeared in the middle of the tensile specimen and the
final fracture occurred under the large deformation in the
case of the wire cut specimen (Figure 15).
From the results, the burr formation didnt affect the
equivalent strain at the crack initiation very much. However, the strain in the case of the wire cut specimen is large
depending on the induced strain. Here, work-hardening
sensitivity S is defined by the next equation,
wire
shear
eq
eq
S=
100
(4)
wire
eq
wire
shear
and eq
are the equivalent strain at the crack
where eq
initiation in the case of a wire cut blank and without a burr
condition for C=10%t. This parameter indicates a degree
of formability decrease involving the work-hardening in
shearing.
0.8
with burr
without burr
wire cut
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
10
15
20
25
Clearance / %t
Figure 13. Influence of burr formation and cutting method of tensile specimen on effective strain at crack initiation in tensile test
(SUS301).
0.8
with burr
without burr
wire cut
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Conclusions
We have seen the results of the influences of process
conditions of sheet metal piercing on the hole expansion
limit. Piercing experiments were conducted on steel
sheets, changing the shearing clearance between the punch
and die. The relationships between the clearance and
sheared surface properties, fractured surface roughness
and burr formations, were researched and Vickers hardness
distributions immediately beneath the surface were also
measured. Hole expansion tests for the sheared blanks
were performed and the influence of the sheared surface
properties and the strain induced through piercing on the
hole expansion limit was investigated. As a result, the
following information was obtained:
1. The hole expansion limit dramatically increased by
annealing the sheared blank for stainless SUS301 and
high carbon steel S60C. The induced strain on a sheared
surface was the most effective factor for the hole expansion limit.
2. The expansion limit increased with the increase of the
average asperity angle on a fractured surface. It is
thought that the stress concentration level at the tip of a
concave affects the crack initiation on a fractured surface.
3. From the results of the tensile test using image analysis,
the sensitivity of work-hardening from the sheared edge
to the crack initiation strain of SUS301 is larger than
that of S60C.
4. The difference in the hole expansion limit between
wire-cut blanks and as-sheared blanks was investigated.
The difference in the case of SUS301 is larger than that
of S60C and this tendency coincides with the results of
the tensile tests.
References
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
10
15
Clearance / %t
20
25
[1] T. Nakagawa, M. Takita, K. Yoshida: J. Jpn. Soc. Technol. Plast., 11109 (1970), 142-151.
[2] H. Shirasawa, S. Hashimoto, K. Mimura, K. Korida: Tetsu-to-Hagane,
71-16 (1985), 1949-1955.
[3] E. Iizuka, T. Hira, A. Yoshitake: J. Jpn. Soc. Technol. Plast., 46-534
(2005), 625-629.
[4] H. Takuda, H. Mori, K. Fujimoto, H. Hatta: Comput. J. Mater. Proc.
Technol., 92-93 (1999), 433-438.
[5] H. Takuda, T. Hama, K. Nishida, T. Yoshida, J. Nitta: Comput. Meth.
Mater. Sci., 9-1 (2009), 137-142.
[6] K. Mori, Y. Abe, Y. Suzui: J. Mater. Proc. Technol., 210 (2010), 653659.
673
Metal Forming
A method has been developed for using ultrasonic waves to measure the gap between a workpiece and the die during press forming
(stamping). Testing showed that when the stamping pressure is increased, the echo ratio of reflected waves decreases, that the echo ratio
depends on the area of the reflective surface, and that the change in the gap during press forming can be measured using ultrasonic waves.
This means that stamping quality can be improved by using the echo ratio of reflected waves to adjust the slide motion of the servo press to
compensate for the gap.
Keywords: Monitoring, Ultrasonic wave, Press forming, Stamping, Stainless steel sheet, Gap, Real-time measurement
Introduction
The increased mass production of the precise mechanical parts has led to the development of various methods for
the net shape forming. While a servo press can produce
high precision parts, there is still a small gap between the
workpiece and die during press forming (stamping). The
press operator will thus usually place a shim under the die
or adjust the bottom dead centre of the slide. If instead the
slide motion of the servo press could be adjusted to compensate for the gap, the net shape forming could be realized, enabling automated manufacturing of precision parts
using a servo press.
The ultrasonic wave method that is non-destructive technique can find the defect of the metal product. Masuko and
Ito [1] demonstrated that the interface pressure between
the tool and a workpiece could be measured using ultrasonic waves. Takeuchi et al. [2] described a method for
measuring the contact area between a mirror surface and
regular surface. Moreover, an ultrasonic technique has
been used to measure the contact condition between a
bearing and the bearing housing [3,4]. However, the use of
ultrasonic waves to measure the gap between a workpiece
and the die during press forming has never been studied.
We have developed a method for measuring the gap during
press forming.
(1)
674
(2)
Ultrasonic
probe
Reflected
wave
Material1
Z1
Boundary
Material 2
Transmitted
wave
Z2
The propagation of ultrasonic waves at the boundary between different materials is illustrated in Figure 1. The
ultrasonic waves are transmitted into material 1 from an
ultrasonic probe. In the surface of the boundary between
the two materials, the waves are either reflected or transmitted. The ratio of the waves reflected is called the
sound pressure reflectance, which is given by
Z1 Z2
Z1 + Z2
Incident
wave
Stainless steel
Measurement Principle
Rr =
46.4 106
45.7 10
0.0004 106
0.0
0.008
1.0
Metal Forming
oscillator of 10 mm in diameter was installed on top of the
upper die portion. The ultrasonic reflection echo during
loading was measured using an ultrasonic detector (Ryoden Shonan Electronics Inc., UI-25). The load was measured using a load cell installed on the upper plate. The
maximum pressure was 9 MPa. The pressure is given by.
P = F /A
(3)
P robe
Surface B
0.8
Surface C
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
4
6
P ressure P / MP a
10
0.5
0.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
30
er, max
Echo height er
1.0
Boundary between
upper and lower die
(Surface B)
P robe
B
C
70
0.5
0.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
Groove
Lower die
(a) Surface B*
(b) Surface B
0
1
2
3
Groove depth h g /mm
0 1 2 3
4 5
Groove width wg /mm
(b) P ressure
P = 9MP a
1.0
Surface B
Surface B
(a) No load
40
50
60
Distance from boundary between
probe and upper die h /mm
wg
Upper die
hg
Next, we investigated the effects of the groove dimensions on the echo peaks. This groove was cut to imitate the
gap between the workpiece and die. As shown in Figure 5
(a), increasing the groove depth negligibly affected the
echo peaks at both surface B and surface B*. In contrast,
increasing the groove width reduced the echo peak at surface B and increased it at surface B* (Figure 5 (b)). That is,
the echo peak height changes with the groove width.
675
Metal Forming
We also investigated the reflection characteristic of the
ultrasonic waves for a groove depth of 0.08 mm, which
was much less than the thickness of the workpiece (see
Figure 6 (b)). Apparently, the ultrasonic waves were reflected by the air in the groove. In conclusion, the gap
between the workpiece and die can be detected by the echo
height.
B1
1.0
B2
Lower die
Stainless steel sheet
0.5
(a) W ithout groove
Groove depth
0.5
0.0
35
Incident
wave
Upper die
B 1*
Groove
Stainless steel sheet
B2
B1
Lower die
37 38 39 40 41 42 43
Distance from boundary between
probe and upper die h /mm
44
45
(a) Photograph
676
lt
(4)
Outer slide
1.2
Echo ratio
1.0
70
43
68
42
0.8
Bottom dead center
of inner slide
0.6
0.4
44
Inner slide
4
Time t / s
41
6
40
66
64
62
60
B1*
0.0
1.0
Echo height er
Upper die
Metal Forming
0.2
(a) Np = 1
E r=0.8
Die surface
(b) N p = 4, A p = 0.1mm
0.0
6
Time t / s
-0.2
27
E r=0.8
10
(a) A p = 0.1mm
E r=0.8
E r=0.8
2
6
Time t / s
10
Workpiece
surface
b
28
x /mm
b
29
30
0.79
Amplitude
0.78
0.3mm
0.2mm
0.1mm
0.77
0.70
0.75
Echo ratio of reflected waves E r
0.80
Conclusion
We have developed a method using ultrasonic waves for
measuring the gap between a workpiece and the die during
press forming. Testing showed that when the stamping
pressure is increased, the echo ratio of reflected waves
decreases, that the echo ratio depends on the area of the
reflective surface, and that the change in the gap during
press forming can be measured using ultrasonic waves.
This means that stamping quality can be improved by
using the echo ratio of reflected waves to adjust the slide
motion of the servo press to compensate for the gap.
(b) A p = 0.3mm
lt
12
Lt
0.1
-0.1
Figure 11. Example trace data of echo ratio when inner slide had
oscillating motion.
y /mm
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
Filling factor R t
12
(5)
References
[1] M. Masuko, Y. Ito: Transactions of JSME, 34-257 (1968) 191198.
[2] A. Takeuchi, M. Satoh, M. Onozawa, Y. Sugawara, H. Aoki: Transactions of JSME C, 65-640 (1999) 4767-4773.
[3] C. Inaba, H. Tomonaga, Y. Ito, Y. Saito: Transactions of JSME C, 66645 (2000) 1674-1680.
[4] A. Takeuchi, T. Kimura, T. Wakabayashi, H. Ishimaru, H. Mori:
Transactions of JSME C, 69-687 (2003) 3086-3091.
[5] N. Hagino, J. Endou, S. Katoh, S. Okudera, M. Maruyama, M. Kubota: Proc. 59th Japanese Joint Conference for the Technology of
Plasticity, (2008) 129-130.
[6] N. Hagino, J. Endou, S. Katoh, S. Okudera, M. Maruyama, M. Kubota, C. Murata: Proc. 60th Japanese Joint Conference for the Technology of Plasticity, (2009) 271-272.
[7] N. Hagino, J. Endou, S. Katoh, S. Okudera, M. Maruyama, M. Kubota: Proc. ICTP, (2008) 974-979.
677
Metal Forming
Die Surface Design CAD Software Oriented for Sheet Metal Stamping FEM
Wei Wang, Gang Zhao, Fazhong Shi
School of Mechanical Engineering & Automation, Beijing University of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Beijing / China, jrrt@buaa.edu.cn
Key technologies aiming at rapidly and conveniently providing die surface models for FEM simulation were explored and implemented in a
self-developed die surface design CAD software. The main aspects of these technologies include: the CAD model pre-process; the models
boundary refining and the addendum generation. In the CAD model pre-process, the graph theory was adopted for automatically searching
out the holes and gaps on the original model thus the model is ready for further treatment. The boundary refining involves the generation of
a new boundary and the construction of complementary surface between this new boundary and the old one. With these two procedures as
prerequisites finished, the addendum faces can be generated, which are directly based upon mesh technology and capable of embracing
delicate shape features needed for die surface construction. These technologies together with other common CAD functions constituted the
backbone of our die surface design CAD software and a complete die surface model for FEM can be achieved by employing this software.
Keywords: Die surface design, CAD model pre-process, Models boundary refining, Addendum generation
Introduction
VI
5
V
4
3
III II IV
Figure 1. Formation of multiple trimmed surfaces model and
curves on it.
678
Metal Forming
This model is composed of surfaces A and B. The Arabic and Roman numerals in this figure denote curves on
the model. Of these curves, curve 1 and I coincide with
each other in reality but here their distance is purposely
enlarged just for convenience of explanation, to which the
relationship of curve 3 and III is similar. Curve 2 and II
form the boundary of a hole (for simplicity and without
loss of generality, in the contents below, the holes and gaps
on multiple trimmed surfaces model, whether intentionally
designed by the product designer or originated from the
data losing during data transition, are uniformly called
holes). Other curves constitute the boundary of the whole
model. In this paper the curves like 1 and I, 3 and III are
classified as neighbouring curves, each pair of which seem
like one curve and they indeed play the same role in ideal
case. Its clear that if all the neighbouring curves are excluded from the aggregation of the models curves, only
curves that form the boundaries of either holes or the
whole model are left. Here we call these curves general
boundary curves. By checking the relative relationships of
all the models curves, the neighbouring curves can be
marked out thus the aggregation of general boundary
curves is obtained.
The general boundary curves by far distinguished are
just independent curves and their topological relations are
still unknown, which makes it difficult to help us judge
how many holes are on the model and where they dwell.
To solve this problem graph theory was introduced. Graph
theory reflects a kind of widespread none-linear relations
exists in real world and it has broad applications in solving
practical problems. The graph is composed of a finite
nonempty set V of objects called vertices (the singular
form is vertex) and a set E of 2-element subsets of V
called edges. So the formation of graph can be described
mathematically as follows [8]:
Graph=(V, E)
(1)
In our software, if one end point of some curve is shared
by two general boundary curves, it is mapped as a vertex
in graph while the curves sharing it are mapped as edges.
By applying such procedure to the general boundary curve
set, topological relations can be constructed among the
originally disordered curves, as shown in Figure 2.
New boundary
1
11
10
5
9
3
(a)
10
8
3
7
2
4
4
(b)
Generation of New Boundary. Once the concave features of the models old boundary are located, these parts
can be replaced by new curves that constitute the new
boundary. The circumference of the rolling cylinder was
used to facilitate generating these curves. Firstly assuming
the plane where the cylinders circumference exists in is ,
in our software the new boundary curves have the same
shape as the corresponding parts of this circumference
when projected into the plane . While in the direction
vertical to , the dispositions of the points on the new
boundary curves are decided by that of the old boundary
opposite to them. Thus the new boundary can be constructed, composed of new curves while the concave fea-
679
Metal Forming
tures still exist, which will be complemented by the procedure that follows.
Generation of Complementary Surface. In our software, the complementary surface between the old boundary and the new one is a NURBS surface and constructed
by lofting method. The section curves for the lofting are
created according to the geometric characteristics of the
two boundaries and the whole procedure is totally automatic. The basic thought and correlating geometric entities
used here can be shown in Figure 4, where S2 denotes the
complementary surface that is to be created and S1, the
original surface of the product model. Other denotations in
this figure have the meanings as follows:
1: old boundary
2: new boundary
3: section curve of S2
p0: point on 1
p1: point on 2
p 0 : first derivative vector at start point (p0) of 3
p0
3
S2
p1
2
Figure 4. Generation of complementary surface.
I
II
1
2
III
3
4
IV
V
3
4
I
II
C3
C1
III
IV
V
Metal Forming
pair is explained in the right half, in which circles are
made passing three points. Taking point 3 as example,
circles are generated through point 3 and its former point
on the same curve, i.e. point 2. Every point on the
neighbouring curve is used as the third point to generate
one circle, as point I help generate C1, and point III, C3.
Compare the radii of these circles, and the circle which has
the smallest radii, provides the point that belongs to the
same matching node pair as point 3 does. Here the radii of
C3 is less than that of C1, so point III is more likely to
constitute matching node pair with point 3. By this principle, the matching node pairs can be decided and then the
generation of mesh elements as well as the mesh model of
the addendum is not painstaking.
Other Auxiliary CAD Functions
To build a complete die surface model, some common
CAD functions are needed to consummate the applicability of the software, such as free surface modelling and
human-computer interface technologies. These are not the
main points of this paper so will not be discussed here, and
by resorting to the existing literal materials on universal
CAD algorithms, such functions can be perfectly implemented.
Applications
In this section several examples are demonstrated to
show the practical adaptability of the above technologies.
In each example shown in Figure 6, the left is the model
of original product and the right is that of the die surface.
These examples were all workshop level and the application results were fairly impressive.
Conclusions
The technologies presented in this paper have been
implemented in our self-developed die surface design
CAD software. This type of software is oriented for sheet
metal stamping FEM, in which the time cost is often taken
good care of, so the time saving and user convenience are
major concerns while whether high-quality geometry surfaces can be achieved is not a problem of top priority.
Taking these circumstances into consideration, some problem can be simplified, as the section of the addendum
generation shows. These technologies can be utilized to
lay foundation for the development of analogous software
and once combined with a powerful FEM calculator, their
potential to facilitate the die design work will be fully
exerted.
References
(a)
[1] H.Z. Dong, C.B. Teck, R.D. Jiang, Z.Q. Lin: Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 127-2 (2002), 261-265.
[2] M. Tisza: Materials Science Forum, 434-474 (2005), 135-140.
[3] Z.G. Liu, P. Hu, W. Guo, Y.C. Hou: Journal of Plasticity Engineering,
14-6 (2007), 72-77.
[4] W. Wang, F.Z. Shi: China Mechanical Engineering, 19-14 (2008),
1751-1755.
[5] DYNAFORM 5.1 Training Manual, Engineering Technology Associates, Inc., (2005), 26.
[6] AutoForm-DieDesign 3.03 Manual, AutoForm Engineering GmbH,
(2001), 42.
[7] S.B. Brunnermeier, S.A. Martin: Interoperability cost analysis of the
U.S.
automotive
supply
chain,
http://www.rti.org/pubs
/US_Automotive.pdf, (1999), 47.
[8] G. Chartrand, P. Zhang: Introduction to Graph Theory, Posts & Telecom Press, (2006), 2.
[9] L. Piegl, W. Tiller: The NURBS Book, (1997), 457-471.
(b)
(c)
Figure 6. Examples of die surface design.
681
Metal Forming
Introduction
Metal forming is an indispensable means of production
in the automotive and electrical appliance/electronic
equipment industries because it provides high productivity and stable quality. Metal forming is also attractive
from an environmental standpoint because it enables the
production of lighter products and saves resources and
energy.
There is a demand in the metalforming industry for the
net shape forming of high-precision and high value-added
shapes and thus there is also a demand for presses with
even higher functionality. Servo presses have come into
widespread usage in recent years, and they provide superior functionality through computerization. This document explains the compound forming, multi-action forming, and graduated forming trends in the metalforming
industry, and introduces the high-precision, high-rigidity
mechanical presses and the high-functionality servo
presses that enable these forming methods.
Press Machine Trends
Various types of presses have been developed to meet
the requirements of newly developed metalforming methods and enable the production of high-precision net shape
components. As shown in Figure 1, presses are being
enhanced not only by incorporating conventional highaccuracy, high-rigidity designs but also by utilizing new
servo technologies that provide intelligent functionality
that improves formability, such as programmable slide
motion, speed, pressure and position control, and recipe
data banks. The incorporation of such multi-action functionality is changing the concept from a press to a forming machine.
