~ AND Drive SYSTEMS SECOND EDITION Paul C. Krause Oleg Wasynczuk Scott D. SudhoffANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY AND DRIVE SYSTEMS oadIEEE Press 4445 Hoes Lane, PO. Box 1331 Piscataway, NJ O8855-1331 ‘Stamatios V. Kartalopoulos, Edluor in Chief M. Akay M. Eden M. Padgett, J.B. Anderson ME. Elllawary M.S, Newman RJ. Baker RJ. Herrick W.D. Reeve LE, Brewer RF Hoyt G. Zobrist D. Kirk Kenneth Moore, Director of IEEE Press Catherine Faduska, Senior Acquisitions Editor John Grftin, Acquisitions Eaitor Anthony VenGraitis, Project Editor IEEE Power Engineering Society, Sponsor PE-S Liaison to IEEE Press, Chanan Singh Cover Design: William 7; Donnelly, WT Design BOOKS IN THE IEEE PRESS SERIES ON POWER ENGINEERING Analysis of Faulted Power Systems P.M. Anderson 1995 Hardcover $36pp——_(0-7803-1145-0 Power System Protection P.M. Anderson 1999 Hardcover 1344pp—0-7803-3427-2 Power and Communication Cables: Theory and Applications Edited by R. Bartnikas and K. D. Srivastava 2000 Handover -896pp—_0-7803-1196-5, Understanding Power Quality Problems: Vollage Sags and Interruptions Math HI. Bollen 2000 Hardcover S76pp——-7803-4713-7 Electric Power Applications of Fuzzy Systems Edited by M.E. El-Hawary 1998 Hardcover 384pp_——_(0-7803-1197-3ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY AND DRIVE SYSTEMS Second Edition PAUL C. KRAUSE OLEG WASYNCZUK SCOTT D. SUDHOFF —“| Purdue University, wer Engineering Society, Sponsor MG IEEE Power Engineering Society, Sponsor peg EXSRERING IEEE Press Power Engineering Series Mohamed E. ElHawary, Series Editor Ieee PRESS wom LEY- INTERSCIENCE ‘A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. PUBLICATION‘This oak i primed a ace paper Copyright 2002 by The nite of Fler and Electonics Engin, In. Al sighs eee, [No prt of hi publication may be repradoed, sre ina eteva sono anid in any form orby any meas, else, mechanical phtoeopying, recording, samsing or there eicept pei under Seton 17 o 108 of the 197 Unit Stats Copycat At, wien ‘iter th prior writen prison of he Pike ot atharicaton ough payment ofthe npoprit per-copy fet the Copyright Claaoce Cente, 22 Rosod Dive, Daven MA (01928 078)750.8400, fax (978)750474. Rees othe Pblsher for permission sold be ales othe Permissions Deparment, fn Wey & Sons, I, lS Tid Avenue, New Yok, ANY 101580012 (212)90-0t fax (212880 608 E Mai: PERMREQS WILEY.COM, For ering and cestom servic, cll SO0-CALL WILEY. {Library of Congress Cataloging Publication avaiable, ISBN 0471-18326 ‘ited in he Unie Snes of Ameri, woaTesTo our familiesCONTENTS PREFACE x Chapter 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS 1 LAL Introduction / 1 1.2 Magnetically Coupled Circuits / 1 1.3, Electromechanical Energy Conversion J U1 14 Machine Windings and Air-Gap MMP / 35 LS Winding Inductances and Voltage Equations / 47 References / $8 Problems / 58 Chapter 2 DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES 67 2. Introduetion £67 2.2 Elementary Direct-Current Machine / 68 2.3. Voltage and Torque Equations / 76 24 Basie Types of Direct-Current Machines / 78 2.5. Dynamic Characteristics of Permanent-Magnet and Shunt de Motors / 88 2.6 Time-Domain Block Diagrams and State Equations / 92 2.7 Solution of Dynamic Characteristics by Laplace Transformation / 98 References J 104 Problems / 105vili contents Chapter 3 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY 109 3.1 Introduction / 109 32. Background / 109 3.3 Equations of Transformation: Changes of Variables J 111 34 Stationary Circuit Variables Transformed to the Arbitrary Reference Frame / 115 35 Commonly Used Reference Frames / 123 3.6 Transformation Between Reference Frames J. 124 3.7 Transformation of a Balanced Set / 126 38 Balanced Steady-State Phasor Relationships 127 39 Balanced Steady-State Voltage Equations / 130 3.10. Vatiables Observed from Several Frames of Reference J 133 References J 137 Problems / 138 Chapter 4 SYMMETRICAL INDUCTION MACHINES 1 4.1 Introduction / 141 42 Voltage Equations in Machine Variables / 142 43° Torque Equation in Machine Variables / 146 44 Equations of Transformation for Rotor Circuits / 147 4.5 Voltage Equations in Arbitrary Reference-Frame Variables / 149 46 Torque Equation in Arbitrary Reference-Frame Variables / 153 47 Commonly Used Reference Frames / 154 48 Per Unit System / 155 49 Analysis of Steady-State Operation J 157 4.10 Free Acceleration Characteristics / 165 4.11 Free Acceleration Characteristics Viewed from Various Reference Frames / 172 4.12 Dynamic Performance During Sudden Changes in Load Torque 174 4.13 Dynamie Performance During a 3-Phase Fault atthe ‘Machine Terminals J. 181 4.14 Computer Simulation in the Arbitrary Reference Frame / 184 References / 187 Problems / 188 Chapter 5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 191 5.1 Introduction / 191 5.2 Voltage Equations in Machine Variables / 192 53. Torque Equation in Machine Variables / 197cconrents ix 5A Stator Voltage Equations in Arbitrary Reference-Frame Variables / 198 55 Voltage Equations in Rotor Reference-Frame Variables: Park's Equations 7 200 5.6 Torque Equations in Substitute Variables / 206 5.7 Rotor Angle and Angle Between Rotors / 207 5.8 Per Unit System / 209 59 Analysis of Steady-State Operation / 210 5.10 Dynamie Performance During a Sudden Change in Input Torque / 219 5.11 Dynamie Performance Dusing a 3-Phase Fault at the Machine Terminals / 225 5.12 Approximate Transient Torque Versus Rotor Angle Characteristics / 229 5.13 Comparison of Actual and Approximate Transient Torgue-Angle Characteristies During a Sudden Change in Input Torque: First Swing Transient Stability Limit / 232 5.14 Comparison of Actual and Approximate Transient Torque-Angle (Charactristies During a 3-Phase Fault atthe Terminals: Critical Clearing Time / 239 5.15 Equal-Area Criterion / 242 5.16 Computer Simulation / 246 References / 255 Problems / 256 Chapter 6 THEORY OF BRUSHLESS de MACHINES 261 6.1 Introduction / 261 62 Voltage and Torque Equations in Machine Variables / 261 63 Voltage and Torque Equations in Rotor Reference-Frame Variables / 264 64 Analysis of Steady-State Operation / 266 65 Dynamic Performance / 274 References / 281 Problems / 281 Chapter 7 MACHINE EQUATIONS IN OPERATIONAL aM 72 13 14 15 16 IMPEDANCES AND TIME CONSTANTS 283 Iniroduetion / 283 Park's Equations in Operational Form / 284 Operational Impedances and G(p) for a Synchronous Machine with Four Rotor Windings / 284 Standard Synchronous Machine Reactances / 288 Standard Synchronous Machine Time Constants 290 Derived Synchronous Machine Time Constants / 291x contents 7.7 Parameters from Shor-Circuit Characteristics / 294 7.8 Parameters from Frequency-Response Characteristics / 301 References J 307 Problems / 308 Chapter 8 LINEARIZED MACHINE EQUATIONS ai 8.1 Inoduetion / 311 8.2 Machine Equations to Be Linearized / 312 83. Linearization of Machine Equations / 313 84 Small-Displacement Stability: Eigenvalues / 323, 8.5 Eigenvalues of Typical Induction Machines / 324 8.6 Eigenvalues of Typical Synchronous Machines 327 8.7 Transfer Function Formulation / 330 References J 335 Problems / 335, Chapter 9 REDUCED-ORDER MACHINE EQUATIONS. 337 9.1 Introduction / 337 9.2 Reduced-Order Equations / 338 9.3 Induction Machine Large-Excursion Behavior Predicted by Reduced-Onder Equations / 343, 94 Synchronous Machine Large-Excursion Behavior Predicted by Retuced-Order Equations / 350 95 Linearized Reduced-Order Equations / 354 9.6 Eigenvalues Predicted by Linearized Reduced-Onder Equations / 354 9.7 Simulation of Reduced-Order Models / 355 9.8 Closing Comments and Guidelines / 358 References / 358 Problems / 359 Chapter 10. SYMMETRICAL AND UNSYMMETRICAL 2-PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES. 361 10.1 Introduction / 361 10.2 Analysis of Symmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 362 10.3 Voltage and Torque Equations in Machine Variables for Unsymmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 371 10.4 Voltage and Torque Equations in Stationary Reference-Frame Variables for Unsymmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 373contents xi 10.5 Analysis of Steady-State Operation of Unsymmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines 377 10.6 Single-Phase Induction Machines / 383 References / 393 Problems / 393 Chapter 11 SEMICONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTERS, 305 11.1 Introduction / 395 11.2. Single-Phase Load Commutated Converter / 395 11.3 3-Phase Load Commutated Converter / 406 References 1 42: Problems / 425 Chapter 12 dc MACHINE DRIVES ar 12.1 Introduction / 427 12.2 Solid-State Converters for de Drive Systems 427 123 Steady-State and Dynamic Characteristics of aclde Converter Drives / 431 124 One-Quadrant defde Converter Drive / 443 125 Two-Quadrant de/de Converter Drive 460 126 Four-Quadrant defde Converter Drive / 463 12.7 Machine Control with Voltage-Controlled de/de Converter / 466 128 Machine Control with Current-Contolled de/de Converter / 468 References / 476 Problems / 476 Chapter 13. FULLY CONTROLLED 3-PHASE BRIDGE ‘CONVERTERS 481 13.1 Inoduction / 481 132 ‘The 3-Phase Bridge Converter / 481 133 180° Voltage Source Operation / 487 1344 Pulse-Width Modulation / 494 135 Sine-Triangle Modulation / 499 136 Thied-Harmonie Injection / 503 13.7 Space-Vector Modulation J 506 138 Hysteresis Modulation / $10 139 Delta Modulation / 512 13.10. Open-Loop Voltage and Current Control J $13 13.11 Closed-Loop Voltage and Current Controls / 516xii contents, References / 520 Problems / $21 Chapter 14 INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES 525 14.1 Introduction / 525 14.2 Volts-Per-Hertz Control / 143 Constant Slip Current Control / 332 144 Field-Oriented Control 540 14.5 Direct Rotor-Oriented Field-Oriented Control / $4 14.6 Robust Direct Field-Oriented Control / 546 14.7 Indirect Rotor Field-Oriented Control / 550 148 Conclusions / 554 References / 554 Problems / $55 Chapter 15 BRUSHLESS de MOTOR DRIVES 587 15.1 Introduction / 537 15.2 Voltage-Source Inverter Drives / $58 153, Equivalence of VSI Schemes to Kalized Source 1 560 154 Average-Value Analysis of VSI Drives / 568 15.5 Steady-State Performance of VSI Drives / 571 186 Transient and Dynamic Performance of VSI Drives / S74 15.7 Consideration of Steady-State Harmonies / 578 158 Case Study: Voltage-Source Inverter-Based Speed Control / 582 159 Current-Regulated Inverter Drives / 586 15.10 Voltage Limitations of Current-Souree Inverter Drives / 590 15.11 Current Command Synthesis / 591 15.12. Average-Value Modeling of Current-Regulated Inverter Drives / 595 15.13 Case Study: Current-Regulated Inverter-Based Speed Controller / $97 References / 600 Problems / 600 ‘Appendix A Trigonometric Relations, Constants and Conversion Factors, and Abbreviations 603, INDEX 605PREFACE ‘The first edition of this book was written by Paul C. Krause and published in 1986 by ‘MeGraw-Hil. Eight years later the same book was republished by IEEE Press with (leg Wasynczuk and Scott D. Sudhoff added as co-authors, The focus of the first dition was the analysis of electric machines using reference frame theory, wherein the concept of the arbitrary reference frame was emphasized. Not only has this approach been embraced by the vast majority of electric machine analyst, it has also become the approach used in the analysis of electric drive systems. The use of reference-frame theory o analyze the complete drive system (machine, converter, and contro) was not emphasized inthe frst edition. The goal ofthis edition i to fill this void and thereby meet the need of engineers whose job itis to analyze and design the complete drive system, For this reason the words “and Drive Systems” have been added to the tite [Although some of the material has been rearranged or revised, and in some eases «eliminated, such as 3-phase symmetrical components, most ofthe material presented inthe fist ten chapters were taken from the original edition. For the most part, the ‘material in Chapters 11-15 on electric drive systems is new. In particular, the an lysis of converters used in electric drive systems is presented in Chapters 11 and 13, hile d, induction, and brushless de motor drives are analyzed in Chapters 12, 14, and 15, respectively Central to the analysis used inthis text isthe transformation to the arbitrary refer cence frame. All eal and complex transformations used in machine and drive ana lyses can be shown to be special cases ofthis general transformation. The modern electric machine and drive analyst must understand reference frame theory. For this reason, the complete performance ofall electric machines and drives considered are illustrated by computer traces wherein variables are often portrayed in differentframes of reference so that the student is able to appreciate the advantages and sig- nificance of the transformation used, ‘The material presented inthis text can be used most beneficially if the student has had an introductory course in eleciic machines. However, a senior Would be com= fortable using this textbook as a first course. For this purpose, considerable time should be devoted to the basic principles discussed in Chapter I, perhaps some of ‘Chapter 2 covering basic de machines, most of Chapter 3 covering reference frame theory, andthe beginning sections of Chapters 4, 5, and 6 covering induction, syn- cthronous, and brushless de machines. ‘Some of the material that would be of interest only tothe electric power engineer has been reduced or eliminated from that given in the fist edition. However, the material found in the final sections in Chapters 4 and S on induction and synchronous ‘machines as weil as operational impedances (Chapter 7), and reduced-order model- ing (Chapter 9) provide an excellent background for the power utility engineer, ‘We would like t acknowledge the efforts and assistance of the reviewers, in par- ticular Mohamed E. El-Hawary, and the staff of IEEE Press and Jobn Wiley & Sons, Paut.C. Keaust cee Wasyncaux Scorr D. Suonore Wea Lafeene, tine November 200)ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY AND DRIVE SYSTEMSChapter 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS 4.1 INTRODUCTION ‘There are several basic concepts that must be established before the analysis of elec- tic machines can begin. The principle of electromechanical energy conversion is perhaps the comerstone of machine analysis. This theory allows us to establish an ‘expression of electromagnetic torgue in terms of machine variables, generally the ‘currents and the displacement of the mechanical system. Other principles that must be established are (1) the derivation of equivalent circuit representations of ‘magnetically coupled circuits, (2) the concept ofa sinusoidally distibuted winding, (G) the concept ofa rotating airgap magnetomotive force (MME), and (4) the deri- vation of winding induetances. The above-mentioned basic principles are presented in this chapter, concluding with the voltage equations of a 3-phase synchronous ‘machine and a 3-phase induction machine. Ic is shown thatthe equations, which describe the behavior of altemating-current (ac) machines, contain time-varying coeflcients due to the fact that some of the machine inductances are functions of the rotor displacement. Tis establishes an awareness of the complexity ofthese vol- tage equations and sets the stage for the change of variables (Chapter 3), which reduces the complexity ofthe voltage equations by eliminating the time-dependent inductances, 1.2. MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS Magnetically coupled electric circuits are central to the operation of transformers ‘and electric machines. In the case of transformers, stationary cirewits are 12 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS Figure 1.21 Magnetically coupled circuits ‘magnetically coupled fr the purpose of changing the voltage and current level. In the case of electric machines, citcuits in relative motion are magnetically coupled for the purpose of wansfersing energy between mechanical and electrical systems Because magnetically coupled circuits play such an important role in power vans- mission and conversion, itis important to establish the equation that describe thet ‘behavior and to express these equations in a form convenient for analysis. These goals may be achieved hy starting with two stationary electric circuits that are mag ‘eially coupled as shown in Fig. 1.21. The two eols consis of turns Ny and N respectively, and they are wound ona common core that is general a ferromagnetic ‘material with permeability large celatve to that of ait. The permeability of fee space, , is $x % 10-7 Him. The permeability of other materials is expressed as A= pip wher pis the relative permeability. Inte ease of transformer stel the relative permeability may be as high 2000 to 4000, In general, the hx produced by each coil can be separated into two components 8 Teakage component denoted with an I subscript and a magnetizing component ‘denoted by an m subscript. Each ofthese components is depicted by asingle steamn- line withthe postive direction determined by applying the right-hand rule to the dlieetion of current flow inthe col. Often, in transformer analysis, fis elected positive out ofthe tp ofeol 2, and a dot is placed at that termina ‘The fs linking each coil may be expressed a8 Dy + Oy + Gao (124) 1D; = Op + yo + Bq (1.22) ‘The leakage Mux 4 is produced by current flowing in coil 1, and it Tinks only the ‘tums of col . Likewise, the leakage flux is produced by current lowing in coil 2, and it inks only the turns of coil 2. The magnetizing ux yy is produced by current owing in coil 1, and it links all rns of coils 1 and 2. Similarly, the magnetizing ffux da is produced by current flowing in coil 2, and it also Tinks ll tums of coils 1 nd 2, With the selected postive direction of current flow and the manner in whichMAGHETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS 3 the coils are wound (Fig. 1.2-1), magnetizing flux produced by positive current in ‘one coil adds to the magnetizing Aux produced by positive current in the other cil. In other words, if both currents are actually flowing in the same direction, ‘the magnetizing fluxes produced by each coil are in the same direction, making the total magnetizing flux or the total core ux the sum of the instantaneous magni tudes of the individual magnetizing Muxes. Ifthe actual currents are in opposite directions, the magnetizing uxes are in opposite directions. In this case, one coil is said to be magnetizing the core, the other demagnetizing Before proceeding, i is appropriate to point out that this is an idealization ofthe actual magnetic system. Cleary, all of the leakage ux may not Kink all the tums of ‘the coll producing it. Likewise, all ofthe magnetizing fux of one coil may not Tink all ‘of the turns ofthe other coil, To acknowledge this practical aspect of the magnetic system, the numberof turns is considered to be an equivalent number rather than the ‘actual number Ths fet should cause us litle concern because the