New forming technologies must achieve high-precision
forming, superior formability, and higher productivity,
and they must also be environmentally friendly, and the
forming machines must also provide improved functionality and conserve resources and energy. In the case of mechanical presses, new drive mechanisms have been developed to meet the high-precision, high-rigidity require-
682
Metal Forming
3. Intelligence and IT functionality
(1) Optimized production (formability and productivity)
(2) Recipe data bank, networking, data analysis
4. Reduced environmental impact
(1) Net shape forming
(2) Reduced power requirements
mechanical drive of a UL press consists of a compact 1point suspension with a scotch yoke mechanism that requires no connecting rods. This serves to reduce slide
deformation, making UL presses suitable for concentrated
loads such as those found in forging and sheet forging [3,
4] applications. Merging the high-accuracy, high-rigidity
characteristics of the basic press design with the high
functionality of servo motor controls is expected to result
in a synergistic effect that will enable high-precision multi-stage forming.
Off-center
Loading
In addition to the press itself, the development of a servo-driven die cushion also becomes necessary in order to
achieve high precision and high-value-added forming. A
servo die cushion changes the cushion from a passive,
low surge pressure device used for draw-forming applications to an active device suitable for multi-action forming
applications, thereby enabling the development of sheet
metal forming and forging methods as well as sophisticated data analysis. The primary characteristics are given
below:
1. As a die cushion, the pressure setting at any position is
freely programmable.
2. As an active operation source, the motion, timing,
683
Metal Forming
speed, and pressure is freely programmable.
3. It has functionality that reduces the force of impact.
Figure 6 shows the basic layout of a large motorized
hydraulic servo die cushion that uses servo motors to
control the hydraulic pump and motor units. The two
cylinders operate in perfect synchronization even under
eccentric loading conditions.
In a forging press, a servo cushion also functions as a
closed forging actuator and as a knockout device, and is
also effective in enabling higher performance in multiaction forming applications.
Figure 8. S-deceleration and graduated forming slide motions.
Chamfer
Forming Examples
Forming examples that use programmable slide motion
and intelligent functionality are introduced below.
Draw Forming. Figure 7 shows an example of a rupture that occurs in an irregular-shaped part during the 2nd
draw in the first operation when formed using a crank or
hydraulic press, and an example of a successful draw in a
servo press, where the speed control and the graduated
forming motion shown in Figure 8 are used to achieve
less material thinning [5]. Productivity can also be improved by increasing the slide speed outside the forming
portion of the stroke. S-deceleration motion enables soft
contact between the die and the material, thereby enabling the forming operations to be reduced from 2 stages
to 1 stage, where the end is pre-formed and the square cup
draw forming is done at high speed, and the pre-formed
asymmetric shape is stretch draw-formed at low speed via
graduated step forming .
Crack
684
(a) Bending
(b) Restrike
Figure 11 shows a multi-action die design. When bending (Fig. 11, left), the upper and lower cylinders are retracted and the upper punch is driven by a constantpressure cushion in the die and the blank holder is actuated by a die cushion in bed. At this time, the motion of
the die is similar to that of a conventional bending die. At
the time of the next restrike (Fig. 11, right), the cylinders
in the upper and lower dies are extended and anvil blocks
are inserted into the upper punch and under the blank
holder respectively. This enables the transmission of restrike loads to the upper and lower die sets via the anvil
blocks.
Metal Forming
Figure 12 shows the slide motion at this time. The slide
first downstrokes at maximum velocity (400mm/s), then
changes to the optimal forming velocity (40mm/s) at the
position where forming is initiated (58 mm above BDC)
and then completes the forming of the flange with its
chamfered bend. The die cushion is then locked at BDC
to hold the blank holder in that position to prevent the
part from being released from the die. The slide then stops
and dwells at 23 mm above BDC to finish the first operation. The cylinders in the upper and lower dies are actuated at this point to allow the anvil blocks to advance. The
slide then reverses direction to downstroke again. During
this second half of the die operation the BDC position is
higher than that of the preceding operation because the
anvil blocks have been inserted, but this is compensated
for by using pendulum motion to set the virtual BDC
position that is required. Restrike forming operations that
apply the Bauschinger effect increase forming precision.
This is achieved by repeating the pendulum motion twice
in order to dwell at virtual BDC for 0.2 seconds each time.
This chamfered bend and push-back forming cycle is
completed in seven (7) seconds.
Die anvil : Retreat
685
Metal Forming
A new forming method has been developed to improve the formability in stamping of steel sheets. Detaching of die surfaces from a steel
blank during the forming process is a distinctive feature of the developed method, and such a motion is repeated several times until the end
of forming. Results of sliding tests clarified that just the detaching of die surfaces from a steel sheet blank during the sliding process could
improve the frictional conditions between steel sheet and die surface. As a result, the developed method could reduce the forming load and
improve the forming limit of steel sheets. Finally, it was shown that the developed method which is automated with servo press and die
cushion systems could effectively improve the deep drawability of 590 MPa level high strength steel sheets, even if the pressed panel was
a full-scale panel for auto parts.
Keywords: Sheet metal forming, Deep drawing, Multistage drawing, New forming process, Servo press, Lubrication, Press motion control,
Steel sheets.
Introduction
An application of high tensile strength steel sheets is effective in a development of a lightweight automobile.
Recently steel sheets of 440 MPa or more tensile strength
have been used for automotive frames. However, the application of high tensile strength steel sheets to deep drawing is more difficult than mild steel ones, due to degradation of mechanical properties such as total elongation and
r-value. The development of forming methods to draw
high tensile strength steel sheets has been desired to increase the application of high strength steel sheets.
The application of ultrasonic vibration to deep drawing
has been investigated to improve deep drawability of thin
sheets [1,2]. It is considered that effects of die vibration on
improving formability are caused by the reduction of average frictional resistance, oxidization of blanks and die
surfaces, and re-inflow of lubricants. However, it is difficult to apply ultrasonic vibration to large dies for automotive panels, and the application of ultrasonic vibration was
limited to the laboratory experiments. Therefore, the development of the stamping method other than ultrasonic
vibration for automotive mass production system has been
desired.
Press slide
Sheet
Die
Sliding Tests. Sliding tests were carried out to investigate a change of frictional resistance caused by detaching
sheets from a tool during sliding tests. The method for
evaluating frictional resistance is shown in Figure 2. A
sliding tool was held between tested sheets and the tool
was drawn. The tool slid the same area of sheets during a
sliding test. This experimental method is considered to be
Load
Punch
Die cushion
Developed Method
P
Drawing force
Sliding tool
Tested sheets
Detaching punch
686
Metal Forming
Frictional coefficients () were calculated by an equation
(1). Used materials were steel-a which were conventional
mild steel sheets shown in Table 1. Conventional rust
preventive oil with dynamic viscosity 10mm2/s were used
for lubricants in sliding tests. Experimental conditions are
shown in Table 2.
=F / 2 P
(1)
4kN (20MPa)
20mm/sec
Alloy tool steels
Conventional rust preventive oil
(Dynamic viscosity: 10mm2/s)
Conventional
Developed
0.24
Increase of frictional coefficient
after the start of sliding test
0.20
Punch diameter
Punch shoulder radius
Die shoulder radius
Drawing ratio
Drawing speed
Lubricant
0.18
0.16
Improvement of
frictional coefficient
0.14
0.12
0
50
Developed method
Detaching sheets
from tool
100
150
Sliding length /mm
200
0.24
Conventional
0.22
Developed
0.20
0.18
0.16
Developed method
Detaching sheets
from tool 3 times
0.14
0.12
0
50
100
150
200
33.0
250
33mm
5mm
3mm
2.1
1mm/sec
Same as sliding tests
Conventional
250
Frictional coefficient
Frictional coefficient
0.22
sheets from the tool during sliding tests can reduce frictional resistance between sheets and the tool.
In addition, as shown in Figure 4, detaching tested
sheets from the sliding tool several times in the sliding test
can keep the frictional coefficient close to the initial one.
Therefore, it is presumed that repeat of such a motion have
remarkable effects on improving frictional resistance between sheets and the tool.
Developed
Critical
load
32.5
32.0
31.5
31.0
Conventional
Developed
Open:Fracture
SolidSuccess
12
13
14
15
16
17
Blank holding force /kN
Figure 5. Effects of developed method on reduction in maximum
forming load.
687
Metal Forming
32.5
=0.20
32.0
Experiments
FEM results
=0.22
Conventional
=0.21
Developed
=0.20
31.5
31.0
12
13
14
15
16
17
300mm
Figure 7. Automotive model panel (front fender panel) used in trial
stamping.
Table 4. Results of forming allowance tests.
Forming
Method
Conventional
Developed
Steel
a
b
a
688
Developed method
process
80
Restart
60
40
Press slide
Die cushion
20
0
0.5sec
Time /sec
Figure 8. Press slide and die cushion motion of the first step.
Table 4 shows experimental results of forming allowance tests. The developed method can improve the critical
blank holding force for fracture of general mild steel
sheets (steel-a), and these results are also the same as those
of cup drawing tests. The developed method made the
critical blank holding force for fracture of general mild
steel sheets extend more than that of the mild steel sheets
of deep drawing grade (steel-b). It is shown that the developed method is also effective in stamping of large-sized
panels.
Press Motion Control with Servo Press
Press Slide and Die Cushion Motions. Controlling
press slide motion and die cushion motion freely and
automatically during stamping are necessary to apply the
developed method to manufactured products. A motordrive servo press and a servo die cushion are suitable for
controlling the developed press motion and preventing
decrease of productivity [5]. The servo press and the servo
die cushion systems which can control the position of
press slide and die cushion were used for experiments.
Figure 8 shows the press slide and the die cushion motion of the first step of the press motion control. At first,
the press slide stopped moving and the die cushion kept
going down, and then the blank holder surface was detached from the sheet. Next, the press slide went up, and
as a result both the punch and the die were detached from
the sheet. The motion was repeated three times during the
forming process in the trial stamping.
R200
R40
R35
R35
200
=0.21
Drawing start
100
100
FEM
=0.22
120
33.0
R35
600
[mm]
Metal Forming
Figure 12 shows effects of the developed method on improving the thickness reduction ratio at the punch shoulder
portion. The developed method could improve the thickness reduction of 590 MPa-grade high tensile strength
steel sheets. The thickness reduction of it decreased to the
level of 440 MPa-grade steel sheets. It is clarified that the
application of the developed method which is automated
using servo press and servo die cushion systems can also
reduce the forming load and improve the formability of
high tensile strength steel sheets.
Thickness reduction ratio / %
30
Table 6 shows experimental results of forming allowance tests. The developed method could improve the critical blank holding force for fracture. Figure 11 shows
thickness distribution in the wall of panels which were
stamped under the blank holding force of 350 kN. The
developed method could prevent strain localization in the
punch shoulder potion. It is due to the effect that the developed method improves frictional resistance between
dies and sheets and reduces tension at the wall of panels.
Table 6. Results of forming allowance tests.
Forming
Method
Conventional
Developed
1.3
Thickness /mm
1.2
Conventional
Developed
1.1
1.0
15
10
0.8
[mm]
Strain localization
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Position in forming direction /mm
Figure 11. Thickness distribution in the wall.
Conventional
forming
Developed
method
Conventional
forming
Conclusions
A new press motion control method was developed in
order to improve formability in stamping of steel sheets.
Sliding tests, cup drawing tests and trial stamping of fullscale automobile panels were carried out, and the following results were obtained.
1. After the start of sliding tests, the frictional coefficient
increases as sliding length increases, but just detaching
of sheets from the tool during sliding can improve frictional resistance between the steel sheet and tool surface, and reduce the frictional coefficient. Repeat of
such a motion in sliding can keep the frictional coefficient close to the initial one.
2. A new forming method that used this phenomenon has
been developed. The application of the developed
method to deep drawing can reduce strain localization
in pressed panels and improve forming limits for fracture.
3. The developed method can improve deep drawability of
high tensile strength steel sheets, even if pressed panels
are full-scale automobile ones. It would be applied efficiently to mass production systems by means of using a
servo press and a servo die cushion system.
References
65
0.9
440MPa-steel(c)
20
Fracture
590MPa-steel(d)
25
689
Metal Forming
2)
The servo press was developed more than a decade ago, and various metal-forming methods involving the use of the press have subsequently been developed. We have been carrying out research on the uses and modifications of the servo press for metal forming with high
accuracy. In the metal forming process, we have been focusing on the slide inclination caused by an eccentric load. The slide inclination
affects the accuracy of the parts and products. We first applied feedback control to a digital servo press comparatively tough against an
eccentric load rather than a conventional press. The inclination of the slide was decreased to just below 50 m/m. By using a feedforward
control system, the inclination was further improved to nearly 20 m/m. We discuss the feedforward control system and show how the
accuracy is improved. This method can be used for products required more high accuracy diffusers for air bags, sprockets for automotive
and wide thin plate with high accuracy, fuel cell metal separator, heat exchanger plate, solar panel, etc. The use of this method along with a
multi-axis digital servo press for metal forming is expected to facilitate high accuracy and decrease the process cost in the near future.
Keywords: Servo press, Digital servo press, Eccentric Load, Feedforward control System, Slide inclination.
Introduction
We have been developing a digital servo press with high
accuracy since 2002; we presented reports on the development at Metal Forming 2004 and 2008 [1,2]. While we
provided an outline of the digital servo press (ZENFormer) with the characteristics of high accuracy, parallel
control, and powerful stroke at Metal Forming 2004, we
presented a remote control monitoring system at Metal
Forming 2008. We have been continuing with our efforts
to further improve the digital servo press. In conventional
press forming, the application of an eccentric load results
in the inclination of the slide of the press and degrades the
accuracy of the products.
One of our most important objectives is to decrease the
influence of the eccentric load on metal forming. The
inclination of the slide of a conventional press due to an
eccentric load is nearly 0.3 mm/m and it prevents metal
forming with high accuracy. The process of metal forming
using a press almost always generates an eccentric load
and of course generates bad effects. There have been no
methods to avoid the effect of an eccentric load. Many
methods have been developed to reduce the effect of an
eccentric load and they have been successful to a certain
extent, but all of them have limitations. The inclination of
the slide has been an obstacle to metal forming with high
accuracy and also to preventing abrasions on and damage
to the punch and die. Therefore, it is necessary to develop
an effective technique, and we have been seeking to improve existing methods for eliminating the effects of the
eccentric load in the process of metal forming. In a previous study, we have shown that the inclination is decreased
to nearly 50 m/m.
In the present study, we present a method that decreases
the inclination further, to nearly 20 m/m. This decrease
facilitates metal forming with high accuracy, which was
thought to be impossible so far. We show how the effects
of an eccentric load can be suppressed and believe that the
proposed method will contribute to plastic forming with
high accuracy.
Effects of Eccentric Load on Metal Forming
690
Metal Forming
parts is so small that they frequently come in contact and
wear out. This shortens their lifespan and sometimes leads
to severe damage. This means that high accuracy of a
progressive die cannot be obtained, especially in a lower
process under eccentric loads.
When parts with a high degree of flatness and a progressive process are used, a high degree of slide parallelism is
necessary for metal forming. The use of many presses is
one solution for satisfying this requirement, but this solution increases the cost. An example of such parts is shown
in Figure 3.
Figure 2. Large thin plate (fuel cell separator).
Parallel Control
Feedforward Control. The control method used during
the operation of a digital servo press when there is an
eccentric load is mainly feedback control, as mentioned
before, but it improves the inclination of the slide only to
50 m/m. We have been developing the method to improve it so that high accuracy can be achieved when an
eccentric load is applied. We now present an improved
method. The difference between feedback control and
feedforward control is schematically shown in Figure 4.
691
Metal Forming
and during metal forming. Our target was to reduce the
inclination to below 20 m/m at the impact point.
1. Collection of various processing data.
We tested many types of operations: thinning/thickening
of a plate, bending, punching, trimming, etc. We also performed multiprocessing (2 or 3 full power steps during 1
stroke) by applying an eccentric load at various positions
with feedback control (block diagram is shown in Figure
5) and collected data during the multiprocessing.
is set to be constant. The parameters considered for preparing the chart are the punch velocity and the eccentric load
position from the center.
P=Qa +Qb
(1)
Le =L*(1/2Qb/ P)
(2)
Test Result
The new feedforward method was applied to the test set
shown in Figure 8.
692
100 kN
376 mm from the center
20 mm
20 mm
3.2 mm
The diagonal lines in the graph are drawn by considering the measured values of the slide positions at the four
corners and two points of dot-dash line is control position
command. The inclination curve denotes the difference
between the maximum position and minimum position at
the four corners. In this case, the punch and work came in
contact at almost 0.63 s and the maximum inclination was
nearly 35 m immediately after contact.
Figure 9(b) shows the test result for the feedforward
control system, and the conditions are the same as Figure
9(b) and it shows inclination is within 20 m/m.
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
Conclusions
Figure 10(a) shows the test result for the feedback control system. The plate thickness is 5.8 mm and punch velocity is 60 mm/s, and other conditions are the same as
those in Figure 9(a). The maximum inclination is nearly 45
m/m.
Figure 10(b) shows the test result for the feedforward
control system, and the conditions are the same as those in
Figure 10(a). It shows a lower inclination, less than 20
m/m.
693
Metal Forming
Introduction
Presses are widely applied in industry for metal forming
and other tasks where a large force is required. A press can
be classified as mechanical and hydraulic presses, by the
power input. The former is the most widely used among
all types of presses because of its low price and low maintenance. It can be applied in forming such as shearing,
deep drawing, coining, bending, etc. Moreover, it is of
high speed and of energy efficiency, but lacks of flexibility.
In general, the rams motion of a mechanical press cannot be adjusted. However, in certain metal formings, e.g.,
deep drawing or precision cutting, the rams motion has to
be controlled to meet different motion requirements. Nowadays, more and more demands on the motion flexibility
of a press are increased. For instance, the stroke has to be
changed according to different thicknesses in sheet metal
forming, and the ram velocity has to be altered to meet
different stress-strain relationships in precision forming.
Yossifon and Shivpuri [1-4] proposed a double-knuckle
press driven by a servo motor. Hwang, et el. [5], performed the optimal dimensional synthesis of a mechanical
drag-link drive. Miyoshi [6] mentioned that Komatzu
Company developed a series of commercially available
servo presses. Yan and Chen [7-9] proposed the method of
variable input speed by controlling a servo motor for the
driving of a press which could perform with flexibility.