inductances ofthe electric circuit resulting from the magnetic coupling are generally determined from tests, ‘The voltage equations may be expressed in matrix form as varie (si ae 123) where # = diag [re a dagonal mates, and ()" =li Al (12-4) where frepresents voltage, curent or ux linkage. The resistances rj and r2 and the flux linkages 2, and 2 are related to coils 1 and 2, respectively. Because it is assumed that links the equivalent turn of eo! and‘ links the equivalent tums of col 2, the ux linkages may be writen as A=Ma, (125) Aa = Ny: (126) where and are given by (1.2-1) and (1.2-2), respectively Linear Magnetic System If saturation is neglected, the system is linear and the fluxes may be expressed as Mi 0-9 (127) Bq = Mit (128) b. (129) oq = Bt (1240)4 SASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS Where @y and dz are the reluctances ofthe leakage paths and ys the reluctance of the path ofthe magnetizing fluxes. The product of N times i (ampere-turs) isthe (MME, which is determined by application of Ampere’s law. The reluctance of the leakage paths is dificult to express and impossible to measure. In fact, a unique determination of the inductances associated with the leakage flux cannot be made by tests instead, itis either calculated or approximated from desi ‘The reluctance ofthe magnetizing path ofthe core shown in Fig. 12-1 puted with sufficient accuracy from the well-known relationship ‘where isthe mean or equivalent length ofthe magnetic path, is the cross-sectional area, and jis the permeability Sabutting(12-7)-0.210) ino (12-1) and (12-2) yields Nut Md, aya, ta ee Mi Bs, i al a (213) Sting (12-12 and (12-13) int (12-5) and (12-6) yes a= My ML, 4 MMe (21) Ry” Rw Ba MONE. NaN Bn a oy (1248) ‘When the magnetic system is linear, the lux linkages are generally expressed! in terms of inductances and currents. We see thatthe coelicients of the first two terms ‘0 the right-hand side of (1.2-14) depend upon the turns of coil | and the reluctance of the magnetic system, independent of the existence of coil 2. An analogous state ‘ment may be made reganding (1.2-15). Hence the selfsinductances are defined as (1.216) (12417) Where Ly and Lp are the leakage inductances and Ly and Lo are the magnetizing inductances of coils 1 and 2, respectively. From (1.2-16) and (1.2-17) it follows that the magnetizing inductances may be related as (248)MAGNETICALLY couPLED CIRCUTS 5: ‘The mutual inductances are defined as the coefficient of the third term of (12-14) and (1.2-15). NN bas (1249) (1.220) Obviously, L12 = La). The mutual inductances may be related to the magnetizing inductances. In particular, la (1228) “The Mux inkages may now be writen a8 neu (12-20) where (tele Be] ee far tn)” | Mla bet bao Although the voltage equations with the inductance matrix L incorporated may be used for purposes of analysis, itis customary to perform a change of variables that yield the well-known equivalent T circuit of two magnetically couple coils. To set, the stage for this derivation, let us express the lux linkages from (1.2-22) as nis ba(u 88s) a2 a sr stal tins) was [Now we have two choices, We can use a substitute variable for (N2/N;)i2 oF for /N2)i. Let us consider the fist of these choices (1.226) whereupon we are using the substitute variable i that, when Rowing through coil 1, produces the same MMF as the actual / flowing through coil . This is said to be referring the current in coil 2to coil 1 whereupon coil I becomes the reference col ‘On the other hand, if we use the second choice, then (1227)6 BASIC PRINGIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS Here, is the substitute variable that produces the same MMF when lowing through coil 2 asi, does when flowing in coil 1. This change of variables is said to refer the current of coil 1 to coil 2 We will demonstrate the derivation of the equivalent T circuit by refering the ceurreat of coil 2 to coil 1; thus from (1.2-26) we obtain a=My, (1.228) (1.2.29) ‘whereupon voiz = v4i). Flux linkages, which have the units of volt-second, ane related fo the substitute flux linkages in the same way as voltages. In particular, My, (1.230) If we substitute (1.2-28) into (12-24) and (12-25) and then multiply (1.2-25) by Ni/No to obtain 2 and we further substitute (N3/N7 ma for Laz into (12-24), then Ay = Lats + La ln +8) (1230) A= ligiy tll +8) (12:32) where (1.233) ‘The voltage equations become (1.234) (12:35) where a= (Mn (236)MAGNENCALLY COUPLED CIRCUTS. 7 Figure 12-2. Fguvalenteteuit with col I selected as the reference col, “The above voltage equations suggest the T equivalent ciruit shown in Fi is apparent that this method may be extended to include any number of eoils wound fon the same core. Example 1A Its instructive to ilustrate the method of deriving an equiva- lent T circuit from open- and short-circuit measurements. For this purpose let "us assume that when coil 2of the two-winding transformer shown in Fig. 1.2-1 is open-circuited, the power input to coil 2 is 12 W with an applied voltage is 100 V (ems) at 60 Hz and the current is 1A (rms). When coil 2 is short revited, the curent flowing in cil Lis 1 A when the applied voltage is 30 V at 60 Hz. The power during this testis 22 W. IF we assume Ly = Lis. ‘an approximate equivalent T circuit can be determined from these measure ‘ments with col I selected asthe reference coil ‘The power may be expressed as = |Vilfhi}eos @ (1A) ‘where and 7 are phasors and ds the phase angle between V and 7 (power factor angle). Solving fr 6 during the open-circuit text, we have 12 Tot =r (a2) With 7 asthe reference phasor and assuming an inductive circuit where T, lags Vy, we obtain =12+j10939 (a3) If we neglect hysteresis (core) losses, which in effect assumes a linear mag- netic system, then ry = 120, We also know from the above calculation that Xi +Xqi = 109.32, For the short-circuit test we will assume that j; = — because transformers are designed so that Xt “> [r+ JN. Hence using (TA-1) again we obtain a 0x1 = co = 408° a4)8 GASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS Inthis ease the input impedance is (7, +r) +j(Xn + Xf). This may be deter: mined as follows: 7 =24j2049 (As) = 1092 and, because it is assumed that Xj = Xf, both ae 10.20, ‘Therefore Xqi = 109.3 — 10.2 = 99.10. In summary, = 120 Ly =262.9mH wo In = 27.1 ma 27.1 mH Nonlinear Magnetic System Although the analysis of transformers and electric machines is generally performed assuming a linear magnetic system, economics dictate that in the practical design of. ‘these devices some saturation occurs and that heating of the magnetic material exists ‘due to hysteresis losses. The magnetization characteristics of transformer or ‘machine materials are given in te form of the magnitude of flux density versus mag- nitude of feld strength (B-H curve) as shown in Fig, 1.23, If itis assumed thatthe ‘magnetic flux is uniform through most ofthe core, then B is proportional to and #7 is proportional to MMF. Hence a plot of flux versus current is of the same shape as 1a) 8, Woin — 7: i 23 co CO Atm Figure 1.23. B-H curve for typical silicon tel used in uansformersMAGNENCALLY CouPLED cIRCUTS the B-HT curve. A transformer is generally designed so that some saturation occurs during normal operation. Electric machines are also designed similarly in that a ‘machine generally operates slightly in the saturated region during normal, rated ‘operating conditions. Because saturation causes coefficients ofthe differetial equ tions describing the behavior of an electromagnetic device to be functions ofthe coil ‘currents, a transient analysis is difficult without the aid of a computer. Our purpose here is not to set forth methods of analyzing nonlinear magnetic systems. This Pro- ‘cedure is quite straightforward for steady-state operation, butt cannot be used when analyzing the dynamics of electromechanical devices [1]. A method of incorporating the effects of saturation into a computer representation is of interest Computer Simulation of Coupled Circuits Formulating the voltage equations of stationary coupled windings appropriate for ‘computer simulation is straightforward and yet this technique is fundamental to the computer simulation of ac machines. Therefore i isto our advantage to consider this method here. For this purpose fetus first write (1.2-31) and (1.2-32) as Ay Lain the (1237) Any (1.238) where An = kali) (1.239) Solving (1.2-37) and (12-38) forthe currents vields (12-40) (24 Wf (1.240) and (1.2-41) are substituted into the voltage equations (1.2-34) and (1.2.35) and we solve the resulting equations for ux linkages, the following equ tions are obtained: a= |[+Ze-aa (12-42) Zz Boy a-ffuege-ae (2s ‘Substituting (1.2-40) and (1.2-41) into (1.2-39) yields (12-44) where (12-45)10 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. ‘We now have the equations expressed with 2; and 2 a tate variables. Inthe com puter simulation, (12-42) and (12-43) are used to solve for 2: and 2 and (12-44) is {sed 10 solve for The currents can then be obtained from (12-40) and (1.24). I is clear that (12-44) could be substituted into (12-40)-1.2-43) and that could be ‘climinatd from the equations whereupon it would not appear inthe computer sm- lation. However, we Will ind iq (he mutual flux linkages) an important variable when we include the effects of saturation Ir the magnetization characteristics (magnetization curve) of the coupled winding is known, the effects of saturation of the mutual flax path may be readily ineoxpo- ‘ated into the computer simulation. Generally, the magnetization curve can be ade- quately determined from a test wherein one of the windings is open-circuited {Ginding 2, for example), and the input impedance of the other winding (winding 1) is determined from measurements asthe applied voltage is increased in magni- tue from ze0 to say 150% of the rated value. With information obtained fom this type of test, we an plot zy versus (+) a8 shown in Fig, 12-4 wherein the slope ofthe linear portion ofthe curve is Zn From Fi, 1.24, iti clear that inthe region of saturation we have diy = Lgl +4) ~ fll) (12-46) $G+i) tm + 8) Figure 12-4 Magnetization curveELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 11 10 Figure 2-5 f(g) vers from Fig 124 ‘where f/q) may be determined from the magnetization curve for each value of dn. In particular, (2) is function of Zy as shown in Fig. 1.2-5. Therefore, the effects ‘of saturation ofthe mutual flux path may be taken ito account by replacing (1.2-39) With (1.2-46) for Zy. Substituting (1.2-40) and (1.2-41) for jy and f, respectively, into (1.2-46) yields the following computer equation for Ay rante(2ea) Bes oa Hence the computer simulation for including saturation involves replacing Ay given bby (1.2-44) with (1.2-47) where f(g) i generated function of A determined from the plot shown in Fig. 12-5. 1.3. ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION Although electromechanical devices are used in some manner in a wide variety of systems, electric machines are by far the most common. I is desirable, however, to establish methods of analysis that may be applied to alleleetromechanical devices, Energy Relationships Electromechanical systems are comprised ofan electrical system, « mechanical sys ‘em, and a means whereby the electrical and mechanical systems can interact. Inter- action can take place through any and all electromagnetic and electrostatic fields that are common to both systems, and energy is transferred from one system to the other asa result of this interaction. Both electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling fields ‘may exist simultaneously, and the electromechanical system may have any number of electrical and mechanical systems, However, before considering an involved sys tem itis helpful to analyze the electromechanical system in a simplified form. An electromechinical system with one electrical system, one mechanical system, and12 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. “Bleach, Coupling Mechanical scm wad" Sen Figure 13-1 Block diagram of an elementary elactomechanica system, ‘one coupling field is depicted in Fig. 3-1. Electromagnetic radiation is neglected, and iti assumed thatthe electrical system operates at a frequency sufficiently low so thatthe electrical system may be considered as s lumped parameter system, Losses accu in all components of the electromechanical system. Heat loss will, ‘cur in the mechanical system due to frietion, and the electrical system will dissi- pate heat due to the resistance ofthe current-carrying conductors. Fdy current and hysteresis losses occur in the ferromagnetic material ofall magnetic fields, whereas dielectric losses oceur in al electric fields. If We is the total energy supplied by the electrical source and Wa, is the total energy supplied by the mechanical source, then the energy distribution could be expressed as We = W, + Wa + Was (34) Woy + Won + Was (132) In (13-1), Wes isthe energy stored in the elctic or magnetic feds that are not coupled with the mechanical system. The energy Wa. isthe heat losses associated with the electrical sytem, These losses occur de 0 the resistance of the eurent- carrying conductors aswell sth energy dissipated from these fel in te form of, heat de to hysteresis edly cuments, and delet Tose. The energy W, istheenersy transferred othe coupling eld by the electrical system, The eneses common to the ~~ _< mechanical sytem may be defined in similar manner. In (1.32), Was isthe energy gored inthe moving member and compiances ofthe mechanical syst, Wy is the “Regnery losses ofthe mechanical system inthe form of heat, and Wn isthe enerzy 2. franstered to the coupling eld. Is important to note that with the convention adopt SA fat the energy supplied by either source is considered positive. Therefore, Ws( Wx) fs negative when energy is supplied to the electrical source (mechanical source. PI Wis defined asthe total energy transfered to the coupling fed, then V+ Wr, (133) Wr ‘where Wi energy stored in the coupling fied and Wy. isthe energy dissipated inthe form of heat due to losses within the coupling field (eddy current, hysteresis, or dielectric losses), The electromechanical system must obey the law of conservation of energy; thus We ~ Wor ~ Wes) + (Wie ~ Want ~ Was) (13-4) Wy + Wye which may be written Wy Wy = Wes Wy (135) ‘This energy relationship is shown schematically in Fig, 13-2ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 13 Figure 13-2 Energy balance ‘The aciual process of converting electrical energy to mechanical energy (or vice versa) is independent of (1) the loss of energy in either the electrical othe mechan ical systems (We, and Wa). 2) the energies stored inthe electic or magnetic fields that are not common to both systems (W,s), or (3) the energies stored inthe mechan- ical system (Ws). I the losses of the coupling field are neglected, then the field is conservative and (1.3-5) becomes Wy = We + Wy (13-6) Examples of elementary electromechanical systems are shown in Figs. 13-3 and 1.34, The system shown in Fig. 1.33 has a magnetic coupling field while the elec- tromechanical system shown in Fig. 13-4 employs an electric field as a means of ‘ansfersing energy between the electical and mechanical systems, In these systems, is the voltage ofthe electric source anf isthe external mechanical force applied t0 the mechanical system. The electromagnetic or electrostatie force is denoted by fi The resistance ofthe current-carrying conductors is denoted by r, and ls the induc tance of a linear (conservative) electromagnetic system that does not couple the ‘mechanical system. In the mechanical system, M isthe mass ofthe movable member hile the linear compliance and damper are represented by a spring constant Kand a Z Cy ! Ci i ae Figure 133 Elecwomechanial system witha magnetic Hel1 aksic PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. Figure 1.34 Electomechanical sytem with an elect fed ‘damping coefficient D, respectively. The displacement 1p isthe zero foree or equli- brium postion of the mechanical system whieh is the steady-state position of the mass with f. and f equal to zero. A series or shunt capacitance may be included in the electrical system wherein energy would also be stored in an electric feld ‘extemal to the eleetomechanical process. ‘The voltage equation that describes both electrical systems may be writen as di vedsiite 39) ‘where ¢, is the voltage drop across the coupling field. The dynamic behavior ofthe translational mechanical system may be expressed by employing Newton's law of ‘motion. Thus, dx nde SoM + DE 4K 30) he (138) Thal ty pl ye wi we fa «a9 Teale spy ie hi son Wu = fra (1310) ‘which may also be expressed as y= [yaEELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 15, Werf af sa sy ‘The first term on the right-hand side of (1.3-12) represents the energy loss due tothe resistance ofthe conductors (WWz,). The second term represents the energy stored in the linear electromagnetic field external to the coupling field (W,s). Therefore, the total energy transferred tothe coupling field from the electrical system is fev (1313) Similarly, forthe mechanical system we have "\e Here, the first and third terms on the right-hand side of (1.3-14) represent the energy stored in the mass and spring, espectively (Wa). The second tern is the heat loss doe to friction (Wy). Thus, the total energy transferred to the coupling field from ‘the mechanical system is Ww +0 {(S) ac {amare a) Wa = Joa (13.13) kis important co note that a positive force fis assumed tobe in the same direction 48. positive displacement, dr. Substituting (13-13) and (1.315) into the energy bal- ance relation, (13-6), yields feriar— freae (13:16) ‘The equations et forth may be readily extended 10 include an eleetromechanical system with any number of electrical and mechanical inputs to any number of cou ling fields. Considering the system shown in Fig. 1.3-5, the energy supplied tothe ‘coupling fields may be expressed as Wy = Oo + Woe asin) me ‘wherein J electrical and K mechanical inputs exist. The total energy supplied tothe ‘coupling fcld atthe electrical inputs is Em [Sone ass)16 ASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. Wo Was Wa Was 1] counting sens [| ' i ' ' wt i Figure 135 Mule lca and Inechancal inputs ‘The total energy supplied to the coupling field from the mechanical inpus is (1349) (13.20) In differential form we obsin aM, = Deptt ~ Shade (1321) Energy in Coupling Fields ‘Before using (1.3-21) to obtain an expression forthe electromagnetic force fe tis necessary to derive an expression for the energy stored in the coupling fields. Once ‘we have an expression for W;, we can take the total derivative to obtain dW;, which can then be substituted into (1.3-21). When expressing the energy in the coupling fields itis convenient to neglect all losses associated withthe electric and magnetic fields whereupon the fields are assumed to be conservative and the energy stored therein i a function of the state ofthe electrical and mechanical variables. Although the effects of the field losses may be functionally accounted for by appropriately introducing a resistance inthe electric circuit, this refinement is generally not nece~ ssary because the ferromagnetic material is selected and arranged in laminations so as to minimize the hysteresis and eddy curret losses. Moreover, nearly all of the tenergy stored in the coupling fields i stored in the air gaps ofthe electromechanical device. Because air is a conservative medium, al ofthe energy stored therein can beELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 17 returned to the electrical or mechanical systems. Therefore, the assumption of loss- Jess coupling fields is not a restrictive as it might fist appear “The energy stored in a conservative field is a function ofthe state of the system variables and not the mannee in which the variables reached that sate. Ie is conve nient to take advantage ofthis feature when developing a mathematical expression forthe field energy. In particular, itis convenient to fix mathematically the position of the mechanical systems associated with the coupling fields and then excite the electrical systems with the displacements of the mechanical systems held fixed. During the excitation ofthe electrical systems, Wi is zero even though electroma: _gnetic or eleetrostatie forces occur. Therefore, with the displacements held fixed the ‘energy stored inthe coupling fields during the excitation ofthe electrical systems is {equal to the energy supplied to the coupling fields by the electrical systems, Thus, With Wig =0, the energy supplied from the electrical system may be expressed from (113-20) as We J Seine (1322) Icis instructive to considera singly excited electromagnetic system similar to that shown in Fig, 13-3, In this case, ey = d/dt and (1,3-22) becomes w= fia (13:23) Here J = 1; however, the subscript is omitted for the sake of brevity. The area vo the left ofthe 2 relationship (shown in Fig. 1.36) fora singly excited electromagnetic device i the area described by (1.3-23) In Fig. 13-6, this area represens the energy stored inthe field at the instant when 2 = 2, and. = iy. The 4~relationship need not be linear; it need only be single-valued, a property that is characteristic to a conser ‘ative or lossless field. Moreover, because the coupling field is conservative, the energy stored in the field with 2 2, and = jg is independent of the excursion ‘of the electrical and mechanieal variables before reaching this state ‘The area tothe right of the Z-i curve is called the coenergy and. is expressed as we= adi (13:24) Which may also be written as i= Wy (1325) Although the coenergy has litle or no physical significance, we will find ita conve- nent quantity for expressing the electromagnetic force. It should be cleat that for & linear magnetic system where the 2~iplos are straight-line relationships, W; = W.18 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS at a Figure 13.6 Stored energy and coenergy in magnetic device netic field ofa singly excited elect ‘The displacement x defines completely the influence of the mechanical system ‘upon the coupling field; however, because 4 and i are related, only one is needed in addition toxin order to describe the state of the electromechanical system. There- Tore either J and x or i and x may be selected as independent variables, If and x are selected as independent variables, itis convenient to express the field energy and the ux linkages as W; = Wii,x) (13-26) A= Aisa) (1327) With ‘and » as independent variables we must express din terms of di before sub- stituting into (13-23). Thus from (1.3-27) Alia), O2i a 4 Da (1328) aili,x) In the derivation of an expression forthe energy stored in the fel, dis set equal to zero, Hence, in the evaluation of feld energy, dis equal to the frst tem on theELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 19 righthand side of (1.3-28). Substituting into (1.3-23) yields Wylie) = J 216.) f HEA) 0 a | ea (1329) ‘where £ is the dummy variable of integration, Evaluation of (1.3-29) gives the ‘energy stored in the field of the singly excited system. The coenergy in terms of f and x may be evaluated from (1.3-24) as Welix) = Juena = [asnae (1.3.30) With 4 and as independent variables we have We = Wi) (331) i= i@,3) (13.2) ‘The fled energy may be evaluated fom (13-23) a8 Wns) = [ini da= [ tgarae (1333) Tn order to evaluate the coenergy with J and x as independent variables, we need to express di in terms of di; thus from (1.3-32) we obtain ait ila di il2,x) = (1334) Because d= 0 hiro (.8.24 somes mi) = fGen fBEPa aay Fora linear electromagnetic system the 2-i plots are straight-line relationships; thus forthe singly excited system we have (1336) (13.37)20 GASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS Let us evaluate W,(i,2). From (1.3-28), with dx = Aii,x) = Ls) di (1.3.38) Hence, from (1.3-29) wea = [eoyeetaye 3% Us ee en ct (225 Yl ad We) Te le a et rein rig lc Shenton Tas amas aibceny mpetee ares aber ia aubckea i aaancrtcnonn Cheer ree (eae cea cane ne ter cut ys beast a W; Jove, (13-40) Because the coupling fields are considered conservative, (1.3-40) may be evaluated independently of the order in which the ux linkages or currents are brought to their final values. To illustrate the evaluation of (1.3-40) for a multiexcited system, we will allow the currents to establish their final states one at atime while all other cur ‘ents are mathematically fixed in either ther final or unexcited state, This procedure may be illustrated by considering a doubly excited electric system with one mechan ical input. An electromechanical system ofthis type could be constructed by placing a second coil, supplied from a second electrical system, on either the stationary or movable member of the system shown in Fig, 13-3. In this evaluation itis conve- hient to use currents and displacement as the independent variables. Hence, for a doubly excited electric system we have Wylintor)= [ldiliina) Fiediaivins)) (13-40) In this determination of an expression for W;, the mechanical displacement is held ‘constant (dx = 0); thus (1.3-41) becomes wie = faa a « Md] taints), Bisinins) , PEG gy aC gy] (3.97ELECTRONECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 21 ‘We will evaluate the energy stored in the field by employing (1.3-42) twice. First we ‘will mathematically bring the current i to the desired value while holding iy at zero, ‘Thus, i is the variable of integration and diz = 0. Energy is supplied tothe coupling field from the source connected to coil 1. As the second evaluation of (1.3-42), fps brought to its desired! current while holding iy at its desired value. Hence, fs isthe variable of integration and di, = O, During this time, energy is supplied from both sources tothe eoupling field because id is nonzero, The total energy stored inthe ‘coupling field is the sum of the two evaluations. Following this two-step procedure the evaluation of (1.3-42) for the total field energy becomes Minin) gy , Willits) fe a ao] 3.) which shouldbe writen as = fh -Baalbina) Weis) = [eM ag HT Odulinsdsx) 99 , , BlalisEs) : wf fag ae Malet ae] a. ‘The frst integral on the right-hand side of (1.343) or (J.3-44) results from the first step of the evaluation with jas the variable of integration and with i = 0 and diz =0. The second integral comes from the second step of the evaluation with fy = fydly = Oand is asthe variable of integration. tis clear that the order of allow ing the currents to reach ther final state is irelevant; that is, as our first step, we could have made és the variable of integration while holding i at zero (dy and then let; become the variable of integration while holding gaits final variable, ‘The results would be the same. Ii also clear that for three electrical inputs the eva uation procedure would require three steps, one foreach current to be brought math ematically to is final state Let us now evaluate the energy stored in a magnetically linear electromechanical system with two electrical inputs and one mechanical input. For ths let An(iisas4) = La lain + Laalelin (13-48) Jallnsla) = Layla)in + Laalala (13-46) With that mechanical displacement held constant (lx = 0), we obtain dyin a.) = Lay (a) di + Lint) dir (347) dali iy) = Lralx) dy + Lanls) di (1348)22 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTAIC MACHINE ANALYSIS eis clear thatthe coefficients on the right-hand sie of (13-47) and (1.348) are the panial derivatives, For example, (1) i the parial derivative of Zy (ff) with respect oj. Appropriate substitution ito (13-44) gives Waive) = [tala +f tata) rentals (1349) which yields Wolivis) =ZLvG)A + enti +hlaw® —— (13-50) ‘The extension to linear electromagnetic system with J electrical inputs is straight- ‘orward whereupon the following expression forthe total field energy is obtained: leh (asi) Wis It's left to the reader to show that the equivalent of (1.3-22) for a multexcited electrostatic system is w= [Sat (as) Graphical Interpretation of Energy Conversion ‘Before proceeding othe derivation of expressions forthe electromagnetic force, itis instructive to consider briefly a graphical interpretation of the energy conversion process. For this purpose let us again refer to the elementary system shown in Fig, 1.3-3 and let us assume that as the movable member moves from x= x, 10 x=, where. < Xy the 2 characteristics are given by Fig. 1.3-7. Let us further assume that as the member moves from x, to 5 the Zi trajectory moves from point Ao point B. Its clear that the exact trajectory from A to Bis determined by the ‘combined dynamics of the electrical and mechanical systems. Now, the area (OACO represents the original energy stored infleld; area OBDO represents the final ‘energy stored in th field, Therefore, the change infield energy is AW; = area OBDO ~ area OACO (13-53) ‘The change in W., denoted as AW,, is aw,= |" idi =a case (1354)ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 23, ° Figure 13-7 Graphical representation of eletromechnical energy conversion for J path MOB. ‘We know that AW, = AW; — AW, (1355) Hence, ‘AW = area OBDO ~ atea OACO ~ area CABDC = ~area OABO _(1.3-56) ‘The change in Wy, denoted as AW, is negative; energy has been supplied to the mechanical system from the coupling field part of which came from the energy stored inthe field and part from the electrical system. Ifthe member is now moved back to 4, the / trajectory may be as shown in Fig. 1.3-8. Hence the AWy i still area OABO but itis positive, which means that energy was supplied from the ‘mechanical system to the coupling field, part of which is stored in the field and part of which is transferred to the electrical system. The net AW, for the eyele from A 10 B back to A is the shaded area shown in Fig. 1.39, Because AW; is 2210 for this eycle AW, = AW, (ssn) For the cycle shown the net AIV, is negative, thus AWy, is positive; we have gen erator action. Ifthe trajectory had been in the counterclockwise ditection, the net AW, would have been positive and the net AW, would have been negative, which ‘would represent motor action,24 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. o 7 Figure 13-8 Graphical representation ofelctomechanical energy conversion for 2 path Bios ° —7 Figure 1.89 Graphical representation ofcloctromechanical energy conversion for 2~ path Ato B tod,ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 25 Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Forces ‘The energy balance relationships given by (1.3-21) may be arranged as Shady = Sepia aw, (1358) In order to obtain an expression for fi, it is necessary t first express Wy and then take its total derivative. One is tempted to substitute the integrand of (1,3-22) into (13-58) for the infinitesimal change of field energy. This procedure is, of course, incorrect because the integrand of (1.3-22) was obtained with all mechanical displacements held fixed (ds, = 0), where the total differential of the field energy’ is required in (13-58). ‘The force or torque in any electromechanical system may be evaluated by ‘employing (1.3-58). In many respects, one gains a much better understanding of the energy conversion process of a particular system by starting the derivation of the force or torgue expressions with (1.3-58) rather than selecting a relationship from a table. However, for the sake of completeness, derivation of the force equa tions will beset forth and tabulated for electromechanical systems with K mechan- {cal inputs and J electrical inputs (2. For an electromagnetic system, (1.3-58) may be writen as Shade Siw, aw, (13-59) With i and x selected as independent variables we have Wy = Wisi stot) (13.60) in obs oo 8) (13-61) From (1.3-60) and (1.3-61) we obtain a =F 2H SIM) g,—3 Dify.n) Aifiom) aay = ad 5 Y ai = y aly + y Mt) ay (1363) Jn (13-62) and (1.3463) and hereafter inthis development the functional notation of| (is. sia,-—-.2e) is abbreviated a8 (jy). The index misused 0 a8 to avoid confusion withthe index j because each di, must be evaluated for changes in all curents in order to account for mutual coupling between electrical systems.26 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. [Recall that we did this in (1.3-42) for J = 2] Substituting (1.3-62) and (13-63) ito (1.3-59) yields Y fala (13-64) By gathering terms, we obtain y fain) = > ee in isi fis) ty a gia) se Saliva) = Yo es) Gen) (13-66) i (i307) Although 1.67 js fit rata! impoance (3-65) can be use ev site fc ath hha oil of anemia! tm with nly magni euping lian with and sete independent wares A secon foe eaaton wth ands independet variables maybe obtained rom (1369) incorporating he expression for cents. Fora mulexcted sem he comer maybe expend x w= Daa Wy (13.68) Because iy and x; are independent variables, the partial derivative with respect o.xis Wey) Aina) _ ON ylinm) ts Pili.) _ OW.) (1360) Os Os Hence, substituting (13-69) into (13-66) yields amen Saline) = Mes) (13-70)ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 27 Table 131 Electromagnetic Force at kth Mechanical Input” sans = fi awl Sf to 2h on ou, Fer oaional yeas replace fa with Tan wih 1 should be recalled that positive fg and postive dy are in the same if the magnetic system i linear, then W, = W By a procedure similar to that used above, force equations may be developed for ‘magnetic coupling with 2, and.x, as independent variables. These relations are given n Table 1.3-1 without proof. In Table 1,3-1 the independent variables to be used are designated in each equation by the abbreviated functional notation, Although only {ranslational mechanical systems have been considered, all force relationships {developed herein may be modified for the purpose of evaluating the torque in rota- tional systems. In particular, when considering a rotational system, fis replaced ‘with the electromagnetic torque Toa, and is replaced with the angular displace- rent Oj. These substitutions are justified because the change of mechanical energy ina rotaional system is expressed as AWya = Tar dl, ‘The force equation for an clectromechanical system with electric coupling fields may be derived by following a procedure similar to that used in the ease of magnetic coupling fields. These relationships are given in Table 1.3-2 without explanation. tis instructive to drive the expression forthe electomagnetic force ofa singly excited electrical system as shown in Fg. 1.33. Its clea thatthe expressions given in Table 13-1 are valid for magnetically linear or nonlinear systems. If we assume thatthe magnetic system is linea, then Ai,x) is expressed by (1.336) and W(x) is expressed by (13-39), whichis also equa othe coenergy: Hence, either the fis or second entry of Tale .3-1 can be used to expres In paticular, aWali ‘ox L(x)2B BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS ‘able 13-2. Hlectrostatie Force at hth Mechanical Input” feslepa El» Sul) een) faleosX) ic) falayn) = — Me) fala rf Megan) Aa.) Foe atonal pers epic Wh Tad WB With the convention established, a positive electromagnetic force is assumed 10 ‘act in the direction of increasing 2. Thus with (1.3-15) expressed in differential orm as Wy = fede (13-73) \we see that energy is supplied to the coupling field from the mechanical system when {and dt are opposite in sign, and energy is supplied to the mechanical system from, the coupling field when f, and dx are the same in sign. ‘From (1.3-72) it is apparent that when the change of L(x) with respect to x is negative, f- is negative. In the electromechanical system shown in Fig. 1.3-3 the change Lx) with respect tox is always negative; therefore, the electromagnetic force is in the direction so as to pull the movable member to the stationary member. In ‘other words, an electromagnetic force is set up so as to maximize the inductance of the coupling system, or, since reluctance is inversely proportional to the induc- tance, the force tends to minimize the reluctance. Because fis always negative in the system shown in Fig. 13-3, energy is supplied to the coupling field from the ‘mechanical system (generator action) when dis postive and is supplied from the ‘coupling field to the mechanical system (motor action) when dr is negative. ‘Steady-State and Dynamic Performance of an Electromechanical System Itis instructive to consider the steady-state and dynamic performance ofthe elemen- tary electromagnetic system shown in Fig. 1.3-3. The differential equations that describe this system are given by (J.3-7) for the electrical system and by (13-8) for the mechanical system. The electromagnetic force f. is expressed by (I.3-72). Ifthe applied voltage, v, and the applied mechanical force, f, are constant, all,ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 29 derivatives with respect to time are zero during steady-state operation, and the beha- vior can be predicted by ven (13-14) f= Kie-m) fe (13-75) Equation (13-75) may be writen as “fe=f- Kix) (13-76) The magnetic core ofthe system in Fig. 1-3 is generally constructed of ero magnetic material witha relative permeability onthe order of 2000 to 4000, In this ‘ase the induetance (x) can be adequately approximated by way =t am In the actual system the inductance wil bea large finite value rather than infinity, as predicted by (13-77), when x = 0. Nevertheless, (13-77) is quite sufficient to illus- trate the action of the system for x > 0. Substituting (13-77) into (1.3-72) yields os) wom plot of (1.3-76), with f, replaced by (1.3-78), is shown in Fig. 1.310 for the following system parameters: r= 109 K = 2667Nim In Fig .3-10, the plo ofthe negative ofthe electromagnetic force is for an applied voltage of 5 V and a steady-state current of 0.5 A. The straight lines represent the right-hand side of (1.3-76) with f = 0 (lower straight line) and f =4N (upper straight Ine). Both lines intersect the ~f. curve at two points. In particular, the upper Tine imersects the —f, cutve at 1 and I’; dhe lower line intersects at 2 and 2. Stable ‘opetation occurs at only points I and 2. The system will not operate stably at points and 2. This can be explained by assuming that the system is operating at one of these points ("and 2) and then showing that any system disturbance whatsoever ‘ill cause the system to move away from these points. If, for example, x increases Slightly from its value corresponding to point, the restraining force f — K(x ~ xy) is larger in magnitude than —f., and x will continue to increase until the system reaches operating point I. Ifxincreases beyond its value corresponding to operating point 1, the restraining force is less than the electromagnetic force. Therefore, the system will establish steady-state operation at I. If, on the other hand, x decreases30 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. Force, N Figure 13-10 Steady-state operation of electromechanical system shown in Fig. 13-3 from point 1 the electromagnetic force is larger than the restraining force. There- fore, the movable member will move until it comes in contact with the stationary ‘member (x = 0). Iis clear that the restraining Force that yields a straight line below the ~f. curve will not permit stable operation with x > 0. ‘The dynamic behavior of the system during step changes in the source voltage vis, shown in Fig, 13-11, and Figs. 13-12 and 1.3-13 show dynamic behavior during step changes in the applied force f. The following system parameters were used in addition to those given previously: 0 M=0055kg D N-sim "The computer traces shown in Fig. 13-1] depict the dynamic performance of the example system when the applied voltage is stepped from zez0 to 5 V and then ‘back to zer0 with the applied mechanical force held equal to zero. The system vari- ables ae ey i fo.