Hsieh [10-11] proposed a novel method for generating
variable input speed by using cam-controlled planetary
gear trains. Du [12] and Meng [13] presented the concept
of hybrid driven presses driven. Hsieh [14] invented a
novel press that employs a variable coupling to drive a
slider crank mechanism, and it leaded to the extended
applications to a novel mechanical press of Watt type [15],
and a quick return mechanism [16].
The purpose of the paper is to propose a novel press system of Stephenson type, so that it can generate complicated and flexible output motion that can meet different
motion requirements in precision forming.
r
3
1
Offset
Stephenson Chain
The modified Kutzbach-Grbler criteria [18] for the degrees of freedom of a planar mechanism can be expressed
as:
F = 3(N - 1) - 2J1 - J2
(1)
(2)
Oldham Coupling
An Oldham coupling can be classified, by its shape of
slots or ribs, as classical Oldham coupling (straight slots),
generalized Oldham coupling with circular slots, and generalized Oldham coupling with curvilinear slots [17]. The
694
(a) Stephenson-I
(b) StephensonII
(c) Stephenson-III
Figure 2. Stephenson Mechanisms.
Metal Forming
Gear
Reducer
Generalized
Oldham
Coupling
Stephenson
type
Mechanism
defined if c1, ac0a0, r1, r2, , , 1, a0b0, a0a, ab, b0b, , b0c,
e, and cd are specified.
Y
a bc
c3
ac
c2
Kinematic Analysis
Figure 5 shows the kinematic sketch of the proposed
Stephenson-I type press. Points ac0 and bc0 (or a0) denote
the axes of rotation of the input and output disks, respectively. Points ac and bc denote the arc centers of the slots
of the input and output disks, respectively. And Point o is
the point of intersection of the two arcs. Moreover, oac =
r1 and obc = r2 are the radii of the circular slots of input
disk and output disk, respectively. Also, e is the offset
between the center d of the slider and the centerline ac0bc0.
Furthermore, angle =ac0obc0 defines the intersection
angle between two circular arcs, and angle is b0b makes
with b0c. In addition, b0c and cd are the link lengths of the
crank and the connecting rod, respectively. It is noted that
angle represents the relative position of assembly between the coupling and the Stephenson mechanism, and
the output motion will vary with different . Finally, the
kinematic dimensions of the system can then be fully
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
1
1
New Press
Figure 3 shows the proposed new press system, it is
composed by a motor, a constant speed coupling, a gear
reducer, a variable speed coupling (generalized Oldham
coupling), and a Stephenson type mechanism. The motor
and the reducer are connected by the constant speed coupling, and then drive the Stephenson type mechanism
through the variable speed coupling. Since the variable
speed coupling can be easily replaced with various dimensions of the coupling, or changed with different assembly
configurations. The velocity and acceleration of the output
can be adjusted to meet different motion requirements.
Moreover, the stroke of the ram can be adjusted by altering
the link length of the crank and the offset of the ram,
hence the output motion of the proposed system can be
arbitrarily changed to meet different motion requirements
with proper design. Since no servo motor and differential
are required, and only a mechanism with one degree of
freedom is used, the structure of the proposed system is
simple and reliable, and the building cost is low. Moreover,
the coupling can act as a flywheel, hence it is not only
energy effective, but also can produce large impulsive
forces.
Figure 4 depicts the assembly of the proposed system. A
generalized Oldham coupling with circular slots is selected
as the variable coupling, and a Stephenson-I mechanism as
the rotation-linear mechanisms, respectively. Since the
analysis and design for the Stephenson mechanisms are
similar, only the Stephenson-I type mechanism will be
presented as an illustrative example in the following sections.
a , bc
0
c4
Coupling
c'
c
3
c3
r
c2
r
bc
c3
c4
c2
c c1
r
c
bc
c2
ac
c1
r'
2
r
c4
a
3
ac
1
0
c4
c c
cc
c1
1r
Motor
c
4
rc 2 + rc 3 rc 4 rc1 = 0
r2 + r3 r4 r1 = 0
r2 + r3 ' + r5 e S = 0
(3)
(4)
(5)
Eq. (3) can be resolved into its x and y components, respectively, as:
rc 2 cos c 2 + rc 3 cos c 3 rc 4 cos c 4 rc1 cos c1 = 0
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Squaring Eqs. (8) and (9) and then adding them, we have
rc 3 sin c 3 = rc 4 sin c 4 rc 2 sin c 2 + rc1 sin c1
A cos c 4 + B sin c 4 = C
(10)
695
Metal Forming
where
(11)
(12)
B = 2rc 2 rc 4 sin c 2
2
A2 + B 2
(13)
C
A2 + B 2
(14)
Where
cos c =
(15)
A2 + B 2
And
sinc =
(16)
A2 + B 2
2
2
A +B
c 4 = c + cos 1
rc 2 sin( c 4 c 2 )
c2
rc 3 sin( c 3 c 4 )
(31)
c 4 =
rc 2 sin( c 3 c 2 )
c2
rc 4 sin( c 3 c 4 )
(32)
3 =
r2 sin( 4 2 )
2
r3 sin( 3 4 )
(33)
4 =
r2 sin(3 2 )
2
r4 sin(3 4 )
( r2 sin 2 )2 ( r3 'sin 3 ')3 '
(18)
(20)
(35)
(36)
(37)
C 3 =
(21)
(38)
G = rc 3 sin c 3
(39)
H = rc 4 sin c 4
(40)
(41)
J = rc3 cos c3
(42)
K = rc 4 cos c 4
(43)
(44)
D
= cos 1
2
2
D +E
(22)
(23)
E = 2r2 r4 sin 2
(24)
(25)
Moreover,
(26)
3 =
(34)
Where
Where
3 = tan 1
r5 sin 5
(19)
2
2
D +E
(30)
(17)
4 = + cos 1
(29)
5 =
r5
5 = cos 1
Furthermore, let 3=3+, e =0, and s = 270, and substituting into Eq. (5), its x and y components can be solved
by
OQ NR
MQ NP
MR OP
4 =
MQ NP
(45)
(46)
where
(27)
K = rc 4 cos c 4
(47)
(28)
M = r3 sin 3
(48)
N = r4 sin 4
(49)
(50)
696
Metal Forming
(51)
Q = r4 cos 4
R = r22 cos 2 + r2 2 2 sin 2 + r332 sin 3 r44 2 sin 4
(52)
(53)
fore, the proposed design can alter the motion of its ram to
meet the demand of various forming, by employing different dimensions of the coupling, with cost and time efficiency.
Conclusions
A novel design for the press, the Stephenson type mechanisms driven by a generalized Oldham coupling, has
been proposed in this study. Kinematic analysis has been
studied from its geometry. Then, a design example has
been given for illustration. Finally, computer simulation
results indicated that the proposed novel press can produce
different and better output motion. Therefore, it has high
potential to be applied to a press that needs to occasionally
alter its output motion to meet different market demands.
In addition, it has the advantages of lower cost and energy
consumption, high productivity and reliability, compared
to a conventional mechanical press or a servo press.
Design Example
Table 1. Dimensions.
Acknowledgements
150.00
Acceleration (mm/s^2)
600.00
Velocity (mm/s)
Displacement (mm)
12000.00
900.00
90.00
60.00
300.00
0.00
30.00
60.00
120.00
180.00
Angle (deg)
240.00
300.00
360.00
0.00
-6000.00
-18000.00
-600.00
0.00
6000.00
-12000.00
-300.00
0.00
18000.00
1200.00
120.00
0.00
60.00
120.00
180.00
Angle (deg)
240.00
300.00
360.00
0.00
60.00
120.00
180.00
Angle (deg)
240.00
300.00
360.00
(a) Displacement
(b) Velocity
(c) Acceleration
Figure 7. Kinematic analysis (c= 60 rpm).
A new press with dimensions, shown in Table 1, is given here as an illustrative example. Its solid model is constructed by CAITA software, and then introduced into
ADAMS software for kinematic simulation. Figure 7
shows the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the
proposed press by simulation. Figure 8 shows the comparison between the ram displacement (in solid line) of the
proposed design and that (in dashed line) of a conventional
Stephenson-I mechanism with the same dimensions. It can
be found that the duration of working period has been
increased from AB to AB. Also, the ram speed during the
period is steadier than the conventional one. Both of them
are beneficial to metal forming. Moreover, the disks and
their slots of the coupling are of circular or arc shapes,
hence they can be made with low cost. In addition, the
coupling can be designed to be replaced with ease. There-
References
[1] S. Yossifon, D. Messerly, E. Kropp, R. Shivpuri, T. Altan: International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 31-3 (1991), 345359.
[2] S. Yossifon, R. Shivpuri: International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture, 33-2 (1993), 175-192.
[3] S. Yossifon, R. Shivpuri: International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture, 33-2 (1993), 93-208.
[4] S. Yossifon, R. Shivpuri: International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture, 33-2 (1993), 209-222.
[5] W.M. Hwang, Y.C. Hwang, S.T. Chiou: International Journal of
Machine Tools & Manufacture, 35-10 (1995), 1425-1433.
[6] K. Miyoshi: Current Trends in Free Motion Presses, Proc. 3rd JSTP
International Seminar on Precision Forging, Nagoya, (2004), 69-74.
[7] H.S. Yan, W.R. Chen: Mechanism and Machine Theory, 35-4 (2000),
541-561.
[8] H.S. Yan, W.R. Chen: International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture, 40-5 (2000), 675-690.
[9] H.S. Yan, W.R. Chen: Trans. of the ASME, Journal of Mechanical
Design, 124-3 (2002), 350-354.
[10] W.H. Hsieh: Mechanism and Machine Theory, 42-5 (2007), 513-525.
[11] W.H. Hsieh: Mechanism and Machine Theory, 44-5 (2009), 873-895.
[12] R. Du, W.Z. Guo: Trans. of ASME, Journal of Mechanical Design,
125-3 (2003), 582-592.
[13] C.F. Meng, C. Zhang, Y.H. Lu, Z.G. Shen: Mechanism and Machine
Theory, 39-8 (2004), 811-818.
[14] W.H. Hsieh: Chinese Invention Patent No. I308090.
[15] W.H. Hsieh, K.M. Shu: Steel Research International, Special Edition,
1 (2008), 731-739.
[16] W.H. Hsieh, C.H. Tsai: Trans. of the Canadian Society for Mechanical Engineering, 33-3 (2009), 139-152.
[17] F. Freudenstein, L.W. Tsai, E.R. Maki: Trans. of ASME, Transmissions and Automation in Design, 106-4 (1984), 475-481.
[18] M. Grbler, Verh. Ver. Bef. Gew: 64 (1885), 179-223.
[19] M. Mayourrian, F. Freudenstein: Trans. of ASME, Journal of mechanisms, Transmissions, and Automation in Design, 106 (1984),
458-461.
697
Metal Forming
Dry Press Forming Using CVD Diamond Film Coated Tool Polished by Non Abrasive
Ultrasonic Vibration Polishing
Tsuyoshi Yokosawa1), Seiji Kataoka2), Takashi Sato3), Kenji Tamaoki1), Kengo Fujimaki1), Tadao Kato4)
1)
Tokyo Metropolitan Industrial Technology Research Institute, Tokyo / Japan, yokosawa.tsuyoshi@iri-tokyo.jp; 2) Shonan Institute
of Technology, Fujisawa / Japan; 3) Nonk, Inc., Tokyo / Japan; 4) Nissin Precision Machines Co., Ltd., Tokyo / Japan
Several studied have proposed dry press forming using tools coated with chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond films. The dry press
forming is a forming method that does not involve the use of lubricants. CVD diamond films have excellent wear resistance and low friction.
However, the films have a coarse surface because of blocky crystals. Therefore, these films have to be polished to improve their surface
roughness before using them for coating press forming tools. The current polishing methods are not efficient. Therefore, aiming at the
practical use of DPF tools, a method and a machine for polishing CVD diamond films were developed. The polishing machine, the polishing
method and results of drawing of a 1-mm-thick stainless steel sheet by means of DPF tools are described.
Keywords: Chemical vapor deposition diamond film, Dry press forming, Tools, Drawing, Non-abrasive ultrasonic vibration polishing,
Stainless steel
698
Ultrasoni vibration
Debris
Mechanical
Press
Friction heat
Carbonization reaction
The dry press forming (DPF) method has been developed with the aim realizing of zero emission of lubricants
[1]. Press forming tools coated with diamond-like carbon
(DLC) films or ceramics are used as DPF tools [2]. However, DLC films or ceramics and forming methods are not
suitable. Therefore, DPF using press forming tools coated
with chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond films,
instead of DLC films or ceramics, was proposed [3,4],
because CVD films have excellent wear resistance and low
friction as compared to DLC films or ceramics. The friction coefficient of CVD diamond films is approximately
0.05 under dry conditions. Therefore, it acts as an excellent fluid lubricant.
The surface of CVD diamond films is rather coarse because of blocky crystals. Hence, these films cannot be
used as a coating material for DPF tools without polishing.
Mechanical polishing using diamond abrasive grains or
diamond wheels is the commonly used polishing method
for CVD diamond films. However, this method is time
consuming. To overcome this disadvantage, a method in
which diamond is polished by the heat chemical reaction
with ferrous materials at high temperatures in vacuum was
proposed [5,6]. High-speed slide polishing is another wellknown method used for polishing. In this method, diamond can be polished to a very high quality using simple
apparatus [7,8]. Although these methods can be used for
polishing diamond films efficiently, they cannot be used
for polishing diamond film coatings on press forming tools
with a complex 3-dimensional shape.
We developed non-abrasive ultrasonic vibration
polishing [9], which is based on the heat chemical reaction between the tool material and the diamond film and
the mechanical wear caused by ultrasonic vibration. We
also developed a polishing machine for this purpose.
Then, using the forming tools fabricated through this
process, we achieved dry press drawing of a 1-mm-thick
stainless steel sheet.
Diamond film
Introduction
Polishing tool
Metal Forming
wavelength of the propagating elastic wave. The tip of the
polishing tool is disc shaped so as to contact with CVD diamond film on the point or on the line. The diameter and thickness of the disc are 14 and 2 mm, respectively.
Polishing of CVD Diamond Film Coating on Drawing
Tool and DPF Using Drawing Tool
Vertical ultrasonic
vibration unit
Polishing tool
Rotating table
62.3mm
Press
Polishing tool
Tilt changed at every rotation
2mm
12mm
14mm
Figure 3. Diagram of polishing tool.
21.5
Ultrasonic vibration
Shoulder
Press
Polishing tool
20
Inside
Tool feed
43
Figure 5 shows the method for polishing the CVD diamond film on the shoulder of the tool. When the polishing
tool is vibrated, its shoulder gets pressed against the film
at a load of 70 N, and the press forming tool is rotated
through 360 at the rate of 0.1 rpm/s. Therefore, a ring
area of about 0.3~0.5 mm in width on the shoulder of the
tool is polished. Next, as illustrated in the figure, the press
forming tool is rotated again after tilting by an arbitrary
angle, so that the polished ring area overlaps the area to be
polished. This process is repeated until the complete required area is polished. In this study, the tilting angle is 2.
Figure 6 shows the method for polishing CVD diamond
film on the inside of the tool. Since the vibrating polishing
699
Metal Forming
tool gets pressed against the film on the inside of the tool
at the load of 70 N, the tool is shifted in the z-axis direction at the rate of 10 mm/min. As a result, a linear area of
width of about 1 mm on the inside gets polished. Then, the
forming tool is rotated by an arbitrary angle so that the
polished linear area overlaps the area to be polished. In
this study, the rotating angle is 2.
The polishing conditions are as follows: transverse vibration amplitude = 10 mp-p; resonance frequency of the
ultrasonic system = 26.5 kHz; and polishing load = 70 N.
After polishing
1m
1m
Before polishing
50m
50m
Before polishing
After polishing
1m
1m
200m
200m
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
51
1000
1500
2000
2 50 0
3000
3500
4 00 0
4500
5000
5500
6 00 0
6500
7000
7 50 0
8000
8500
9 00 0
9 00
1 0 500
00
0
Times of drawing
700
Metal Forming
These results indicate that equipment for polishing CVD
diamond films without the formation of ultraminute chippings is required. The results also confirm the feasibility
of DPF using press forming tools coated with CVD diamond films.
Conclusions
A stainless steel sheet having 1 mm in thickness was
drawn using DPF tools coated with a CVD diamond film
that was polished using ultrasonic vibrations, instead of
abrasive grains. The results are as follows:
1. It was confirmed that CVD diamond film coatings on
press forming tools with a complex 3-dimensional shape
can be polished by the developed machine.
2. The surface roughness of the CVD diamond film on the
inside or shoulder of the drawing tool was 0.5 mRz after polishing.
3. Dry drawing of the 1-mm-thick stainless steel sheet
could be repeated 10,000 times. Tipping or adhesion
was not observed on surface of the drawing tool.
4. The feasibility of DPF using press forming tools coated
with CVD diamond films was confirmed.
References
701
Metal Forming
Detection of Tribological Condition during Sheet Metal Forming Using Fractal Property
of Acoustic Emission
1)
2)
1)
1)
2)
A new method for detecting galling during sheet metal forming processes using the fractal property of acoustic emission (AE) was examined. For the purpose, the AE measurement system was equipped with the tribo-simulator for measuring fractal property of AE. The fractal
dimension of AE amplitude was measured with friction coefficient and temperature rise for stainless steel sheets with and without lubricants.
Four kinds of mineral oil having various viscosities VG1000, VG100, VG22 and VG2 were employed as the lubricants to examine the effect
of viscosity on tribological conditions. No galling was observed when using VG1000 that has the largest viscosity in the present experiments. The fractal dimension was observed above 2.0. In two cases with VG100, though the friction coefficients were below 0.07 in both
cases, a sudden decrease of the fractal dimension into below 2.0 was observed in one case, in which the galling was observed after the
iteration of 8. No galling occurred in the other case, in which the fractal dimension was above 2.0 during the experiment. In case with VG22,
galling observed after the iteration of 5, and the fractal dimension was measured below 2.0 from the first although the increase of friction
coefficient was observed after the iteration of 30. In cases with VG2 and no lubricant, severe galling occurred from the early stage, and the
fractal dimensions were observed below 1.0 during the experiment. The galling was prone to occur when fractal dimensions become below
2.0, and that the change in fractal dimension responded more sensitively to the occurrence of galling than the friction and temperature.
Keywords: Acoustic emission, Tribo-simulator, Sheet forming, Friction, Temperature, Stainless steel, Galling.
Introduction
Tribological conditions during sheet metal forming
processes affect the forming limit as well as the forming
loads required. An inadequate lubrication condition will
accelerate galling on the die surface and hence cause a
baneful influence on the quality of final product as well as
the dies which surfaces must be refinished more frequently.
The use of simple testing method (tribo-simulator) that
simulates tribological characteristics during sheet metal
forming processes is very effective for the evaluation of
tribological state between tool and sheet metal as well as
the performance of lubricant and surface coating of tool.
The present authors have developed a tribo-simulator for
the detection of such tribological conditions of sheet metal
forming processes. Some experiments have been performed with the simulator to evaluate the friction coefficient and temperature during processes [1-3].
The galling on the surface of tool and sheet metal during
the processes can also be simulated with the simulator. The
onset of galling, however, can only be found by the observation of the surface of the sheet metal after the experiment, since the change in friction coefficient and temperature rise are moderate to the onset of galling. Therefore,
some equipment for the real-time monitoring devices for
the detection of the onset of galling during the simulation
will be very useful.
On the other hand, an acoustic emission (AE) technique
has been known as one of the most effective methods for a
non-destructive inspection of a progress of material damage and fracture. AE is a phenomenon caused by elastic
waves generated by onset of microscopic defects in material. A detection method of damage to and fracture of materials using a fractal property of AE and have applied to
the detection of the fracture of cold forging tools successfully by the present authors [4-7]. The method is expected
702
(1)
(2)
Metal Forming
Tribo-Simulator, AE Detection System and Experimental Condition
Tribo-Simulator for Sheet Metal Forming. Figure 1
shows the principle of the tribo-simulator with AE detecting system developed by the authors. A sheet metal blank
wrapped around a mandrel with a rubber sheet is deformed
by a steel ball used as a tool to make spiral grooves on the
metal sheet, when the mandrel with the sheet metal is
chucked and rotated by a lathe. One rotation corresponds
to the process of forming and return of a punch in actual
process. Many spiral grooves formed in the tribo-simulator
can correspond to the actual iterative processes. The tribosimulator can realize total sliding length of 7.7 m and the
iterative forming process number N = 40.
The steel ball was fixed to a measuring device set up on
a tool post of the lathe. The radial force W and the circumferential force F are measured by the measuring device. It
has been confirmed by calibration tests that both of the
forces W and F can be measured accurately without any
interferences within the range of 1000N and 500N. Surface temperature was measured by a thermo-couple
imbedded in the ball at 0.5 mm beneath the surface as
shown in Figure 1.
The circumferential force F will consists of a forming
force component Fp and a frictional force component Ff,
and the radial force W will consists of an indenting force
component Wp and a frictional force component Wf as
shown in Figure 2.
The forming force Fp can be measured when the ball is
rotated freely without any friction force as shown in Figure 3. Therefore, the friction coefficient can be calculated approximately by the following equation;
f
p
Ff
Wp
F Fp
W
(3)
VG2
VG22
VG100
VG1000
Metal Forming
Case of VG100. In the case of VG100, two different
results were obtained: no galling (VG100-1) and galling
(VG100-2) in same experimental conditions. Figure 5
shows the change in the m, and Tr in the case of VG1001. The m was obtained in every iteration in this case and
hereafter. The and Tr were observed stable. The ms were
above the value of 2.0. No galling mark was observed on
the surface of the sheet metal tested.
In the other case of VG100-2 as shown in Figure 6(a),
the decrease of m was observed at N = 7. The ms after N
=15 were observed below the value of 2.0, although the
and Tr were observed stable. From the observation of the
grooves of the sheet metal tested as shown in Figure 6(b),
the mark of galling was observed at N = 8, then the mark
became wider and increased in number as the N increased.
The reason that the two different cases occurred is that the
slight difference of the surface asperity of the sheet metals
used seems to be the most probable. These experiments
was the very critical of the onset of galling.
Case of VG22. Figure 7(a) shows the change in the m,
and Tr during the simulation with VG22. The and Tr
increases after N = 30, although the galling was observed
at N = 5 as shown in Figure 7(b). It was very difficult to
predict the onset of galling by the observation of and Tr
in this case. On the other hand, the m was below the value
of 2.0 from the first, and then decreased into below the
value of 1.0. From the observation of behavior of m, it can
be predicated that the galling occurred at very early stage
in this case.
Case of VG2. Figure 8(a) shows the change in the m,
and Tr during the simulation with VG2. The increase of
and Tr was observed from the early stage. The galling
was observed at N = 3 as shown in Figure 8(b). The onset
N=1
N=8
N = 20
N = 30
(b) Grooves of sheet metal tested (with galling).
Figure 6. Change in measurements and observation of surface of
grooves in case of VG100-2.
N =20
N = 40
(b) Grooves of sheet metal tested.
Figure 4. Change in measurements and observation of surface of
grooves in case of VG1000.
N=1
704
N=1
N=5
N=15
N = 30
(b) Grooves of sheet metal tested.
Figure 7. Change in measurements and observation of surface of
grooves in case of VG22.
Metal Forming
N=1
N=3
N = 15
N = 30
(b) Observation of surface of grooves.
Figure 8. Change in measurements and observation of surface of
grooves in case of VG2.
Prediction of Galling by Fractal Property of AE. Figure 10 shows the changes in the s and ms in all cases test.
The value of the above which galling occur can be estimated as = 0.07 in Figure 10(a). However, the onset of
galling is difficult to be detected. Moreover, the clear distinction of the galling under the critical lubrication condition such as VG100-2 is also difficult. On the other hand,
in Figure 10(b), the ms when no galling occurs in such
case as VG1000 and VG100-1 remained above the value
of 2.0. The ms in the critical case of galling such as
VG100-2 is observed to decrease from the value above 2.0
to that below the value of 2.0 during the experiment. The
ms in the galling cases VG22, VG2 and no lubricant were
below the value of 2.0 from the early stages of the experiments. Especially, the severe galling was expected when
the m is almost below the value of 1.0 in such case as VG2
and no lubricant.
From these aspects on the behavior of the ms in the present experiments, the onset of galling can be predicted
when the m have tendency of descending and becomes
above the value of 2.0.
Conclusions
705
Metal Forming
2)
The Electromagnetic forming (EMF) method is one of high-velocity forming processes, which use an electromagnetic repulsive force to
deform a workpiece. Advantages of this forming technique are summarized as improvement of formability, reduction in wrinkling occurrence,
non-contact forming and application to various forming process. In this study, the EMF apparatus is developed and applied to sheet metal
forming experiments. The EMF apparatus consists of capacitors, charging/discharging switch, charging circuit and forming coil. The current
obtained from the forming coil produces a transient magnetic field when the discharging switch is closed, and then the eddy current in the
opposite direction induced on the workpiece by Faradays Law. The electromagnetic repulsive force between the forming coil and the
workpiece is generated as a forming force. The free forming experiment with 1050 aluminum alloy is carried out using the EMF apparatus.
Keywords: Electromagnetic forming, High-velocity forming process, Induced current, Lorentz force
Introduction
In sheet metal forming, electromagnetic forming (EMF),
which applies magnetic energy to a workpiece, is a representative high-velocity forming process as explosive forming method. The EMF deforms a flat workpiece to a required shape using time varying electromagnetic field
created by solenoid coil [1-3]. Forming section of the
workpiece is restricted to a space affected by the magnetic
field, which is generated by the forming coil. Accordingly,
in order to obtain substantial forming force, high conductive driver is needed to form the workpiece with low conduction property. However, a magnetic pressure created by
the forming coil is applies to a forming material without
any contact. As some advantages of the EMF process,
defect, surface crack, lubrication and defacement are not
occurred on the surface of the workpiece because of noncontact characteristics, and an iterative forming is also
possible. The EMF process can maintain the mechanical
properties of the sheet material as a cold forming method,
and it can be applied to various forming process such as
contraction or expansion of pipes [4,5], plate forming [6]
and bonding process [7]. The EMF can be also applied to
various industrial fields because it could be used to deform
a sheet metal having complex shapes.
Until now, a study on the EMF has been only performed
for theoretical approach and basic experiment. Researches
with respect to a super-plastic forming process of 75%
strain rate, bonding process, contraction and expansion
process of pipe using the EMF apparatus have been conducted in OSU from 1990s [8-9]. Furthermore, development of the EMF apparatus combined with a micro forming of aircraft parts has been carried out in Boeing. An
interest with regard to the EMF is increased, and many
researchers mentioned that the continuous and innovative
study is needed to develop the advanced EMF technology
and its apparatus.
In this study, the EMF apparatus has been newly developed, and it was applied to the experiments to evaluate the
performance of the EMF apparatus. The EMF apparatus in
this study consisted of capacitors, charging/discharging
switch, charging circuit and forming coil. In order to ver-
706
= d / dt
F = Idl B
Metal Forming
The Lorentz force (F) is defined by the electric current
(I) in the conductor, unit vector (dl) of the conductor, and a
magnetic flux density (B). It is generated in the perpendicular direction to plane defined by unit vector and the
magnetic flux density, as shown in Figure 2. Consequently,
this force is working as a forming force [1].
500 F
5 kV
Peak current
250 kA
6.25 kJ
(3)
E = CV 2/ 2
(4)
N 2 A 2
30A11Di
(5)
707
Metal Forming
A = [D i+ N (W + S)]/ 2
(6)
As shown in Figure 6, the forming coil of 2 H was developed using the parameters mentioned. A copper wire of
5mm10mm was used to manufacture the forming coil.
The diameter and a number of turn were 110mm and 6,
respectively. Also, the forming coil was insulated by using
epoxy as shown in Figure 7, and assembled by the screw
bolts.
stabilized charge of the capacitor. The energy control device, the charge/discharge device, and a potential transformer were also developed as shown in Figure 8. The
energy stored in the capacitor was adjustable through the
input voltage adjustment device.
EMF Apparatus. As shown in Figure 9, the EMF apparatus was developed through an integration of the obtained
components. Firstly, the input voltage is determined, and
then the capacitor is charged using the charging switch.
Once the volt-meter indicates the charge completion, the
EMF process is conducted by the repulsion force of the
electromagnetic field between the sheet material and the
forming coil according to the discharge.
EMF Experiments
Control System. The system to control and charge/discharge the stored energy in the capacitor through the adjustment of the input voltage within the EMF apparatus is
needed. The control system was also constructed for the
708
The EMF experiments were carried out using Al 1050H14, which is the initial thickness of 0.5 mm, for the verification of the developed EMF apparatus. Figure 10 represents the forming die, which was manufactured for the free
forming test in this study. Table 2 describes the properties
of the test material. According to the input voltage of 2.5,
3 and 3.5 kV, the stored energy was present as the values
of 1.56, 2.25 and 3 kJ, respectively. The forming test result
and the formed depth with regard to the distance from a
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Metal Forming
103 MPa
Resistivity
2.90-cm
35
center were described in Figures 11 and 12. The maximum depth was investigated and measured in the center,
and the respective depths were recorded of 18, 22 and 28.5
mm, respectively.
3.5kV
3.0kV
2.5kV
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
(a) 2.5kV(1.56kJ)
(b) 3kV(2.25kJ)
(c) 3.5kV(3kJ)
Figure 11. Results of electromagnetic forming experiment
according to various forming energy.
Conclusions
The EMF apparatus was developed, and the free forming
test was also performed for the reliability verification of
709
Metal Forming
Influence Analysis of 3D Roughness Parameters on Physical and Technological Properties of Steel Sheets
Marek Burdek, Marcin Miczka
Instytut Metalurgii elaza (Institute for Ferrous Metallurgy), Gliwice / Poland, mburdek@imz.pl
The results of statistical analysis of 3D roughness parameters on physical and technological properties of steel sheets are presented. Each
of steel sheet grades was prepared with three different surface topographies achieved during skin-passing by means of a work roll set with
similar arithmetic mean surface roughness Sa parameter and different other roughness parameters. Then, the Erichsen test, the cupping
test by Swift, and the tensile test were carried out. To analyze strength and direction of an influence of 3D roughness parameters on ratios
(indicators) depicting sheets properties, the linear correlation coefficients between variables was calculated. It was found that an unambiguous correlation between chosen roughness parameters and steel sheets properties was not determined except for small number of
cases.
Keywords: 3D roughness parameters, Surface topography, Steel sheets, Deep drawing, Statistical analysis
Introduction
The chemical composition of steel as well as production
technology (hot rolling, annealing, cold rolling) are the
most important parameters determining physical and technological properties of steel sheets. Surface topography of
steel sheets which is formed during skin-pass rolling could
also influence some of steel sheets technological properties. For comprehensive evaluation of surface topography
3D measurements and analysis of surface topography are
applied. 3D surface topography analysis offers greater
possibilities than the conventional 2D roughness measurement owing to the possibility of evaluation of the surface texture, developed interfacial area ratio, arithmetic
mean summit curvature of the surface, etc [1-7].
The aim of present study was to analyze the influence of
chosen 3D roughness parameters on steel properties using
statistical method. To analyze strength and direction of an
influence of 3D roughness parameters on ratios (indicators) depicting sheets properties, the linear correlation
coefficients between variables was calculated. So, the
basic mathematical statistics theory was used during the
analyses [8,9].
As a result of the analysis of 3D roughness measurements it was found that steel sheets, which were prepared
to tests, had similar arithmetic mean surface roughness Sa
and other different roughness parameters (three different
topographies). The difference lay in the shape of summits
and the area peak count, which could bring about increase
of the developed interfacial area ratio, surface texture
aspect ratio, better fluid retention and finally they could
lead to increase or decrease of steel sheets drawability.
Finally, six different variants were obtained (3 topographies x 2 grades of steel). Details were presented in [10].
Based on results of drawability tests conducted by
Erichsen and Swift methods, one may initially state that
owing to proper surface topography, steel sheets could
achieve better drawability index (DC01 grade) or higher
limit drawing ratio K (DC03 grade).
Tests of mechanical properties of steel sheets have
shown that surface topography did not influence percentage elongation and R02/Rm ratio, and that it could only
710
Metal Forming
for every variant (totally 54 measurements);
c) mechanical properties - every 3 measurements in longitudinal and transverse direction and at angle of 45 degree to the rolling direction (totally 54 measurements);
d) surface topography - 15 measurements for every variant (totally 90 measurements).
Basic descriptive statistics were calculated on the basis
of the correlation coefficients set for every variant of sheet
grade and surface topography. The following sheet
properties were examined: drawability index by the
Erichsen test, the limit drawing ratio by the cupping test,
normal anisotropy and percentage elongation A80. Surface
topography were characterized by 20 changeable 3D
roughness parameters: Sp, Sv, St, Ssk, Sku, Sz, Sdc, Smmr,
Smvr, SPc, Sds, Str, Sdq, Ssc, Sdr, Sbi, Sci, Svi. The
description of 3D parameters is presented in Table 1 [1114].
Table 1. Selected 3D roughness parameters.
Sa
St
Sp
Sv
Ssk
Sku
Sz
SPc
Smmr
Smvr
Str
Ssc
Sdq
Sbi
Sci
Svi
Discussion of Results
In the earlier work, it was found that, owing to proper
surface topography, steel sheets could achieve better
drawability index (DC01 grade) or higher limit drawing
ratio (DC03 grade) [10]. Examinations were carried out on
steel sheets which had similar arithmetic mean surface
roughness Sa and different other roughness parameters.
Therefore, Sa parameter was excluded from further analysis.
Results of correlation coefficient between roughness parameters and technological and mechanical properties,
which indicate occurring of linear relations are reported in
Tables 2-5.
As it can be seen from Tables 2-5, an unambiguous correlation between chosen roughness parameters and steel
sheets properties was not determined except for small
number of cases. One can say that interrelations are much
more sophisticated that it was assumed.
Influence of Surface Roughness on Drawability by
Erichsen and Swift. As it can be seen from Tables 2 and3
that only some roughness parameters show moderate and
strong linear correlations to drawability. They are: Sp, St,
Smvr, SPc, Sds, Str, Sdq, Ssc, Sbi, Sci, Svi. Among them
the parameters characterizing surface texture and shape of
summits (Str, Sdq i Ssc) are the most important. Additionally, it was found that surface topography almost does not
Steel
DC01 grade
DC03 grade
Surface topography
Surface topography
Parameter
Erichsen Index
Sp
Erichsen Index
0.66
Ssk
-0.50
Sku
0.64
Smvr
0.66
Sds
0.56
Str
0.61
Sdq
0.61
-0.64
0.55
Ssc
-0.91
Sdr
0.56
Sbi
-0.54
Sci
0.56
0.62
Svi
0.59
DC03 grade
Steel
Surface topography
Surface topography
Parameter
Sp
-0.50
St
-0.59
Smvr
-0.50
SPc
0.74
Str
Ssc
0.58
-0.83
711
Metal Forming
Table 4. Correlation coefficients values for surface topography and
normal anisotropy.
DC01 grade
Steel
Surface topography
A
Parameter
DC03 grade
Normal anisotropy
Sp
0.54
Surface topography
A
0.68
Sv
B
-0.59
-0.52
St
0.58
0.64
Sku
0.76
Sz
0.83
Smmr
-0.52
Smvr
0.68
SPc
Sds
0.52
Str
0.72
Normal anisotropy
0.71
-0.55
-0.60
0.64
-0.55
-0.59
0.71
-0.64
-0.68
0.54
-0.54
Sdq
0.87
Ssc
-0.70
Sdr
-0.53
-0.60
0.55
-0.63
0.87
Sbi
-0.56
Sci
-0.55
-0.62
Svi
0.59
DC03 grade
Steel
Surface topography
Surface topography
Parameter
Percentage elongation
Sp
-0.58
-0.52
SPc
-0.52
0.63
Ssc
-0.55
Sbi
Sci
712
-0.53
-0.76
Smvr
Sds
-0.52
St
Sdc
Percentage elongation
0.56
-0.58
-0.56
0.58
Conclusions
This paper presents the results of 3D roughness measurements on the surface of steel sheets with similar arithmetic mean surface roughness Sa and different topographies, which subsequently were subject to the Erichsen
test and cupping test by Swift. Mechanical properties were
also examined in the tensile test.