%, We, Wy, and Wy. The energies are plotted in milljoules (ml). Initially the mechanical system is at rest with x= xy (3 mm). When the sourcew, Was ah ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 91 5 Source votage decreed h from sw 0 —— : Sous vlogs insead i Homoio st A eons {—~ ———— ol 4 Figure 13-11 Dynamic performance ofthe elacuomechanical sytem shown in Fig, 133 uring sep changes inthe source voltage. \oltage is applied, x decreases; and when steady-state operation is reestablished, 8 approximately 2.5 mm, Energy enters the coupling field via I. The bulk ofthis energy stored inthe field (W)) with smaller amount wansfered othe mechanical system, some of which is dissipated in the damper during the tansient period wlile the remain is stored inthe spring When the applied voltage is removed, the ele: trical and ‘mechanical systems retum to their original states. The change in Wy82 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. as; ev -asl on Wor oo ba N al serait Fore dec Wem) = W,mt se Worms — -4 igure 13-12 Dynamic peformance ofthe electromechanical system shown in Fig. 13.3, uring step changes inthe applied force i small, increasing only slightly. Hence, during the transient period there is an interchange of energy between the spring. and mass which is finally dissipated in the damper. The net change in W; during the application and removal ofthe applied voltage is zero; hence the net change in W. is positive and equal tothe negative ofthe net change in Wy. The energy transfered to the mechanical systom ducing this eycle is dissipated in the damper, because fis fixed at zero, and the mechanical system. returns tits initial est position with zero energy stored inthe spring. In Fig. 13-12, the initial state is that shown in Fig. 1.3-11 with 5 V applied to the electrical system. The mechanical force fis increased from zero to 4 N, whereupon ‘energy enters the coupling field from the mechanical system, Energy is wansfetredELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 38 0.004 oi a as ass ia [igure 1.343 System response shown in Fig. 1.33 from the coupling field to the electrical system, some coming from the mechanical system and some from the energy originally stored in the magnetic field. Next the force is stepped back to zero from 4 N. The electrical and mechanical systems return to their original states. During the eycle a net energy has been transferred from the ‘mechanical system tothe electrical system which is dissipated in the resistance. This ceyele is depicted on the 2-i plot shown in Fig, 1.3-13 Example 1B [cis helpful to formulate an expression forthe electromagnetic ‘orque of the elementary rotational device shown in Fig. 1B-I. This device consists of two conductors. Conductor 1 is placed on the stationary member (stator; conductor 2 is fixed on the rotating member (rotor). The crossed Tnes Inside a circle indicate thatthe assumed direction of positive current ow is into te paper (we are seeing the tai of the arrow), whereas a dat inside acirele indicates positive current flow is out ofthe paper (the point ofthe aerow). The length ofthe ar gap between te stator and rotor is shown exaggerated relative {o the inside diameter of the stator34 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. Stator o cy Figure 18-1. Elementary rotational eletromechanical device. (a) End views (b) eros sectional view. ‘The voltage equations may be written as iy wean + (1B) ” (18.2) Where rj and ry are the resistances of conductor 1 and 2, respectively. The magnetic system is assumed linear; therefore the flux linkages may be expressed as Ay Enh bLake (18:3) d= Layhh + Laake (18-4) ‘The selfinductances Ly, and Las are constant. Let us assume thatthe mutual inductance may be approximated by Liz = La) = Mos 6, (Bs) ‘where 0, is defined in Fig. 1B-1. The reader should be able to justify the form of (IB-5) by considering the mutual coupling between the two conductors as (4, vaties from 0 to 2x radians. Weis) Tal sag le) = ay (18-6) Because the magnetic system is assumed tobe linear, we have Wel ies0.) = lai + Linh + Sat (1B) Substituting into (1B-6) yields Te= ~iieMsind, (1B8)Figure 18-2. Stator and rotor poles for constant currents Consider for & moment the orm of the torque if and iy ae both constant. FFor the positive direction of current shown, the torgue is of the form T. = ~Ksind, (1B.9) where K is positive constant. We can visualize the production of torque by considering the interaction of the magnetic poles produced by the current flowing in the conductors If both i and f; ate positive, the poles produced are as shown in Fig. 1B-2. One should recall that flux issues from a north pole. Also, the stator and rotor each must he considered as separate electro- ‘magnetic systems. Thus, lux produced by the =I" winding issues from the north pole of the stator into the airgap. Similarly, the flux produced by the 2-2' winding enters the air gap from the north pole of the rotor tis left 0 the reader to justify the fact that the range of 6, over which stable operation ‘can occur for the expression of electromagnetic torque given by (1-9) is 2/258, < 1/2, 1.4 MACHINE WINDINGS AND AIR-GAP MMF For the purpose of discussing winding configurations in rotating machines and the resulting air-gap MMF as well as the calculations of machine inductances, it is con- venient to begin with the elementary 2:pole, 3-phase, wye-connected salient-pole synchronous machine shown in Fig. 1.4-1. Once these concepis are established for this type of a machine, they may be readily modified to account for all types of induction machines and easily extended to include the synchronous machi \with short-cicuited windings on the rotor (damper windings). The stator windings of the synchronous machine are embedded in slots around the inside circumference of the stationary member. In the 2-pole machine, each phase winding of the 3-phase stator winding is displaced 120° with respect to each other a illustrated in Fig. 14-1. The field orf! winding is wound on the rota ing member. The as, bs, es, and faxes denote the positive direction of the flux peo duced by each of the windings. The as, bs, and cx windings are identical in that each ‘winding has the same resistance and the same numberof tums. When a machine has thre identical stator windings arranged as shown in Fig, 1.41, iis often referred to36 GASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS Figure 14-1. Elementary, 2-0 ‘machine Sephase, wye-comected saliene-pole synchronousACHINE WINDINGS AND AIR-GAP MME 37 as a machine with symmetrical stator windings, We will find thatthe symmetr- cal induction machine has identical multiphase stator windings and identical mul phase rotor windings. An unsymmetrical induction machine has nonidentical ‘multiphase stator windings (generally 2-phase) and symmetrical multiphase rotor windings In Fig. 14-1, tis assumed that each eo spans x radians ofthe stator fora 2-pole ‘machine. One side of the col (oil side) is represented by a © indicating thatthe assumed positive direction of current is down the length ofthe stator (nto the paper) ‘The © indicates that the assumed positive direction of current is out of the paper. ach coil contains n- conductors. Therefor, in the case of the as winding, postive ‘current flows in a conductor of coil ay, then axially down the length ofthe stator and ‘back the length of the stator and out at coil side a. This is repeated for n, conduc tors. The last conductor of the coil ai is then placed in the appropriate slot so as {start coil a>-<, wherein the eurrent flows down the stator via coll side a> and then ‘back through a and so on until a. The bs and cs windings are arranged similarly, andthe last conductors of coil sides, Hand care connected together to form the ‘wye-connected stator. The end tums (looping ofthe cols) at both ends of the stator soas to achieve the span of radians are not shown in Fig. 14-1. As mentioned, each coil consists of n. conductors, each of which makes up an individual single conduc- {or coil within the main coil. Thus the numberof turns of each winding is determined by the product of n, and the number of coils or the product of n- and the number of coil sides carrying current in the same direction. In the case of the fd winding, each coil (fi=f), for example) consists of ny conductors. It should be mentioned that in Example IB, the stator and rotor coils each consisted of only one coil side with ‘one conductor (7, = 1) in each coil side. ‘One must realize that the winding configuration shown in Fig. 1.4-1 is an over: simplification ofa practical machine. The col sides of each phase winding are con sidered to be distributed uniformly over 60° ofthe stator circumference, Generally, the coil sides of each phase are distributed over a larger area, perhaps as much as 120°, in which ease it is necessary for some of the coil sides of 1Wo ofthe phase ‘windings to occupy the same slot. In some cases the coil sides may not be distrib ‘uted uniformly over the part of the circumference that it occupies. For example, it ‘would not be uncommon, in the case of the machine shown in Fig. 14-1, to have ‘more tum in col sides ay and as than in ay and a. (Similarly forthe bs and es winnd- ings.) We will find that this winding arrangement produces an air-gap MME which ‘more closely approximates a sinusoidal air-gap MMF with respect to the angular displacement about the air gap. Another practical consideration is the so-called fractional-pitch winding. The windings shown in Fig, 14-1 span x radians for the 2-pole machine. This is refered to as full-ptch winding. In onder o reduce voltage and current harmonies, the windings are often wound so that they span slighty less ‘than x radians fora 2-pole machine. Ths is refered to a a fractional-pitch winding, All of the above-mentioned practical variations from the winding arrangement shown in Fig. 14-1 are very important to the machine designer; however, these fea tures are of less importance in machine analysis, where in most cases a simplified approximation ofthe winding arrangement is sufficient,38 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS A salient-pole synchronous machine is selected for consideration because the analysis ofthis type of machine may be easily modified to xecount for other machine types. However, a salient-pole synchronous machine would seldom be a 2-pole ‘machine except in the case of small reluctance machines which are ofthe synchro- nous class but which do not have a field winding. Generally 2-and 4-pole machines are round-rotor machines with the field winding embedded ina solid steel (nonlam- nated) rotor. Salient-pole machines generally have a large number of poles com- posed of laminated steel whereupon the field winding is wound around the poles ‘Similar to that shown i Fig. [4-1 For the purposes of deriving an expression for the air-gap MMF, itis convenient to employ the so-called developed diagram of the cross-sectional view of the ‘machine shown in Fig. 14-1. The developed diagram is shown in Fig. 1-2, The length of the air gap between the stator and rotor is exaggerated in Figs. 14-1 and 1.4-2 for clarity. The fact thatthe air-gap length is small relative to the inside diameter of the stator permits us to employ the developed diagram for analysis pur- poses. In order to relate the developed diagram to the cross-sectional view of the ‘machine, it i helpful to define a displacement to the left of the origin as postive. The angular displacement along the stator circumference is denoted ¢, and along the rotor circumference. The angular velocity of the rotor is, and 8, isthe angular displacement of the rotor. Fora given angular displacement relative tothe as axis we can relate $,, and 8, a5 b= 6,48, say (Ouranalysis may be simplified by considering only one ofthe stator windings at a time. Figure 1.4-3 is a repeat of Figs. 14-1 and 14-2 with only the as winding shown. Due to the high permeability ofthe stator and rotor steel the magnetic fields cons begs aranis fais KKM a gee a Figure 1442 Development ofthe mache shown in Fig. 1.MACHINE WINDINGS AND AIR.GAP MMF 39 tn ay ay 05 a 5 © Figure 1.4.3 The as winding, (a) Direction of Hi; (b) developed diagram, «essentially exist only in the airgap and tend o be radial indirection due tothe short length ofthe air gap relative tothe inside stator diameter. Therefore, in the air gap ‘the magnetic field intensity and the flux density B have a component only in the 4, direction, and the magnitude is a function of the angle ), whereupon lr b2) = Hel iy (142) and B(d,) = woth.) (143)40 GASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS ‘With the assumed diretion ofthe current in, the magnetic fil intensity inthe air gap due 10 the as winding is diected from the rotor w the Sor for =n/2 < gh < m/2 and from the stator tothe rotor for 2/2 < ¢, <4 Fig. 13) “Ampee's law may now be used to determine the form af the ait-gup MMF de 10 the as winding. In parcular, Ampere's law states that (144) [aa ‘where 1s the net current enclosed within the closed path of integration. Let us con- sider the closed path of integration depicted in Fig. 1.4-3b. Applying Ampere’ law around this closed path denoted as abcda, where the path be is at ¢, = 2/4, and neglecting the fled intensity within the stator and rotor stel, we can write and eval- uate (14-4) as (° ast) a+ fe Mot =0 (uss) 1 (2)a(8) ms) -0 where r(n/4) and r(0) are the radius of the rotor atthe respective paths of integra tion, and g(/4) and g(0) ae the corespondingai-zuplenaths “The magnetomotve ore is defined asthe line integral of 7. Therefore the terms con the left-hand side of (14-5) may’be writen as MMS, In perticular, (14-5) may be writen as vim(%) +-MaaF(0) =0 or) In (1446) he MMP inloes sgn and magnitude; thats, MME(O) = ~1(0)(0. Letus now consider the closed path aefia where path ef occurs at @, = fm: here Ampere’s law gives r(x) +MME(O) = ni (1.47) ‘The righthand side of (14-7) is negative in accordance with the right-hand or corkscrew rule ‘We can now start plot the aie-eap MMF due tothe as winding, For the lack of better guess let us assume that MME(0) = 0. With this assumption, (.4-6) and (1.47) tell us that the MME is zero from ¢, = 0 to where our path of integration encircles the firs coil side (a). If we continue to perform line integrations starting and ending ata and each time progressing further in the ¢, direction, we will obtain the plot shown in Fig. 14-4. Therein, a step change in MMF is depicted at the centerACHINE WINDINGS AND AIR-GAP LIME 41 ae ay os ay ai a af al a + 6— Figure 144-4 Plot of the airgap MMF due to the as winding withthe assumption MMF) is zero ‘of the conductors; actually, there would be finite slope as the path of integration passes through the conductors. There are two items left to be considered, First, Gauss’ law states that (148) Hence, no net flax may travel across the air gap because the ux density is assumed to exist only in the radial direction: [eso 40,-0 4s)42 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS ‘whore 1s the axial length ofthe airgap of the machine und r is the mean radius of the air gap. It follows that rl d,s the ineremeatal area ofan imaginary cylindrical surface within the ait gap of the machine. This fact in itself makes us suspicious of ‘our assumption that MMF(0) = 0 because the air-gap MMF shown in Fig. 14-4 is tuniditectional, which would give rise to a flux in only one direction across the ait gap. The second fact is one that is characteristic of electrical machines. In any prac= tical electric machine, the air-gap length is either (a) constant as in the case of a round-rotor machine or (b) a periodic function of displacement about the air gap asin the case of salient pole machine. In paticular, for a 2-pole machine 8(6,) =a, +) (1440) 8d, 0,) = 810, % +2) (any quations (1.4-8) and (J.4-10) are satisfied if the air-gap MMF has zero average value and, for a 2-pole machine, MMP(¢,) = -MMF(@, +") (1412) Hence, the ar-gap MMF wave for the as winding, which is denoted as MMF. is shown in Fig. 1-5. It is clear thatthe MMF due tothe bs winding, MMF, is iden= tical to MMF, but displaced to the let by 120°. MM., is also identical but dis- placed 240° to the left. The significance of the as, bs, and cs axes is now ‘apparent, These axes are positioned atthe centr of maximum positive MMF comre- sponding to positive cursent into the windings oa ae 7 fonda 4 Figure 145MACHINE WINDINGS AND AIR-GAP MF 43 ‘The waveform of the MMF's produced by the stator phase windings shown in Fig. 141 may be considered as coarse approximations of sinusoidal functions of ,- Actually most electric machines, especially large machines, are designed so that the stator windings produce a relatively good approximation of a sinusoidal air-gap MMF with respect to ¢, so as to minimize the voltage and current harmonics. In order to establish a truly sinusoidal MMF waveform (often referred to a a space sinusoid) the winding must also be distributed sinusoidally. Except in eases where the harmonies due to the winding configuration are of importance, itis typically assumed that all windings may be approximated as sinusoidally distributed wind- ings. We will make this same assumption in our analysis, ‘A sinusoidally distributed as winding and a sinusoidal eir-gap MMFa. are depicted in Fig. 14-6. The distribution of the as winding may be written as Ois 22 and 40, respectively Ith vitae applied to coil | is vj = cos 400, cafculate the ‘voltage appearing athe terminals of ei! 2 when coil 2 is open-citeited, 2 Repeat Problem 1if the iron core as an air gap of 0.2 em in length and is cut through the complete eross section. Assume that Figing does not eur ia the ai gap, that i, the tfoctivecros-soctonal area ofthe sr gap i 5c 13 Two coupled coils have the fllowing parameters Ly = 100mH I= 25mH IN, = 1000 urns y= Oly tay = OLProsens 59 sen oe | t » 4 i—T | Me a | 14 Sem ‘Sem Figure LP-1Two-winding ron-core transformer. (o) Develop a Fequivalen cieut with coil a the reference col. (>) Repeat with col 2 asthe reference cll Determine the input impedance of the coupled circuits the applied frequency tocol 1 i 60 Hz with coil 2c) open-ciruited; (a short-circuited. Repeat (d) withthe current owing in the magnetizing reactance neglected, ‘A.constant 10 Vis suddenly applied (coil of the coupled circuits given in Problem 3, (Coil 2s short-cireuited, Calculate the transient and steady-state current flowing in each CConsier the coils given in Problem 3. Assume that the cols are wound so tht, with the assigned postive direction of curems andi the mutual inductance is negative (a) IF the coils are connected in series so that y= i, calelate the sel-nductance ofthe series ‘combination. (8) Repeat (a) with the coils connected in series So that i, {A third coil is wound onthe Feromagnetic core shown in Fg. 12-1. The resistance srs nd te lekage and magnetizing inductances ate Ly and Ly, respectively. The coil is ‘wound so that positive curet (i) produces dys in the opposite direction as and ‘Taq, Derive the T equivalent circuit fortis tvee-winding transformer. Actually one sould be able w develop the equivalent circuit without derivation ‘Use 8 and I/p to denote summation and integration, respectively. Draw a time-domain ‘block diagram fortwo coupled windings with saturation | resistor and an inductor are connected shown in Fig. LP-2 with R= 150 and 1L = 250mH. Determine the enoypy stored in the inductor W.s nd the energy dissipates by the resistor Wy, for! > 0 if (0) = 10, Consider the spring-mass-damper system shown in Fig. LP-3. At =0,x(0) =x (rest positon) and deja = 1Sms. M=O.8kg, D= 10N sim, and K = 120N:m. For 1 > 0, determine the energy stored in the spring Wh, the kinetic energy of the mass Wasa nd the energy dissipated by the damper Wau60 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS. Figure LP-2 RL ica 10 Expresit(i,.x) ad Weis) foe (a) 2.2) = xs) Aya) =a + eons |The energy stored in the coupling field of a magnetically linear systm with (wo electrical inputs may be expressed as 1 Wylie faa) Budd + Brakiia + 4B i 2 xpress Bis. Bia, and By in terms of inductances Ly), Ly, and Laz 12 An electromechanical system has two electrical inputs. The flux linkages: may be expressed as anise) Aafia} Express Wl fa) and Wels, 13. Express f(s) forthe elecromechanical systems doseribed by the relations given in Problem 10, 14 Express iin.) for the electromechanical system given in Problem 12, 15. Refer to Fig 13-7. As the system moves from x10 the J+ ajctory moves from A 1B. Does the voltage » increase or decrease? Does the applied force f increase oF decrease? Explain, 16 Referto Fig. 13-1. Following the system transients de tothe application ofthe source voltage (v = 5V), the system assumes steady-state operation. During this steady-state ‘operation caeulate Ws, Wj, We, and Was 17 Refer to Fig. 13:12. Repeat Problem 16 for steady-state operation following the pplication of f= 4N, 18 Refer to Fg, 13-13 Idetily the area corresponding to AW when (a)x moves fom 2S ‘mm to 43 mam, and (b) x moves from 43 mm to 2-5 am, K NI Figure 1-3. Spring-mass-damper system,PRosLes 61 eis sais bs Bb o i i] Qa Oat by Bs te B Qt OH OH Ox Oa} Qu Ow Bd) 6<—| & Figure 1.P-4 Stator winding arrangement of 2-pole, -phase machine 19 Assume the steady-state currents fing in the conductors of the device shown in Fig. 1B ae 1, = heosfent +0,(0)] I= heoslonst + 03(0)] where 0 (0) and 83(0) ate the time-2ro displacement of Fy and, respectively. Assume also that during steady-state operation the rotor speed is constant: thus = 08 +0,0) were 00) isthe rotor displacement atime zero, Determine the rotor speeds at which the device produces a nonzero average torque during. steady-state operation if 2) 0 = 02 =0; ) @ = 03 #0; (e) on =. Express the instantaneous torque at ‘each ofthese rotor speeds 20 The develope diggram shown in Fig. LP- shows th arrangement ofthe stator windings of a 2-pole, 2phuse machine. Each col side has m,condctors, and iy flows in the as winding ad iy flows inthe bs winding, Draw the at gap MMF (2) duet (MME) and (5) de t (MM). 21 Assume that each coil side ofthe winding shown in Fig. 1.P-4 contains n, conductors, ‘The windings are to be described as sinusoidally dstbuted windings with Ny the ‘maximum turns density and, the numberof equvalet tums in each winding, whichis ‘function of m. Express (2) Nay and Ny (b) MMF and MMF, and) the total ai-2ap MMF (MME) priced bythe stator windings, 22 A fractiona-pich stator winding (phase) is shown in developed form in Fig. L-S. ach col side contains, conductors. The winding isto he described as a sinusoidally diseibuted winding. Express the nomber of equivalent tums in terns of m,. Sl m6 Qa Ox Les a Bor oa 7 te 302 7 2 o— igure L.P-S Stator winding arangement foe factional pitch winding.[BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS Consider the 2-phase stator windings described in Problem 21. (a) With fue = Vl, oslo! +8,(0)] determine lyin order to obtain a constant amplitude MME (MME,) ‘which rotutes clockwise around the air gap of the machine, Repeat (a) with (5) VB eos, () fy = V2 Sine. a0 (ly = V2, Sine + 60) [A single-phase source is connected between terminal af and bs ofthe 4pole, phase machine shown in Fig. 14-7. Te es terminal is opencireuited. The eure ito the at Winding is fa = V2Feoseat. Expres the toa airgap MME. [Anclementary 2-pole,2-phase salien-pole synchronous machine is shown in Fig, LP ‘The winding inductances may be expressed as Lass = Lis + by ~ Ln c0820, Tew Las = y+ Lg + Ln 00528, Lane = —Lasin20, Loge = bye + Lag Lage = Legs, Lage = —Ls0080, % Figure .P-6 Elementary -pole,2-phase,salien-pole synchronous machin.PRosiems 63 ‘erty these relationships and give expressions forthe coefficients la, LIne Fs similar in for to those given fora 3-phase mickine. Modify these indvtance elation: ‘his so that they wil describe 2-phase, uniform sit-gap synchronous machine \Write the voltage equations forthe elementary 2-pole, 2-phase, salient poe synchronous machine shown in Fig, LP-6 and derive the expression f0Tely in Or) Anclementary4-poe, phase slientpole synchronous machine i shown in Fig. LP-7 Use this machine asa gue to derive expressions forthe winding inductances ofa P-pole synconous machine, Show that these inductances arc ofthe same form as those given in Problem 25 if (P/2)lne replaced by 0, Figure 12-7. Elementary 4-pole,2-phase, salient pole synchronous machine.(64 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS baie te , ey ™ Figure LP-8 Elementary 2-pole,2-phase symmetical induction machine 28 Derive an expression forthe electromagnetic teque, Tif lO) for a P-pole, 2 phase, sliet-pole synchronous machine. This expression should be identical in orm to that obtained in Problems 26 multiplied by P/2 2A reluctance machine has no fckd winding on the rotor. Modify the inductance ‘tionships given i Problem 2550 as to deserbe the winding indvtances ofa 2-pole, phase, reluctance machine. Write the voltage equations and derive an expression for Tobias). 30, An clementary 2-pole, 2-phas, symmetrical induction mache is shown in Fig. LP. Derive expressions forthe winding inductances. I you have worked Problem 25, you ‘may modify those results accordingly [31 Write the voltage equations forthe induction machine shown in Fig. 1.P-8 and derive an expression forthe electromagnetic torque Ts (iii iO) 32 Anclementary 4-pole, 2-phase, symmetrical induction machine is shown in Fig. LP. ‘Use this machine as guide to derive expressions for the winding inductance of P-pole {induction machine. Show that these inductances are ofthe same form as those given in Problem 30 (P/2)0n 8 replaced by 8,PROBLEMS 65, Figure 1.P:9. Elementary 4pole,2-phase symmetical induction machineChapter 2 DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES 24 INTRODUCTION ‘The direct-current (de) machine is not as widely used today as it was in the past. For the most par, the de generator has been replaced by solid-state rectifiers that convert alternating current into direct current with provisions to control the magnitude of the de voltage. Nevertheless, itis still desirable to devote some time to the de ‘machine in a course on electromechanical devices because itis stil used as a drive ‘motor, especially at the low-power level. This chapter is an attempt to treat de machines, pechaps a bit more in detail than necessary, but with the flexibility so ‘that one can focus upon the topics that ae sill of interest to the control or energy systems engineer. In this regard, the de generator isnot considered in detail and, for that matter, neither are the series and compound machines. Taday’s focus i on the shunt-connected de motor, and the permanent-magnet de motor, which have sinilar ‘operating characteristics. ‘A simplified method of analysis i presented rather than an analysis wherein com= ‘mutation is trated in detail, Wit this type of analytical approach, the de machine i considered to be the most straightforward to analyze of all electromechanical devices. Numerous texthooks have been written over the last century on the design, theory, and operation of de machines. One can add litle to the analytical approach that has been used for years [1-3] In this chapter, the well-established theory of de ‘machines is set forth and the dynamic characteristics of the shunt and petmianent- ‘magnet machines ae illustrated. The time-domain block diagrams and state equa tions are then developed for these two types of motors and, in the final section ofthis ‘chapter, the linear differential equations which describe the dynamic characteristics of these devices are solved by using Laplace transformation techniques ov68 DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES 2.2 ELEMENTARY DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINE 11 is instructive to discuss the elementary machine shown in Fig. 2.2-1 prior to a {formal analysis ofthe performance ofa practical de machine. The 2-pole elementary ‘machine is equipped with a field winding wound on the stator poles, a rotor coil (@-d), and a commutator. The commutator is made up of two semicircular copper ‘segments mounted on the shaft tthe end of the rotor and insulated from one another as well as from the iron of the rotor. Each terminal of the rotor coil is connected toa copper segment, Stationary carbon brushes ride upon the copper segments whereby the rotor coil is connected to a stationary circuit by a near frictionless contract.ELEMENTARY BIRECT.CURRENT MACHINE 69 ‘The voltage equations forthe fled winding and rotor coil are dy ni (22:1) Ds dé Yad = Falee + where 7p and ry ae the resistance of the fleld winding and armature coil, respectively. ‘The rotor of a de machine is commonly referred to as the armanure; rotor andl arma ture will be used interchangeably. AL this point in the analysis i is sufficient to express the flux linkages as Bg = bygiy + bio (223) asig + Lae 4) Asa fist approximation, the mutual inductance between the field winding and an armature coil may be expressed as a sinusoidal function of 8, as, Igy = Leos 0, (225) Where Lis a constant As the rotor revolves, the action ofthe commutators to switch the stationary terminals from one terminal of the roto coil tothe other. For the con- figuration shown in Fig. 2.2-1, this switching or commutation aveurs at 6, = 0,7, 2s... At the instant of switching, each brush isin contact with both copper seg ‘ments whereupon the rotor coll is short-circuited. Its desirable to commutate (short- monly referred to as the counter or back emf. It also represents the open-circuit armature voltage. ‘There are several other forms in which the field and armature voltage equations se often expressed, For example, Lar may also be written as MeN i (23)VOLTAGE ANO TORQUE EQUATIONS — 77 Figure 23-4 Eguivalent cir cit of de machine where N, and Ay are the equivalent turns of the armature and field windings, respec- tively, and 2 is the reluctance. Thus, Mi Lavin = Nae (233) I we now replace Nyij/# with @, the field Mux per pole, then Ney may be sub- stituted for Lariy in the armature voltage equation. Another substitute variable often used is ky = Lary (23.4) ‘We will fnd that this substitute variable is particularly convenient and frequently used. Even though a permanent-magnet de machine has no field cireit, the constant fiekd flux produced by the permanent magnet is analogous to de machine with a ‘constant ky ‘We can take advantage of previous work to obtain an expression for the electro- ‘magnetic torque. In particular, the expression for torque given by (IB-8) may be used directly to express the tonque for the de machine, If we fx @ i Fig. 1B-1 at —42, the same relationship exists between the magnetic axes of a de machine (Fig. 2.25) and the magnetic axes of the two-coil machine. Hence, (1B-8) may be written for the de machine as T= Lavivig 235) Here again the vatiable , is often substituted for La In some instances, is r- Uipled by a factor less than unity when substituted into (2.3-S) so as to approximate the effets of rotational losses, It is interesting that the field winding produces a sationary MMF and, owing to commutation, the armature winding also produces «stationary MMF that is displaced $1 electrical degrees from the MMF produced by the field winding. I¢ follows then thatthe interaction of these two MMs produces the electromagnetic torque ‘The torque and rotor speed are related by doy Te = TGP Boe + Th (23-6)78 oIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES where Js the inertia ofthe rotor and, in some cases, the connected mechanical lod ‘The units ofthe inertia are kg-m* of J-s*, A postive electromagnetic torque T. acts to tum the rotor in the direction of inereasing 6, The load torque Ty, is positive fora torque, on the shaft ofthe rotor, which opposes a postive electromagnetic torque T. ‘The constant By isa damping coefficient associated with the mechanical rotational system of the machine and it has the units of N-ms 24 BASIC TYPES OF DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES ‘The field and armature windings may be excited from separate sources or from the same source with the windings connected differently to form the basie types of de wachines, such as the shunt-connected, the series-connected, and the compound connected de machines. The equivalent circuits foreach ofthese machines are given in this section along with an anslysis and discussion oftheir steady-state operating characteristics, Separate Winding Excitation When the field and armature windings are supplied from separate voltage sources, the device may operate as either a motor ora generator; iis a motor if iis driving a torgue load and a generator if it is being driven by some type of prime mover. The ‘equivalent circuit fr this type of machine is shown in Fig. 24-1, Iedffers from that shown in Fig. 2.3-1 in that external resistance ris connected in series withthe feld winding, This resistance, which is often refered to as afield rheostat, is used to adjust the field current if the field voltage is supplied from a constant source. “The voltage equations that describe the steady-state performance of this device may be written directly from (2.3-1) by seting the operator p to zero (p=d/di), ‘whereupon. 241) + orLgely (2.42) where R/= rj +77 and capital leters are used to denote steady-state voltages tnd currents. We know, from the torque relationship given by (2.3-6), that during Figure 24-1 Equivalent circuit for separate field and armature excitationBASIC TYPES OF DIRECT-CURRERT MACHINES 79 steady-state operation T, = if By is assumed to be zero. Analysis of steady-state performance is straightforward |A permanent-magnet dc machine fits into this class of de machines. As we have ‘mentioned, the field flux is established in these devices by a permanent magnet. The voltage equation forthe field winding is eliminated and Lyris is replaced by a con- stant f, which can be measured if it is not given by the manufacturer, Most small hhand-held, fractional-horsepower de motors are of this type, and speed control is achieved by controlling the amplitude of the applied armature voltage, ‘Shunt-Connected de Machine ‘The field and armature windings may be connected as shown schematically in Fig, 2.4.2. With his connection, the machine may operate as either a motor ora gen= erator. Because the eld winding is connected between the armature terminals, V, = Vj. This winding arrangement is commonly referred as a shunt-connected cde machine or simply a shunt machine. During steady-state operation, the armature circuit voltage equation is (24-2) and, for the field circuit, Vo = Rely (243) ‘The total curent J is bah (24-4) Solving (24-2) for f, and (2.4-3) for fy and substituting the results in (2.3-5) yields the following expression for the steady-state electromagnetic torque, positive for ‘motor action, for this type of de machine: Lae: ( 5 aR or) eas) ‘The shunt-connected de machine may operate as ether a motor oa generator when connected to a de source, It may also operate as an isolated se-excited mm la fe OE Oe ~ ™ Figure 24-2 Equivalent circuit of a shunt connected de machine.80 oIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES Figure 243. Steady-state oper: ating. characteris of & shunt ‘connected de machine with com stant source voltage ‘generator, supplying an electric load such as a de motor ora static load. When the ‘hunt machine i operated from a constant-voltage source, the steady-state operating characteristics are those shown ia Fig, 24-3. Several features of these characteristics warrant discussion. At stall («, ~ 0), the steady-state armature current /, is limited “only by the armature resistance. In the case of small, permanent-magnet motors, the armature resistance is quite large so that the starting armature current, which results when rated voltage is applied, is generally not damaging. However, lager-horse- power machines are designed with a small armature resistance. Therefore, an exces- sively high armature current will occur during the starting period if rated voltage is applied tothe armature terminals. To prevent high tating curtent, resistance may be inserted into the armature circuit at stall and may be decreased either manually oF automatically to zero as the machine accelerates to normal operating speed. When