Based on results of drawability tests, one may initially
state that owing to proper surface topography, steel sheets
could achieve better drawability index (DC01 grade) or
higher limit drawing ratio K (DC03 grade) [10].
Tests of mechanical properties of steel sheets have
shown that surface topography did not influence percentage elongation and R02/Rm ratio, and that it could only
influence normal anisotropy in DC03 steel sheets only
[10].
It was found that an unambiguous correlation between
chosen roughness parameters and steel sheets properties
was not determined except for small number of cases. One
can say that interrelations are much more sophisticated
that it was assumed. As a result of the analysis it was also
found that such roughness parameters like Sp, St, Str, Ssc,
Sdq and Smvr, correspond to moderate and strong linear
correlations in technological (Erichsen Index) and mechanical (normal anisotropy) properties of steel sheets.
These examination results should be treated like a preliminary analysis because of small size - from statistical
point of view of data base.
References
[1] M. Pfestorf, M. Schmidt: Stahl und Eisen, 118 (1998), 51-58.
[2] T. Neudecker, U. Popp: UTF Science, III (2001), 34-38.
[3] J. Simo, D.K. Aspinwall: Journal Materials Processing Technology,
56, (1996), 177-189.
[4] K. Steinhoff, R. Bnten: Steel Research, 66-12 (1996), 520-525.
[5] W. Rasp, C.M. Wichern: Steel Research, 74-5 (2003), 300-303.
[6] C. De Mar, J. Scheer: La Revue de Mtallurgie - CIT, (1997), 827836.
[7] O. Pawelski, W. Rasp: Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
45, (1994), 215-222.
[8] C. Domaski, K. Pruska: Nieklasyczne metody statystyczne, PWE,
Warszawa, (2000).
[9] A. Zelia: Metody statystyczne, PWE, Warszawa, (2000).
[10] M. Burdek, C. Sikorski: Steel Research Int., Special Edition; 79-2,
(2008), 36-41.
[11] W.P. Dong, P.J. Sullivan, K.J. Stout: Wear, 159 (1992), 161-171.
[12] W.P. Dong, P.J. Sullivan, K.J. Stout: Wear, 167 (1993), 9-21.
[13] W.P. Dong, P.J. Sullivan, K.J. Stout: Wear, 178 (1194), 29-43.
[14] W.P. Dong, P.J. Sullivan, K.J. Stout: Wear, 178 (1994), 45-60.
Metal Forming
Centre for Material and Fibre Innovation, Deakin University, Geelong / Australia, michael.pereira@deakin.edu.au; 2) Department of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne / Australia; 3) School of Engineering, Deakin University, Geelong /
Australia
In the automotive industry, press production rates often need to be reduced in order to minimize tool wear issues and successfully stamp
advanced high strength steels. This indicates that heating affects may be important. This paper examines friction and deformational heating
at the die radius during sheet metal stamping, using finite element analysis. The results show that high temperatures, of up to 130C, can
occur at the die radius surface. Such behavior has not been previously reported in the literature, for what is expected to be cold sheet
metal stamping conditions. It will be shown that the temperature rise is due to the increased contact stresses and increased plastic work,
associated with stamping AHSS. Consequently, new insights into the local contact conditions in sheet metal stamping were obtained. The
outcomes of this work may impact the wear models and tests employed for future tool wear analyses in sheet metal stamping.
Keywords: Sheet metal stamping, Tool wear, Deformation heating, Frictional heating, Advanced high strength steel, Finite element analysis
Introduction
The increased use of advanced high strength steel
(AHSS) in the automotive industry has caused a significant rise in the number and severity of tool wear problems
on stamping dies. It is well-known that contact pressure,
sliding distance and temperature are of primary significance in many wear situations, as highlighted by the wellknown Lim and Ashby [1] wear mechanism maps. The
contact pressure and sliding distance experienced at the
die radius during typical sheet metal stamping processes
has been studied in detail [2,3]. However, the temperature
conditions experienced at the die radius during cold sheet
metal stamping processes have received little attention in
the literature.
The temperature rise experienced during a continuous
strip-drawing process of aluminum sheet was examined
recently by Groche et al. [4] using finite element analysis.
It was shown that peak temperatures occur near the beginning of the tooling radius, corresponding closely to the
location of peak contact pressures and the initiation of
adhesive wear. However, there are some significant differences between steady bending-under-tension-type operations and typical sheet metal stamping processes, which
have been shown to result in time-dependent contact and
deformation conditions [5]. Therefore, there is a need to
examine the die surface temperature response for a typical
sheet metal stamping process.
Recent studies have shown that the contact pressure at
the die radius, during sheet metal stamping, is strongly
affected by the tensile strength of the blank material [2,6].
Therefore, it is likely that an increase in tensile strength
will also result in an increase in temperature at the die
radius, which may be critical to the overall tool wear behavior. This effect has not been previously studied.
The Channel Forming Process
The sheet metal stamping process examined in this study
is the channel forming operation shown schematically in
Figure 1. This process is particularly relevant for tool
wear analyses, as the geometry and forming conditions are
representative of typical auto-body structural components,
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
713
Metal Forming
150 mm
2 mm
5 mm
Die-to-punch clearance
2.3 mm
40 mm
5 mm
Punch width
30 mm
1.05 kN/mm
Tool speed
200 mm/s
DP590
DP780
320
400
530
480
660
880
0.2
0.15
0.14
830
1010
1370
Numerical Setup
The channel forming process was analyzed using an implicit finite element code (Abaqus/Standard v6.9-1 [9]). A
non-linear, transient, fully coupled thermal-stress analysis
was conducted. The problem was simplified to a one-half
symmetric, two-dimensional, plane strain problem. The
finite element mesh and numerical parameters relating to
the non-linear stress solution was based on previous FE
models of the channel forming process, developed by the
authors [2,3,6], and therefore will not be repeated here.
However, the key additional parameters required to develop the coupled thermal-stress solution are summarized
in Table 3. These parameters where defined for each of the
tools (die, holder, punch) and blank, based on characteristics appropriate for steel. The inelastic heat fraction, I,
and friction energy heat dissipation fraction, F, relate to
the amount of work from plastic deformation and friction
that is converted into heat. Additionally, the friction heat
distribution factor, , of 0.5 indicates that the frictional
heat generated at the blank-tool interface, when there is
sliding contact, is distributed evenly into the two surfaces.
Due to the short time scale and relatively low temperatures
involved, the effects of convection and radiation were
assumed to be negligible, and were not modeled.
Table 3. Key parameters required for coupled thermal-stress
solution.
Ambient temperature
20 C
Density
Expansion coefficient
12 x 10-6 C-1
0.5
0.9
Thermal conductivity
52 mJ.s-1.mm-1.C-1
714
Contact Pressure Response. The contact pressure response over the die radius during a typical channel forming process has been shown to be complex and timedependent [2,3]. However, it has been shown that the entire contact pressure response could be illustrated in the
form of a single contour plot, as shown in Figure 2(a).
This graph was constructed by determining the contact
pressure over the die radius at every increment (approximately 350) during the simulation results history.
The contour plot shown in Figure 2(a) can be used to determine the contact pressure over the die radius at any
instant during the channel forming process, by following a
horizontal line on the graph across from any value of
punch travel. Then, by examining the regions where this
horizontal line intersects the shaded contour, the pressure
distribution on the radius can be determined for that particular value of punch travel. For example, Figure 2(b)
shows the contact pressure distribution over the die radius
obtained at three instances, corresponding to 10, 25 and 40
mm of punch travel.
(a)
40
Contact
pressure
[MPa]
90
35
1501
30
Punch travel [mm]
Blank length
Blank thickness
25
Angle on
die radius
[deg]
1201
901
20
601
15
301
10
5
0
-10 0
(b)
Contact pressure [MPa]
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle on die radius [deg]
1250
1000
Punch travel
750
10 mm
500
25 mm
250
40 mm
0
-10 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle on die radius [deg]
Figure 2. (a) Contour plot showing evolution of contact pressure
over the die radius throughout the duration of the forming process
for the DP780 material. (b) Contact pressure distribution over die
radius at three instances during the stamping process (when the
punch has travelled 10, 25 and 40 mm).
Metal Forming
(a) 40
Temperature
[C]
35
145
30
120
25
95
20
70
15
45
10
5
20
-10 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle on die radius [deg]
Temperature [C]
(b) 140
Punch travel
100
10 mm
25 mm
60
40 mm
20
-10 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle on die radius [deg]
Figure 3. (a) Contour plot showing the temperature over the die
radius throughout the duration of the forming process for the
DP780 material. (b) Temperature at the die radius surface at three
instances during the stamping process (when the punch has travelled 10, 25 and 40 mm).
duration of the stamping process. Hence, large temperatures can effectively accumulate at regions that remain in
frictional contact with the blank surface for longer periods
of time. This is evidenced by the location near 5 on the
die radius surface (i.e. near the beginning of the radius)
that experiences approximately 130C at the end of the
process, as shown in Figure 3. The contact pressure contour in Figure 2 shows that this region experiences sliding
contact at pressures above 600 MPa for the majority of the
stamping process.
Figure 3 shows that the heat generated at the die surface
is rapidly conducted away into the bulk die material. For
example, the region at approximately 60 on the die radius
experiences a temperature rise (of approximately 50C)
when the punch has travelled 10 mm. This temperature
rise is due to severe and localized contact conditions that
occur near the beginning of the process. However, as
shown in Figure 2(a), this region does not contact the
blank for the remainder of the process i.e. there is zero
contact pressure at this point between approximately 11
and 40 mm of punch travel. Hence, with no further heat
input at the surface, the heat is quickly conducted away. At
only 0.02 seconds after the severe contact event, when the
punch is at 15 mm, the temperature at the location of 60
on the die radius is only 27 C (i.e. 7 C above ambient).
Peak Temperatures on Die Surface. From a wear perspective, the peak temperatures experienced at the die
surface may be primarily important to the overall wear
response. For example, an increase in the peak temperatures may cause a transition from one wear mechanism
with relatively low wear rates, to another regime controlled by different physical phenomena and resulting in
increased wear severity [1,10]. Additionally, for the case
of lubricated contacts, an increase in peak temperatures
may result in lubricant breakdown, thus changing the wear
mechanism and/or increasing the wear severity [11]. For
this reason, the peak temperatures experienced over the die
radius surface during the channel forming process are
graphed in Figure 4.
Maximum temperature [C]
140
Original DP780
case
120
100
Inelatic heat
fraction = 0
80
60
Friction energy
heat dissipation
fraction = 0
40
20
-10
10
30
50
70
Angle on die radius [deg]
90
715
Metal Forming
steel-on-steel sliding contact, this predicted peak temperature is close to the temperatures at which the cold mechanical wear mechanisms are no longer dominant. For the
typical cold mechanical wear mechanisms, such as wave
removal, micro-cutting and ploughing, the wear rate (per
unit sliding distance) depends primarily on contact pressure. However, for the hot wear mechanisms, thermal
and chemical effects, including oxidation, are important
and the wear rate becomes dependent on contact pressure
and sliding velocity [10]. This speed/temperature effect is
anecdotally evident in the automotive sheet metal stamping industry, where it is generally thought that reducing
the press speed when stamping AHSS can result in reduced tool wear [7].
In order to determine the contribution of the deformation
and frictional heating to the maximum temperature at the
die radius, separate finite element models were run with
the inelastic heat fraction, I, and friction energy heat
dissipation fraction, F, set to zero. Figure 4 shows that the
frictional heating contributes mostly to the temperature
rise experienced at the die radius. However, it is clear that
the effect of heating caused by plastic deformation is still
significant; with the maximum temperature reduced by
approximately 11% when I is set to zero. Therefore, it can
be concluded that the deformational heating should be
considered in the analysis of surface temperature and wear.
DP780
80
DP590
60
HSLA300
40
20
-10
10
30
50
70
Angle on die radius [deg]
Summary
This paper used finite element analysis to examine the
deformation and frictional heating experienced during a
typical sheet metal stamping process. It was found that
temperatures of up to 130 C occur at the die radius surface, when stamping AHSS (DP780) material. Such behavior has not been previously reported in the literature,
for what is expected to be cold sheet metal stamping
conditions.
The predicted peak temperatures are greater than the
temperatures expected to cause lubricant break down and
initiate galling during steel-on-steel sliding contact. Furthermore, the predicted peak temperatures are close to
those which may result in hot wear mechanisms, and
therefore cause increased wear rates.
It was concluded that the large temperature rises observed are due to the increased contact stresses and increased plastic work, caused by the higher tensile strengths
associated with AHSS material grades.
Further work is required to understand the importance of
the predicted temperature rise on the overall tool wear
behavior. Additionally, temperature rise that occurs at the
die surface after repeated stamping operations needs to be
investigated.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by an Australian Research
Council Linkage Project (LP0776913).
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
90
716
Metal Forming
School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing / China, luckwl@126.com;
Technology Research Center, Shougang Group, Ltd., Beijing / China
A test method of dent resistance for auto-body panel parts was introduced by referring to the test methods of panels. An automatic tester
system for panel parts dent resistance test was developed. The tester indenter can be adjustable with arbitrary posture in space by integrating "5-axes motion +1-axis loading", so the tester is able to load in the normal direction of test points on panel part. A control hardware
system with "PC + motion controller" structure was constructed based on PMAC, programmable multi-axis motion controller. The corresponding control software was developed. A 6-axes tester was controlled accurately. The normal vector of a test point on parts was obtained with one approximation method. The motion data of tester indenter adjustment from initial position to the normal direction of test
point was calculated. The loading axis was adjusted automatically in the normal direction of test points. Calibration and application indicated that the testing system worked stably and reliably.
Keywords: Test method, Auto-body panel parts, Automatic tester system, 6-axes, normal direction, Indenter adjustment
Introduction
In the automotive industry, the lighter-body and efficient
energy-saving becomes the mainstream of modern automobile, which leads thinner panels and great use of highstrength steel. These demands mean that dent resistance
(DR) of panel parts has become more focused, and the
need for accurate methods, both numerical and experimental to predict DR has been emphasized.
DR is the capabilities to retain the shape against sunken
deflection and local dent under the external force, including dent resistance stiffness, dent resistance stability and
local dent resistance [1-4]. DR is often referred to as static
or dynamic dent resistance. Static dent resistance is to
measure permanent deformation caused by static forces,
which often occurs during handling, in parking lots, by
hands and elbows or by luggage, etc. Dynamic dent resistance is associated with dynamic loads, such as stones or
hailstones. The factors that affect dynamic dent resistance
are more than that affect static dent resistance. This study
is limited to the static dent resistance only. Dynamic dent
resistance is not covered.
Numerical simulation with finite element methods has
been widely used to predict and evaluate DR of auto-body
parts recently. Prediction and evaluation can be obtained
directly with FEM. But the stamping process of panel
parts is complex. DR property of panel parts is associated
with panels delivery status, deformation of the stamping
process and working conditions of auto-body. Simulation
results of DR are not satisfactory sometimes, because
simulation is not able to consider entirely the real change
of plastic properties in stamping process. Numerical methods may be used as a reference tool for DR prediction and
evaluation of panel parts.
Experiment is one more credible method to predict and
evaluate DR compared with simulation method. There are
many test methods and corresponding equipments for
panels DR test. However, as most auto-body panel parts
are large size and complex shape, few equipments can test
the panel parts. The vast majority of current testers are
only for testing panels or simulated parts such as doublecurved panels. In addition, the specific test method of DR
Platen
90
T-shape slot
Test point
Auto-body
panel part
Bolt
Platform
717
Metal Forming
loading and successive loading. A loading refers to loading-unloading only once in whole test procedure, while
successive loading refers to loading-unloading several
times during test process.
Control mode and loading way should be determined
first before experiment, and then set different test parameters according to control mode and loading way. During a
loading process, the critical force Pcri in force control or
critical displacement fcri in displacement control should be
set. When successive loading, the initial load Pini, load
incremental step P and loading-unloading times m in
force control mode should be set; Initial displacement fini,
displacement incremental step f, loading-unloading times
m should be set while in displacement control.
A loading: Indenter comes into contact with the part and
loads first. When load reaches the pre-load (5 N), experiment begins and loads continuously. When the load
reaches the setting Pcri in force control or the indenter
displacement reaches the setting fcri in displacement control, indenter is backward and unloading begins. Test is
over until the load decreases to pre-load. During the experiment, loading-unloading speed is often set to 1-3
mm/min; load-displacement curve is real-time displayed;
load and displacement data are collected.
Successive loading: Indenter comes into contact with the
part and loads first, when load reaches the pre-load (5 N),
experiment begins and loads continuously. In force control,
when the load reaches the setting Pini, unloading begins
until the load decreases to pre-load; this loading-unloading
process is over, then indenter is onwards and loads again.
Next unloading criterion is the sum of Pini and incremental
step P. Analogously, the next next unloading criterion is
the sum of previous criterion and P, until setting load
times m is completed. Test process is similar in displacement control mode. During the test, loading-unloading
speed is set to 1-3 mm/min; load-displacement curve is
real-time displayed; load, displacement and residual dent
depth data are collected.
Evaluation Parameters of Experiment. In this investigation, the DR of parts is assessed with the followings
parameters by referring to the evaluation parameters of
panel test [4,5].
Evaluation parameters of stiffness: the sunken depth under 50N or 100N f50 or f100.
Evaluation parameters of dent resistance: when a loading, the dent depth under 100 or 300 N d100 or d300; when
successive loading, the load that generated the residual
dent 0.1or 0.5 mm, P0.1 or P0.5.
Automated Tester System
Principle of Tester System. The basic principle of
tester is shown in Figure 2. Tester consists of a large-scale
platform for placing and clamping parts, a gantry frame
which can move in X, Y, Z direction and an adjustment
mechanism which has two DOF (rotated around Z-axis
which was named A-axis and swing around X-axis which
was named B-axis). There is an independent loading axis
in the adjustment mechanism. Loading indenter is installed
on the loading axis. By fixing the adjustment mechanism
on gantry frame, the loading axis has five DOF in space.