silicon-controlled rectifier (SCRs) or thyristors are used to convert an ac source vol- tage to de to supply the de machine, they may be controlled to provide a reduced voltage during the starting period, thereby preventing a high stating curent and climinating the noed to insert resistance into the armature cicuit, Other features[BASIC TYPES OF DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES BT ofthe shunt machine witha small armature resistance are the steep torque versus speed characteristics. In other words, the speed of the shunt machine does not change appreciably as the load torque is varied from zero to rated ‘When a shunt machine is operated a an isolated generator, itis fered w asa sellexcted generator because the field is supplied by the voltage generated by the srmature. Although this type of machine is rapidly being replaced by solid-state ae to de converters, some attention will be given tothe self-excted generator in an attempt to satisfy the curiosity of the interested reader During generator operation, the armature current is negative relative to the positive direction indicated in Fig. 24-2. When operated asa generator (nepaive T, and J) its assumed that ‘he prime mover maintains the sped of the generator constant regardles ofthe elec- tec oad supplied by the generator. Tt would appear ftom Fig. 24-2 that, if the armature terminals ofa sl-excited generator are short-circuited while the rotor is being driven, the armature cusent will be zero because the field current J; and, consequently, the induced voltage ‘ogLarly reall ero daring steady-state short-circuit conditions. In practice this isnot, the case due to the permanent-magnet effect ofthe iron ofthe stator poles. Infact, thisesidual lox may produce a relatively large short-circuit current, depending upon the magnetic characteristic of the ion and the parameters ofthe machine. Because the existence of residual flax. forms the bass of the se-xcited mode of operation, it 4s appropriate to depart fom the present analysis to discuss this phenomenon. ‘A terminal voltage could not be established inthe case of a sell-excited generator without the residual flux giving rise to an armature voltage once the rotor is driven ‘This feature may be explained by stating with the magnetization curve of a ¥, 7 Figure 24-4 Magnetization curve of a separately excited de generator: open-citeit armature voltage versus field current82 IRECT-CURRENT MACHINES separately excited de generator, shown in Fig. 24-4. The magnetization curve is plot of the steady-state open-circuit armature voltage versus Field current with the rotor driven at constant speed. The dashed line in Fig. 24-4 ilustates the linear relationship between the steady-state open-circuit armature voltage andthe field cur- ‘ent as predicted by the analysis employed heretofore. The departure of the magn tization curve from the linear relationship at low values of field cursent is due to the permanent-magnet effect of the stator poles (residual flux). The departure atthe higher values of field cureat is due tothe saturation ofthe iron in the magnetic cir- “The effect of the residual fux upon the sel-excited generator wherein the field rent is determined by the armature voltage is our immediate interest ‘To illustrate this feature, it is convenient to assume that the machine is being dri- ven ata constant speed with the field winding open-crcuited. In this mode of opera- lion, the open-circuit terminal voltage is determined by the residual fux and the speed ofthe rotor. I now the field winding is connected tothe armature terminals and if this connection is made so thatthe field current, resulting from the residual voltage initially appearing at the terminals ofthe machine, produces a fx which aids the residual Mux, the armature voltage will increase. This “building-up" process ill continue uni the field voltage (terminal voltage) versus eld current charact istic intersects the plot ofthe generated terminal voltage versus feld current. In this ‘ase, the generated terminal voltage versus field curent characteristic differs only slightly from the magnetization curve owing othe voltage drop across the armature resistance. The slope of the straight-line relationship between the field voltage (terminal voltage) and field curent i the total field resistance R, Hence, fora given rotor speed, te building up ofthe self-excited generator is predicted, fst, upon the sense of the fax relative to the residual flux and, second, by the value of field resis- tance, The relationship between the steady-slate terminal voltage with J; =0 Up = Ir) and the field current of a sel-excited generator is shown in Fig. 2.45, Where Rj2 > Ry. A total field resistance of Ry will yield a terminal voltage in the normal operating range; however, the terminal voltage will not build up ta ner- ‘mal value if the total field resistance is too large. For example, if the total field ess tance is Ra the terminal voltage will alto build up beyond a relatively small value. ‘After consideration of the nonlinear characteristics of the magnetization curve, ‘one wonders if the performance of the de machine may be accurately predicted With a linear approximation of the magnetization curve, The linear approximation is not valid if the field cureat is varied over a wide range, causing the machine to ‘operate in the linear region as well as in the saturated region of the magnetization ‘cure. The nonlinear features ofthe magnetic system may be taken into account by ‘graphical methods, for analysis of steady-state performance, or a computer may be ‘employed to study either a steady-state or transient performance with the effets of saturation included. Series-Connected de Machine ‘When the field is connected in series with the armature circuit as shown in Fig. 24-6, the machine i referred to as a seres-connected de machine ora series machine. is ‘convenient to add the subscript sto denote quantities associated with the series fieldBASIC TYPES OF OIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES 83 Re Bo ° a Figure 24-8 Influence of felt resistance upon terminal voltage of selfexcted de generator =o) It is important to mention the physical difference berwoen the field winding of a shunt machine and that of a series machine. Ifthe field winding isto be a shunt connected winding, it is wound with a large number of turns of small-diameter wire, making the resistance ofthe field winding quite large. However, because the series-connected field winding is in series with the armature, itis designed to mini ‘mize the voltage drop across it. Thus, the winding is wound with afew turns of low- ‘Although the series machine doesnot have wide application, a series field is often used in conjunction witha shunt field to form a compound-connected de machine that is more common, In the ease ofa series machine (Fig. 2.46), we have vn + Me (2.46) is (247) te bm % igure 24-6 Equivalent circuit fora eres connected de machin,84 IRECT-CURRENT MACHINES ‘where yj and is denote the voltage and current associated with the series field. The subscript sis added to avoid confusion with the shunt fied when both fields are used ina compound machine. If the constraints given by (2.4-6) and (2.4-7) are substituted into the armature voltage equation, the steady-state performance of the series-connected de machine may be described by Vie = (abr + Lanse (248) From (2.35), we obtain Lav? Cot M + Laon) T= Lawl (249) ‘The steady-state torque-speed characteristic fora typical series machine is shown in 7g, 2.4-7. The sal torque is quite high because its proportional tothe square of the armature current for a linear magnetic system. However, saturation of the magnetic system due to large armature currents will cause the torque to be less than that cal- culated from (2.4-9). At high rotor speeds, the torque decreases less rapidly with increasing speed, In fact, ifthe load torque is small, the series motor may accelerate to speeds large enough to cause damage to the machine. Consequently, the series motor is used in applications such as traction motors for tuns and buses or in hoists and eranes where high starting torque is required and an appreciable load tongue exists under normal operation, ‘Compound-Connected de Machine ‘A compound-connected or compound de machine, which is equipped with both shunt and a series field winding, is ilustrated in Fig. 24-8. In most compound 1 Viban eres i ————, Figure 24-7 Steady-state torque-speed characterises ofa series connected de machineBASIC TYPES OF DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES 85 Figure 24-8 Eguivalent circuit of «compound de machine machines, the shunt feld dominates the operating characteristics while the series field, which consists of afew tuens of low-resistance wire, has a secondary influence. itmay be connected so as to aid or oppose the fux produced by the shunt Reld. I the ‘compound machine is to be used asa generator, the series fed is connected s0 as 0 id the shunt field (cumulative compounding). Depending upon the strength ofthe ‘series fel, this type of connection can produce a “at” terminal voltage versus load current characteristic, whereupon a near-constant terminal voltage is achieved from no load to full load. In this case, the machine is said to be “flat-compounded.” An “overcompounded” machine occurs when the strength ofthe series field causes the terminal voltage at fll load to be larger than at no load, The meaning ofthe “under- compound” machine is obvious. In the case of compound de motors, the series field is often connected to oppose the fx produced by the shunt field (Aitferental com. pounding). If properly designed, ths type of connection ean provide a near-constant speed from no-Toad to fulltoad torque. ‘The voltage equations for a compound de machine may be writen as ("] ‘where Lys isthe mutual inductance between the shunt and the series fields. The plus and minus signs are used so that either a cumulative or a differential connection may be described, ‘The shunt field may be connected ahead of the series field ong-shunt connection) or behind the series field (shor-shunt connection) as shown by A\ Ry + ple tps o i]86 DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES and B, respectively in Fig. 24-8. The long-shunt connection is commonly used. In this case (2411) hai tis (2412) where n= (24.13) und machine may be The steady-state performance of long-shunt-connected com described by the following equation: vy, (2414) (i errater) ‘The torque forthe Iong-shunt connection may be obtained by employing (23-5) for cach field winding. In particular, Te = Laplyla & Larlple LapV2il ~ (Lar/Ryor] Ry(Fa + tp = Laritor) LarsV3 ll ~ (Lar Ry) . Gtpttnay °*'9) Example 2A A permanent-magnet de motor similar to that shown in Fig, 2.246 is rated at 6 V with the following parameters: r, = 79, Las 120 mH, kr =2 oz-inJA, J = 150 poz in.»s?. According to the motor information sheet, the no-load speed is approximately 3350 r/min and the no-load armature current is approximately 0.15 A. Let us attempt to interpret this information, Fins, let us convert kr and J to units that we have been using inthis text In this gard, we will conver the inertia to kg-m?, which isthe same as N-m: 52 ‘To do this, we must convert ounces to newtons and inches to meters (Appendix A). Thus, 150 x 10° G.6)G937) ‘We have not seen kr before. It is the torque constant and, if expressed inthe appropriate units, itis numerically equal to k,. When ky is used in the expres- sion for T,(Te = fyi), itis offen referred toa the torque constant and denoted ‘er. When used in the voltage equation, itis always denoted k,.. Now we must convert o7-in. to N-m, whereupon kr equals our ky; hence, —— * = Trejo aRsjao7) 2A) 106 % 10° kg = 1.41 10-N- mv = 141 x 10-2 sad (a2)BASIC TYPES OF DIREGT-CURRENT MACHINES 87 What do we do about the no-load armature eurent? What does it represent? ‘Well, probably itis a measure of the friction and windage losses. We could neglect it, but we will not. Instead, let us include it as By. First, however, ‘we must calculate the no-load speed. We can solve forthe no-load rotor speed {rom the steady-state armature voltage equation forthe shunt machine, (24-2), wih Laniy replaced by hy Va= aly _6=(7)(0.15) 351.1 rads (2511) 535 din ans) eee tr. LAL x 10°2)(0.15) = 2.12 x 102N-m 2A-4) Dcene Ten Joni) ae sr a i sendy te wed cmon estes oka smear 2210? 2X10 ay agenima AS) Example 2B The permanent-magnet de machine described in Example 28 is operating with rated applied armature voltage and load torque Ti, of 0.5 oz-in. Our task is to determine the efficieney where percent eff = (power ‘output power input) 100 First let us convert oi, into Nm: _ os THO Rs/G9T} In Example 2A we determined k, to be 1.41 « 10-2V-- sad and determined By t0 be 6.08 x 10-N-m-s. During steady-state operation, (2.36) becomes, Te = Byte + Te (28.2) th 53 10°N-m (2B) From (2.3-5), with Lyriy replaced by &,, the steady-state electromagnetic torque is Te= bale (28.3) Substituting (2B-3) into (2B-2) and solving for w yields (2B-4) From (2.4-2) with Lapiy = &,, we obtain Ve = Fala + kore (28.5)38 DIRECT. CURAENT MACHINES Substituting (2B-4) into (2B-5) and solving for J, yields Va (he /By) Ti 6+ (G/B) 64 [AL x 10°2)/(6.04 x 10°9).53 «10 T¥ (LAT x 10-97 /(6.04 x 10-9) From (28-4), we obtain =0357A (286) (2B-7) hs pone i Pin = Vala = (6)(0.357) = 2.14 W (2B-8) Pou = Treo, = (3.53 x 10°*)(249) = 0.88 W (2B-9) etc i room = Foto = 28109 a14% en) ‘The low efficiency is characteristic of low-power de motors du tothe rela- tively large armature resistance. In this regard, itis interesting to determine the losses due tor, friction, and windage Poy = rl = (70357)? = 089 2p.) Phe = (But )0y = (6.04 x 10°8)(249)? = 0.37W (28-12) Let us check our work: Po 4W (28-13) "art Poe + Pon = 0.89 + 0.37 + 0.88 which is equal to (28-8). 2.5 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PERMANENT-MAGNET ‘AND SHUNT de MOTORS ‘The permanent-magnet and shunt de motors are widely used and thus are appropriate candidates to illustrate the dynamic performance of typical de machines. Two modes ‘of dynamic operation are of interest—startng from stall and changes i load torque withthe machine supplied from a constant-voltage source.DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PERMANENT-MAGNET AND SHUNT de MOTORS 89 Dynamic Performance During Starting In the previous section, it was pointed out that if the armature resistance is small, damaging armature current could result if rated voltage is applied to the armature terminals when the machine is stalled (a9, = 0). With the machine at stall, the coun ter emf is zero and the armature curent is opposed only by the voltage drop across the armature resistance and inductance. However, we have noted in Examples 24, and 2B that low-power permanent-magnet de motors characterisically have a rela tively large armature resistance making it possible to “direccline™ stat these devices without damaging the brushes and armature windings. The no-load stating characteristics (71, = 0) of the permanent-magnet de motor described in Example 2A are shown in Fig, 25-1. The armature voltage vs, the armature current ig, and ‘the rotor speed «, are plotted. Initially the motor i at stall and, at time zero, 6 V is applied to the armature terminals. The peak transient armature current is limited to approximately 0.55 A by the inductance and resistance of the armature and the fact thatthe rotor is aecelerating from stall, thereby developing the voltage ko, Which opposes the applied voltage. After about 0.25 s, steady-state operation is, achieved with the no-load armature current of 0.15°A. (From Example 2A, By = 6.04 x 10-* Nemes.) It is noted that the rotor speed is slightly oscillatory (underdamped), as illustrated by the small overshoot ofthe final value ‘When starting larger-horsepower de machines, itis generally necessary to limit ‘he starting current, As mentioned, this can be accomplished either by phase-contro: ling an ac-to-de converter, if tis used to provide the armature voltage, or by insert- ing resistance in series with the armature circuit during starting, if the motor is supplied from a constant-voltage source. However, because resistance starting of ‘de machines is rapidly being replaced by ac-to-le converters, we will not consider this method further. For those who wish more information regarding this method of starting, it is treated in detail in references 4 and 5 Dynamic Performance During Sudden Changes in Load Torque In Example 2B, we calculated the efficiency of the permanent-magnet de motor given in Example 2A witha load torque of 0.5 oz-in. (3.53 x 10° Nem). Let us assume tht this load torque was suddenly applied with the motor initially operating atthe no-load condition (J, = 0.15 A). The dynamic characteristics following a step change in load torque 7; trom zero t0 0.5 ozin. are shown in Fig. 25-2. The arma- ture current andthe rotor speed «, are plotted. Because T, = ky and because ky is constant, T, differs from i, by a constant multiplier. 1 is noted that the system is Slightly oscillatory. Also itis noted thatthe change in the steady-state rotor speed is quite large. From Example 2A or Fig. 2.5-2, we sce that no-load speed is 351.1 rad/s, With T;, = 0.5 o2-in, the rotor speed is 249 rad/s from Example 2B. cor Fig. 25-2. There has been an approximately 30% decrease in speed for this increase in load torque. This is characteristic of a low-power permanent-magnet ‘motor owing fo the high armature resistance. ‘The dynamic performance ofa shunt motor during a step decrease in load torque is shown in Fig. 2.5-3. The parameters and rated conditions of this machine are as90 DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES ity vs A ons fe ars 050 025 100 0 Figure 25-1 Stating characteris of a permanent-magnet de machine follows: Ry = 240 2 Ler = 120 H, Lar = 1.8 H, ry =0.6 2, Lay = 0.012 H. The machine is a 240-V S-hp de shunt motor. The inertia of the machine and connected load is 1 kg-m?. Als, itis clear that Rj = r+ 7 Rated armature curent is 16.2 A, and rated rotor speed is 127.7 rads, Here rated armature current and rated speed are determined by setting v, and vy equal 10 240 V and setting the power output equal to 5 hp, where the power output is the electromagnetic torque multiplied by the rotor speed.DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PERMANENTAGNET AND SHUNT de MOTORS 91 oa. iA 02] | 0055 J rats 300 20 Figure 25.2 Dynamic performance of « permanent-magnet de motor following sudden Increase in oad torque from zero t0 0.5 ei, Initially, the motor is operating steadily with rated load torque (29.2 N-m) applied to the rotor shaft. The load torque is then stepped to 50% of rated value, Whereupon the motor speeds up and reestablishes steady-state operation at the reduced load conditions. The armature current ig and rotor speed «, are plotted, Because the fleld current is constant, the electromagnetic torque Tis identical to the armature current, differing only by a constant multiplier. It is important to note the small change in rotor speed from full load to 50% of full-load torque. At full load, the rotor speed is 127.7 radls and 130-4 rads at 50% of full load. This is approximately a2% change in rotor speed for a 50% change in lead torque. We first noled this “steep” tonque-speed characteristic of a shunt machine, which is due to F Load torque decreased {rom ato 9 percent ated a vad Figure 25.3 Dynamic performance ofa S-hp shunt motor following a sudden decrease in Toad togue from rated to 50% rated,92 OIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES a 4 Fnad tongue decreased from ‘eat ost Figure 25-4 Dynamic performance of 200-hp shunt moto following a sudsen change in Toad toque from rated to SO rated, the Iow value of armature resistance in Fig. 24-3. With the field current constant, the voltage and torque equations that describe the shuat motor are linear (neglecting saturation}; hence, the response of the machine variables when the load torque is stepped back to tated from $0% rated would be the reverse of that shown in Fig. 25-3. ‘The operating characteristics and dynamic response of a larger-horsepower shunt ‘motor shall be illustrated using 2 200-hp machine with the following parameters: 200 hp, 250 ¥, 600 rimin, Ry Lep =9H, Lap = 0.18 H, 7. = 0.012 2, 4g = 0.00035 H. The total inertia of rotor and load is 30 kg-m?. When rated horse- power, voltage, and speed are all given, as in this case, the values are generally approximate and account for various machine losses. Not all conditions can be met, especially when we consider the machine as an idealized machine. If for exam- ple, we select 600 rHmin (62.8 rad/s) as rated speed, rated load torque is then 2375 N-m [(200) (746/62.8]. However, if this load torque is applied to the rotor and if vy and vy are both 250 V, then the calculated steady-state armature current is 633 A and the rotor speed is 617 r/min (64.6 radis). The response of this 200-hp machine to a decrease (step in load torque from rated to S0% rated is shown in Fig. 25-4. Here, again, we see the small change in speed (approximately 1.6%) {rom full load to 50% of full load due to the small armature resistance. 2.6 TIME-DOMAIN BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND STATE EQUATIONS Although the analysis of control systems isnot our intent, itis worthwhile to set the stage for this type of analysis by means ofa “firs look” at time-domain block dia ‘grams and state equations, In this section, we will consider only the shunt and per- manent-magnet de machines. The series and compound machines are treated in problems atthe end of the chapter. ‘Shunt-Connected de Machine Block diagrams, which portray the interconnection of te system equations, ae used extensively in control system analysis and design. Although block diagrams are gen- erally depicted by using the Laplace operator, we shall work with the time-domainTTME-DOMAIN LOCK DIAGRAMS AND STATE EQUATIONS 93 ‘equations, for now, using the p operator to denote differentiation with respeet time and the operator Lip to denote integration. Section 27 is devoted to Laplace trans formation solution for the dynamics of the permanent-magnet and shunt machines. Arranging the equations of a shunt machine ino a block diagram representation is straightforward, The feld and armature voltage equations, (23-1), and the relation ship between torque and rotor speed, (2.3-6), may be written as y= A+ (261) (1+ tia + etary (262) T= (Ba +p) (263) ‘where the field time constant ry equals Lr/R; and the armature time constant ¢y ‘equals Lua/rs. Here, again, p denotes d/dt and 1/p will denote integration. Solving (2.641) fori, (2.62) for i, and (26-3) for a, yields ihe, Wap” (264) 1 tam GEE ty. ontari) 6s) 1 epee TD) 266) A few comments are in order regarding these expressions, In (2.6-4), we see that the field voltage vy is multiplied by the operator (1/R,)/(%jp + 1) to obtain the field cur rent fj. The operator (1/R;)/(2;p + 1) may also be interpreted asa transfer function relating the field voltage and curent. The fact that we are multiplying the voltage by ‘an operator to obtain current is in no way indicative of the procedure that we might ‘actually use to calculate the current i given the voltage vy. We are simply expressing the dynamic relationship between the field voltage and current ina form convenient for drawing block diagrams. However, to calculate ip given vy, we may prefer (0 express (2.6-4) in its equivalent form (2.6-1) and solve the resulting first-order di ferential equation, ‘The time-domain block diagram portraying (26-4) through (2.6-6) with Te = Lavigg is shown in Fig. 2.6-1. This diagram consists of a set of linear blocks, ‘wherein the relationship between the input and corresponding output variable is ‘depicted in transfer Function frm and a pair of multipliers which represent nonlinear blocks, Because the system is nonlinear, it is not possible to apply: previously described techniques for solving the differential equations implied by this block dia ram. For this, we would use a computer. However, for certain de machines—for ‘example, permanent-magnet machines or separately excited shunt machines, where the field current jis maintained ta constant value—the multipliers in Fig. 2.6-1 are no longer needed, and conventional methods of analyzing linear systems may be applied with relative ease94 DIRECT-CURAENT MACHINES “eh = ot ape PE] xp We = XL Figure 26-1 Time-domain block diagram ofa shunt connected de machine The so-called state equations of a system represent the Formulation of the state variables into a matrix form convenient for computer implementation, particularly for linear systems. The state variables of a system are defined as @ minimal set of variables such that knowledge of these variables at any initial time fp plus informa- ‘ion on the input excitation subsequently applied is suficient to determine the state ‘of the system at any time # > f [2]. In the case of de machines, the field current i, the armature current ig, the rotor speed c,, and the rotor position 8, are the state ‘variables. The rotor position 0, can be established from > by do, fi = 2.6.7) a (267) Because 0, is considered a state variable only when the shaft postion isa controlled variable, we will omit 8, from consideration inthis development. The formulation of the state equations for the shunt machine can be readily achieved by straightforward manipulation ofthe field and armature voltage equa- tions given by (2.3-1) and the equation relating torque and rotor speed given by (2.36). In particular, solving the field voltage equation, 2.31), for di/dt yields (2.68) Solving the armature voltage equation, (2.3-1, for did yields dig ta a Taw Me (269) Lar 1 ia ier + Te“TWVE-OOMAIN BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND STATE EQUATIONS — 95: IK we wish, we could use &, for Lars: however, we shall not make this substitution, Solving (2346) fr dy, /e with 7, ~ Lars yields do lar Hee = Pe, + Ir, (26-10) All we have done here isto solve the equations for the highest derivative ofthe state variables while substituting (23-5) for 7, into (2.3-6), Now let us write the state equations in matrix (or vector matrix) form 2s o oli +|-beie. (26-11) where pis the operator dd. Equation (2.6-11) isthe state equation(s); however, note thatthe second term (vector) on the right-hand side contains the products of state variables causing the system to be nonlinear. Permanent-Magnet de Machine [As we have mentioned previously, the equations that describe the operation of per- ‘manent-magnet le machine are identical to those ofa shunt-connected de machine ‘with the field current constant. Thus, the work in this section applies to both. For the ‘permanent-magnet machine, Lari is replaced by fy, which isa constant determined by the strength of the magnet, the reluctance ofthe iron, and the number of turns of the armature winding. The time-domain block diagram may be developed for the permanent-magnet machine by using (2.6-2) and (2.6-3) with ky substituted for rly. The time-domain block diagram for a permanent-magnet de machine is shown in Fig. 2.6-2 Because k, is constant, the state variables are now i, and «,. From (2.69), for a permanent-magnet machine we have dig 4. (26:12) From (2.6-10), we obtain to Bn toy Lp ae a pe (26-13)96 DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES ry tre |i Feet pee Figure 26-2 Time-domain block diagram ofa permanent magnet de machine ‘The system is described by a set of linear differential equations. In matrix form, the state equations become Ale] asin ‘The form in which the state equations are expressed in (26-14 is called the funda ‘meatal form. In particular, the previous matrix equation may be expressed symbo- ically as px=Ax+Bu (26.15) ‘which is called the fundamental form, where pis the operator dt, xs the state vee- tor (column matrix of state variables), and wis the input vector (column matrix of inputs to the system). We see that (26-14) and (2.6-15) are identical inform. Meth- ‘ds of solving equations of the fundamental form given by (2.6+15) are well known, Consequently, itis used extensively in contol system analysis 16} Example 2C Once the permanent-magnet de motor is portayed in block diagram form (Fig. 26-2), itis often advantageous, for control desiga pur- poses, to express transfer Functions between state and input variables. Our task is to derive transfer functions between the state variables (i, and 0.) and the input variables (vy and 7;) forthe permanent-magnet de machine. From (2.6-10), with Lari replaced by ky, we have ira “ap tl From (26-11), with Ty = fyi, We obtain (4 ~ be) (ec) 1 or = pH le Te) (2c-2)‘TME-DOMAIN BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND STATE EQUATIONS 97. Itis apparent that we could have obtained these same equations from the block sliggram given in Fig. 26-2. If (2C-1) is substituted into (2C-2), we obtain, aller considerable work, P+ (fea + Bul Dp + (1) ta)(1/tm + Bid) (ec) where a new time constant has been introduced. The inertia time constant, Which is what tq is called, is defined as z (2-4) ‘The transfer function between 0 and vs may be obtained from (2C-3) by seting 7, equal to ze in (2C-3) and dividing both sides by te Similar, the transfer funtion between o, and Ts obsined by seting v, to re0 and dividing by To calculate given vy and Tz, we note that pis dt and pis d*/dr* and, if we multiply each side of (2C-3) by the denominator Of the right side ofthe eqution, we woul! have @ second de differential quation in terms ofthe state arable, “Te characteristic o force-free equation fr this linear system is obtained by setng the denominator equal to er, Is ofthe genera form P+ 2ap +02 =0 (20-5) We are aware that « is the exponential damping coefficient and o>, is the ‘undamped natural frequency. The damping factor is defined as a 2c-6) Let us denote 5 and by asthe negative values of the roots ofthis second-order equation, ec) 1If¢ > 1, the roots are real and the natural response consists of two exponential terms with negative real exponents, When (<1, the roots are a conjugate ‘complex pair and the natural response consists of an exponentially decaying sinusoid. ‘Now, the transfer funetion relationship between i, and the inpt variables vy ‘and 7, may be obtained by substituting (2C-2) into (2C-1). After some work, wwe obvain (tof) D+ Bafa + (1/hatnT PPS (Ite + Buf) + (Wea) Am + BaD ec-8)98 o!RECT-CURRENT MACHINES 2.7 SOLUTION OF DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS BY LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION, ‘This section is devoted to examples of Laplace transformation solution of several of the dynamic characteristics of the permanent-magnet and shunt machines ilustrated inthe previous section Example 2D The purpose of this example iso illustrate the Laplace trans- {ormation solution of the starting characteristics of the permanent-magnet de ‘motor depicted in Fig. 2.5-1. The rotor is initially at stall with T, = 0 and Bu = 604 x 10-N-m-s, The armature voltage is stepped from zero to 6V while the change in ;,is zero, Let us construct the block diagram in terms ‘of the Laplace operators for this situation, This block diagram is shown in Fig. 2D-1, and the Ais used to denote changes from the predisturbance, steady-state values. We see thal, ecause the change in T, is zero, AT;(s) = 0 and, consequently it does not appear in the block diagram or in the transfer Functions. We can express Aig(s) and Aa, (s) from (2C-8) and (2C-3), respectively, by replacing the operator p with the Laplace operator s and by replacing all time-domain state variables (i, and c,) and inpot variables (v, and 7) with the corresponding A variables as functions ofthe Laplace operator. In parti- cular, jg becomes Aig(s),%, becomes Aes), and v, becomes Ava(s), and as ‘we mentioned previously, the change in 7; is zero; thus AT,(s) = 0. Hence, from (2C-8), we obtain (fserl(s + Ba/D vel) Ail) SEU BuDe + Ota) tw Ba) POD From (20-3), we have 2 (ftatn) vas) S00 SET TRIE OTM iat BP?) n+ ve lave en] 2 [ane z re tT | 8, naw Figure 2D-1 Block digram ofa permanent-magnet de machine forastep change in applied voltage.SOLUTION OF DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS BY LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION 99 Also, AT) ky Aia(s) (@p3) ‘We are now ready fo solve forthe roots of the characteristic equation. For this purpose, it is convenient to make a few preliminary ealeulations. Recall that the parameters for this motor are given in Example 2A, ot PD gars ea) se =e = (1.08 101) — 9.957 ee Ds) wR (1a x 102) - Hore, we used see rather than s to denote seconds to avoid confusion with the Laplace operator, The characteristic equation is obtained by setting the denominator of (20-1) or (20-2) equal to zero, It is of the form of (2C-5), from whieh mF oot tooo = 58.82 45.7 = 64.52sec"! (2D-6) poh (Lae) ah (atay Oe 128) =o (tT) = oor (ooa7* 06 10 '58.82(27.03 + 5.7) = 1925 see"? (2D-7) From (20-6), we obtain (6452) = 32.26sec"! (2D) From (2D-7), we have = (1925)! = 43.9 radlsec (D9) “The damping factor is 2 _ 32.26 62 Goa ae 7078 (2-10) Because ¢ < 1, we know thatthe rots of the characteristic equation will bea ‘conjugate complex pair and thatthe transient response will contain damped sinusoids. From (2C-7), we obtain busba = Gon t0,VE=T mons x439.4439/ 07571 = 323 4 j20.8se™! (D-11)100 oIRECT-cURRENT MACHINES Wwhiet is of the form bby (2D-12) Now fora step in applied voltage, Avis) (20-13) where K = 6V. Hence (2-1) becomes aig(e) = Klean) eo) S(o 4 bi)(s¥ ba) Where, depending upon the damping factor, by and by may be real or a conjugate complex pair and Bu, a, = 28 = 5.450 7 (2p-15) Trefore, @0-2) besomes K fbn _ 2016 Her bie) co We mus now oii inven Laplace ror of 2-14) and 2-16) Forth we wl ee th ara facton expansion prlay,-16 an (2b-1 nay be writen Aes) = ancy = (44 p17) (2.18) Equating (2D-14) and (2D-17) yields Als + by)(s + bs) + Bs(s + ba) + Cols 41) = 5 bay Similarly, from (2D-16) and (2D-18) we have (s+ by)(s-4 by) + Es(s-+ by) + Fs(5-4-by) = 1 (20.20) By equating coefficients of (2D-19), we obtain (p21) (20-22) (20-23)‘SOLUTION OF DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS BY LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION 101 Similarly, from (2D-20) we have oa p24) ne (29.28) Pong ay (2026) “aking the inverse Laplace transform of QD-I7) and (2D-18) yes 60+ ae pear tage] 220 = 00) gma | O29 where iy(0) and «, (0) are the predisturbance steady-state values that, i this cease, ae both zero If by and by ae real, we would be essentially done; however, ¢< 1 for this machine, hence bandh Form a conjugate comple pair as expressed by (2D- 12), Substituting (2D-12) for by and by into (2D-27) and (2D-28), and after a litte exercise in complex algebra and making use of Euler's identity a couple of times, we obtain EXP =* snpt)| (aD29) oO eeta[iner(omtretenn)) aan Substituting in the appropriate values yields 6 (0520.87 10.38in2080)) (20-31) 2 (60529.81+ 1.08sin29.8A)_ (2D-32) Example 2E Figures 2.5-3 and 2.5- illustrate the dynamic response to a load torque change for a 5- and 200-np de shunt motor, respectively. Let us use the material presented in Examples 2C and 2D to obtain these responses analytically. Because the terminal voltage is constant, equal to its predistur bance value, Av,(s) = 0; and because By ~ 0, (2C-3} may be written as (Ns + 1/ra)ATH9) + (UFia)s + Wat where is used to denote change from the predisturbancs steady-state value ‘andthe operator p in (2C-3) has been replaced by the Laplace operators. With So,(3) = (2B)102 oinECr-cURRENT MACHINES Avg(s) = 0, C+) yields Lktatm) STS) ils) = gle Te e2) A step change in load tou is expressed as ani) =* (2E-3) ‘where, for the moment, we wil let Khe a constant with magnitude and sign: however itis ot the same K used in Example 2D. In Fig, 25-3, forthe -hp motor, K = —4(29.2)N-m; and in Fig. 25-4, for the 200-np motor, K = ~$(2375)N-m. Hence, 2E-1) becomes = KID s + 10) Aerts) = 5a (Ufta)e Vata) @e4) and 2E-2) becomes Aials) = a het (QE) ai? + (Ufa) + W7tat] ‘The characteristic equation is obtained by seting the denominator of (2E-1) ‘or (2E-2) equal to zero, Comparing the result with (2C-5) we can write 2-6) @e-7) (28-8) ‘The negative values ofthe roots ofthe characteristic equation may be writen inthe form given by (2C-7) or as E-9) Hot hyls+bs) ae Kfktetm (s+ bi)(s + ba) ae where (2-12SOLUTION OF DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS BY LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION 103 Is interesting to note that (2E-10) and (2E-11) are similar in form to (2D- 14) and @2D-16), respectively. Because we have taken the inverse Laplace transform of these expressions in Example 2D, we shall make use of that work. First, however, et us do some preliminary calculations. For the S-hp machine, oor =, =e MO 0050 (E13) (dette OR (bariy? (08) 0.18550 (214) ~ [aca)(ea0/2a0yF [Note that inthe above calculation, i is obtained by dividing the rated terminal voltage (240 V) by the field resistance (240 9). As in Example 2D, sec is used to denote seconds to avoid confusion with the Laplace operator. From (2E-6) through (2E-9), i = rapa 64 mt ts ‘aiton 3" a) ¥(0.02)(0.185) _ | 5 (E-17) (2)(0.02) boa aa 50sec" (2B-18) 1 ae 1 bube= oan * Y atooay (O2}(0.13) = 6.17, 43.83 sec~! (2E-19) ‘We can use (20-27) and (2D-28) as guides to express i, and «,, respectively In particular, K[a, ab on 040)—* Ge ‘a 0+ Le ‘We have previously determined that (0) = 127.7 rade and (0) = 16.2 A. ‘Thus, because by and by are real((> 1), (2-20) becomes > 2 Oe BITS ova lk T)(43.83) * 6176.17 — 43.83) “4 450-4383 BRERA 617) = 1304 — 2.756142 + 0.050108 (2-22)104 oInEcT.CURRENT MACHINES ‘The current, 2E-21), can be writen as 8.1+9.43e1018 — 1 336-00 (28-23) Note thatthe dynamic responses consist of two exponential terms; one time ‘constant is approximately equal t0 ® and the other is approximately equal 'o cy. The response is dominated by the exponential term containing