718
Test start
Tester reset
Solve the normal vector
of test point and adjust
indenter in place
Choose
control mode
Choose
loading way
Calculate motion
adjustment data
Set test
parametres
A loading test
Successive
loading test
Collect
test data
End test
Metal Forming
Computer
Interface board
Motor Enc
Motor
B- motion
Loading
indenter
Load senseor
X- motion
Liner raster
Motor Enc
Workbench
Limit switch
Servo Driver
Amplifier
I/O panel
Control
Box
Lower controller
software
Normal Vector Solving. It is difficult to solve the theoretic normal vector of points on part surface. Approximation method is used here. The surface can be treated as the
plane in a small domain, and the normal vector of any
point on a plane equals to its own. So the normal vector of
one small plane created by taking 3 auxiliary points near
test point can be used as the normal vector of test point
approximately. A specific method is as following:
In the tester coordinate system O0X0Y0Z0, point Pt is the
test point. Point P1 is the projection of Pt in O0X0Y0 plane.
Supposing point P1 is the center, a circle with radii r (usually taken 10 mm) is established in O0X0Y0. Take 3 points
A1, B1, C1 on the circle to establish a regular triangle
A1B1C1 (make B1C1 parallel to X0-axis). Triangle A1B1C1 as
the bottom, a regular tri-prism marked A1B1C1A2B2C2 is
established along the Z0-axis direction. Which must be
through the panel part, 3 intersection points between three
edges of tri-prism and panel part are marked A, B, C. The
normal vector of the small plane ABC is used as the normal vector of point Pt. The method is shown in Figure 6.
X0
n
Pt
A1
P1
B1
B2
C1
O0
Panel part
A2
C
C2
Z0
Y0
Figure 6. Principle of solving normal vector.
n = AB AC
(1)
Upper controller
software
3r
2
( zb zc )i +
3r
2
(2za zb zc ) j +
3 3r
2
k,
(2)
719
Metal Forming
where r is the radius of the circumcircle created with the
points A, B and C, taken 10mm in preceding paragraph.
cos sin
sin cos
0
0
0
0
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 dx 1
0
0
1 0 dy 0 cos sin
0 1 dz 0 sin cos
0 0 1 0
0
0
0 x0 x1
0 y0 y1
=
0 z0 z1
1 1 1
3r
2
2
2
3( zb zc ) + (2za zb zc ) + 9r
(5)
2 za zb zc
)
2
2
(2 za zb zc ) + 3( zb zc )
(6)
720
Measuring
distance
Maximum
positioning error
1000 mm
0.09 mm
900 mm
0.06 mm
200 mm
0.04 mm
ARotating
180
0.1
BSwinging
40
0.1
50 mm
0.005 mm
WLoading
Actual
meanN
Repeatable
indication error%
0.00
0.00
800
800
0.00
0.25
1600
1599
0.06
0.13
2400
2401
-0.04
0.00
3200
3198
0.06
0.06
4000
3994
0.15
0.05
200
150
100
50
0
0. 0
0. 5
1. 0
1. 5
2. 0
2. 5
3. 0
Conclusions
1. Dent resistance test method for auto-body panel parts
was presented. Including test principle, test process and
evaluation parameters.
2. The hardware and software of tester control system
were developed to improve reliability and stability of
experiment, and test can be achieved automatically.
3. Development of tester provided foundation for standardizing the dent resistance test of parts.
References
[1] N. Asnafi: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 49-1 (1995),
13-31.
[2] S. Holmberg, P. Thilderkvist: Materials and Design, 23-8 (2002),
681-691.
[3] G. Ekstrand, N. Asnafi: Materials and Design, 19-4 (1998), 145-156.
[4] L.Gunnarsson, E. Schedin: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 114-2 (2001), 168-173.
[5] D. Li, X. Zhou: Journal of Plasticity Engineering, 11-5 (2004), 13-16,
(in Chinese).
[6] N. Saeed: Introduction to Robotics Analysis, Systems, Applications,
1st, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., (2001).
Metal Forming
Introduction
Compared with solid elements, shell elements are more
widely used in sheet metal forming simulation for its
higher computational efficiency and more sufficient description of the bending effect. However, shell elements
still have some deficiencies as follows: in the case of concerning about edge shape of a blank, such as the edge
shape characters of blank after bending or hole flanging in
progressive die forming, the analysis results from shell
element cannot provide relevant information; In addition,
shell elements cannot accurately simulate the thick plate
drawing or bending with small radii in progressive die
forming. In recent years, research on solid-shell element
has attracted extensive interests, some scholars have developed high precision and high efficient solid-shell elements by using multiple-point integration along thickness
and combining Enhanced Assumed Strain (EAS) and Assumed Natural Strain (ANS) [1-6]. Compared with degenerated shell elements, solid-shell elements have three remarkable characteristics as follows: firstly, it has only
translational degree of freedom (DOF) and the use of rotational DOF can be avoided, thus its geometric and kinematic description is simpler; secondly, solid-shell element
employs double sided contact judgment considering thickness variation, thus providing more precise contact
analysis results; thirdly, solid-shell elements describes the
edge deformation features of blank in the large deformation area more accurately. Therefore, solid-shell element is
more suitable for simulation of progressive die forming
process.
In this work, a new eight-node solid-shell element model is developed. An improved plane-stress constitutive
model is employed to update the stress field. Consequently,
it is necessary to construct a co-rotational coordinate system on the middle reference surface. By adopting the
above methods, the proposed solid-shell element model is
quite suitable for nonlinear large deformation analysis
such as large membrane deformation, shear deformation
and large rotation. Two examples are taken to verify the
effectiveness of the proposed element: the first example is
square-cup deep drawing analysis from NUMISHEET93
international benchmark; the second example is multiposition drawing analysis of air-conditioner wing, subsequently, the numerical results are compared with experiments data.
Solid-Shell Element Model
Geometric and Kinematic Description. The hexahedron solid-shell element model is shown in Figure 1. Each
element has eight nodes and each node has only translational DOF and no rotational DOF. ( , , ) is the natural
coordinate system, and axis represents the normal of
degenerated shell element.
xi = N j ( , , )xij
(1)
j =1
8
ui = N j ( , , )uij
(2)
j =1
where xij , uij are the i th nodal coordinate and displacement of the j th node, i = 1, 2, 3 , j = 1, 2,...,8 , respectively
and the shape function of the j th node N j ( , , ) is
defined as:
1
N j ( , , ) = (1 + j )(1 + j )(1 + j )
8
(3)
721
Metal Forming
B624 = L63N324
LT63
= 0
x
0
(5)
(6)
s3
s3
(7)
e3 =
(8)
s1
s1
(9)
(10)
e2 = e3 e1
Updating of Strain and Stress. The constitutive relation in co-rotational configuration is as follows:
(11)
= D
0
D=
0
0
0
+ 2
0
0
0
0
0
E
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(12)
Ratio , =
E ,
E .
=
1 2
2(1 + )
Numerical Examples
Square-Cup Deep Drawing. In this section, the
proposed solid-shell element model is successfully applied
in square-cup deep drawing analysis from NUMISHEET93 international benchmark. The numerical
results are compared with experiment data from related
literatures
to verify the performance of the proposed
element in large deformation analysis. Figure 3 shows the
geometry shap and dimensions of dies.
722
Metal Forming
DD(mm)
Experiment results
27.95
15.36
Solid-shell
27.17
14.79
MTLFRM(shell)
28.90
16.20
LS-DYNA3D(shell)
30.03
16.43
PAM-STAMP(shell)
28.43
15.46
Figure 7 gives the comparison of thickness strain distributions along OA and OB between numerical results and
experiment data from paper [10]. The comparison result
shows: the calculation results of the thickness strain distributions coincide well with the experimental results.
723
Metal Forming
In this work, the proposed solid-shell element is employed to simulate the multi-position drawing process. The
wing has 72 rows of bulges, and only 6 rows are taken to
reduce computational cost. In addition, the blank size is
enlarged to describe the effect of local bulge forming more
accurately. The blank thickness is 0.15mm and the material used is AA6016. The main material parameters are as
follows: the hardening curve = 412(0.001 + )0.17 MPa.
Young's modulus is 69 GPa, Poisson's ratio is 0.33 and the
yield stress is 125 MPa. Figure 9 shows the deformed
shape of the blank calculated from the proposed solid-shell
element model after each stage. Figure 10 gives the experiment results.
A new solid-shell element model is developed and successfully applied in square-cup deep drawing analysis
from NUMISHEET93 international benchmark and multiposition drawing analysis of air-conditioner wing. The
comparison of simulation results and experimental results
shows: the proposed solid-shell element model shows an
excellent performance in large deformation analysis and
will be widely applied in progressive die forming. The
new element model has the following remarkable characteristics:
1. Multiple-point integration along thickness describes the
bending effect more exactly and is more effective to alleviate the effect of zero energy modes, meanwhile, this
integration scheme has higher computational efficiency
and reduces computing storage demands significantly.
2. The improved plane-stress constitutive model alleviates
the effect of thickness locking effectively.
3. Due to the updating of strain and stress in co-rotational
configuration, spurious strain is not produced in the
case of pure rotation deformation, which makes the
proposed element model extremely suitable for large
deformation analysis.
Acknowledgment
The work described in this paper is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
50905067) and (No. 50905066).
References
724
[1] R.J. Alves de Sousa, R.P.R. Cardoso, R.A. Fontes Valente, J.W. Yoon,
J.J. Gracio, R.M. Natal Jorge: Int. J. Num. Meth Eng, 62 (2005), 952977.
[2] R.J. Alves de Sousa, R.P.R. Cardoso, R.A. Fontes Valente, J.W. Yoon,
J.J. Gracio, R.M. Natal Jorge: Int. J. Num. Meth Eng, 67 (2006), 160188.
[3] R.J. Alves de Sousa, J.W. Yoon, R.P.R. Cardoso: Int. J. Num. Meth
Eng, 23 (2007), 490-515.
[4] F. Abed-Meraim, A. Combescure: Computers and Structures, 80
(2002), 791-803.
[5] G.M. Kulikov, S.V. Plotnikova: Finite Elements in Analysis and
Design, 43 (2007) 425-443.
[6] K.Y. Sze, L.Q. Yao, T.H.H. Pian: Finite Elements in Analysis and
Design, 38 (2002) 353-374.
[7] D.P. Flanagan, T Belytschko: Int. J. Num. Meth Eng, 17 (1981), 679706.
[8] J.O. Hallquist: LS-DYNA THEORY MANUAL, (2006), 40-42.
[9] C.-H. Jin: Doctoral Dissertation, (2001), 92-94.
[10] J. Dankert: Journal of Material Processing Technology, 50 (1995),
375-384.
Metal Forming
Experimental and Numerical Study on Efficient Forming Operations of Sheet-MetalCompounds with Integrated Piezo-Modules
Reimund Neugebauer, Welf-Guntram Drossel, Lutz Lachmann, Sebastian Hensel, Matthias Nestler
Fraunhofer Institute Machine Tools and Forming Technology IWU, Chemnitz / Germany, reimund.neugebauer@iwu.fraunhofer.de
For the manufacturing of piezo-metal-compounds, forming strategies are presented that allow an integration of piezo-module application in
the fabrication process. Specimens of sheet-metal-compounds with piezoceramic modules between double-layer-sheets were manufactured and investigated under different forming operations. Simultaneously a numerical study was performed to determine and predict the
locations of high load levels. The modules are embedded in a semi-cured adhesive to reduce tensile stresses in the brittle piezo components due to contact pressure and friction between blanks and module in the forming operation. The functionality of the specimens is characterised by the measurement of module capacitance during the forming process as well as actor and sensor tests after forming. The
methods provide cumulated values for the functionality. A prediction of the locations of module degradation and the leading influencing
parameters are to be achieved by numerical investigations. It is shown that the functionality of integrated modules is fully maintained for
bent specimen down to radii of 10 mm, for rectangular cups with a double curvature of 100 mm and 250 mm. Axisymmetric specimens with
a punch radius of 50 mm cause damage and lower radii of 25 mm cause significant damage until breakdown depending on the draw depth.
Keywords: piezoceramic fibre, macro fibre composite, MFC, adhesive bonded sheets, piezo-metal-compound, forming simulation, Representative Volume Element (RVE)
Introduction
Light-weight constructions with an integration of additional functions like the control of vibration behaviour,
health monitoring or integrated crash sensors require appropriate production technologies. The state-of-the-art
process chain for the production of piezo-metalcompounds consists of the production of structural parts
and the subsequent application of piezo-modules. Forming
of blanks is performed in a high productive way whereas
the application of laminar piezo-modules is normally performed in manual operations [1] and for this reason it is
time and cost-intensive. For a substitution of the subsequent application of piezo-modules an integration before
the forming operation can be executed. Therefore the inconsistency between the formability and the sensor and
actor functionality must be solved by means of the design
of the composite as well as by the use of an appropriate
production technology.
Approach of Temporary Soft Coupling
In order to develop a process chain which allows an integration of piezo-modules before forming, a deformable
piezo-metal compound has to be designed. The challenge
is to fit a brittle piezoceramic into a deformable blank in a
way that reduces the tensile stresses in the brittle piezofibres caused by the forming process. The chosen design
with a Macro-Fibre-Composite (MFC, manufacturer:
Smart Material) embedded in an adhesive between doublelayer-sheets (see Figure 1) allows a temporary soft coupling. During the forming operation the adhesive has a low
viscosity. This ensures a relative movement between the
MFC-module and the sheets during forming and hence a
reduction of tensile stresses in the brittle piezofibres due to
the contact pressure and friction between blanks and the
module. After forming the hardening of adhesive occurs
and allows a coupling with a high stiffness.
Metal Forming
can be performed after 35 to 40 min instead of 120 min at
room temperature. The aim of further research is a reduction of gelation time down to 2 min.
Storage (G') and loss (G'') modulus [Pa s]
1,00E+07
1,00E+06
1,00E+05
1,00E+04
1,00E+03
G'
1,00E+02
G"
1,00E+01
1,00E+00
1,00E-01
1,00E-02
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Time [min]
cells connected in parallel. If the piezomodule is not getting damaged during the forming operation, its capacitance
stays constant. A damage of MFC, e. g. cracks of ceramic
fibres or a damage of contacting, leads to a reduction of
the total capacitance. If the MFC completely loses its
functionality, for example because of a fracture of cords,
its capacitance tends to zero. Furthermore this method
allows an examination of critical draw depths, when the
capacitance is reduced at a specific stage of forming for
example. Figure 4 shows the loss of capacitance due to
the forming of an axisymmetric cup with a punch radius of
25 mm. With this punch a draw depth of only 18 mm leads
to a significant reduction of capacitance from 750 pF to
300 pF.
800
Forming Operations. To analyse the correlation between the forming loads and the functionality of the piezometal compounds different geometries were investigated.
Based on positive results of bending experiments, additional geometries with 3D-deformations were analysed.
Through the use of an Erichsen testing-facility axisymmetric cups with different punch radii and a variation of sheet
metal thicknesses have been investigated. Deep drawing
and stretch forming operations are performed by controlling the downholder forces. The preset viscosity of adhesive allows a forming without a discharge of adhesive. A
punch radius of 50 mm causes a damage in the integrated
MFC. A smaller radius of about 25 mm causes a significant damage and in some cases, it causes a complete
breakdown to the MFC. In a next step application-oriented
geometries like a rectangular cup with punch radii of
100 mm or 250 mm in the two directions were manufactured on a servopress. The double curvature of the punch
does not cause any damage of the MFC, which is situated
on the cup bottom as shown in Figure 3.
Capacitance [pF]
700
600
500
R25
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
15
20
A later examination with X-ray (see Figure 5), performed at the Fraunhofer IKTS Dresden, illustrates the
cracks induced by the high forming loads for a small
punch radius. X-ray inspection offers the possibility to
detect and to localise defects of piezo modules.
Furthermore the sensor and actor functionalities of
manufactured specimens are tested to characterise their
performance.
Test of Functionality. In addition to the forming experiments an examination of functionality of the integrated
elements has a high priority in the research. Therefore
different methods are used. The measurement of capacitance gives information on functionality during the forming operation. MFCs consist of a network of capacitance
726
Metal Forming
MFC material was implemented into the forming simulation. With the homogenisation calculations it is also possible to transfer the local MFC loads of the global forming
simulation to the submodel of a representative volume
element (see Figure 6) used in the homogenisation step
[7,8].
Figure 7. Geometry of the model (1 = active MFC region, 2 = nonactive MFC region, 3 = lower blank, 4 = gap spacer).
Figure 9. Elastic work distribution in Nmm (left) and x-rayed specimen with excessive fibre breakage development deep drawing
punch radius 25 mm.
By applying the homogenisation method to shell structures, the resulting bending stiffnesses are increased. The
homogenisation provides uniform in-plane stiffness values
over the shell thickness. Thus the outer low-stiffness zones
are overestimated and the global bending behaviour is too
stiff. A method was developed to correct this effect. The
basis for the approach is the Classical Laminate Theory
(CLT). With insertion of two extra layers a stiffness distribution for the total three layers (two outer regions plus one
middle layer) can be extracted with CLT by including the
error for bending stiffness. The result is a corrected effective 3-layer material model that behaves like the detailed
727
Metal Forming
modelled unit cell under bending. The method is described
in [11] in detail.
Summary and Outlook
The presented process development allows an integration of the time and cost consuming MFC bonding step
direct in the production process of formed blank structures.
The proposed process chain leads to a time and cost reduction of production cycles in high efficiency production
branches, such as automobile production, railway-vehicle
manufacturing and consumer industries.
The challenge of creating a formable piezo-metalcompound with brittle piezofibres inside is solved by the
use of MFC modules which include thin fibres and the
method of temporary soft coupling. The forming below the
gel point of adhesive allows a relative movement between
the MFC and the blanks during forming, and leads to a
reduction of tensile stresses in the MFC due to friction.
Different forming operations have been performed to analyse the formability of the compounds. It is shown that
bending is possible down to radii of 10 mm. Using 3D
test-structures with small radii caused partial damage of
the fibres and the electrodes. In a next step the creation of
application-oriented structures was possible without damaging the MFC. In order to characterise the functionality
of specimens the capacitance has been measured during
the forming operation. In this process a reduction of capacitance indicates damage. Further research has been
performed with X-ray inspection. This method allows the
detection and localisation of damage.
In the numerical investigation a homogenisation method
is used to model the MFC structure behaviour in the global
forming simulation. A detailed model at the scale of the
MFC components is not used because of the large computation times. Instead an approach is developed based on
the equivalence of elastic work for detailed modelled MFC
RVE and an equivalent shell structure. With several mechanical load cases, e. g. tension along material axes and
shear, in load case simulations with unit cell the elastic
work is recorded. For the chosen material model, an equations system with the homogenized components of the
elastic stiffness matrix is solved and the elastic properties
are extracted. The retrieved engineering constants are in
very good agreement with values published in the literature.