You might also like

• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4609)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  From Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Sheet music
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  From Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (120)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  From Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (588)
• Yes Please

  

  From Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1891)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  From Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  From Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (399)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  From Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (838)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  From Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (537)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  From Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5794)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (344)
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (599)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  From Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  From Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brene Brown

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1090)
• John Adams

  

  From Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1712)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (895)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  From Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (821)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1103)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (440)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3811)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  From Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  From Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2322)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  From Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2100)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4200)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1839)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  From Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  From Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (73)
• Little Women

  

  From Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (104)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1937)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (792)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1015)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (806)
• Decentralized Fuzzy Logic Control of Microgrid For Electric Vehicle Charging Station

  

  Document12 pages

  Decentralized Fuzzy Logic Control of Microgrid For Electric Vehicle Charging Station

  Bikash Sah

  No ratings yet
• LONG ASSIGNMENT-1 (EE 101: Basic Electronics)

  

  Document3 pages

  LONG ASSIGNMENT-1 (EE 101: Basic Electronics)

  Bikash Sah

  No ratings yet
• 06939450

  

  Document5 pages

  06939450

  Bikash Sah

  No ratings yet
• Swarn Optimizartion EV

  

  Document10 pages

  Swarn Optimizartion EV

  Bikash Sah

  No ratings yet
• 3100000016

  

  Document135 pages

  3100000016

  Bikash Sah

  No ratings yet
• Digital Signal and Image Processing Using Matlab. Gerard Blanchet and Maurice Charbit PDF

  

  Document764 pages

  Digital Signal and Image Processing Using Matlab. Gerard Blanchet and Maurice Charbit PDF

  RicardoSalazarEscalante

  No ratings yet
• Research Journals Length Policy PDF

  

  Document1 page

  Research Journals Length Policy PDF

  Soumitra Bhowmick

  No ratings yet
• Shakuntala Devi

  

  Document3 pages

  Shakuntala Devi

  abhi_9392

  0% (1)
• Deka Dissertation 2015

  

  Document150 pages

  Deka Dissertation 2015

  Bikash Sah

  No ratings yet
• Smart Grid Impact

  

  Document4 pages

  Smart Grid Impact

  Bikash Sah

  No ratings yet
• CS - Enabling The Smart Grid in India-Puducherry Pilot Project

  

  Document3 pages

  CS - Enabling The Smart Grid in India-Puducherry Pilot Project

  dorababu2007

  No ratings yet
• 07368522

  

  Document6 pages

  07368522

  Bikash Sah

  No ratings yet