The global forming loads can be transferred to the local
unit cell. Thus a refined evaluation of the loading of the
MFC-components, e. g. piezofibres or electrodes, is available. But the computation times dramatically rise as the
complexity of the material model increases. Therefore an
728
Metal Forming
Introduction
Over the years, for the large-scale engineering application numerous attempts have been made to search for new
techniques of metalworking. One of these new promising
methods is electropulsing. The applications of electropulsing are booming in the fields of materials science and
engineering. In the past 50 years, research has indicated
that an electric current can influence the behaviour of
materials. The so-called electroplastic effect (EPE) [1]
occurs in metals as they are subjected simultaneously to
plastic deformation and a pulsating flow of high-density
electric current. As a result, the deformed materials overall properties, particularly its flow stress, internal stresses,
defects and microstructure evolution, change.
The effect of a magnetic field on plastic deformation
was first investigated by Kravchenko in 1970 [2]. The
investigations showed that a strong magnetic field has an
effect on dislocation behaviour and results in the deterioration of material plastic properties. The change in the plastic properties of metals under the influence of a magnetic
field was called the magnetoplastic effect. The change in
the properties of materials under the influence of the pulsating flow of high-density electric current during plastic
deformation was discovered by Conrad [5] and called the
electroplastic effect. The latter can be exploited in forming
operations [6].
The electroplastic effect is also used to change the structural phases of a material in order to enhance its fatigue
resistance [7]. The lifetime of a part subjected to the pulsating flow of current substantially increases. The observed evolution of a microstructure may lead to the formation of nanostructures in conventional materials after
the application of even a single pulse [8].
The electropulsation deformation of metals is used,
among others, in the rolling process [9]. Magnesium alloy
AZ31 in the form of a 2 mm wide and 0.89 mm thick
specimen was used in the investigations. A reduction in the
specimen rolling force during electropulsation deformation
was observed. The crack resistance increased, which is
729
Metal Forming
Figure 3 shows the results of uniaxial tensile test for titanium ASTM B265. The results given for the titanium
ASTM B265, showed very similar tendency like in the
case of stainless steel 0H18N9.
Insulator
Capacitor bank
800
700
/MPa
600
Grip
500
Specimen
400
300
200
100
Copper wire
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
730
/MPa
The higher the frequency of current impulses is, the bigger decrease of the stress in the specimen is observed. In
this case this decrease is very fast. Whereas the higher the
frequency of current impulses is the smaller the elongation
of the specimen is.
Wire Drawing
The flow chart of the drawing process employing EPE is
shown in Figure 4. A fine copper (99.99%) wire with an
initial diameter of 1.85 mm was used in the experiments,
during which the input material was drawn through two
drawing dies respectively 1.68 mm and 1.50 mm in
diameter. They were Fortek/Fort Wayne dies with natural
diamond inserts. The wire drawing machine and the drawing dies were the same as the ones used in conventional
wire drawing. The stand included an electropulsing generator connected via electrodes to the drawn wire.
Time /s
Figure 5. Comparison of pull forces for 1.68 mm diameter die.
Drawing force /N
Electropulsation effect can be only seen when the electric current is connected with the plastic deformations.
When the high energy impulses are applied to the specimen before the tension test there is no change in mechanical properties of tested specimen. The behavior of the
tested sample was almost the same like the one without the
current pulses.
Drawing force /N
Metal Forming
without current
with current
Time /s
Figure 6. Pull force for drawing with and without current pulses.
731
Metal Forming
/MPa
nation. Punch movement ended while the crack propagation through the entire thickness of the specimen was
occurred.
The average depth of the spherical cup drawed specimen,
which was the measure of this test, was:
9.8 mm for the specimen without the current impulses,
12.6 mm for the specimen with the current impulses.
The depth of the penetration is significantly higher for
the specimens with current impulses. There is a chance to
increase the drawability through the electropulsation deformation technique application (conduct the current in a
certain place of the specimen).
Conclusions
Sheet-Metal Forming
Until now there is no evidence of the application of EPE
phenomenon to the metal sheet drawing processes in the
literature. Electropulsation deformation technique was
used successfully in the processes of wires drawing [10]
and also in the rolling processes [9]. In the paper the new
method of drawing with electropulsation deformation
technique of sheet metals is presented.
As a test stand for the drawing process of sheet metal,
the modified machine for testing sheet drawability according to the Erichsen method (EN ISO 20482), was used.
Some parts of this device were insulated. The geometry of
the die also has been changed. The current impulses were
conducted by the copper bushing, which was pressed to
the sheet metal with spring during the drawing process.
The current flow was only in the lower part of the specimen where the deformations are very low. The modified
die and punch are shown on Figure 8.
Die
Copper
bushing
Punch
732
Metal Forming
Industrial Technology Support Division, KIMS, Changwon / Korea, monkey1976@kims.re.kr; 2) Department of Mechanical Engineering,
International University of Korea, Jinju / Korea; 3) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan / Korea
This paper is designed to investigate the effect of the galvannealing temperature on the frictional properties and Fe-Zn intermetallic phases
of the galvannealed (GA) coatings on steel sheets. Galvannealing treatments were conducted at 465, 505, 515 and 540 C for approximately 10 seconds in a supplementary heating furnace from an industrial continuous hot-dip galvanizing line. The mechanical and the
frictional properties of the coatings were estimated using nanoindentation and flat-friction tests, which were performed at contact pressures
of 4, 20 and 80MPa. Also, the relationship between the microstructures and the frictional properties of the GA coatings wsa investigated by
SEM observations of the GA coatings before and after flat-friction testing.
Keywords: Galvannealed coating, Nanoindentation, Flat-friction test
Introduction
Galvannealed coatings (GA coating) are Fe-Zn intermetallic compounds that are diffusion-alloyed by additional
heating (456 to 550 C) after galvanizing. Typical GA
coatings contain approximately 10% iron and 90% Zn [112]. They are generally characterized as having a higher
hardness than their ductile substrate and having a brittle
behavior with a low failure strain. The representative failures of GA coatings during sheet forming include powdering, flaking, galling and cracking. These defects easily
happen during low strain of the steel substrate, which
could deteriorate the frictional characteristic between the
tool and the coated sheet during forming operations [8-14].
Most studies on the frictional characteristic of GA coatings are related to their powdering, Fe-Zn intermetallic
phases, or plastic deformations of the steel substrate.
These studies are implemented by utilizing draw bead,
cup-drawing, and U-bending tests [9-16]. The frictional
coefficients obtained from these tests greatly depend on
the adhesion strength and the formation of powder for GA
coatings, the mechanical properties of the substrate, and
the testing methods [7-17].
This study was designed to investigate the effect of different annealing temperatures on Fe-Zn intermetallic phases and the frictional properties of the GA coating. Flatfriction tests were performed to obtain the pure frictional
properties of the coating without deformation of the substrate. Mechanical properties of the GA coating were investigated using nanoindentation. Finally, the relations
between the microstructures of the coating and the frictional properties were investigated using SEM observations of the GA coating before and after friction testing.
speed of approximately 80-100 m/min. After the galvannealing process, the total thickness of the GA sheets was
fixed to 0.7 mm using a skin passed rolling process. Figures 1 and 2 show the SEM images of four GA coatings
and their surface roughness (Ra: m) in the direction of
rolling.
phase
phase
o
(a) 465 C
phase
phase
(b) 505 oC
phase
phase
phase
(c) 515 oC
(b) 540 oC
Figure 1. SEM images of cross-sections of GA coatings with
different galvannealing temperatures.
Skin passed surface
C olumnar phase
phase
Granular phase
Ra : 0.814
(a) 465 oC
20
Ra : 0.792
(b) 505 oC
20
granular phase
Granular phase
C rack
Experiments
Preparation of GA Coatings. The GA coatings were
prepared from a commercial grade, continuous hot-dip
galvanizing line (POSCO). The material of substrate was
cold rolled IF steel (Ti+Nb added) with low carbon content (0.004). The GA coatings were produced at galvannealing temperatures of 465, 505, 515 and 540 C (referred to as the 465, 505, 515 and 540 coatings) with a line
phase
C rack
C olumnar phase
Ra : 0.757
20
Ra : 0.712
20
(d) 540 oC
(c) 515 oC
Figure 2. SEM images of surfaces of GA coatings with different
galvannealing temperatures.
Typical GA coating is composed of four Fe-Zn intermetallic phases, namely , 1, and , which are stacked on
the steel substrate in order [1]. Only phases were observed on the overall surface and cross section of the 465
733
Metal Forming
734
Load cell
for normal force
Load cell
for tangential force
Table
Motion
t=0.7mm
Sliding table
Hydraulic
cylinder
Galvannealed coated
Sheet steel
(40 X 250mm)
Tested surface
(600 X 45 or 20mm)
F
20mm
F
45mm
specimen
specimen
10mm
35mm
Value
Specimens
4, 20, 80(MPa)
Lubricants
Results
Results of Nanoindentation Tests. Figure 4 shows the
typical loading - unloading curves of each coating
obtained from nanoindentation tests. As listed in Table 2,
the elastic modulus and nano-hardenss of each coating
increased as the annealing temperature was raised, due to
the increase in and phases with high Fe content within
the coating.
465 coaitng
505 coaitng
515 coaitng
540 coaitng
20
coating, while some phases were present at the coatingsubstrate interface. The phases are an unalloyed zinc in
which Fe is solvated, therefore they rarely exist in a commercial GA coating [1]. For the 505 coating, the surface
was rich and the cross section was rich. The surface of
the typical GA coating is composed of phase , , , or a
combination of these phases. The layer of columnar
consists of small unordered crystals which demonstrate
porosity. The layer of granular is compact and contains
through-thickness cracks (Figure 1(b))
For the 515 coating, and phases were evenly distributed at the surface and phases with the thickness of
approximate 0.1 m were observed at the coating-substrate
interface. For the 540 coating, phases were dominant at
the surface and the cross section and phases with thickness of about 0.5 m were also at the coating-substrate
interface. Only the and phases have the ability to deform plastically. Therefore, the skin passed areas in the
surface of the GA coatings (Figure 2) are composed of all
and phases. These ductile phases play a role in retarding the propagation of through-thickness cracks to the top
surface in phases. The thickness of the GA coatings
ranged from 6 to 10 m approximately. Their surface
roughness (Ra: m) and the skin passed areas decreased
with an increase in the annealing temperature.
16
12
8
4
0
100
200
300
400
Figure 4. Typical loading-unloading curves of each coating obtained with an indentation depth of 400nm.
Table 2. General conditions for nanoindentation four GA coatings.
Specimens
Elastic Modulus
Hardness
465
102.3GPa
2.168GPa
505
157.4GPa
3.287GPa
515
170.3GPa
3.455GPa
540
180.3GPa
5.269GPa
Metal Forming
represent the entire mechanical properties of the GA
coatings, because they are the layered structures of the
different phases. It is believed that the mechanical and the
morphological properties of the top surface, with only
and phases on the GA coatings, were reflected in the
results tested at an indentation depth of 400 nm. Though,
the elastic modulus of the 465 coating with rich phase
were nearly consistent with that of Zn (96-100 GPa).
Therefore, the results of the nanoindentation test itself are
judged to be comparatively reliable.
Results of Flat-Friction Tests. Figure 5 shows the
frictional coefficients of four coating for different apparent
contact pressures. The 465 coating, with rich phases that
were nearly unalloyed, showed no trends comparable to
the other GA coatings in the flat-friction test. This result is
inconsistent with typical GA coatings and, thus, was
excluded from the reported results.
The frictional coefficients showed a tendency to
decrease as a result of increasing the contact pressure.
However, the relatively reduced rates were noticeably
increasing when raising the annealing temperature,
especially in the washing oil. While the frictional
coefficient of the 540 coating was the highest for the low
contact pressure of 4 MPa, it was the lowest for the high
contact pressure of 80 MPa.
Washing oil
505 coating
515 coating
540 coating
Frictional coefficient,
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.12
20
40
60
80
505
515
540
Ra : 0.793
465
Ra : 0.415
Ra : 0.688
505
Ra : 0.671
Ra : 0.372
515
Ra : 0.351
Ra : 0.641
540
Ra : 0.325
505
515
540
735
Metal Forming
frictional coefficients of each coating are nearly constant
in 80MPa.
Discussions
Figure 8 shows the individual frictional coefficients for
both five or seven tests for each coating with an contact
pressure of 4 and 80MPa in the washing oil. The relative
errors of the frictional coefficients, depicted in the figure,
were calculated using the average value ( value in the
figure) for each test. The generally relative errors of each
coating steadily decreased when increasing the annealing
temperatures with a contact pressure of 4 MPa. On the
other hand, the contact pressure of 80 MPa provided a
relatively high reproducibility for each of the coatings,
regardless of the number of tests.
The lack of reproducibility for 4 MPa is believed to be
caused by various factors, including the surface roughness,
the dominant phase distributions of the coating, the surface
craters created by the annealing processes, the size of the
skin passed area, and the material and surface conditions
of the implemented tool. The typically commercial GA
coating also has various phase distributions and irregular
surface morphologies even in the same sheet coil [1].
However, in case of a high contact pressure of 80MPa,
all the morphological properties of the coatings are
removed, and only its mechanical properties based on the
dominant Fe-Zn intermetallic phases are reflected in their
frictional properties. Therefore, the high contact pressure
of 80MPa gives a high credibility and reproducibility
when observing the frictional coefficient of the coating.
0.180
Frictional coefficient,
+2%
-4%
0.175
0.174
0.170
-3%
0.170
+5%
+3%
0.165
-3%
0.163
0.160
0.161
0.155
0.150
465
465 Coating
505 Coating
515 Coating
540 Coating
-5%
-4%
505
515
540
Frictional coefficient,
0.156
0.154
0.152
505 Coating
515 Coating
540 Coating
0.152
0.150
0.148
0.146
0.144
0.142
Not tested
0.143
465
505
515
540
736
Conclusions
This study was designed to investigate the effect of different annealing temperatures on Fe-Zn intermetallic
phases as well as the frictional properties of the GA coating. These effects were analyzed using nanoindentation
and flat-friction tests. The effects of the GA coating's FeZn intermetallic phases on their frictional properties were
investigated by SEM observations of the coatings before
and after testing. The results are as follows:
1. The elastic modulus and the hardness of the GA coating
increased due to the increase in the brittle and
phases with high Fe content within the coating upon
raising of the annealing temperature.
2. The frictional coefficients of the GA coating in the rustprevention oil were more dependent on lubricant viscosity rather than the Fe-Zn intermetallic phases of the
GA coating. The frictional coefficients were also found
to be nearly constant, regardless of the annealing temperatures.
3. The frictional coefficients of the GA coating in the flatfriction tests for the washing oil depended on the surface roughness (the phase distribution and the morphological properties), the hardness, the formation of powder, and the different contact pressures. In the low contact-pressure region, the frictional coefficients of the
coatings were mainly affected by their powder formation (or real contact area) and increased when raising
the annealing temperatures (or increasing the and
phases within the coating). On the other hand, in the
high contact-pressure region, the frictional coefficients
of the coatings were influenced by their hardness and
showed a decrease in magnitude when raising the annealing temperature. Also, the maximum relative error
for frictional coefficients obtained from the flat-friction
tests were +5/-4% in the low contact-pressure region,
while these errors nearly converged to 0% in the high
contact-pressure region. Consequently, the friction tests
in the high contact-pressure region gave a higher reproducibility for the frictional coefficient than that in the
low contact-pressure region.
References
[1] A.R. Marder: Progress in Material Science, 45 (2000), 197-271.
[2] M.H. Hong, ISIJ international, 45-6 (2005), 896-902.
[3] Y.S. Kim: J. of KSME A, 15-6 (1991), 1807-1818.
[4] Y.S. Kim: J. of KSME A, 14-6 (1990), 1474-1486.
[5] K.K. Lee: Surface and Coatings Technology, 201 (2007), 6261-6266.
[6] J.M. Lee: J. of KSPE, 23-4 (2006), 109-115.
[7] J. Scheers: 19th IDDRG Biennial Congress, (1996), 515-525.
[8] V. Rangarajan: Proc. SAE, (1996), 63-70.
[9] Y. Nunomura: ISIJ international, 43-3 (2003), 454-460.
[10] L. G. Garza: JMPT, 187-188 (2007), 164-168.
[11] T. HiRa: J. of JSTP, 34-393 (1993), 1141-1146.
[12] C. Cheng: GALVATECH 95 Proceedings, (1995), 723-731.
[13] A.T. Alpas: ISIJ international, 40-2 (2000), 172-181.
[14] N.D. Kunde: Proc. SAE, (1998), 1-6.
[15] M. Urai: Materials Technology for Automobiles, 47-2 (1997), 29-32.
[16] C.S. Lin: ISIJ international, 35-5 (1995), 503-511.
[17] M. Rieth, W. Schommer: Handbook of Theoretical and Computational Nanotechnology, 4 ASP, (2004).
[18] Nanoindenter XP system manual ver. 10, MTS.
[19] W. C. Oliver, G. M. Pharr: J. of Materials Research, 7-6 (1992),
1564-1583.
Metal Forming
Mechanical Engineering Department, Bu- Ali Sina University, Hamedan / Iran, alavi1338@yahoo.com
A numerical solution has been developed to simulate the experimental tests carried out for explosive metal forming of a circular steel disc
into a cone. Because in such a simulation underwater detonation of an explosive charge is going to be simulated, this can results in high
distortion of some elements so the ALE method has been used for this simulation. The numerical results are in good agreement with those
obtained by experimental tests. The profile of metal during the forming process is a semi conical shape which gradually becomes a
complete cone. The final dimensions of the cone are the same as those found by experimental tests and, it is shown that ALE method is a
good procedure to simulate such a problem and predict the results.
Keywords: Explosive forming, Cone, Simulation, ALE
Introduction
Researches about rapid deformation of a thin film have
led to development of a set of forming processes named
high rate forming. If an explosive is used for energy
transfer, the process is called explosive forming. In recent
years the application of explosive metal forming has been
increasing rapidly. One of the areas for applying this
method is explosive metal forming of cones which can be
used for military purposes such as the missiles liners or
radars dishes [1]. In most of the metal forming processes
the metal is pushed against a relatively rigid die. In this
procedure after the explosive material is exploded, the
released energy of explosion is given to the ambient
media that here is water and results in increasing the
water pressure and drives the blank into the die [2].
Due to the complexity of explosive forming, there is no
accurate solution for these problems; therefore, numerical
methods are widely used.
Fengman et al. [3] investigated explosive forming of
thin-walled semi-spherical parts experimentally. Their
research showed that non-die explosive forming of these
parts has the advantage of high dimensional accuracy and
simplicity of the process. Yasar et al. [4] studied the
forming of aluminium cylindrical cups both
experimentally and numerically. Wijayathunga and Webb
[5] developed a finite element model to simulate the
impulsive deep drawing of a brass square cup. Javab Var
and Habib Pour [6] studied the under water explosive
forming of a cone. They calculated the amount of charge
required in a predetermined distance based on energy
method. In addition, they carried out some tests to
validate their theoretical method. Akbari Mousavi et al.
[7] have studied explosive free forming of circular blanks
numerically. Alavi Nia and Mohammadi Noori [8]
investigated the problem of explosive metal forming of a
hemispherical part and its optimization using Lagrangian
method.
In finite element computations, basically there are two
methods: Lagrangian and Eulerian methods. In
Lagrangian method the deformation of mesh follows the
deformation and translation of material while in the
Eulerian method there is no deformation for meshes.
Lagrangian approach is suitable for problems with limited
mesh deformation since large deformation of meshes can
Detonation velocity D
Chapman-Jouget pressure PCJ
1641 (kg/m 3 )
8190 (m/s)
28 (GPa)
737
Metal Forming
Experimental Procedure [1]
The circular blank was placed on the die and both of
them have been emerged in water. The explosive charge
has been set above them with the center distance of 150
mm while the bottom of the die is connected to a vacuum
pump and the room inside the die has been evacuated.
After the detonation, the circular blank is formed into a
cone. At the initial moments of forming process a plastic
hinge was produced at the edge of the blank and moved
toward the center of the blank. The spherical explosive
charge has a mass of 19 g. The apparatus setup for this
forming is shown in Figure 1.
(a)
Simulation Procedure
The simulation was done using LS_DYNA 971 which is
recognized software for dynamic analysis. The input model
was made in the software FEMB 28. Five parts were
modeled such as blank, die, explosive charge, vacuum and
water. Since the analysis of the vessel was not important for
us the impulsion of the vessel has been neglected. The
different parts were modeled as follows.
Modeling Different Parts. The blank was modeled
using four-node Lagrangian shell elements. The number of
elements defined for the blank was 300.
The die was modeled with 880 eight-nodes brick elements
using Lagrangian formulation. By applying boundary
conditions at the die nodes the position of the die was fixed.
Eight-nodes brick elements with one point ALE multi
material element formulation were used for the simulation
of vacant place, water and explosive charge parts. To
simulate the explosive, the water and the vacant place,
1584, 37416 and 6000 elements were used, respectively.
The charge was placed 150mm above the center of the
blank. In Figure 2, the finite element model of the problem
is shown. The model can be assumed to have double
symmetry and then only one fourth of the model needs to
738
(b)
Figure 2. (a) Finite element model for die and explosive charge
and (b) one forth model of all of the parts.
+ ( 0 + ) E 0
P=
2
2
s3
1 ( s1 1) s 2
2
+1
( + 1)
where P, 0 , C , , a,
Metal Forming
used for detonation products which defines the pressure
as follows:
(2)
where V and E are the relative volume and the initial
internal energy, respectively, and A, B, R1 , R 2 and are
constants of explosive material. The equation constants
for C4 are shown in Table 3.
Table 2. Gruneisens equation constants for water [8].
Speed of sound C
Material constant S1
Material constant S2
Material constant S3
1488 (m/s)
1.979
0
0
0.11
a
Initial internal energy E0
3
0
E0
V0
6.098e+11 (Pa)
1.29e+10 (Pa)
4.5
1.4
0.25
9e+9
1
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. (a) Distribution of effective stress and (b) distribution of
effective strain.
During the process at first the area near the edge of the
plate goes through the plastic strain while the center area
of the plate is in elastic state. In Figure 4, the effective
stress and effective strain is shown at a moment in the
process which is similar to theoretical conclusions [1].
739
Metal Forming
The final radius of the base of the cone is 43.737mm
(see Figure 5) and the center of the blank moves about
50mm toward the bottom of the die which results in a
complete cone. These values for the experimental test are
44mm and 50mm, respectively. This means that the radius
of the cone obtained from simulation is about 6% less
than that of test and the vertical displacement of the
central node is the same as the test value. The vertical
displacement of the center of the plate is shown in Figure
6.
740
Metal Forming
2)
School of Mechanical
In diesel engines, it is inevitable that the torsional vibration is produced by the fluctuation of engine torque. Therefore, it is necessary to
reduce the torsional vibration. A sleeve spring-type damper is commonly used to reduce torsional vibration. In this study, closed form equations to predict the spring constant of a sleeve spring and the torsional characteristics of a torsional vibration damper are proposed to calculate the stiffness of the damper. And two-roll bending process is selected to manufacture a sleeve-type spring for a torsional vibration
damper. Firstly, an FEA method used to analyze the elasto-plastic problem was verified through an analysis of 90 degrees bending process.
And the FEA method for two-roll bending is proposed. The main process parameters of two-roll bending are the material thickness, the
diameter of the bending roll, and the compressed amount of an urethane-covered roll. The material thickness is determined based on the
design value, and the diameter of the bending roll is determined by theoretical analysis. To determine the compressed deformation of the
urethane-covered roll, analyses according to the contact angle between the bending roll and sheet were performed. As a result, a new
process parameter, contact angle / (material thickness forming radius), of the two-roll bending process was proposed so that the curves
for the error ratio of analysis values to design values regarding the various material thicknesses could have similar patterns without regard
to material thickness and forming radius.
Keywords: Sleeve spring-type damper, Two-roll bending process, Elasto-plastic problem, Urethane-covered roll, Contact angle
Introduction
Torsional vibration of a crankshaft due to variation of
torque is inevitable in a diesel engine, which is a reciprocal engine with a crank mechanism. Such vibration can be
reduced through the installation of an appropriate damper
or by optimization of the combustion chamber stroke.
There are several types of torsional vibration dampers, and
they are selected depending on engine speed: a viscous
fluid type for low speed, a coil spring type for medium
speed, and a sleeve spring-type for high speed. The sleeve
spring-type torsional vibration damper and sleeve spring
pack are shown in Figure 1.
Techniques for the production of cylindrical tubular sections such as a sleeve spring include roll-bending, stampbending, stretch-bending, and press-braking. Roll-bending,
compared to the other processes, can reduce set up time,
reduce cost in tooling investment, minimize the length of
straight end-edges remaining in the finished product, and
achieve much better finished dimensional accuracy and
better circularity of cylindrical sections. Therefore the
technique of roll-bending is widely used in forming prod-
Theory
Spring Constant of Sleeve Spring. Design parameters
of the sleeve spring were determined as shown in Figure 2.
The spring constant of a sleeve spring is expressed as
follows:
741
Metal Forming
k=
E h t3
L
12 D sin 1 GAP
D
(1)
(2 )RPitch
(2)
DA RPitch
K
Ri R f
n + 2 tE ' 3
n/2
t
2 Ri
(3)
n/2
t
2 Ri
(4)
742
Thickness
[mm]
1
1
+
=0
Ri R f
(b) Unloading
Figure 5. Analysis result in the case of 2.4mm thickness.
(a) Loading
Forming
radius
Ri [mm]
2.4
26.5
32.9
33.9
3.0
2.0
24.2
30.9
31.9
3.2
1.8
22.1
29.1
30.6
5.2
1.6
20.6
27.5
29.1
5.8
1.4
19.2
26.1
27.4
5.0
1.2
17.8
24.9
26.4
6.0
1.0
16.1
22.8
23.8
4.4
Metal Forming
Two-Roll Bending Process. Figure 6 shows the analysis model, which is based on a two-roll bending process
used in the actual field, and the contact angle between the
bending roll and material. In the actual process, the bending roll is fixed, and an urethane-covered roll moves vertically and rotates. However, in the analysis model, an urethane-covered roll, which is deformed as much as contact
angle between bending roll and material, moves vertically
to bend the material, and the bending roll rotates.
Figure 6. The analysis model embodied from 2-roll bending process in actual field and the definition of the contact angle.
Figure 9 shows the radius values measured after springback according to the contact angles, and Table 2 shows
that radius including spring-back increases when contact
angle decreases. N addition, the curves for the error ratio
of analysis values to design values of the various material
thicknesses have different patterns as shown in Figure 10.
[]
2.4
2.0
10
31.43
28.80
31.96
28.90
27.27
33.58
29.10
27.67
25.78
33.62
30.05
27.79
25.88
24.24
35.69
30.69
28.43
26.13
24.54
23.40
41.04
32.96
30.05
27.00
24.72
23.69
28.08
25.08
23.61
21.79
26.81
24.35
21.90
25.10
22.44
22.80
0.5
23.18
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
743
Metal Forming
Therefore a new process parameter composed of main
process parameters (contact angle, material thickness, and
forming radius) is needed to be defined so that the curves
for the error ratio of analysis values to design values regarding the various material thicknesses could have similar patterns without regard to the material thickness. So in
this study, the new process parameter, contact angle /
(material thickness forming radius), is defined. The
values of the new process parameter are shown in Table 3
and have similar patterns as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 10. Error ratios of analysis values to design values according to the contact angles.
Table 3. Values of new process parameter, / (t x Ri).
Contact
Angle
[]
2.4
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
10
0.155
0.205
0.140
0.184
0.218
0.124
0.164
0.194
0.235
0.109
0.143
0.170
0.205
0.253
0.093
0.123
0.146
0.176
0.217
0.273
0.078
0.102
0.123
0.147
0.180
0.227
0.117
0.144
0.182
0.247
0.108
0.136
0.185
0.091
0.123
0.062
0.5
0.031
Figure 11. Error ratios of analysis values to design values according to new process parameter.
744
Metal Forming
Introduction
The fluid-cell forming process, also called
Verson-Whellon process, is a kind of flexible sheet metal
forming technologies [1,2]. The low cost and satisfactory
product quality makes the process popular in the
aeronautical manufacturing industry of small quantities
and large varieties. In FFP, there are a large number of
products which can be sorted in flanges components. As
the deformation is close to pure bending in the flange parts,
the geometric errors due to springback seriously affect the
product quality. Therefore, springback compensationthe
most ideal approach to reduce springback errors for sheet
metal forming [3], is desirable in the tool design of FFP.
A lot of works has been done on springback
compensation with FEM in sheet metal forming processes.
Karafillis and Boyce proposed a method denoted as
Spring-forward which was capable for compensation of
3D geometries [4]. W. Gan and R.H. Wagoner developed
displacement adjustment (DA) method [3]. Compared
with "Spring-forward" method, DA method keeps several
advantages in convergence, correction and generality [3].
In fact, DA methods can not be directly applied to
complex-shaped parts. Because the compensation vectors
computed by FEM are defined on the nodes of the blank
mesh only, not those of the die mesh [5]. Then, several
improved algorithms were further developed to make the
DA method available for the arbitrary 3D components
[5-7]. Their work extends practical application of the
springback compensation technology.
However, for these compensation methods with FEM, it
takes a long time to analyse the forming and springback
procedures and perform the iterative optimization. For FFP,
it is limited to apply these methods to the practical
manufacture, because the large number of product
varieties leads to an unacceptable huge period for analysis
work. So if there is a new tool design method which
utilizes the compensation method without long time of
analysis work, it will be a great promotion for the product
quality and efficiency of FFP.
In this study, a compensation method is introduced,
which offers a quick and accurate solution of springback
compensation for complex-shaped flange parts in FFP.
steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
Web plate
Hole
Straight flange
Curved flange
(a) Part 1
Figure 1.
Straight flange
Straight flange
Curved
flangeflange
Straight
(b) Part 2
Straight flange
Figure 2.
Convex flange
Concave flange
Curved flange
Flange shapes.
Metal Forming
Web plate
L0
Bending curve
R
h
Curved flange
Figure 3.
R1
R2
R2
R1
(a) Die
(b) Blank
Figure 5.
Table 1.
Die ID
R1 /mm(concave flange)
100
150
150
200
150
250
200
250
Parameters of blanks
Blank ID
/
90
60
30
15
15
15
/mm
Original die
Original die
No
Optimized die
Adjustment
mapping
Optimized die
Figure 4.
Springback
distribution calculation
746
Figure 6.
Flange parts.
Forming analysis
Bending curve
Springback angle/
FE model
2.0
1.6
Die1 R1
Die1 R2
Die2 R1
Die2 R2
1.2
0.8
0
20
40
60
o
location/
80
100
Metal Forming
Die 1, Die 3 and Die 4 with different blanks were adopted
in the simulation. Then the springback angles of the flange
were measured.
Springback angle/
2.2
2.0
1.8
Die1 Blank1 R1
Die1 Blank1 R2
Die3 Blank1 R1
Die3 Blank1 R2
Die4 Blank1 R1
Die4 Blank1 R2
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
-40
-20
0 o 20
location/
o ( R, L0 ) =
40
Springback angle/
Springback angle/
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
20 40 o
Location/
-40 -20
20 40o
Location/
Die3 Blank1 R1
Die3 Blank1 R2
Die3 Blank2 R1
Die3 Blank2 R2
Die3 Blank3 R1
Die3 Blank3 R2
e N
s e
(3)
(7)
cL0
(8)
R
According to the springback prediction data, the
parameters of the function are obtained, listed in Table 3.
1.2
-40 -20
o
e
o ( R, L0 ) = 1
Table 3.
1.4
Die1 Blank1 R1
Die1 Blank1 R2
Die1 Blank2 R1
Die1 Blank2 R2
Die1 Blank3 R1
Die1 Blank3 R2
4
(6)
f (l , L0 , R) = (1 o )(l 0 ) 2 + o
2
e
e
L0
Concave flange
16.4
0.13
0.65
Convex flange
11.4
0.152
0.43
z
sin
pc = ag p
lPR =
p =
(11)
(12)
s
(13)
90
where lPR is the bending length, z is the height from the
node P to the web plate, pc is the compensation angle,
747
Metal Forming
curve between N1 and N2. Then the p can be calculated
from N 1 and N 2 with the interpolation method.
Section of
Flange parts
pc
Section of
flange parts
lPR
Compensated
Reference shape
holder
blank
uni
After springback
die
Section 1
r
e2
1 e1
r
The adjusting direction p is calculated according to
the elements containing the node P. Then the unit vector
r
uni can be obtained.
r
1 n r
p = n i ei
(14)
i =1
uni
i =1
p
= r
| p |
(15)
r
where ei is the uniform normal of the element that
contains the node P and i is the angle at the node P in
this element, as the weighting factor.
p can
Case Study
-30
Compensated die
After springback
Compensated die
Before springback
Original die
After springback
Original die
Before springback
-5
-35
(b) Sections
Y/mm
r
e3
Section 2
r
e4
-10
-40
-15
-45
136
138
140
X/mm
(a)Section 1
54
56
58
X/mm
(b)Section 2
Conclusions
Metal Forming
Introduction
Springback of sheet metal occurs in the unloading stage
of sheet metal forming processes and causes the shape
inaccuracy of final stamped parts. During the past decades,
many researches have been done to control the springback.
Finite element method has been widely recognized as a
powerful tool to predict press-forming defects. Various
FEM-based approaches have been developed to compensate the springback [1]. But the application of these approaches is restricted by the accuracy of FEM. At this time
the accuracy of FEM-based springback predicting is still
not satisfying. Furthermore, the inaccuracy of FEM in the
predicting stage builds up fast in the compensation stage.
Its reported that 20% inaccuracy of FEM analysis will
cause 44% error of the final compensation [2].
The development of non-contact 3D measuring technology provides another way for springback control. Due to
its capability of obtaining accurate geometric information
of the trial-stamped parts, it is widely used in the engineering fields to quantitatively identify the shape distortion in
the trial process and hence reduce the times of die revision
[3]. But there is no direct link between the measured displacements and the curvature recovery of springback. It is
still depended on engineers experience to compensate the
die surface on the reference of measured data. It is necessary to develop a better method which has a theoretical
foundation and can automatically compensate die surface
using the measured data in the trial stamping process.
In this paper, a compensation methodology based on the
mechanics of elastic recovery is presented and a blade part
is used as an example to illustrate this method.
The blade part is a sector of a helical blade of a concrete
mixer truck. A number of these preformed sectors are
welded sequentially into a large helical blade, as evident
from Figure 1 (a). Each blade sectors need to be fabricated within tight dimensional tolerances in order to be
welded together within the desired overall tolerance limits.
The problem is that each sector has a large springback (to
a tune of 20 mm) after stamping and which brings many
difficulties in welding. Since the shape of each blade sector (Figure 1 (b)) is irregular and the radii of curvature on
it vary along the bending line, it would be increasingly
difficult to design a right compensated tool shape. Norsteel research int. 81 (2010) No. 9
749
Metal Forming
1. Design the initial tool shape and have a trial stamping.
2. Measure the stamped part.
3. Divide the surfaces of desired part and stamped part into
several section curves.
4. Discretize the section curves and calculate the compensated section curves using the measured curvature data.
5. Relocate all the compensated section curves and construct the compensated tool surface.
6. Revise the die and have another trial stamping. If the
trial stamped part is not within the tolerance, go to step
2, otherwise it is done.
Further details and key issues in the 3rd, 4th and 5th
steps are discussed in the following sections.
Dividing Surface. For pure bending operation, it can be
assumed that the surface area will not change because the
material is incompressible. To construct the relationship of
the radius before and after springback, we use the parameteric surface based on this assumption. Each point on a
parametric surface can be described by a pair (u, v). Two
points with the same (u, v) value in the surfaces before and
after the springback are regarded as the same point.
If the parameter u is kept constant while v is varied, a
section curve can be formed on the surface [5]. Figure 2
shows the parametric surface of a blade sector and the
partitioned section curves using u series: 0, 0.1, 0.2,,1.
In this method, the surfaces of tool shape and measured
part are both partitioned using the same u series and two
section curves with the same u value are regarded as the
same curve before and after springback.
k1p
= k1m k1p
(2)
1 = k1m / k .
(3)
3Y (1 ) EP
k
1